Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans: Radiocarbon Chronology and Environment

Journal of Archaeological Science (2002) 29, 593–606 doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0753, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

P. M. Dolukhanov*

Department of Archaeology, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K.

A. M. Shukurov

School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K.

P. E. Tarasov

Department of Geography, Moscow State University, Vorobyevy Gory, Moscow 119899, Russia

G. I. Zaitseva

Radiocarbon Laboratory, Institute for History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg, Dvortsovaya nab. 18, 191186 Russia

(Received 30 January 2001, revised manuscript accepted 25 July 2001)

The distribution of frequencies of radiocarbon-dated Palaeolithic sites in northern Eurasia shows three peaks of 40–30, 24–18 and 17–1 ka . We argue that these peaks reﬂect the waves in the colonization of that area by Anatomically Modern Humans stemming from Central and Eastern Europe and caused by environmental stress. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: NORTHERN EURASIA, ANATOMICALLY MODERN HUMANS, RADIOCARBON, UPPER PALAEOLITHIC, LAST ICE AGE, PALAEOCLIMATE.

Introduction glacial’’), and OIS 3 consisting of the Late Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Late Glacial Recession. he present article is aimed at the discussion of the initial dispersal of anatomically modern T humans (AMH) in northern Eurasia, as Data and Methods inferred mainly from radiocarbon chronology and Radiocarbon age palaeoenvironmental evidence. In this respect this article may be viewed as a direct development of the The main resource of the present study consists of the previous publication, focused on East European Plain database of radiocarbon measurements of Siberia’s (Dolukhanov, Shukurov & Sokoloﬀ, 2001). The area Palaeolithic sites compiled at the Radiocarbon Labora- considered here extends to Siberia and Russian Far tory of the Institute for History of Material Culture, East, which are viewed against the wider background Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg. It exceeds of the Eurasian continent. The period of time consid- in scope the previously published compendia by ered encompasses the episodes of the Last Ice Age in Lisitsyn & Svezhentsev (1997) and Kuzmı´n & the range between ca 50,000 and 10,000 years before Tankersley (1997). The measurements included in the present (50–10 ka). This includes Oxygen Isotope Stage database have been performed, in most cases, with (OIS) 2 with the ‘‘megainterstadial’’ (or ‘‘interpleni- the conventional technique in the institutions of the Russian Academy of Sciences: at Institute of Geology *For correspondence. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel.: in Moscow (GIN), Institute of Geography in Moscow +44 (0) 191 222 7848; Fax: +44 (0) 191 222 8561. (IGAN), Institute of Ecology and Evolution in

Moscow (IM), Institute for History of Material Cul- or autonomous republic/autonomos oblast (Altai, ture in St Petersburg (LE), Laboratory for Quaternary Khakassia, Yakutia); geographical co-ordinates Geology and Geochronology in Magadan (MAG), the (northern latitude X and eastern longitude Y in degrees Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry in Moscow and minutes); dated material (charcoal, antler or (MO), and Institute of Geology and Mineralogy in bone), and the stratigraphic position. Apparently most Novosibirsk (SOAN). Several important series were of the dated bone and antler do not have any clear measured in Groningen University, Holland (GrA and signs of human modification. GrN). The database includes samples from several Using also the previously published data for East sites measured with the use of Accelertor Mass European Plain (EEP) (Dolukhanov, Shukurov & Spectrometry (AMS) in several laboratories including Sokoloff, 2001), we have presented the radiocarbon the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, U.K. dates in the frequency histograms showing the occur- (OxA), University of Arizona, U.S.A. (AA) and others. rences of the radiocarbon dated sites per 1000 years. The original database has been screened with the use These are shown for EEP in Figure 1, SCS in Figure 2, of procedures discussed by Dolukhanov, Shukurov & and NES in Figure 3. The Figures also show a com- Sokoloff (2001): posite record of oxygen isotope variations from the sediment cores in the Atlantic Ocean (Imbrie et al., (1) All dates where association with archaeological 1990), with larger 18O values indicating colder climate deposits has not been demonstrated were rejected. throughout the Northern Hemisphere. (2) Wherever possible, preference was given to the As demonstrated by Dolukhanov, Shukurov & dates supplied with adequate stratigraphic and/or Sokoloff (2001), calibration of the radiocarbon dates planigraphic information. belonging to the periods discussed (allowing for varia- (3) Equally, we preferred the measurements con- tions in the 14C production rate in the exchange firmed by inter-laboratory cross-checking. reservoir) does not affect the general trends, and so our (4) Controversial dates (e.g., those failing inter- conclusions. Some statistical aspects of our arguments laboratory cross-checking or a single date are discussed in Appendix 1. strongly deviating from a series of close-by dates for the same site) were discarded. Such a screening is necessary because some sites have Palaeoenvironment vastly different number of radiocarbon date determi- Apart from the oxygen isotope data, we discuss evi- nations. For example, 14 dates have been published for dence pertinent to the Late Quaternary climate and the Berelyoh site, one of them being 42·0 ka (with environment of the major areas in Northern Eurasia, insufficient stratigraphic information and published as well as to the immediate setting of the sites. The without its error) and the remaining ones in the range climate reconstructions are based on the existing 13·4–10·3 ka. Our screened date-list includes just one publications where descriptive qualitative and/or date of 11·8 ka (No. 105 in Table 2) that is close to quantitative non-statistical methods were used (e.g. the median of the date cluster of the younger age. Frenzel, Pecsi & Velichko, 1992). In several cases, The geographical areas discussed here (the Altai quantitative characteristics of the climate were based Mountains, the Yenisei, Angara and Aldan Rivers, the on the concept of biomization: pollen spectra grouped Lake Baikal area and the Maritime Region) have been into plant functional types (PFT) were calibrated rather thoroughly surveyed by several generations against the present-day climatic variables (Prentice of Russian archaeologists. The frequencies of the et al., 1992; Peyron et al., 1998; Tarasov et al., 1999a). screened dates per chosen time interval can be used as a reliable indicator of the population (or settlement) density at a given time only provided each settlement European Russia (or rather a distinct stage of its existence) enters the analysis with equal weight, e.g., as a single date per Palaeoenvironment settlement per chronological stage. A few examples of The climate of the Middle Wu¨rm/Valdai ‘‘megainter- the screening are given below. stadial’’ (OIS 3), which lasted in European Russia from As a result, two new data-lists have been developed, 48–25 ka, was cool and unstable with at least five one for Southern-Central Siberia (SCS. 97 dates), and milder oscillations (Arslanov, 1992). According to North-Eastern Siberia and Russian Far East (NES. 22 Frenzel, Pecsi & Velichko (1992), summer and winter dates), shown in Tables 1 and 2. The data-lists include temperatures in Eastern Europe were lower than today the following information: entry number; laboratory by 4–6C and 4–10C, respectively. Annual precipita- index as defined above; site name; date (uncalibrated tion of that period is estimated as 150–250 mm, also ); the date uncertainty; cluster size (the number of lower than now. dates in the original database from which the date The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), 20–18 ka, shown is chosen using the screening criteria discussed featured the maximum extension of ice sheets on above); location with respect to Russia’s administrative East European Plain. The biomization-based quantita- division, i.e., oblast/kray (e.g., Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk) tive assessment (Tarasov et al., 1999a) indicates a Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans 595 considerable depression of temperatures, by 20–29Cin ‘‘eastern Gravettian’’. Grigor’ev (1993) has identified, winters and 5–10C in summers. The annual precipita- among them, the ‘‘Kostenki-Avdeevo’’ Culture expos- tion resulting from this approach is 200–450 mm less ing stylistic similarities with the sites in Central than today, with the drought index showing particu- Europe, notably, Willendorf, Predmosti and Dolni larly dry conditions in northern and mid-latitude Vestonice. Russia. The vegetation was dominated by the ‘‘periglacial’’ tundra and cold-resistant steppe in combina- The later stage. The latest recognizable increase in the tion with open woodland of larch and birch (Grichuk, density of UP sites occurred at 18–15 ka. At that stage 1992). cultural fragmentation became apparent, the cultural The Late Glacial Recession at 18–10 ka was marked entities being restricted to major river basins: the by the degradation of ice sheets, punctuated by short- Prut-Dniestrian, Upper Dnieprian, Donian, etc. lived glacial advances (Chebotareva & Makarycheva, (Sinitsyn et al., 1997). The UP sites completely dis- 1982). Several areas were affected by a permafrost with appeared in the central area of East European Plain at the ground temperature of (3–5)C(Morozova & ages less than 11–12 ka. Nechaev, 1997: 57). Human settlements South-Central Siberia The early stage. Judging from radiocarbon dates, the Palaeoenvironment initial appearance of Upper Palaeolithic sites on East European Plain occurred in the time-span of 39–36 ka The time-span of OIS3–OIS2 in that part of Siberia (Sinitsyn et al., 1997). These sites were evenly scattered included the Karginian Interglacial (50–22 ka) and the across the entire area; they are known in Western Sartan Glacial (22–10 ka) (Velichko, 1993). Frenzel, Ukraine, Moldavia, Crimea, Pontic Lowland, on the Pecsi & Velichko (1992) estimate that Karginian River Don, in the Ural Mountains and even north of climate as colder than now, by 4C in summers and 6C the Polar Circle. in winters, with the annual precipitation lower than Pollen analysis (Spiridonova, 1991) shows predomi- today by 80–50 mm. During the milder episode of nantly pine forests in the River Don valley at the time 30–35 ka, forests spread far to the north along the of early UP settlements. As the climate grew colder, Yenisei River Valley. Forests and forest-steppe oc- spruce forests and the cold-resistant ‘‘periglacial’’ curred both in the Altai and Trans-Baikal mountains grassland took up increased areas. The wild horse was (Drozdov et al., 1990). The animal world consisted of the principle hunting prey, followed by the mammoth large herd mammals and included the mammoth, and reindeer (Praslov & Rogachev, 1982). woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, reindeer and elk. The In the cultural sense, the early UP sites belonged bison, mountain goat and sheep, red deer, bear and to at least three distinctive traditions: Streletsian, leopard were common in the Altai Mountains. Aurignacian, and ‘‘protogravettian’’ (Sinitsyn et al., The Sartan Glacial featured limited-scale ice- 1997: 42). The Streletsian inventories initially identified sheets confined to the Yamal and Taymyr peninsula in the Kostenki area on the Don, were later found on (Velichko et al., 1998). Small-size glaciers occurred in the Severski Donets River in the Ukraine, in Central the Altai and Trans-Baikal mountains. Frenzel, Pecsi Russia (Sungir’), and on the Kama River in the Urals & Velichko (1992) reconstruct a strong thermal depres- (Bradley, Anikovich & Giria, 1995). These inventories sion for that period, with winter temperatures by about included archaic Mousterian elements combined with 12C, summer temperatures, about 6C lower than at the UP ‘‘laminar’’ technology. Both the Aurignacian present, and mean annual precipitation varying be- and ‘‘protogravettian’’ featured the fully developed tween 50 and 250 mm below the present-day values. A Upper Palaeolithic ‘‘core-and-blade’’ technique biomization-based quantitative climate reconstruction (Sinitsyn et al., 1997). for the southern part of western Siberia and northern Mongolia (Tarasov et al., 1999b) yields similar esti- The middle stage. Frequencies of radiocarbon dated mates, with the winters colder than today by 7–15C, sites show a clear increase in the range of 29–26 ka and summers, by 1–7C. According to these calcu- apparently forming a maximum at 24–18 ka. The sites lations, the precipitation remained basically similar to of that age were found mainly in the ‘‘periglacial’’ zone the present-day values. of East European Plain, usually on elevated river Pollen data show the treeless tundra alternating terraces facing the widened flood plains (Gribchenko & with the ‘‘cool’’ steppe covering the entire area with a Kurenkova, 1997). Their natural habitat consisted of few refuges of broadlead forests hidden in the South treeless ‘‘periglacial’’ grassland with rare cold-resistant Siberian mountains (Maloletko, 1998). shrubs (Spiridonova, 1991). The mammoth dominated the animal remains, with rare occurrences of reindeer and polar fox (Praslov & Rogahev, 1982). Human settlements Traditionally, the sites belonging to this time-span The early stage. A series of radiometric dates (both in Eastern Europe were summarily labelled as the conventional radiocarbon and the AMS) has recently 596 P. M. Dolukhanov et al.

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates for Southern-Central Siberia (uncalibrated, )

Laboratory Date Error Cluster Nos. index Site Name (year ) (year) size Location X Y Material Position

1 IM-887 Haergas 16,000 200 1 Yakutia 6000 11722 Bone Level 6 2 Le-1434 Yanova 30,700 400 1 Krasnoyarsk 5451 9055 Tusk Arch. Level 3 Le-1549 Telezhnyi Log 15,480 500 1 Krasnoyarsk 5505 9211 Bone Arch. Level 4 Le-1984 Nizhni Idzhir 1 17,200 140 1 Khakassia 5205 9222 Charcoal Arch. Level 5 Le-3611 Sabanikha 22,930 350 5 Khakassia 5422 5106 Charcoal Level 3·7 m 6 Le-1409 Biryusa-3 34,000 1500 1 Krasnoyarsk 5555 8904 Bone Level A 7 SOAN1519 Proskuryakov Cave 40,770 1075 3 Khakassia 5415 8921 Bone Arch. Level 8 GIN-5929 Ust-Kova 34,300 900 9 Krasnoyarsk 5817 10019 Charcoal Lower Level 9 SOAN1875 Ust-Kova1 28,050 670 2 Krasnoyarsk 5817 10019 Charcoal Lower Level 10 GIN-4440 Military Hospital 29,700 500 1 Irkutsk 5234 10025 Bone Arch. Level 11 SOAN-1680 Buret 21,190 100 1 Irkutsk 5257 10330 Bone Arch. Level 12 GIN-5329 Ust-Belaya 11,930 230 1 Irkutsk 525 10331 Charcoal Level 14 13 GIN-5328 Sosnovyi Bor 12,060 120 1 Irkutsk 5236 10349 Charcoal Level 3B 14 Le-1592 Igutinskii Log 23,508 250 4 Irkutsk 5325 10356 Charcoal Lower Level 15 Mo-441 Verholenskaya Gora 12,570 180 1 Irkutsk 5234 10425 Charcoal Arch. Level 16 Le-3931 Alekseevka 1 22,410 480 1 Irkutsk 5404 10529 Charcoal Arch. Level 17 AA-8882 Shishkino 8 21,190 175 1 Irkutsk 5401 10540 Bone Arch. Level 18 SOAN3092 Ust-Kyahta 17 11,500 100 3 Buryatia 5031 10616 Bone Level 5 19 GIN-6214 Kunalei 21,100 300 1 Irkutsk 5036 10748 Bone Level 3 20 SOAN3133 Kamenka1 31,060 530 2 Buryatia 5143 10815 Bone Complex A 21 IM-236 Avdeikha 15,200 300 2 Irkutsk 5924 11245 Charcoal Level C 22 Le-4172 Boishoi Yakor 12,400 150 6 Irkutsk 5613 11544 Charcoal Level C 23 Le-3821 Tarachikha 19,850 180 2 Krasnoyarsk 7304 8650 Bone Level 3A 24 SOAN1124 Malaya Saya 20,300 350 5 Khakassia 5423 8925 Charcoal Arch. Level 25 SOAN1125 Bolshoi Kemchug 10,980 55 2 Krasnoyarsk 5427 8930 Charcoal Level 1·0 m 26 Le-5233 Dvuglazka 44,400 1600 8 Krasnoyarsk 5435 9051 Bone Level 5 27 Le-4801 Tashtyk 2 13,550 320 1 Krasnoyarsk 5437 9055 Bone Level 2 28 Le-3739 Novoselovo 13 21,580 480 3 Krasnoyarsk 5458 9057 Charcoal Arch. Level 29 Le-4189 Ui-1 22,830 500 4 Khakassia 5256 9105 Bone Level 2 30 Le-3609 Ui-2 11,970 230 3 Khakassia 5226 9105 Charcoal Level 4 31 GIN-90 Kokorevo 2 13,330 100 5 Krasnoyarsk 5505 9110 Charcoal Arch. Level 32 IGAN-105 Kokorevo 1 15,200 200 7 Krasnoyarsk 5505 9110 Charcoal Level 2 33 Le-629 Kokorevo 3 12,690 140 1 Krasnoyarsk 5505 9110 Charcoal Arch. Level 34 Le-540 Kokorevo 4 15,460 320 2 Krasnoyarsk 5500 9110 Charcoal Level 2, 2·6 m 35 Le-4895 Berezovyi Ruchei 15,210 800 2 Krasnoyarsk 5510 9112 Bone Arch. Level 36 Le-4806 Divnyi 1 13,220 150 1 Krasnoyarsk 5505 9115 Bone Arch. Level 37 GrN21368 Kamennyi Log 33,740 500 8 Krasnoyarsk 5505 9123 Charcoal Level 4B 38 GrN20869 Kurtak-Berezhkovo 31,880 350 9 Krasnoyarsk 5509 9128 Wood Level 3B 39 GIN-2102 Kurtak 3 16,900 700 4 Krasnoyarsk 5509 2128 Charcoal Hearth, 2·8 m 40 Le-3351 Kurtak 4 24,170 230 9 Krasnoyarsk 5509 2128 Charcoal Level 14 41 Le-2300 Maina 12,120 120 19 Khakassia 5257 9128 Charcoal E. S. 3, Level 2 42 Le-2383 Maina 15,200 150 19 Khakassia 5757 9128 Charcoal E. S. 6, Level 3 43 GIN-6969 Kashtanka 29,400 400 5 Krasnoyarsk 5507 9130 Charcoal Level 2 44 Le-1101 Golubaya-1 13,050 90 6 Krasnoyarsk 5257 9132 Charcoal Level 3, Hearth 45 SOAN2854 Pritubinsk 15,600 495 1 Krasnoyarsk 5353 9200 Charcoal Level 3 46 SOAN1465 Tonnelnaya 13,840 345 2 Krasnoyarsk 5550 9210 Bone Level 6 47 GIN-6965 Listvenka 13,100 410 6 Krasnoyarsk 5556 9222 Charcoal E. S. 3, Level 7 48 SOAN3309 Yeleneva Cave 12,085 105 10 Krasnoyarsk 5556 9229 Charcoal Hearth 5·5 m 49 Le-3777 Biryusa 14,480 400 7 Krasnoyarsk 5604 9232 Bone Level 3A 50 SOAN3315 Bol. Slizneva Cave 13,540 500 2 Krasnoyarsk 5609 9255 Charcoal Level 8 51 GrN22274 Afontova Gora 13,990 110 11 Krasnoyarsk 5558 9257 Charcoal Level 3b 52 Mo-343 Afontova Gora 11,330 270 11 Krasnoyarsk 5558 9257 Charcoal Upper Level 53 Le-4894 Druzhiniha 43,580 8800 7 Krasnoyarsk 5654 9322 Bone Arch. Level 54 GIN-5821 Strizhova Gora 12,000 150 9 Krasnoyarsk 5548 9646 Bone Level 14 55 SOAN810 Tolbaga 15,100 520 4 Irkutsk 5115 10920 Bone Level 0·75 m 56 GIN-5330 Krasnyi Yar 19,100 100 1 Irkutsk 5344 10322 Bone Arch. Level 57 GIN-7709 Mal’ta 20,700 150 20 Irkutsk 5249 10333 Bone Arch. Level 58 GIN-480 Makarovo 2 11,860 200 3 Irkutsk 5355 10551 Charcoal Level 3. Hearth 59 GIN-7067 Makarovo 3 31,200 500 1 Irkutsk 5355 10551 Bone Lower Level 60 GIN-6121 Ust-Kyahta 11,630 140 6 Buryatia 5031 10616 Charcoal Hearth, 2·9 m 61 SOAN3404 Podzvonkaya 26,000 920 2 Buryatia 5035 10735 Bone Arch. Level 62 Le-3950 Balysheva 25,100 940 2 Irkutsk 5730 10748 Bone Level 2 63 SOAN1524 Varvarina Gora 34,900 780 6 Buryatia 5147 10815 Bone Arch. Level 64 SOAN2903 Kamenka-1 28,060 475 10 Buryatia 5143 10815 Bone Complex A 65 GIN-5465 Ust-Menza 16,980 150 7 Chita 5015 10837 Charcoal Level 20 Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans 597

Table 1. (Continued)

Laboratory Date Error Cluster Nos. index Site Name (year ) (year) size Location X Y Material Position

66 SOAN1652 Studence 12,510 80 18 Chita 5015 10837 Charcoal Level 13, Hearth 67 SOAN3078 Tolbaga 26,900 225 4 Chita 5115 10920 Charcoal Level 4 68 SOAN1396 Kurla 1 15,200 1250 2 Buryatia 5543 10928 Charcoal Hearth 69 SOAN1397 Kurla 3 24,060 570 2 Buryatia 5543 10928 Charcoal Level 3, Hearth 70 AA-8888 Masterov Klyuch 24,360 270 1 Irkutsk 5119 11031 Bone Level 3 71 SOAN32467 Kuhor-Tala 11,240 360 2 Buryatia 5143 11039 Charcoal Trench 3 72 GIN-5791 Muhino 13,270 140 1 Buryatia 5251 11101 Bone Level 3 73 Le-2402 Altan 18,760 200 1 Chita 5229 11132 Charcoal Level 13 74 Le-2967 Artin-2 37,360 2000 1 Chita 5115 11224 Charcoal Arch. Level 75 Le-3652 Sohatino-4 15,820 300 6 Chita 5201 11331 Charcoal Level 3 76 GIN-6468 Bolshoi Yakor’ 12,330 250 1 Irkutsk 5613 11544 Bone Level 8 77 GIN-6469 Ust-Karenga 12,880 130 5 Irkutsk 5426 11631 Charcoal Arch. Level 78 Le-1952 Nizhn. Dzhilinda 11,280 80 1 Buryatia 5226 11652 Charcoal Lower Level 79 SOAN110 Logovo Gyeny 32,700 2800 1 Altai Bone Level 2 80 Le-1812 Sumpanya 11,970 120 1 Tyumen 6003 6436 Charcoal Arch. Level 81 GIN-622 Chernoozer’e-2 14,500 500 1 Omsk 5544 7358 Charcoal Hearth 82 SOAN111 Volch’ya Griva 14,450 110 2 Novosibirsk 5442 8007 Bone Arch. Level 83 GIN-1701 mogochinskaya 27,300 400 3 Tomsk 5742 8335 Charcoal Arch. Level 84 SOAN3219 Strashnaya 31,510 2615 3 Altai 5145 8351 Bone Level 3 85 RIDDL718 Okladnikov Cave 33,500 700 7 Altai 5138 8429 Bone Level 1 86 RIDDL720 Okladnikov Cave 40,700 1100 7 Altai 5138 8419 Bone Level 3 87 SOAN2504 Denisova Cave 37,235 1000 9 Altai 5123 8440 Bone Level 11 88 SOAN3005 Anui-2 26,810 290 8 Altai 5123 8440 Charcoal Level 12, Hearth 89 SOAN2869 Ust-Karakol 1 31,345 275 12 Altai 5123 8441 Charcoal Level 5, Hearth 90 SOAN3702 Kaminnaya Cave 10,870 150 5 Altai 5216 8449 Charcoal Level 11A 91 GIN-2100 Tomskaya 18,300 1000 1 Altai 5628 8456 Charcoal Hearth, 3·5 m 92 SOAN2485 KaraTenesh 42,165 4170 5 Altai 5102 8617 Charcoal Level 2·0 m 93 SOAN2861 Mohovo-2 30,330 445 2 Kemerovo 5433 8621 Bone Level 2·5 m 94 GX-17596 Kara Bom 43,300 1600 11 Altai 5011 8641 Charcoal Level 6 95 GX-17593 Kara Bom 30,990 460 11 Altai 5011 8641 Charcoal Level 5A 96 SOAN300 Kara Bom 21,280 440 11 Altai 5011 8641 Charcoal Level 3 97 SOAN20800 Shestakovo 20,800 450 9 Kemerovo 5553 8758 Charcoal Level 6

Table 2. Radiocarbon dates for North-Eastern Siberia and Russian Far East (uncalibrated, )

Laboratory Date Error Cluster Nos. Index Site name (year ) (year) size Location X Y Material Position

98 Le-898 Ust-Timpton 10,650 80 4 Yakutia 5845 12711 Charcoal Level 6 99 Le-920 Ust-Timpton2 10,300 50 1 Yakutia 5845 12711 Charcoal Dwelling 100 Le-1000 Ust-Mil 33,000 500 7 Yakutia 5938 13308 Wood Level 1·9 m 101 GIN-404 Dyuktai Cave 14,000 100 7 Yakutia 5935 13311 Charcoal Level 7b 102 GIN-1020 Ihnie-2 31,200 500 10 Yakutia 6253 13413 Wood Level 1·2 m 103 SOAN-3185 Ihnie-3 20,080 150 3 Yakutia 6253 13413 Bone Arch. Level 104 Le-906 Verhne-Troickoe 17,680 250 3 Yakutia 6025 13441 Wood Arch. Level 105 LU-147 Berelyoh 11,830 110 14 Yakutia 7026 14425 Wood Level 1·6 m 106 MAG-916 Siberdik 13,225 230 1 Yakutia 6135 14949 Charcoal Level 3 107 Le-3697 Ushki 1 11,120 500 2 Kamchatka 5612 15958 Charcoal Level 7 108 SOAN-784 Ust-Igrima 11,350 180 1 Maritime Bone Level 1·5 m 109 SOAN-825 Filimoshki 20,350 850 1 Amur Detritus Arch. Level 110 SOAN-3827 Malye Kurutachi 14,200 130 8 Maritime 5017 13019 Charcoal Arch. Level 111 IGAN-341 Geograph Society Cave 32,570 1510 1 Maritime 4252 1301 Bone Arch. Level 112 Le-1566 Pereval 10,100 100 2 Maritime 4255 13306 Charcoal Arch. Level 113 GEO-1412 Ustinovka 6 11,550 240 2 Maritime 4416 13518 Charcoal Level 3 114 AA-9463 Suvorovo 4 15,105 110 2 Maritime 4414 13522 Charcoal Arch. Level 115 Le-1781 Gasya 12,960 120 2 Khabarovsk 5035 13711 Charcoal Arch. Level 116 AA-13392 Hummi 13,260 100 3 Khabarovsk 4844 13537 Charcoal Lower Level 117 AA-20864 Ogonki 5 19,320 145 3 Sakhalin 4646 14231 Wood Level 2b 118 GIN-167 Ushki 2 13,600 250 7 Kamchatka 5612 15958 Charcoal Level 6 598 P. M. Dolukhanov et al.

8 2.0 Tenesh and ca 43 ka for Kara-Bom. The latter site includes two lower strata, both identified as 1.5 Mousterian, and six upper levels considered as UP 6 (Derevyanko, Petrin & Rybin, 2000). Both the upper 1.0 Mousterian and the lower UP strata have similar dates, >44 and 43·201·5 ka, respectively. These levels in- 4 0.5 O (‰) cluded identical animal remains (woolly rhinoceros, 18 δ Frequency 0.0 brown bear, wolf, bear, wild horse, kulan wild ass, 2 gazelle). Furthermore, they contained the same cat- –0.5 egories of tools; the only distinction consists in an increased rate of ‘‘elongated blades’’ in the UP 0 –1.0 level (Derevyanko, Petrin & Rybin, 2000: 47). The 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 3 Okladnikov Cave included human remains, five teeth Age (10 yr, BP) and three postcranial skeletal fragments. Alexeev Figure 1. Frequency per millennium of uncalibrated radiocarbon (1998) found no deviations from the morphology of ff dates for East European Plain (Dolukhanov, Shukurov & Sokolo , modern humans in these remains, with only one molar 2001) (histogram) and the 18O isotope variations with higher values indicating colder climate (Imbrie et al., 1990) (solid). showing an ‘‘archaic trait’’. Conventioal radiocarbon dates of that time span have been obtained for the sites in the Yenisei Valley 12 2.0 (Nos 37 and 40) and the nearby Angara River (Nos 8, 9, 10 & 53) (Figure 4). 10 1.5 Two sites in the Southern Siberia (Figure 5) have yielded the AMS dates in the range of 33–39 ka (No. 59 8 1.0 in the upper stretches of the River Lena, and No. 63 in Buryatia) (Goebel & Aksenov, 1995). The animal 6 0.5 O (‰) remains consisted of the woolly rhinoceros (in both 18 δ Frequency 4 0.0 cases), red deer and roe deer (No. 59), Mongolian gazelle and argali sheep (No. 63). In the Trans-Baikal 2 –0.5 area, similar dates have been obtained for sites on the Khilka and Artin Rivers (No. 74) (Medvedev, 1998). 0 –1.0 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 3 The middle stage. Several sites with the radiocarbon Age (10 yr, BP) dates in the range of 25–17 ka lie on the terraces of the Figure 2. As in Figure 1, but for Southern-Central Siberia. Yenisey River (Nos 39, 40, 28 & 23). The animal remains at all these sites consisted of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, reindeer, bison and wild 6 2.0 goat. This stage also includes the site No. 29 on the southern stretch of the river (Derevyanko & Markin, 1.5 1998b). 4 1.0 A large concentration of sites of that stage occurred in the terraced valleys of the Angara and its tributaries. 0.5 This included the ‘‘twin’’ sites of Mal’ta (No. 57) and O (‰)

18 Buret’ (No. 11) (Sitlivy, Medvedev & Lipinina, 1997). δ Frequency 2 0.0 The former site included a burial with two (or three) children of a modern human type (Alexeev & –0.5 Gokhman, 1987). The reindeer was the main hunting prey at these sites (Ermolova, 1978). Other sites in that 0 –1.0 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 area included Nos 70, 14, 16 & 17. The site No. 69 on 3 Age (10 yr, BP) the northwestern shore of the Lake Baikal also belongs to that stage. Figure 3. As in Figure 1, but for North-Eastern Siberia and Russian Far East. The later stage. The sites with the radiocarbon age in the range of 17–10 ka show the highest frequencies in been obtained for Palaeolithic sites in the Altai that part of Siberia. Several large open-air settlements Mountains (the cave sites of Kara-Bom, Okladnikov, were located in the Minusinsk depression on the mid- Strashnaya, Denisova, Kara-Tenesh and Anui 2, dle stretches of the Yenisei River (Nos 31–34 & 51–52). as well as at an open-air site of Ust-Karakol) Fragmented human bones have been found in the (Derevyanko & Markin, 1998a). Their age is in the deposits of the Afontova Gora 2 site (No. 51), includ- range of ca 40–30 ka; reaching ca 42 ka for Kara- ing a frontal bone, a radius, humerus and child’s Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans 599

Figure 4. Radiocarbon-dated sites in the Altai Mountains and on the Yenisei Basin in Southern-Central Siberia. The sites are labelled with entry number from Column 1 of Table 1. Larger circles indicate date clusters. teeth—all belonging to modern humans. Animal re- dates around 12·5 ka has been obtained for the site of mains consisted of the wild horse, aurochs, red deer, Studenoe 2 (No. 66) located on the Chikoi River wild goats and Arctic fox. The group of sites 13·0 ka (Goebel et al., 2000). Other sites in that area having old located on the right tributary of the Yenissei a similar component, Nos 65 & 75, have revealed a (No. 44) is distinctive by the presence of microblades. younger age (17·0 & 15·8 ka). The Maina group of sites (Nos 30, 41 & 42) lies in the southern stretches of the Yenisei River where it crosses the Sayan foothills. The animal remains in- North-East Siberia and Russian Far East cluded the bison, kulan, red deer and Siberian goat (Vasil’ev, 1983, 2000). The radiocarbon measurement Palaeoenvironment of 12·0 ka (No. 54) has been obtained for the site According to Anderson & Lozhkin (2001), the climate No. 54 on the River Kan, farther east. of North-Eastern Siberia during the Karginian Interval This stage includes a group of sites in the Trans- (43–25 ka) was either similar to or slightly colder Baikal region of Southern Siberia. A series of AMS than now. Nevertheless, pollen and plant macrofossil 600 P. M. Dolukhanov et al.

Figure 5. As in Figure 4, but for the Angara and Baikal areas in Southern-Central Siberia. records for the New Siberian Archipelago in the Arctic with small-scale glaciers restricted to the mountains. Ocean (Andreev et al., 2001) show the summer tem- Pollen records show a rapid reduction of forests and perature to be warmer than today by at least 2C. massive spread of the ‘‘tundra-steppe’’. The present- Considerable areas in that part of Siberia were taken day Arctic tundra became established in the lowlands up Larix forests, whereas the ‘‘tundra-steppe’’ pre- already at 15–14 ka, and remained basically un- vailed on the exposed Arctic shelf. The biomass of changed, with sparse coniferous forests spreading these landscapes was sufficiently high to support a during the milder intervals (Velichko, Andreev & large population of herbivores. Accumulations of the Klimanov, 1997; Mochanov & Savvinova, 1980). The bones of mammoth, reindeer and wild horse found biomass of these landscapes remained sufficiently high at various sites have been radiocarbon dated to to sustain numerous herds of large herbivores. 36·7–12·5 ka. The Sartan Glacial climate in the Maritime Region During the Sartan Glacial, the permafrost and an (Primorskiy Kray) of the Russian Far East remained intensive aeolean deflation affected the lower areas, very dry and cold, with temperatures lower than today, Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans 601 by 15C in winters and 10C in summers, and the date and the dates of 13·6 and 10·4 have been included annual precipitation 400 mm less than now. Spruce, into our date-list (Nos 118 & 119). birch and larch forests occurred in the lowland, with Another cluster of sites was located in the Maritime the forest-tundra and mountain tundra at higher levels Region of the Russian Far East represented by Nos (Korotkii, 1994). 113 & 114. Several sites located on the lower stretches During the Karginian Interglacial, the sea level was of the Amur River included fragments of ceramic at least 40 m below its present position (Pavlidis, ware (Nos 115, 116) (Derevyanko & Medvedev, 1995; Dunayev & Shcherbaskov, 1997). The maximum drop Kuzmin & Orlova, 1999). in the sea level, 130 m below the present stand, occurred during the Sartan Glacial maximum. The shore- line at that time moved off by 400–700 km, exposing Discussion vast areas of the continental shelf. This led to the The frequency distributions of radiocarbon-dated emergence of the Beringia landmass linking the Palaeolithic sites in distinct areas of northern Eurasia, Siberian mainland with Alaska. During that period shown in Figures 1, 2 & 3, exhibit statistically reliable the Asian continent became connected both with the differences (see Appendix 1). Specifically, the positions Sakhalin Island and the Japanese Archipelago. The (and plausibly numbers) of maxima and minima differ land bridge remained in place until 10 ka, when the in different areas. For example, the strongest differ- level of the Japan Sea was ca 50 m below the present ences between the East European Plain (EEP) and position (Korotkii, 1994). Southern-Central Siberia (SCS) data occur at 46–42, 32–30 ka, 28–26, 24–22, 20–16, 14–10 ka. Human settlements The early stage. At least two Palaeolithic sites located The period 46–32 ka on the lower and middle stretches of the Aldan River in Sites in the range 46–32 ka are absent in the EEP Yakutia yielded the radiocarbon dates proving that sample. In the SCS sample, the sites of this age are all this vast area had a substantial human population at located in the Altai Mountains and are considered as that stage (Nos 100 & 102, see Figure 6). According pertaining to the Mousterian–Upper Palaeolithic to Mochanov (1977) these sites correspond to the transition (Derevyanko, Petrin & Rybin, 2000). Sites of ‘‘Proto-Dyuktai’’, the cultural tradition which was comparable age reflecting the initial spread of Upper essentially different from those in the southern and Palaeolithic are known for cave sites to the west of the central Siberia. EEP in Bulgaria (Bacho Kiro, Level 11, >43 ka for In the Russian Far East, a date of 32·6 ka has been the conventional dates and 38–37 ka for the AMS reported for the cave site (No. 111). The animal dates—Hedges et al., 1994), Southern Germany remains at that site included the mammoth, woolly (40·2 ka—Bolus & Conrad, 2001) and Spain (El rhinoceros, wild horse, roe and red deer (Derevyanko, Castillo and La Arbelna, 40 ka—Rink et al., 1997). 1998). This implies that sites of that age could have existed on the EEP as well but so far have not been found or have The middle stage. The radiocarbon-dated sites of this been destroyed by erosion at open-air sites dominant stage are located on the Aldan River (Nos 103 & 104). on the EEP. The site No. 109 on the River Zeya was dated 20·3 ka, The sites 40–32 ka old are spread across East although its archaeological context is not quite clear. A European Plain, including the Pechora River north of similar data had been obtained for a site on the the Polar Circle. They form a dense concentration in Sakhalin Island (No. 117). the Altai Mountains, several sites have been found on the Yenisei River, in the Baikal and Trans-Baikal areas The later stage. Similarly to the southern and central of southern Siberia, and also in Yakutia and the Far parts of Siberia, the sites of this stage show the highest East. Therefore, we consider the difference between the frequencies. Among them is a cluster of sites on date frequencies of that age to be due to incomplete the Aldan River (Nos 98, 99, 101), attributed by sampling. The entire time span of 46–32 ka can thus be Mochanov (1977) to the Dyuktai Culture. Culturally viewed as the stage of incipient spread of the AMH in related sites were found near the Arctic coast (No. 105) northern Eurasia. and in the Kolyma River basin (No. 106). We have An influential school of thought identifies the AMH selected three representative dates out of numerous only with the manifestations of the UP ‘‘core- radiocarbon date measurements for this site. and-blade’’ technology. The so-called ‘‘transitional’’ Further to the east, a series of radiocarbon dates are industries of that age are known in various parts of available for the stratified site of Ushki 1 on the Europe, such as Chaˆtelperronian in France, Uluzzo Kamchatka Peninsula (Dikov, 1977). This includes one in Italy, Szeletian and Bohunician in Central Europe date of 21 ka (GIN), three dates in the range 13·6– and Streletsian in Russia. They all include archaic 14·3 ka (GIN and LE) and three dates of 10·4–10·9 ka elements apparently inherited from the Mousterian (MAG and MO). We have discarded the single older tradition and are viewed either as a product of the Figure 6. As in Figure 4, but for North-Eastern Siberia and Russian Far East with labels from Table 2. Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans 603

‘‘acculturation’’ of the Neandertals under the impact of eastbound migration occurred at this stage caused AMH (Mellars, 1999) or as an independent Neandertal by environmental stress encompassing Siberia and invention (Errico et al., 1998). Yet, fossil remains reaching Yakutia and Russian Far East. of the Neandertals have never been found at any According to quantitative estimates (Tarasov et al., Streletsian sites. Human remains found in this context 1999a), during the LGM, in an environment of of the Mousterian–Upper Palaeolithic transition at the considerable temperature depressions, the annual pre- Okladnikov Cave show ‘‘no major deviations’’ from cipitation in the western Eurasia remained sufficiently the AMH morphology (Alexeev, 1998). high to produce a thick snow cover. The precipitation One should note that the archaic implements in Siberia, being basically similar to the present-day combined with an advanced ‘‘laminar’’ technology values, would have only formed a thin snow cover constitute a characteristic feature of the Siberian (similarly to what occurs now in Central Mongolia ‘‘Upper Palaeolithic’’ as a whole (Grigor’ev, 1977; where the winter precipitation is between 5 and Okladnikov, 1981; Sitlivy, Medvedev & Lipinina, 1997; 30 mm). Hence, the conditions for winter pastures in Vasil’ev, 2000). The archaic elements often found the east were more favourable: large herds of herbi- together with remains of modern humans. We recall vores were well provided with the fodder easily that remains of both Neandertals and AMH, who available beneath the thin snow cover. apparently coexisted, were found in the Levant in With the fall in the sea-level by at least 130 m, the an essentially similar context of the ‘‘Levantine Japanese Archipelago became accessible to the advanc- Mousterian’’ (Lieberman, 1998). Further east, archaic ing groups of AMH via land bridges both in the north elements are abundant in the inventory of the (Hokkaido-Sakhalin) and in the south (Kyusyu- Salawusu site on the Ordos Plateau in Inner Mongolia Tsushima-Korea). This may account for the appear- dated to 50–37 ka, that yielded the remains of Homo ance of sites with the blade technique component in sapiens (Jia Lanpo & Huang Weiwen, 1985; Wu Xinzhi Japan (Oda & Keally, 1979). & Wang Linghong, 1985). Thus, we can argue that the Palaeolithic sites in northern Eurasia radiocarbon dated to 46–32 ka reflect The period 18–10 ka the initial colonization of that area by the AMH, regardless of the character of lithic industries. The At that stage one notices an increase in the number of advancement of the AMH proceeded from the core Palaeolithic sites in European Russia, and an all-time area in the Levant where the presence of ‘‘primitive’’ maximum in Siberia (Figures 1–3). The difference modern humans is acknowledgeable already at 100– between the data sets is the strongest during this period 80 ka (Stringer et al., 1989). According to our results, (Appendix 1). The enhancement in the frequency is this movement could have encompassed the entire East also well pronounced in the extreme north-east includ- European Plain, further leading into Southern Siberia, ing Yakutia and Kamchatka, the Lower Amur and the Mongolia and Russian Far East, and presumably to Maritime Region in the Far East. Northern and Central China. As the land bridges Settlements with the evidence of potery-making first linked the Siberian mainland with the Sakhalin Island appeared in the lower Amur catchment at 13–11 ka. and Hokkaido, occasional penetration of early AMH The subsistence of these sites was based on the exploi- to the Japanese Archipelago could have occurred at tation of riverine and estuarine resources with the that stage. This is confirmed by the skeletal remains of prominence of the procurement of spawning salmon an AMH child at Yamashita-cho on the Okinawa, (Kononenko, 1998). By their stylistic and technological with the radiometric age of >32 ka (Trinkaus & Ruff, characteristics, the ceramic ware of the Lower Amur 1996). sites is similar to certain varieties of the early Jomon pottery in Japan (Kajiwara, 1998). Hence one may suggest the occurrence of a network of settlements The period 30–19 ka based on riverine-maritime adaptation in the circum- There are several features in the date frequencies for Japanese (and, possibly, Okhotsk) Sea area. With the the EEP and SCS in this period. The most important gradual rise of the sea level, the ‘‘northern route’’ difference between the histograms of Figures 1 & 2 is became the only way connecting Japan to the Asian that the EEP dates exhibit a broad and strong absolute landmass. A marked increase in the frequencies of sites maximum, whereas the SCS data show two lower belonging to the ‘‘Micro-Blade’’ and ‘‘Incipient peaks. Both data samples have deep frequency minima Jomon’’ traditions may have been largely due to the at 18–19 ka. The period of 32–18 ka was the next stage population influx from the continent. in the settlement of northern Eurasia by early modern During the same period, human groups apparently humans. Remarkably, the greater part of Western stemming from North-Eastern Siberia have spread to and Central Europe became depopulated during America. The existing evidence suggests that this was a that time, where only sporadically sustaining scarce predominantly coastal migration along the southern human groups remained (Housley et al., 1997; Street margin of the Bering Land Bridge and further south & Terberger, 2000). It is plausible that significant along the Pacific Coast of the Americas (Dixon, 2001). 604 P. M. Dolukhanov et al.

2 Conclusions respectively, each exceeding 21 (0·05)=7·7). The underlying difference between the EEP and SCS (1) The colonization of Northern Eurasia took the samples is in the positions and heights of the maxima form of several (plausibly, three) consecutive at 20–10 ka: the maximum in the EEP sample is waves, spreading from the west towards the east relatively weak and occurs earlier whereas that in the in the time-span between ca 46 and 10 ka . SCS sample is very strong and shifted towards the (2) All the waves included exclusively groups of younger ages. We interpret this as an indication that Anatomically Modern Humans. the migration of AMH proceeded from the west (EEP) (3) Groups of AMH spreading during 46–30 ka  to the east (SCS) at least in this time interval, and this used various types of stone industries including has resulted in the relative time shift of the maxima in those with strong Mousterian element. the EEP and SCS data sets. (4) The intense east-bound migration of AMH groups was largely caused by environmental stress. Acknowledgements Appendix 1 PMD and PET express their gratitude to the Inter- national Research Center for Japanese Studies in In this appendix we discuss statistical evidence sup- Kyoto, Japan, for the hospitality they enjoyed as porting our conclusions. First, we demonstrate that the visiting scholars while working on this paper. Special dates in all three samples shown in Figures 1, 2 & 3 for gratitude is due to Professor T. Akazawa and Y. EEP, SCS and NES, respectively, deviate significantly Yamoto who read the paper and made valuable com- from uniform distributions, and therefore contain ments and suggestions. We are grateful to P. J. Avery statistically significant peaks and/or minima. Secondly, and R. Boys for useful discussions of the techniques of we infer that the date samples originating from EEP statistical testing. and SCS are statistically distinct. This implies that the trends in the population dynamics were different in the two areas. We further isolate periods of the strongest References differences and identify them with major migration events discussed in the text. Alekeev, V. P. (1998). The Physical Specificity of Palaeolithic Homi- We used the Kolmogorov–Smirnov one-sample test nids in Siberia. In (A. P. Derevyanko, Ed.) The Palaeolithic in in order to check whether the distributions shown in Siberia. Urbana, Ill: University of Illinois Press, pp. 329–331. ff Alexeev, V. P. & Gokhman, I. I. (1987). Antroplogiya aziatskoi chasti Figures 1, 2 & 3 (see also Tables 1 & 2)di er from the SSSR. Moscow: Nauka. corresponding uniform distributions over the time Andersen, P. M. & Lozhkin, A. V. (2000). The Stage 3 interstadial span of each sample (see e.g., Sect. 4.3 in Siegel & complex (Karginskii/middle Wisconsinan interval) of Beringia: Castellan, 1988). The maximum (by modulus) devia- variations in palaeoenvironments and implications for palaeo- tion of the cumulative probability distribution from the climatic interpretations. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 93–125. Andreev, A. A., Peteet, D. M., Tarasov, P. E., Romanenko, F. A., uniform one was 0·24, 0·26 and 0·42 for the EEP, SCS Filimonova, L. V. & Sulerzhitsky, L. D. (2001). Late Pleistocene and NES samples containing 75, 97 and 22 dates, interstadial environment on Faddeyevskiy Island, East-Siberian respectively. This implies that the probability, for the Sea, Russia. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 33(1), in press. samples to originate from a uniform distribution is less Arslanov, H. A. (1992). Geohronolgochskaya shkala pozdnego pleistocena Russkoi ravniny. In (V. Murzaeva, J.-M. Punning & than 0·2% in all the cases. Therefore, the distributions O. Chichagova, Eds) Geohronologiya chatvertichnogo perioda. shown in Figures 1–3 do contain statistically significant Moscow: Nauka, pp. 16–22. time variations of the Palaeolithic site frequency in all Bolus, M. & Conard, N. J. (2001). The late Middle Palaeolithic and three geographical areas. earliest Middle Palaeolithic in Central Europe and their relevance In order to determine the significance of pairwise for the Out of Africa hypothesis. Quaternary International 75, differences between the samples we applied the 2 test 29–40. Bradley, B., Anikovich, M. & Giria, E. (1995). Early Upper Palaeo- for two independent samples (e.g., Sect. 6.2 in Siegel & lithic in the Russian Plain: Streletskyan flaked stone artefacts and Castellan, 1988) to the EEP and SCS date lists. (The technology. Antiquity 69/266, 989–998. NES sample is too small to warrant analysis of this Chebotareva, N. S. & Makarycheva, I. A. (1982). Geohronologiya type.) The alue of 2 obtained when comparing the prirodnyh izmeneni.i lednikovoi oblasti Vostochnoi Evropy v EEP and SCS samples (binned to 13 time intervals to valdaiskuyu epohu. In (I. P. Gerasimov, Ed.) Paleogeografiya Evropy za poslednie sto tysyach let. Moscow: Nauka publishers, have appropriately large expected frequencies) is as pp. 16–27. large as 34·2; the samples are different with a prob- Derevyanko, A. P. (1998). Palaeolithic of the Russian Far East. In ability of 99·9%. It is notable that the contribution of (A. P. Derevyanko, Ed.) The Palaeolithic of Siberia. New Discov- the dates in the range 46–36 ka to 2 is rather small eries and Interpretations. Urbana and Chicago: University of (0·5); therefore the lack of dates older than 40 ka in the Illinois Press, pp. 274–290. EEP sample does not affect our conclusions. Derevyanko, A. P. & Medvedev, V. E. (1995). The Amur River basin 2 as one of the earliest centres of ceramics in the Far East. In The maximum contributions to comes from the (H. Kajiwara, Ed.) The Origin of Ceramics in East Asia and Far time intervals 20–18 ka and 14–10 ka (8·5 and 11·3, East. Sendai: Tohoku Fukushi University Press, pp. 13–25. Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans 605

Derevyanko, A. P. & Markin, S. (1998a). The Palaeolithic of the Jia, Lanpo & Huang, Weiwen (1985). The Late Palaeolithic of Altai. In (A. P. Derevyanko, Ed.) The Palaeolithic of Siberia. New China. In (Wu Rukang & J. W. Olsen, Eds) Palaeoanthropology Discoveries and Interpretations. Urbana and Chicago: University and Palaeolithic Archaeology in the People’s Republic of China. of Illinois Press, pp. 84–106. Orlando: Academic Press, pp. 211–234. Derevyanko, A. P. & Markin, S. (1998b). Palaeolithic sites along the Kajiwara, H. (1998). The transitional period of Pleistocene-Holocene Yenisei. In (A. P. Derevyanko, Ed.) The Palaeolithic of Siberia. in Siberia and the Russian Far East. In (A. Ono, Ed.) Symposium New Discoveries and Interpretations. Urbana and Chicago: on Comparative Archaeology of Pleistocene-Holocene Transition. University of Illinois Press, pp. 116–118. Tokyo: Tokyo Metropolitan University, pp. 23–31. Derevyanko, A. P., Petrin, V. T. & Rybin, E. P. (2000). Harakter Kononenko, N. A. (1998). Marine resources among prehistoric perehoda ot must’e k verhnemu paleolitu na Altae (po maerialam- cultures of the Primorye Region of the Russian Far East. Proceed- styanki Kara-Bom). Arheologiya, etnografiya i antropologiya ings of the Society for California Archaeology 11, 12–19. Evrazii 2(2), 33–52. Korotkii, A. M. (1994). Kolebaniya urovnya Yaponskogo morya i Dikov, N. N. (1977). Arheologicheski pamyatniki Kamchatki, razvitie landshaftov primorskoi zony. Vestnik Dal’nevostochnogo Chukotki I Verhnei Kolymy. Moscow: Nauka. otdeleniya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk 3, 29–42. Dixon, J. E. (2001). Human colonization of the Americas: timing, Kuzmin, Y. V. & Orlova, L. A. (2000). The Neolthisation of Siberia technology and process. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 277–299. and the Russian Far East: radiocarbon evidence. Antiquity 74, Dolukhanov, P. M., Shukurov, A. M. & Sokoloff, D. D. (2001). 356–364. Improved radiocarbon chronology and the colonization of East Kuzmin, Y. V. & Tankersley, K. B. (1996). The colonization of European Plain by Modern Humans. Journal of Archaeological Eastern Siberia: an evaluation of the Palaeolithic age radiocarbon Science December (in press). dates. Journal of Archaeological Science 23, 577–585. Drozdov, N. I., Chekhla, V. P., Laukhin, S. A., Kol’tsova, V. G., Lieberman, D. E. (1998). Neandertal and Early Modern Human Vasil’ev, S. A., Akimova, E. V., Leont’ev, V. P., Yamskikh, A. F., mobility patterns: comparing archaeological and anatomical evi- Davidenko, E. V., Artem’ev, G. A., Vikulov, A. A., Bokaev, dence. In (T. Akazawa, K. Aoki & O. Bar-Yosef, Eds) Neandertals A. A., Foronova, I. V. & Godoras, S. D. (1990). Hronostratigrafija and Modern Humans in Western Asia. New York & London: paleoliticheskih pamjatnikov Srednei Sibiri. Novosibirsk: Institute Plenum Press, pp. 263–276. of Archaeology and Ethnography. Lifsitsyn, N. F. & Svezhentsev, Y. S. (1997). Radiouglerodnaja Ermolova, N. M. (1978). Teriofauna doliny Angary v pozdnem hronologiya Severnoi Azii. In (A. A. Sinitsyn & N. D. Praslov, antropogene. Novosibirsk: Nauka. Eds) Radiouglerodnaya hronologiya verhnego paleolita Vostochnoi Evropy i Severnoi Azii. St Petersburg: IIMK, pp. 67–108. Errico, F., Zilhao, J., Julien, M., Baffier, D. & Pelegrin, J. (1998). Maloletko, A. M. (1998). The Quaternary Palaeogeography of Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe. Current Anthropol- North Asia. In (A. P. Derevyanko, Ed.) The Palaeolithic of ogy 39(Supplement), S1–S44. Siberia. New Discoveries and Interpretations. Urbana and Chicago: Frenzel, B., Pecsi, M. & Velichko, A. A. (1992). Atlas of paleo- University of Illinois Press, pp. 14–22. climates and paleoenvironments of the Northern Hemisphere. Medvedev, G. I. (1988). Upper Palaeolithic sites in south-central Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. Siberia. In (A. P. Derevyanko, Ed.) The Palaeolithic of Siberia. Goebel, T. & Aksenov, M. (1995). Accelerator radiocarbon dating of New Discoveries and Interpretations. Urbana and Chicago: Antiquity the initial Upper Palaeolithic in southeast Siberia. 69, University of Illinois Press, pp. 122–131. 349–357. Mellars, P. (1999). The Neanderthal problem continued. Current Goebel, T., Waters, M. R., Buvit, I., Konstantinov, M. V. & Anthropology 40, 341–363. Konstantinov, A. V. (2000). Studenoe-2 and the origins of Mochanov, Y. A. (1977). Drevneishie etapy zaseleniya chelovekom microblade technologies in the Transbaikal, Siberia. Antiquity 74, severo-vostochnoi Azii. Novosibirsk: Nauka. 456–575. Mochanov, Y. A. & Savvinova, G. M. (1980). Prirodnaya sreda i Gribchenko, Y. N. & Kurenkova, E. I. (1997). Environment and late poselenija epohi kamnya i metallov v Yakutii. In (Y. A. Palaeolithic human settlement in Eastern Europe. In (J. Chapman Mochanov, Ed.) Novoe v arheologii Yakutii. Yakutsk: Siberian & P. Dolukhanov, Eds) Landscape in Flux. Central and Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, pp. 14–27. Europe in Antiquity. Oxford: Oxbow, pp. 241–252. Morozova, T. D. & Nechaev, V. P. (1997). The Vaidai periglacial Crichuk, V. P. (1992). Main types of vegetation (ecosystems) during zone as an area of cryogenic soil formation. Quaternary the maximum cooling of the Last Glaciation. In (B. Frenzel, M. International 41/42, 53–58. Pecsi & A. A. Velichko, Eds) Atlas of paleoclimates and paleo- Oda, S. & Keally, C. T. (1979). Japanese Palaeolithic Cultural environments of the Northern Hemisphere. Stuttgart: Gustav Chronology. Osawa, Mitaka & Tokyo: International Christian Fischer Verlag, pp. 123–124. University Research Centre. Grigor’ev, G. P. (1993). The Kostenki-Avdeevo archaeological cul- Okladnikov, A. P. (1981). Paleolit Central’noi Azii. Moiltyn-Am ture and the Willendorf-Pavlov-Kostenki-Avdeevo cultural unity. (Mongoliya). Novosibirsk: Nauka. In (O. Soffer & N. D. Praslov, Eds) From Kostenki to Clovis. Pavlidis, Y. A., Dunayev, N. N. & Shcherbaskov, F. A. (1997). The New York & London: Plenum Press. Late Pleistocene Palaeogeography of Arctic Eurasian Shelves. Grigor’ev, G. P. (1977). K razlichiyu priznakov geneticheskogo Quaternary International 41/42, 3–9. rodstva, diffuzii i stadial’nosti (po materialam paleolita). In (B. A. Peyron, O., Guiot, J., Cheddadi, R., Tarasov, P. E., Reille, M., Rybakov, Ed.) VII mezhdurarodnyi kongress doistorikiv i protois- Beaulieu, J.-L. de, Bottema, S. & Andrieu, V. (1998). Climatic torikov. Doklady I Soobscheniya Arheologov SSSR. Moscow: reconstruction in Europe from pollen data, 18,000 years before Nauka, pp. 39–40. present. Quaternary Research 49, 183–196. Hedges, R. E. M., Housley, R. A., Bronk Ramsey, C. & van Praslov, N. D. & Rogachev, A. N. (1982). Paleolit Kostenki- Klinken, G. J. (1994). Radiocarbon dates from the Oxford AMS Borshevskogo raiona na Donu, 1879–1979. Leningrad: Nauka. system: Archaeometry datelist 18. Archaeometry 36, 337–374. Prentice, I. C., Cramer, W., Harrison, S. P., Leemans, R., Monserud, Housley, R. A., Gamble, C. S., Street, M. & Pettitt, P. (1997). R. A. & Solomon, A. M. (1992). A global biome model based on Radiocarbon evidence for the Late Glacial human recolonisation plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. of northern Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 63, Journal of Biogjeography 19, 117–134. 25–54. Rink, W. J., Schwarcz, H. P., Lee, H. E., Cabera Velde`s, V., Imbrie, J, et al. (1990). SPECMAP Archive No. 1, IGBP PAGES/ Bernardo de Quiro´s, F. & Hoyos, M. (1997). ESP dating of World Data Center-A for Palaeoclimatology Data Contribution Mousterian levels at Et Castillo Cave, Cantabria, Spain. Journal of series No. 90–001, NOAA/NGDC Palaeoclimatology Program, Archaeological Science 24, 593–600. Boulder CO, USA (ftp://ftp.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/paleocean/ Siegel, S. & Castellan, N. J. (1988). Nonparametric Statistics for the specmap/specmap1specmap.017). Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw–Hill. 606 P. M. Dolukhanov et al.

Sinitsyn, A. A., Praslov, N. D., Svezhentsev, Y. S. & Sulerzhitskii, Sevastyanov, D. V., Volkova, V. S. & Zernitskaya, V. P. (1999b). L. D. (1997). Radiouglerodnaya hronologiya verhnego paleolita Present-day and mid-Holocene biomes reconstructed from pollen Vostochnoi Evropy. In (A. A. Sinitsyn & N. D. Praslov, Eds) and plant macrofossil data from the former Soviet Union and Radiouglerodnaya hronologiya verhnego paleolita Vostochnoi Mongolia. Journal of Biogeography 25, 1029–1054. Evropy I Severnoi Azii. St Petersburg: IIMK, pp. 21–66. Trinkaus, E. & Ruff, C. B. (1996). AMH remains from eastern Asia: Sitlivy, V., Medvedev, G. I. & Lipinina, E. A. (1997). Les civilisations the Yamashita-cho I immature postcrania. Journal of Human pre´historiques d’Asie centrale. Le Paleólithique de la Rive occiden- Evolution 30, 299–314. tale du Lac Baı¨kal. Bruxelles: Museés Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire. Vasil’ev, S. A. (1983). Paleoliticheskie stoyanki v zone stroiteel’stva Spiridonova, E. A. (1991). Evoluciya rastitel’nogo pokrova basseina Maininskoi GES na Enisee. In (V. M. Masson, Ed.) Drevnie Dona v verhnem pleistocene i golocene. Moscow: Nauka. kul’tury Evraziiskih stepei. Leningrad: Nauka, pp. 67–76. Street, M. & Terberger, T. (2000). The German Upper Palaeolithic Vasil’ev, S. A. (2000). The Siberian mosaic: Upper Palaeolithic 35,000–15,000 . New dates and insights with emphasis on adaptations and change before the Last Glacial Maximum. In Rhineland. In (W. Roeboeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & (W. Roeboeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & K. Fennema, Eds) K. Fennema, Eds) Hunters of the Golden Age. The Middle-Upper Hunters of the Golden Age. The Middle-Upper Palaeolithic of Palaeolithic of Eurasiam 30,000–20,000 . Leiden: University of Eurasiam 30,000–20,000 . Leiden: University of Leiden, Leiden, pp. 281–297. pp. 173–195. Stringer, C., Gru¨n, R., Schwarcz, H. & Goldberg, P. (1989). ESR Velichko, A. A. & Nechaev, V. P. (1992). Cryogenic regions during dates for the hominid burial site of Es Skhul in Israel. Nature 338, the Last Glacial Maximum (permafrost). In (B. Frenzel, M. Pecsi 756–758. & A. A. Velichko, Eds) Atlas of paleoclimates and paleoenviron- Tarasov, P. E., Peyron, O., Giuot, J., Brewer, S., Volkova, V. S. & ments of the Northern Hemisphere. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Bezusko, L. G. (1999a). Last Glacial Maximum climate in the Verlag, pp. 108–109. former Soviet Union and Mongolia reconstructed from pollen and Velichko, A. A. (1993). Razvitie landshaftov i klimata Severnoi plant microfossil data. Climate Dynamics 15, 227–240. Evrazii. Pozdnii plejstocen-golocen. Moscow: Nauka. Tarasov, P. E., Webb, T. III, Andreev, A. A., Afanas’eva, N. B., Velichko, A. A., Andreev, A. A. & Klimanov, V. A. (1997). Climate Berezina, N. A., Bezusko, L. G., Blyakharchuk, T. A., and vegetation in the tundra and forest zone during the Late Bolikhovskaya, N. S., Cheddadi, R., Chernavskaya, M. M., Glacial and Holocene. Quaternary International 41/42, 71–96. Chernova, G. M., Dorofeyuk, N. I., Dirksen, V. G., Elina, G. A., Wu, Xinzhi & Wang Linghong (1985). Chronology in Chinese Filimonova, L. V., Glebov, F. Z., Guiot, J., Gunova, V. S., Palaeoanthropology. In (Wu Rukang & J. W. Olsen, Eds) Harrison, S. P., Jolly, D., Khomutova, V. I., Kvavadze, E. V., Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic Archaeology in the People’s Osipova, I. M., Panova, N. K., Prentice, I. C., Saarse, L., Republic of China. Orlando etc.: Academic Press, pp. 29–51.