Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013 e-ISSN:2360-8013
Volume 3 Issue 8, 2017 Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
JASES Volume 3, Issue 8, page 1 to 122, is a Special Issue Publication covering selected and revised papers after Peer-reviewed by Scientific Committee from The International Conference on Science, Engineering, and the
Social Sciences (ICSESS) convened at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2016 and also after Peer-reviewed by reviewers of JASES. The ICSESS served as an academic platform for championing the pursuit of excellence in various research areas. Special thanks to the Chief Guest Editor and Guest Editors who have made this possible.
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Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
JASES Editorial Board
Editors-in-Chief
Prof. Dr. Malay Chaudhuri
Emeritus Professor, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia
Dr. Ibraheem Dooba
Special Adviser, Niger State Government, Nigeria
Managing Editor
Dr. Augustine Chioma Affam
University College of Technology Sarawak, Malaysia
Technical Editor
Dr. Ahmad Abba Haruna
Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia
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Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
ICSESS Guest Editor-in-Chief:
Dr. Nourudeen Bashir
ICSESS Guest Editors:
Dr. Mohammed Mukhtar Musa Dr. Abdulazeez Umar Raji Dr. Bosede Edwards Bemgba Bevan Nyakuma Dauda Umar Suleiman Kayode Ibrahim Adenuga Badiru Yunusa Yusuf
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Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
CONTENTS
Damp and Its Effects: Insights from Tal 1 - 8 John James Anumah, Lesado Anumah, PeterYakong
A Review of Infill Development Strategies in Nigeria 9 - 22 Muhammad Ali Chiroma, Adamu Harir Isa, Bukar Abba Gana, Audu Gani Bogoro
Regression Model to Predict Micro-Hardness of Al-Si-Mg/Coconut Shell Ash Particulate Composite 23 - 33 Gambo Anthony Victor, Samuel Moveh
The Effect of Vegetation in Enhancing the Performance of Courtyard in Buildings of Tropical Climate 34 - 42 Modi S. Zango, Dilshan R. Ossen, Doris H. C. Toe, Pontip S. Nimlyat, Oluwagbemiga P. Agboola, Bobai J. Luke
Investigating Ethnic Residents’ Satisfaction within Neighbourhood Open Space towards Achieving Appropriate Improvements in South-West Nigeria 43 - 53 O. P. Agboola, M. H. Rasidi, I. Said, S. D. Zakka, A. W. Shuaibu
Review On Organizational Culture Typologies 54 - 64 Sani Abdullahi Sarki, Razali Bin Adulhamid, Mahmood W. Y. W
Assessment of the Production Capacity of Cement Factories and Prices of Cement in Nigeria 65 - 71 Okigbo O. N., Gana A. A. and Fabunmi F.O.
A Proposed Method of Exploring the Use of Kinetic Architecture for Housing the Migrant Fulbe in Nigeria 72 - 83 Sarkile Abubakar Kawuwa v | P a g e
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Botanical Gardens as Drivers of Climate Change Mitigation and Urban Sustainability in Ondo-State, Nigeria 84 - 100 Afolabi Festus Akinyoyenu, Mohammad Rafee Bin Majid, Irina Safitri Zen
Performative Culture: National Museum Akure as a Spectator of Cowry Head Cult in Akure Kingdom 101 – 112 Olufemi Timothy Ogunbode, Abdulmallik Aminu, Ezekiel Babatunde Ogunbode
Ethnocide and Genocide of the Relics of Nigerian’s Mother Culture: Community Museum as a way forward 113 - 122 Olufemi Timothy Ogunbode, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Ezekiel Babatunde Ogunbode
Performance Assessment of Sustainable Architectural Practice in Nigeria: Insights from the Diminishing Role of the Architect 123 - 140 Enwerekowe, Ebelechukwu Obianuju, Tsok, Dauda Joel
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Research Article
Damp and Its Effects: Insights from Tal 1 2 1 John James Anumah , Lesado Anumah , PeterYakong
1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos-Nigeria 2 Archshel Development Ltd. Jos-Nigeria Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t Shelter is one of the most essential needs of mankind which is usually exposed Article history to the elements of weather. Damp as an issue affecting buildings has been one Received: 01/07/2017 of the most challenging problems to deal with not because it is impossible, but Accepted: 05/08/2017 due to the fact that people have little knowledge to what extent it affects buildings. Rising damp cause damages to buildings. These effects have Damp; Capillary Action; affected buildings in Tal village of Gombe State. It is alarming to note that Penetration; Condensation. there is no set out plan in view to solving the effect of damp on buildings. This paper sought to identify the cause(s) and proffer concrete measures to resolving the problem. A triangulated approach was adopted for this research. Existing literature on the subject matter was studied; questionnaires were administered in the study area and analysed; on-site survey and interviews to ascertain and analyse the problem first hand (physically). Results revealed that rising damp mostly affected the walls and floors between the months of April and October where precipitation peaks at 254mm in the month of August. Poor drainage, poor design, poor quality of construction materials and mixed land use were factors responsible for rising damp in Tal. Peeling of plaster and paint, mould growth, wetting of floors and walls and decay of skirting were the effects.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The access or penetration of moisture contents inside a building through its walls, floors or roof is known as dampness. Dampness in building is an important aspect to consider during building design. If neglected, it will affect the building structure adversely and create unhygienic condition for the persons living in that building (Suryakanta, 2015). Damp is considered as a major cause of decay in masonry material such as stones, bricks and mortars all over the world (Kportufe, 2015). Rising damp in buildings is the vertical flow of water up through a permeable wall structure, the water being derived from ground water. The water raises through the pores (capillaries) in the masonry by a process termed ‘capillary action or capillarity’
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(Taylor 2017). The height to which the water will rise depends on several factors including pore structure and rate of evaporation. Masonry containing a high proportion of fine pores will allow the water to rise higher than a coarse pored material. The average size of pores in masonry gives a theoretical rise of around 1.5 meters but where evaporation is severely retarded, for example by the use of impervious membranes, moisture can sometimes rise in excess of 2 meters (Safeguard 2007).
Source: Safeguard 2007
Figure 1: water rising through mortar beds
2. Categories of Damp on Building
The major path through which the water rises are the mortar beds, for water to raise through the bricks then it must cross a mortar bed. In effect, the mortar beds form the only continuous pathways for water rising through the wall. If a house is built from impervious bricks then water can still rise through the mortar bed but if an impervious mortar is used then water will not rise even if the bricks are very porous. The mortar beds will form an important part in the chemical treatment for rising damp. (Rirsch et al 2009). Kinsey (2014), Hall (2009), Sutcliffe (2010), Barry (2011) and Donnithorne (2014) categorized damp to include: Rising damp: This is caused by ground water moving up through a wall. The porous nature of stone and bricks makes them act like sponges drawing water up from the wet soil. Penetration (lateral) damp: Horizontal or penetrating damp can be due to leaking water supply of waste pipes, or tile grouts in shower alcoves and other wet areas. Drip from air-conditioning or hot water system over-flows can also be a cause of the problem. Condensation damp: this form of damp occurs on the surface where the relative humidity in the air is increased by human activities such as bathing, washing and drying indoors without suitable ventilation.
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Figure 2: Condensation damp Figure 3: Rising damp Source: Dryhome 2017
2.1 Primary Causes of Damp
Suryakanta (2015) stated the primary causes of dampness in buildings thus: Poor quality of construction material: concrete, brick or plaster possess within them interconnected void. When these come in contact with water, aided by capillary action, water moves in different directions. Bad design: it is important to consider the source of water that can penetrate through the building and the type of damp proof course to be provided mentioned during the design stage of the building. Faulty construction or bad workmanship: if 15mm damp-proof-course is specified and 10mm used instead, it will not serve the purpose for which it was constructed and consequently lead to dampness.
2.2 Effects of Damp
Zeeshan (2016) stated the effects of damp viz: It causes dry rot (a fungal disease that causes timber to become brittle and crumble into powder) to the wooden portion of the building. It causes Corrosion of metals used in construction. It causes peeling off or removal of plaster. It causes blistering of paints. Destroys electrical installations. It reduces the life of the structure. It causes unhygienic conditions for the occupants of the building.
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2.3 Damp Prevention
Suryakanta, (2017) recommended the following techniques for damp prevention: Use of damp proof courses (DPC): These are layers or membranes of water repellent materials such as bituminous felts, mastic asphalt, plastic sheets, cement concrete, mortar, metal sheets, stones etc. which are interposed in the building structure at all locations wherever water entry is anticipated or suspected. It should be laid at least 15cm above ground level. The damp proof course is provided horizontally and vertically in floors, walls etc. Water proof surface treatment: This entails filing up the pores of the material exposed to moisture by providing a thin film of water repellent material over the surface (internal / external). External treatment is effective in preventing dampness Integral damp-proofing treatment: this involves adding certain compounds (water proof sulphates, calcium chlorides etc.) to the concrete or mortar during the process of mixing, which when used in construction acts as barriers to moisture penetration under different principles Cavity or hallow walls: As there is no contact between outer and inner walls of cavity wall, possibility of moisture penetration is reduced to a minimum. It prevents the transmission of heat through wall. The cavity wall tends to reduce the nuisance of efflorescence. Guniting (shotcrete): This entails forming an imperious layer of rich cement mortar (1:3) or fine aggregate mix for water proofing over the exposed concrete surface or over the pipes, cisterns etc. for resisting the water pressure. By this technique, an impervious layer of high compressive strength (600 to 700 kg/cm2) is obtained and is also very useful for reconditioning or repairing old concrete works Pressure grouting (cementation): a mixture of cement, sand and water under pressure into cracks, voids or fissures present in the structural component or the ground. In general, the foundations are given this treatment to avoid the moisture penetration. This technique is also used for repairing structures, consolidating ground to improve bearing capacity, forming water cut-offs to prevent seepage etc.
2.4 Study Area
Tal is a village in Billiri Local Government Area of Gombe state, Nigeria. It is located at an elevation of 572 meters above sea level. Its coordinates are 9049’0”N (9.81667) and 11010”0’ (11.1667). The building types are predominantly bungalows with about 80% of them constructed with locally made mud bricks and the other 20% with sandcrete blocks. The roof covering is predominantly of corrugated aluminium roofing sheets with about 40% of long span aluminium roofing sheets.
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2.5 Climatic data
The climate in Tal is tropical. While the driest month January has a precipitation of 0mm, August has the most precipitation with an average of254mm. April is the warmest month with an average temperature of 29.5 C. with an average temperature of 22.6C, January is the coolest month.
Average temperature °C Average temperature F Precipitation rainfall January 22.6 72.7 0 February 25.0 77.0 0 March 27.9 82.2 2 April 29.5 85.1 29 May 28.4 83.1 79 June 26.3 79.3 129 July 24.6 76.3 213 August 24 75.2 254 September 24.6 76.3 163 October 25.5 77.9 37 November 24.4 75.9 1 December 22.6 72.7 0 Source: Climate-Data.org Table 1 above shows that rainfall is experienced between the months of April and November and it peaks at 254mm in the month of August.
Figure 4: Peeling of plaster and paint Figure 5: growth of Mould
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Figure 6: Mould growth and peeling of paint Figure 7: Poor layout of buildings
2.6 Methodology
A triangulated approach was adopted for this research. Existing literature on the subject matter was studied; 140 questionnaires were administered in the study area, though, 133 were returned and analyzed; on-site survey and interviews to ascertain and analyze the problem first hand (physically).
3. Results and Findings
Figure 1 shows that a greater number of the respondents (110) have been domicile in Tal for at least five (5) years. This means they have lived long enough in the area and should have a credible knowledge of the area. 90% of the respondents have experienced damp as shown in figure 2.
10% EXPERIENCE DAMP
DO NOT EXPERIENCE DAMP 90%
Figure 1: Period domicile in Tal Figure 2: Damp experienced
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Figure 3: Bldg. component affected by damp Figure 4: Period damp is experienced
Table 2: Effects of damp Effects of damp Response in frequency Response in percentage Peeling of plaster and paint 16 13% Mould growth 19 16% Wetting of floors and walls 22 18% Decay of skirting 8 7% All of the above 55 46%
The floors and wall of the buildings were mostly affected by damp as seen in figure 3. Figure 4 shows that damp is experienced mostly between the months of April and September where rainfall peaks at 254mm in August as seen in table 1. Table 2 shows that the effects of rising damp in Tal include: pilling of plaster and paint, mould growth, wetting of floors and walls and decay of skirting. The on-site survey correlates these findings. Furthermore, the on-site survey shows that the use of DPC was rare in most of the buildings and the foundations were low; damp rises to about 1.5m in the months of July and august. Storm water runs off to the village from a mountain located to the south of the village, and flows uncontrollably to a nearby river, thereby, making the provision of adequate and properly planned drainage network essential.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
From the findings of this research, the causes of damp in Tal and the recommended measures for treating and preventing them are thus: Poor quality of construction material: locally made mud blocks used in Tal were susceptible to water. Since the dwellers are generally poor and locally made blocks is what they can afford. There should be an outward slope from the foundation to the natural ground level such that water is not retained around the building thereby, giving the blocks a better chance of withstanding water susceptibility. Faulty construction: very few buildings used any form of DPC. For an area that is water prone, damp proof course should be a requirement for the buildings. Cheap options polythene sheets could be used.
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Bad design: there was no form of planned drainage network in Tal. The source of water runoff (mountain) and the disposal system of storm water should have been predetermined before the settlement was planned. Adequate drainages should be constructed to enhance the effective disposal of storm water. Mixed- Land Use: the intersperse of farmlands within built up area tends to discourage free flow of water away from the buildings hence; the trapped water begins to rise by capillary action. Proper zoning of green belts away from built-up areas will bring about faster drainage of runoff water from buildings.
References
Barry, P. (2011), Building Defects- Dampness Part 1, Retrieved 30.06.2017 from www.peterbarry.co.uk Donnithorne, N. (2014), Damp- causes and effect, posted in property care, United Kingdom Dryhome (2017), Different types of damp, NSW2111, Australia, Retrieved on 10.07.2017 from www.dryhome.com.au Gladstone, S.K. (2015), The Devastating Effect of Rising Damp in the Construction Industry. Industrial Engineering Letters, ISSN 2224-6096 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0581 (online) Vol. 5, No. 10 Hall, D. (2009) www.buildingdefects.com.au Kinsey, D. M. (2014), Six different types of damp, retrieved 28.06.2017 from www.homebuilding.co.uk Rirsch, E., Zhang Z, & MacMullen, J. (2009), The Properties of Mortar Samples obtained from UK houses treated for Rising Damp. Building and Environmental. Safeguard (2007), Rising Damp and its Control, Retrieved 08.07.2017 from www.safeguardeurope.com Suryakanta (2015), Dampness in building- causes, sources and effects, Building construction/construction, CIVILBLOG.ORG Suryakanta (2017), 6 Methods to prevent dampness in building, Building construction/construction, CIVILBLOG.ORG Sutcliffe, D. (2010). Penetrating Damp - What causes it and what can be done to treat it, EzineArticles.com Tal, Gombe State, Goegraphical coordinates, Retrieved 04.07.2017 from www.gatamap.net/maps/nigeria/nigeria_(general)/_tal Taylor, A. (2017), Rising damp treatment. [Editorial] Streetdirectory.com Singapore guide Zeeshan, T. (2016), Damp walls: Causes, effects and remedies/buildings, [Article], your article library. Retrieved 11.07.2017 from www.yourarticlelibraby.com
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Research Article
A Review of Infill Development Strategies in Nigeria 1,2* 1 1 1 Muhammad Ali Chiroma , Adamu Harir Isa , Bukar Abba Gana , Audu Gani Bogoro
1 Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria. 2 Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t The Nigerian urban community is the largest in Africa and growing at an Article history extraordinarily high rate; projected to be third globally by 2050. While seeking Received: 15/07/2017 for a sustainable solution to urbanization and housing, Nigerian government Accepted: 05/08/2017 resorted to infill development. Throughout the late 1980s up to the present there has been massive infill development in almost all the urban centres. The Infill housing; subdivision; infill methods reviewed from literature include quantitative analysis, satellite densification; GRA; land use images, field surveys and site observation. Both local and universal planning standards are presented as benchmarks for evaluation. The Nigerian infill changes; Maiduguri. experience was reviewed to include residential, commercial, and industrial infill; as well as illegal/informal subdivisions. The merits and demerits of infill were explored. The solutions sustainable urban development were proposed to include provision infrastructure in peri-urban areas and more site and services scheme. The paper concluded with recommendations for areas for further research.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Currently out of the 7.3 billion people in the globe, 54% live in cities; and this is projected to be 8.5 billion (66% urban dwellers) and 9.7 billion (about 90% urban) by 2030 and 2050, respectively [1]. Most of this projected massive population growth is to be expected in Asia and Africa. Nigeria is currently the 7th largest country in the world and is the most rapidly growing, to become the 3rd largest country in the world by 2050[1]. India, China, and Nigeria are also projected to have the largest urban population growth that will account for 37% of the growth between 2014 and 2050[2]. By 2015, Nigeria is estimated to add 212 million urban dwellers alone, at an estimated urban population growth rate of 5% [1,3,4]. Nigeria has Lagos, which is already among the 28 mega-cities of the world, and a host of other medium and smaller
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urban centers that are expected to be among the fastest cities in the world [2]. Nigeria along with other African countries are already facing numerous challenges in meeting the needs of their growing urban populations. The task of providing infrastructure, housing, employment, energy, education and health is indeed enormous. “Managing urban areas has become one of the most important development challenges of the 21st century. Our success or failure in building sustainable cities will be a major factor in the success of the post-2015 UN development agenda,” says the UN [2]. Given this daunting task the government will have to adopt sustainable urbanisation as the key to successful national development. Since independence, in spite of the limited success, the successive Nigerian governments have demonstrated concern for the state of housing in the country in various ways [5]. However, as a result of the huge and rapid urbanisation the government seem overwhelmed and unable to cope with the challenges. Consequently, basic infrastructure and services are rarely provided as urban growth proceeds haphazardly with severe threats to the quality of life of the people. Lagos, the mega-city, is currently grappling with the mega challenges of urbanization especially in the area of housing provision [6, 7]. The Nigerian urban community, despite the extraordinarily high population growth and lack of adequate infrastructure, have invented ingenious alternative systems of dealing with some of these challenges; (legally and/or otherwise) by densification, compact, and mixed of land use development [8]. According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) “… a successful urban planning agenda will require that attention be given to urban settlements of all sizes. If well managed, cities offer important opportunities for economic development and for expanding access to basic services, including health care and education, for large numbers of people. Providing public transportation, as well as housing, electricity, water and sanitation for a densely settled urban population is typically cheaper and less environmentally damaging than providing a similar level of services to a dispersed rural population.”[2] Consequently, this review was instigated by firstly, this UN convincing proposition; secondly, infill development is vital planning tool for compacting development which in turn leads to achieving sustainable urban development; and thirdly, infill development and densification had been extensively carried out in all Nigerian urban centers from independence to the present date.
2. Types of Infill
2.1 Definition and Concepts of Infill Development
Infill housing, infill development, densification, and land recycling all mean the act of building on the empty pockets or under-utilized pieces of land that exist within the built-up areas in cities. In most urban areas, these tiny pockets or huge tracts of vacant land that exist within the city that have been skipped during the normal course of urbanization [9]. These parcels of vacant land when targeted for development are then termed ‘infill’. Land-recycling is the urban planning act of rededicating vacant land in an urban
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environment for new construction. This urban planning tool that gained popularity all over the world in the post automobile or suburbanization era, comes in different forms. Specifically, infill housing, or sometimes referred to as densification, is the insertion of additional building units into an already approved layout, subdivision or a neighbourhood [10]. The newer housing units are provided as additional buildings on the same layout, or by dividing existing homes into multiple units, or creating new residential plots by further subdivision or by plot line adjustments [9]. Both infill housing and infill development take place on the following platforms: infill development that take place in greenfield/greenspace sites such as buffer zones between the Government Residential Area (GRAs) and the traditional parts of the city, forest reserves, or in brownfield sites such as abandoned institutional and industrial sites; and greyfield site which is economically obsolescent, outdated, failing, moribund or underused real estate assets or land[11, 12,13,14]. The several other terminologies that have emerged describing the various forms of infill development include backland and tandem developments; which are both curve-outs from the backyards of the old houses, the earlier fronts a road while the later shares access with the older building [15].
2.2 Neighbourhood Planning Standards
A city is usually made up of a number of neighborhoods that make up a district, a number of districts that make up a community, and a number of communities that combine to make up the whole town [16]. Infill takes place at the neighbourhood level. The concept of neighborhood was first used by Clarence A. Perry in 1929[16,17]; with fixed design principles [18]. A neighborhood may be defined administratively, aesthetically, socially, functionally and/or environmentally; as mainly a residential setting with a distinct character; it may have a name that usually coincide with either a local catchment area or an environmental area. The population ranging between 2,000 to 12,000 [16,19]. The size usually ranges from 20 to 100 hectares; an area not exceeding 5 minute walk or within a 400m diameter of walking distance [20]. It has various land uses budgeted according to the space standards [19,21,22,23]. Given these standards, one will like to know what aspects of the neighbourhood are affected in the event of an infill development. Central to the concept that is an indicator of crowdedness is density. The intensity of land use in a neighbourhood is usually measured either in terms of population density is usually calculated either as gross or net persons per hectare (ppha); or the building density expressed as dwelling units per hectare (dph); or density ratios and land coverage.
2.2.1 Density
The major global urban planning issue today is densification [24,25]; however, the term ‘high density’ has different notions across different people and cultures. There are wide divergences: while in UK 60 dph is high density, in the USA it has to be greater than 110 dph to be high density. Furthermore, Vidyarthi
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(2010) gave an Indian standard of 20 to 60 ppha and 3 to 120 ppha as gross and net densities, respectively [20]; this compared to an average residential density of 2,500 ppha in government housing projects in Hong Kong during the 1980s [25]. Although the term high density usually connotes overcrowding; it however, has little to do with overcrowding when expressed in terms of building density. ‘High building density measured in terms of plot ratio, for instance, refers to a high proportion of built-up floor area. In the case of larger dwelling size and smaller household size, higher plot ratio may lead to lower occupancy density and, therefore, more habitable area for individuals, in turn mitigating the crowding condition’[24]. A ‘perceived density’: this is not real density, but imaginary and is greatly influenced by aesthetics, landscaping, noise and building type….it is density based on the perception that a development is ugly, has little vegetation, and has caused parking problems for neighbours. Thus the design of a building can make a huge difference to perceived density [25]. Consequently, the attitudes towards high-density development are diverse; while some people acknowledge the merits of high density and advocate urban compaction; others criticize the drawbacks and argue strongly against it. The ongoing debate regarding the merits and demerits of high- density urban development, particularly on the distinction between building and people densities, remains unresolved. While scholars are not yet aware of the social implications, cities like Singapore and Hong Kong have shown how very high densities can be well managed with the provision of adequate infrastructure [24,25].
2.3 Techniques Use for Infill Research
2.3.1 Infill Study Methodology
Generally, most of the studies in infill development and land use changes in both the developed and developing countries have used remote sensing, GIS, ground observations done by comparing the time before the change to a period when the change is expected to manifest as the standard methodology [10,11,12,14,26,27,28,29,30]. The comparison of the two periods entailed the observation of the land use changes and impacts of the infill development; where inferences and findings were based on quantitative analysis using satellite images, remote sensing and time series interpretation. The field surveys involved field data collection and verification through ground truth to verify information collected from the satellite images. This allowed an assessment of land use and land cover changes showing the spatial and temporal changes in the study area.
2.3.2 Evaluating Impacts of Infill Development
Infill development, if not properly handled, may lead to over-crowding, reduction in access roads, loss of playground, loss of incidental open spaces for gardening, lack refuse collection space, increase in temperature leading to discomfort and outbreak of diseases, over-stretching of public utility such as water,
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electricity, school, etc. Thereby undermining livability and quality of life [14,31]. Therefore in order to avoid such, the planning considerations given before infill development plans are formulated and implemented are enormous. The following is a typical checklist of environmental issues to consider in infill development: land use/planning; aesthetics, agriculture, forest, mineral, biological, and cultural resources; geology/soils; air quality; greenhouse gas emissions; hazards and materials; hydrology/water quality; noise; population/housing; public services; utilities service systems; transportation/traffic ;and recreation [32]. Such is the meticulous process of preparation before an infill plan in approved in the North America. In Ireland the detail planning concerns include density (plot ratio and site coverage); building line; building height; and overlooking/overshadowing aspects [33]. In some infill cases the existing infrastructure may need improvement in order to sufficiently provide utilities and services. Usually power, water, sewage, traffic control, and fire protection all need to be increased from the onset. Moreover, as with any new construction, the newer infill structures may architecturally clash with the older, existing buildings [14]. Thus for any infill development to be deemed successful, it has to be evaluated based on the above retinue of issues as well as the neighbourhood planning standards.
3. The Infill Development Strategy in Nigeria
The infill development experience of Nigeria is wide and varied to include residential, commercial, industrial and illegal plat subdivisions.
3.1 Residential Infill
During the British colonial rule the all Nigerian urban centers had three distinct settlements patterns: there was the traditional area, the native quarters (NA) and the European Residential Area (ERA). As from independence (1960) the ERAs became Government Residential Areas (GRAs) and were given to senior civil servants [10,11]. These ERAs were designed as low density similar to the country houses in Europe; on plots of 2000 square meters (100m x200m), or more with the homes well planted in the middle of abundant open space, recreational areas, running water, closed sewers, electricity [3]. Thus, Lagos and all the provincial capitals had these GRAs which became prime target for infill development after independence. However, it was not until the 1980s during period of the oil boom that the infill development fully take place. The rapid urbanisation had placed considerable pressure on the available land resources in these cities and the government could not continue to be opening up new serviced layouts in the urban fringes. Consequently, the new town planning practice had to be associated with compact development infill housing [10]. The GRAs infill became attractive and popular to the government, the beneficial as well as the existing inhabitants because densities remained reasonably low, infrastructure and services were readily available at least cost to all the parties [7,12,31,34]; at least in the initial period. The GRA infill
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development usually occurs on a greenfield or greenspace site with each plot often subdivided into three: a tandem plot (front) and a backyard plot (back) and the existing building in the middle [5,7,34]. These are usually tiny plots that range between 300m to 900m[10]. Ayotamuno (et. al, 2010) in their Port Harcourt GRA infill study discovered that the land ownership and land use changes occurred very rapidly, with high increase of commercial activities, even schools were established. Since the planning regulations were not enforced, the haphazard development has led to a decline in quality of life of the residents [34]. Within the GRA, not only more than land use changes and intensive development in the newly curve out plots, there were additional structures in the old leftover built up plots (or the host plot) which tremendously increased the densification [34]. Some of these GRAs become medium and high density settlements [10,11,34] leading to a decline in the quality of life the residents. The hitherto nice and quiet GRA now has a high concentration of road traffic as the result of banks, offices, supermarkets, hotels and fast food enterprises [34]. In Nigeria the infill was extended to other brownfield and greyfield sites which included the institutional staff quarters and government low-cost housing estates which were medium and high density. In Maiduguri, infill was extended to government owned residential estates such as Ibrahim Taiwo Estate, Abbaganaram Lowcost Housing Estate, and Dikwa Road Estate; while in Bauchi infill was done in Makama, Gwallaga, State and Federal Lowcost Estates. Today this infill development has occurred and almost all the major Nigerian urban centers [10].
3.2 Commercial Infill
The commercial infill development has been extensive in Nigeria cities; as all the GRAs have had the invasion of commercial activities such as banks, offices, supermarkets, hotels, fast food shops, schools and so on [34]. These commercial establishments occur either as part or whole of the old residential building; or as an entirely new development on its own on the curved-out plot. In their Ibadan study, Arimah and Adeabo reported up to 50% of GRA residential buildings converted commercial uses [35]. This is similar to what Ayotamuno and co found out in their Port Harcourt GRA study [34]. Another type of commercial infilling is the strip of shops, banks, and offices that have been built on road reservations and the fences of public institutions; this is also prevalent in most of the urban centers in Nigeria: particularly rampant in Kano, Maiduguri, Kaduna, Damaturu, and Jos[31]. The fences of schools, government offices, police stations and barracks that are facing major corridors were all turned into shopping strips; the post office in CBD of Bauchi has been subdivided and turned shopping complex [10,31,36,37]. Furthermore, another type of infill (greyfield) is the subdivision and conversion into residential use, in the pre-independence old commercial and warehousing layouts in Maiduguri, Kano, Kaduna, Nguru, etc. [38].
3.3 Industrial Infill
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With the exception of Lagos, industrial infill is rear in Nigeria; what is rather prevalent is the invasion by other land uses to the abandoned industrial layouts in Maiduguri, Kano, Bauchi to mention a few. This is gentrification with the infill taking place on brownfields [10]. As a result of the economic recession most of the industries in northern Nigeria cities have folded up and abandoned site. The agents who take charge of these industrial premises either sell the properties wholesome to private school operators or other commercial interests; or directly subdivide and sell them as high density residential plots with or without planning approval. The industrial layout, BOTP6, in Maiduguri is a typical example [12,36.37,38].
3.4 Illegal Infills/Subdivisions
In Nigeria there is very low level of both enforcement and compliance to planning laws and regulations [7,10,11,34,35]. The major impediment to the provision of infrastructure as well as site and services scheme is negligence and corruption. The problem of corruption and fraud in the land management system where there are illegal subdivision of layouts and land allocations in public spaces and reserved areas are rampant [6,7,10,11,34,35,39,40]. Thus it is not surprising that there is a large number of illegal infill activity going on in the urban centers of the country. Unfortunately, majority of Nigerians are suffering as a result of this rampant corruption in the country [39]. Imam and Rostam (2011) studied the illegal subdivision of plots in government layouts that are already of high density at Gadan Kaya, Kano city; and found out that the subdivision had lowered the quality of life of the people of the settlement [11]. The plot owners of and already high density plot of 15m by 30m (450sqm) would cut the plot in ½ or ¼ to sell and build the remaining ½ or ¼ plot. Up to 32% of the plots had been find to be subdivided, out of which 77% are subdivided for reasons of inheritance: where they already high density built house is subdivided to the heirs of the deceased [11]. This is the practice in almost all Nigeria cities in all high, medium and low density layouts; a practice which is done informally without the knowledge of the planning authority, and creates slum and blighted conditions that imping on the quality of life [7,12,34]. Such areas are constantly deprived of water, power, drainage, and sanitation; as a result of the overcrowding there are various disease out breaks and general reduction in the quality of life [11]. Majority of Nigerians are suffering as a result of this rampant corruption in the country [39].
3.5 Densification in Lagos
Lagos, as a unique case, is treated here separately because not only is it the largest African city but also a Mega city, it does deserve such treatment, especially with the interesting findings of Ezema and Oluwatayo, (2014) in their ‘’Ikoyi densification study” [41]. They reported: (1) the vertical expansion is more predominant and noticeable. (2) The prevalent densification strategy involves the total demolition of
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existing building and subsequent construction of a new one with increased number of residential units, increased area coverage and increased height. (4) The densification of Ikoyi is largely market-driven with the government coming in to play a regulatory role. Interestingly, the applications for change of use and increase in density are sources of State government revenue. (6) The high cost of land makes developers maximize the use of the land thereby more densification. (7) Infrastructure part of government has not kept pace with the level of development by private sector. (8) The increased built up area there has been increase in the volume of surface water runoffs which has overwhelmed the existing drainage channels, leading to severe flooding problem whenever it rains. (10) There has also been an increase in the volume of traffic especially during the peak hours. The primary roads are fair but the secondary roads are in need of upgrade. (11) There is reduction of green areas [41]. In fact the collapse of buildings is now a familiar incidence that even to layman on the street in Nigeria [42]. Several buildings have collapsed in Lagos with only the critical ones being reported, while many others remain unreported due to their obscurity to the authorities or media. The rampant building collapse in Lagos is not only attributed to swampy lagoon soil; but also due to illegal densification: when floors are constantly added to the existing buildings without structural engineering support [42,43,44].
4. Merits and Demerits of Infill Development
4.1 Merits of Infill Development
Generally the purposes of infill development are (1) for efficiency and cost effectiveness; (2) achieving the revitalization of the inner-city neighbourhoods; and (3) for the attainment of sustainable urban development via compact or smart city initiatives [8,10,31]. Indeed quite a number of scholars have promoted infill as an economical use of the existing infrastructure and as a remedy for urban sprawl[2,9,45,46,47,48,49,50,51]. Because the facilities, utilities, and services are already in place, infill development is often preferred to development located beyond the urban perimeter. However, is it correct to assume that the infrastructure is not only in place; but also available in sufficient quantity with an existing spare capacity to accommodate the additional demand resulting from the infill development? [26] (4) The proponents of high density development contend that since urban land is always a scarce resource, especially in the Nigerian circumstance; the building of high density, reduces the pressure to develop open spaces. As a result more space is released for other facilities and services to improve urban life [24,25]. (5) Political advantages: readily available plot for rapid allocation for instant development is very appealing to the government of the day to give to its supporters at minimum cost. (6) By gentrification and rejuvenation of blighted areas, infill adds to the city’s economy and tax base. (7) Compact city with mixed land use means more walkability, fewer road accidents, and less transport pollution. (8) More people in the neighbourhood means more social vibrancy and higher community interaction [31]. (9) The “amenity” effect is another advantage where the
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new building blurs an eyesore and revives the neighbourhood; housing in such an area becomes more desirable and expensive. Paradoxically, this appreciation in realty values may in the long run be negated by the increase in the quantity of houses (glut) that may lead to a subsequent slump depression of property values. However, in their study Ooi and Le (2013) in Singapore, show that infills have a positive impact on the property values, and therefore increases the asset base of the existing property owners [49].
4.2 Demerits of Infill Development
Conversely, infill development or densification may be viewed as overburdening the urban facilities, utilities, and services, including increased traffic congestion, accidents and pollution, decreasing urban green-space, urban blight, general reduction in quality of life, and so on [7,10,11,31,50,51]. For these and various other reasons infill developments commonly face neighborhood oppositions [49]. (1) The loss of greenspace. Pauleit and company in their 2005 study in UK discovered significant reduction in greenspace and tree cover in the Merseyside residential area. The major cause was infill development whereby gardens were built over [14]. Similarly, Sambo and Ahmed (2012) found out that housing infill have reduced the opportunities available for small-scale food production using the GRA in Kaduna Nigeria. Their specific findings showed that more than 50% of land used for home gardening had been lost to infill development [11]. Similarly, Vermeiren and co reported in their 2013 study in Kampala (Uganda) that up to 80% of urban farming is lost to infill and urban sprawl [52]. Bununu has also observed that in Nigeria during the last 20–25 years that the rapid urbanisation has impinged on agricultural lands [7]. Unlike the developed world, the loss of urban greenspace in Nigeria has a more serious effect, as most of the poor urbanites are both producers and consumers of the food from these farms and gardens. Thus, that basic premise of achieving urban sustainability, which is urban agriculture, is threatened [10]. (2) All the Nigerian infill cases reviewed here, formal and informal, have been undertaken without prior expansion of infrastructure. This may be due to either/or corruption or bad governance []. Furthermore, there is lack of collaboration and coordination between the planning authority and the service providers. Most infill is conducted without the planning department liaising with or informing other urban service agencies such as the water board or power authority [31]. Thus there is bound to be shortages in water and power. This often uncoordinated infill activity can result in undesirable situations that affect the community’s livability and quality of life; which can further add to urban management problems and ineffective resource utilization; which negates the whole sustainability and compact city argument [31,34]. (3)The infills, especially the commercial stripes running along major streets cause traffic congestion and accidents[31] similar to the infill study of Orlando, Florida, which found insufficiency in for arterial roads and schools[26]. (4) The creation of narrow plots with access difficulties that usually result in smaller houses, smaller rooms, and smaller surrounding spaces. There is also the lack of privacy which is an issue especially in an Islamic cultural setting [31]. In
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1998 there was a fire incidence in Dikwa Road GRA in Maiduguri, when the fire engine could not maneuver to the spot where the house was burning because the access was too narrow as a result of infilling.** (5) An increase in population also increases the incidence of crime[31]. (6) The spread of deceases are rampant under overcrowded conditions [11]. (7) The several incidences of building collapse in Lagos that result from densification further negates the argument for infill development [41,42]. Sambo and Ahmed summed up by: “The advantages of cost effective supply of infrastructure when compact development is promoted at the town level, does not always add up in the equation, which it is considered that there are economic costs to health and livelihood challenges resulting from congested living environments (pollution, noise, etc) and household food expenditure when opportunities are diminished for home gardening….” [10].
5. Solutions
As urbanisation continues, as infill sites are exhausted, and as vertical development has both resource and technological constraints; there is an apparently consensus amongst the various scholars that the solution to sustainable urban development in Nigeria is the site and services scheme. This is seen as a solution to the rampant infill and lack of provision of infrastructure; both open space and other desirable attributes in existing residential areas will be protected and sufficient provision of serviced land for new housing is ensured [7,10,34,39,53]. This along with Good governance: the government must muster the political will to be transparent, fight corruption and enforce the laws; embark on massive and constant public sensitization and enlightenment campaigns on abiding to planning and building regulations; well-regulated and structured system of infill/densification/subdivision; inter-agency cooperation and synergy prior and during infill; and enhance accessibility to acquisition of land in well laid out sites [11,31,42,43,44].
6. Conclusion and Recommendations
This paper discussed the current literature and practices of infill housing in Nigeria. It presented both the advantages and issues in present practices of infill development. Even though infill has proven to be an alternative source of land for housing, especially in developing countries like Nigeria, there is need for caution in large scale application of such method. The kind of infilling that does not over burden the carrying capacities of the physical, social and economic elements of its immediate host community and the urban fabric at large has evidently not been the case in Nigeria [31]. Therefore, there is the need to critically review the densification concept and give more attention to the preservation and management of urban greenspaces [14]. Newer strategies would be required in improving urban planning for sustainable development outcomes. There are sustainable measures such as site and services scheme which can serve as an alternative to infill methods, but with less socioeconomic and environmental effects. Good governance is
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an issue which needs to be at the fore, the government must muster the political will to be transparent, fight corruption and enforce the laws. Nigeria is endowed with the resources to provide adequate infrastructure and well service layout and housing for its rapidly growing urban population; only, so long as there will be good governance, no corruption, and compliance to rules and regulations, all in unison and sequentially. Now there is great hope for this considering the political platform and how Nigerians voted in the 2015 elections; where both campaign and voting were carried out, for the first time, on the fight-against- corruption agenda. Considering the long history, the high frequency and the large number quantity of infill development in Nigeria, there is dearth of literature and research; especially on the impacts of such activities. This review has by no means exhausted the literature on infill in Nigeria, as more may be hidden either as grey literature in government departments; or in local journals that are yet to digitize and be accessible on the world wide web. While some scholars have uploaded their articles in the internet, usually researchgate, several others may not have bothered.
References
(1) United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (UN, DESA). World Urbanization Prospects: 2015 Revision, July 2015. (2) United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (UN, DESA). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights (ST/ESA/SER. A/352) July 2014. (3) Jiboye AD. Urbanization challenges and housing delivery in Nigeria: The need for an effective Policy framework for Sustainable Development. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities. 2011; 2(1):176-85. (4) NUDP. National Urban Development Policy, Federal Government of Nigeria; 2007. (5) Olotuah AO, Bobadoye SA. Sustainable housing provision for the urban poor: a review of public sector intervention in Nigeria. The Built and Human Environment Review. 2009; 2:51-63. (6) Opoko AP, Oluwatayo A. Trends in Urbanisation: Implication for Planning and Low-Income Housing Delivery in Lagos, Nigeria. Architecture Research. 2014; 4(1A):15-26. (7) Bununu YA, Ludin AN, Hosni N. City profile: Kaduna. Cities. 2015 Dec 31; 49:53-65. (8) Adetokunbo I, Emeka M. Urbanization, housing, homelessness and climate change adaptation in Lagos, Nigeria: Lessons from Asia. Journal of Design and Built Environment. 2015 Dec 30; 15(2). (9) Brooks N, Donaghy K, Knaap GJ. The Oxford handbook of urban economics and planning. Oxford University Press; 2012 Jan 12. (10) Sambo E, Ahmed A. Feeding The Cities : Town Planning Practices And The Food Security Implication on The Sustainability of Urban Settlements – An Introspective Study of Metropolitan Kaduna, Nigeria; 2012 Apr/Jun 2(2), 78–89.
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(11) Imam MZ, Rostam K. The impacts of unauthorised subdivisions of residential plots in Gadon Kaya, Kano City, Nigeria. Geografia: Malaysian Journal of Society and Space.2011;7(2):1-0. (12) Orekan AA. An Assessment of the Impact of Plot Standard on Physical Development : The Case Study of Kano Metropolis, Nigeria, International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES); 2014 2(2), 46–52. (13) Hamnett S. Designing high-density cities for social and environmental sustainability. Australian Planner. 2011 Mar 1; 48(1):61-4. (14) Pauleit S, Ennos R, Golding Y. Modeling the environmental impacts of urban land use and land cover change—a study in Merseyside, UK. Landscape and urban planning. 2005 Mar 28; 71(2): 295-310. (15) Larsen K. New urbanism's role in inner-city neighborhood revitalization. Housing Studies. 2005 Sep 1; 20(5):795-813. (16) Ojeifo, M.O. Elements of Planning and Design Nigeria: Ibadan University Press; 1990. (17) Johnson DL. Origin of the neighbourhood unit. Planning Perspectives. 2002 Jan 1; 17 (3): 227-45. (18) Onokerhoraye AG, Omuta GE. Urban systems and planning for Africa. Editorial Committee, Geography and Planning Series, University of Benin; 1986. (19) Barton H, Grant M, Guise R. Shaping neighbourhoods: for local health and global sustainability. Routledge; 2006 Jan 16. (20) Vidyarthi S. Inappropriately Appropriated or Innovatively Indigenized? Neighborhood Unit Concept in Post-independence India. Journal of planning History. 2010 Nov 1; 9(4): 260-76. (21) Chaplain, F.S. Urban Land-Use Planning: 2nd Ed. Urbana III: University of Illinois Press; 1965. (22) Obateru I.O. Land subdivision Basics. Penthouse publication (Nig): Ibadan; 2003. (23) Daniel N.O., Michael O.I. An Introduction to town Planning Design. Nigeria: Frank Nosagie and Sons publishers, Benin; 2004. (24) Forsyth A. Measuring Density: Working Definitions for Residential Density and Building Intensity. Design Center for American Urban Landscape. 2003; 4. (25) Cheng, V. Understanding Density and High Density in Designing High Density Cities: for Social and Environmental Sustainability, Editor Edward Ng. Taylor & Francis: 2010:3-17. (26) Falconer MK, Frank JE. Sufficiency of infrastructure capacity for infill development. Journal of Urban Planning and Development. 1990 Dec; 116(3):137-48. (27) Braimoh AK, Onishi T. Spatial determinants of urban land use change in Lagos, Nigeria. Land Use Policy. 2007 Apr 30; 24(2):502-15. (28) Nagarajan N, Poongothai S. Trend in land use/land cover change detection by RS and GIS application. Int. J. Eng. Technol. 2011; 3:263-9.
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(29) Kuffer M, Barros BJ. Urban morphology of unplanned settlements: the use of spatial metrics in VHR remotely sensed images. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 2011 Dec 31; 7:152-7. (30) Sunday OA, Ajewole AI. Implications of the changing pattern of land cover of the Lagos Coastal Area of Nigeria. American-Eurasian Jrnl of Scientific Research. 2006; 1(1):31-7. (31) Shittu A.O. The Need for Inter-Agency Collaboration in Urban Infilling. Maiduguri Journal of Arts and Social Sciences (MAJASS, UniMaid) 2010 Dec; 8(2): 234-245. (32) Allan S. H. Models and Guidelines for Infill Development. Proposed Appendix N. Mary- land Department of Planning. Baltimore; 2001. (33) Fhoilsiú, A.O. Residential Density Guidelines for Planning Authorities: Government of Ireland. Dublin; 1999. (34) Ayotamuno A, Gobo AE, Owei OB. The impact of land use conversion on a residential district in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Environment and Urbanization. 2010 April 1; 22(1):259-65. (35) Arimah B.C, Adeagbo D. Compliance with urban development and planning regulations in Ibadan, Nigeria. Habitat International. 2000 Sep 30; 24(3):279-94. (36) Waziri M.Y. Spatial Pattern of Maiduguri City. Researchers' Guide, 2009; 1-30. (37) Isah MI, Chiroma MA, Ishiyaku AI. Water Pollution Sources for Hand-Dug Wells (HDW) in the Ancient City of Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 2015 Jun;5(6): 2250- 3153, (38) Barau AS, Maconachie R, Ludin AN, Abdulhamid A. Urban morphology dynamics and environmental change in Kano, Nigeria. Land Use Policy. 2015 Jan 31; 42:307-17. (39) Akinsola, B.N., Tunde, O.T. and Olusegun, A.T., 2014. Effective sites and services scheme as a means of solving low-income housing need in Nigerian cities. (40) Lawal T, Oluwatoyin A. National development in Nigeria: Issues, challenges and prospects. Journl of Public Administration and Policy Research. 2011 Nov 30; 3(9):237-41. (41) Ezema IC, Oluwatayo AA. Densification as Sustainable Urban Policy: The Case of Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria. 2014: 695-704. (42) Oni AO. Analysis of incidences of collapsed buildings in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Interna-tional journal of strategic property management. 2010 Dec 1;14(4):332-46. (43) Fagbenle OI, Oluwunmi AO. Building failure and collapse in Nigeria: The influence of the informal sector. Journal of sustainable development. 2010;3(4):268-76. (44) Oduwaye L. Challenges of sustainable physical planning and development in metropolitan Lagos. Journal of sustainable development. 2009 Feb 18;2(1):159. (45) Dunphy R. Smart Transportation and Land Use: The New American Dream. In Transportation Research Board Conference Proceedings 2005 (No. 32).
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(46) Chen H, Jia B, Lau SS. Sustainable urban form for Chinese compact cities: Challenges of a rapid urbanized economy. Habitat international. 2008 Mar 31; 32(1):28-40. (47) Freilich RH, Sitkowski RJ, Mennillo SD. From sprawl to sustainability: smart growth, new urbanism, green development, and renewable energy. American Bar Association; 2010. (48) Litman T. Transportation cost analysis for sustainability. Transportation. 1999; 1996:97. (49) Ooi JT, Le TT. The spillover effects of infill developments on local housing prices. Regional Science and Urban Economics. 2013 Nov 30; 43(6): 850-61. (50) Douglas I, Goode D, Houck M, Wang R, editors. Handbook of Urban Ecology. Routledge; 2010 Dec 21: 48-62. (51) Schweitzer L, Zhou J. Neighborhood air quality, respiratory health, and vulnerable populations in compact and sprawled regions. Journal of the American Planning Association. 2010 Jun 21; 76(3):363-71. (52) Vermeiren K, Adiyia B, Loopmans M, Tumwine FR, Van Rompaey A. Will urban farming survive the growth of African cities: A case-study in Kampala (Uganda). Land Use Policy. 2013 Nov 30; 35:40-9. (53) Usoro U. Effectiveness of Sites and Services Schemes in Low and Medium Income Housing Provision in Nigeria. International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment. 2015 Aug: 6(2): 39-50.
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Research Article
Regression Model to Predict Micro-Hardness of Al-Si-Mg/Coconut Shell Ash Particulate Composite 1 2 Gambo Anthony Victor , Samuel Moveh
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t A regression model to predict the micro-hardness of Al-Si-Mg/Coconut shell Article history ash particulate composites produced by double stir-casting method was Received: 15/07/2017 developed in terms of weight fraction of coconut shell ash (CSA). A full Accepted: 05/08/2017 factorial design is used with three design factors of each of five levels to describe response of the hardness and to estimate the parameters in the second- Al-Si-Mg alloy, Micro- order model. The factors considered in this study were weight % of hardness, Response Surface reinforcement, sintering temperature, and holding time. The developed regression model was validated by statistical software MINITAB-R14 and Methodology, Coconut shell statistical tool such as analysis of variance (ANOVA). It was found that the ash particles developed regression model could be effectively used to predict the hardness of the composite at 95% confidence level. The regression model indicated that the hardness of cast Al-Si-Mg/CSAp composite increases with an increase in the sintering temperature and holding time of the composite; and it reaches a maximum value and then decreases. While, the hardness increases with an increase in fraction of reinforcement.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been the dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly. Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the engineered materials market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche applications1. Continuous advancements have led to the use of composite materials in more and more diversified applications. The importance of composites as engineering materials is reflected by the fact that out of over 1600 engineering materials available in the market today more than 200 are composite2. While composites
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have already proven their worth as weight-saving materials, the current challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce economically attractive composite components have resulted in several innovative manufacturing techniques currently being used in the composites industry1. The availability of natural fibres and ease of manufacturing have tempted researchers to try locally available inexpensive fibres and to study their feasibility of reinforcement purposes. Natural fiber composites are also claimed to offer environmental advantages such as reduced dependence on non-renewable energy/material sources, lower pollutant emissions, lower greenhouse gas emission, and enhanced energy recovery and of life biodegradability of components3. The potentials and limitations of the use of agro wastes as reinforcements have been reported by some authors4. A new direction in the use of agro waste ashes has been based as complementing reinforcement to either silicon carbide or alumina to develop hybrid composites5. In this regards, a number of works has been published on the potentials of the agro waste ashes as complementing reinforcements. Alaneme et al.,6 reported that good casting qualities comparable with that of single reinforced alumina composites are achieved with the use of rice husk ash (RHA) and alumina as complementing reinforcements. They also reported that improved fracture toughness and comparable specific strength are achieved with the use of rice husk ash and alumina as complementing reinforcements. Coconut fiber has been used as reinforcement in low-density polyethylene. The effect of natural waxy surface layer of the fiber on fiber/matrix interfacial bonding and composite properties has been studied by single fiber pullout test and evaluating the tensile properties of oriented discontinuous fiber composites7. However, efforts are scarce on the regression model of hardness behaviour of stir cast Al-Si-Mg/CSAp composite. In this context an attempt is made here to study the influence of weight fraction of reinforcement, sintering temperature and holding time on the hardness behaviour of Al-Si-Mg/CSAp composite. A three-factor, three-level central composite rotatable design matrix was adopted to carry out the experiments and to develop the regression model.
2. Experimental Procedure
2.1 Preparation of Coconut Shell Ash
Coconut shell was grounded to form coconut shell powder; the powder was packed in a graphite crucible and fired in electric resistance furnace to a temperature of 1300 °C for 1 hour to form coconut shell ash (CSA). Particle size analysis of the coconut shell ash particles was carried out in accordance with BS1377:1990 8. About 150g of the ash particles were placed into a set of sieves arranged in descending order of fineness and shaken for 15 minutes which is the recommended time to achieve complete classification, the particles that were retained in the BS 65 µm was used in this study. Chemical composition of the coconut shell ash particles is presented in Table 1.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of coconut shell ash
Element Al2O3 SiO2 CaO Fe2O3 MgO K2O Na2O LOI % by wt 14.14 65.56 7.56 3.79 1.24 5.76 1.20 0.70
2.2 Fabrication of Al-Si-Mg/CSAp Composite
Wrought Al-Si-Mg alloy was selected as the aluminium based matrix for the investigation. Spark spectrometric analysis was used to determine the chemical composition of the aluminium alloy and the results are presented in Table 2. Stir casting techniques as reported elsewhere9 was employed to fabricate Al-Si-Mg matrix composite reinforced with various contents of CSAp (viz., 5%, 10% and 15% mass fraction).
Table 2. Chemical composition of Al-Si-Mg alloy Element Mg Si Fe Cu Mn Cr Zn Ti Ni Wt % 0.3308 0.4002 0.2601 0.0080 0.0109 0.0302 0.0202 0.0124 0.0201 Sn Pb Ca Na V Al 0.002 0.0011 0.0003 0.0009 0.0027 Bal.
A stainless steel stirrer coupled with an electric motor was used to stir the melt to facilitate both incorporation and uniform distribution of the reinforcement in the molten alloy. The stainless steel stirrer and the inner surface of the crucible were coated with WOLFRAKOAT to avoid contamination at higher temperature. When the temperature of the electric furnace reached 1000 °C, a predetermined quantity of CSA powder preheated to 750 °C was added to the molten metal on the side of the vortex. Magnesium was added to the melt to increase the wettability between CSAp reinforcement and aluminium alloy matrix. CSAp was added into the melt in 260 s. The mixture of molten aluminium alloy and CSAp was further stirred for 1200 s and then poured into a preheated permanent mould of 100 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm through the bottom pouring arrangement. After casting, the specimen was machined into hardness coupons for the purpose of determining the micro-hardness behaviour of the produced composites. The hardness values of the produced composites samples were determined according to the provisions in ASTM E18-79 using the Rockwell hardness tester on “B” scale (Frank Welltest Rockwell Hardness Tester, model 38506) with 1.56mm steel ball indenter, minor load of 10kg.
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Figure 1. Hardness tester Major load of 100kg and hardness value of 101.2HRB as the standard block. Before the test, the mating surface of the indenter, plunger rod and test samples were thoroughly clean by removing dirt, scratches and oil and calibration of the testing machine using the standard block. The samples were placed on anvils, which act as a support for the test samples. A minor load of 10kg was applied to the sample in a controlled manner without inducing impact or vibration and zero datum position was established, and then the major load of 100kg was then applied, the reading was taken when the large pointer came to rest or had slowed appreciably and dwelled for up to 2 seconds. The load was then removed by returning the crank handle to the latched position and the hardness value read directly from the semi-automatic digital scale10.
2.3 Design of Experiments (DOE)
A full factorial design is used with three design factors of each of five levels to describe response of the hardness and to estimate the parameters in the second-order model. Overall 33 = 27 experimental runs allowed the estimation of the linear, quadratic and two way interactive effects of the process parameter on the hardness.
Table 3. Important factors and their levels for micro hardness Levels S/N Factors Notation Unit -2 -1 0 1 2 1 Reinforcement D Wt% 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2 Sintering Temperature T oC 100 150 200 250 300 3 Holding time Ht Hrs 2 4 6 8 10
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3. Development of Mathematical Model
The model for the micro hardness behvaiour of these composites was obtained by representing the hardness values by HRB, the response function can be expressed by the equation below: HRB = f (D, T, Ht) …………………………………. 1 Where D= weight % of coconut shell ash, T= sintering temperature, Ht = holding time The model selected includes the effects of main variables, first-order and second-order interactions of all variables. Hence the general model is written as: HRB = bo + b1D + b2T + b3Ht + b11D2 + b22T2 + b33Ht2 + b12D˟T + b13D˟Ht+ b23T˟Ht ……… 2 Where bo is the free term of the regression equation, the coefficients b1, b2, and b3 are linear terms, the coefficients b11, b22, and b33, are quadratic terms, and the coefficients, b12, b13, and b23, are interaction terms. MINITAB-R14, a statistical analysis software package which is widely used in many fields of engineering research, was used to calculate the values of the coefficients. The developed final model equation in the coded form is given below:
HRB = 104.18 – 2.05D -1.67T + 0.48Ht – 1.97D2 – 2.68T2 – 3.26Ht2 – 5.75D˟T + 8.50D˟Ht+ 0.41T˟Ht ………………. 3
3.1 Checking the Adequacy of the Developed Model
The adequacy of the model so developed was tested by using the analysis of variance technique (ANOVA). Using this technique, it was found that calculated F ratios are larger than the tabulated values at a 95% confidence level; hence, the model is considered to be adequate11. The result of the ANOVA is given in Table 4. The validity of the regression model developed was further tested by drawing scatter diagram. Typical scatter diagram for the model is presented in Figure 2. The observed values and predicted values of the responses are scattered close to the 45° line, indicating an almost perfect fit of the developed empirical model12.
Table 4. ANOVA test results for micro-hardness of Al-Si-Mg/CSAp Source DF SS MS F Remarks
Regression 9 3176.57 352.95 4.73 FCalculated >FTable Lack of fit 10 1063.92 106.39 Hence, the model is adequate Residual error 7 522.34 74.62 Total 26 4762.83 - Value of F-ratio as per table (9, 7, 0.05) = 3.68
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Figure 2. Scatter diagram for micro hardness of Al-Si-Mg/CSAp composite
3.2 Conformity Tests
The performance of the developed model was tested using three experimental data which were never used in the modeling process. The difference in the experimental hardness values corresponding to a set of input parameters and the predicted values were taken as error of prediction and are calculated as per equation (4) reported as % error in Table 5 along with other results. It is evident from the table that the accuracy of the model is more than 97%. % Error = ((Measured value-Predicted value)⁄(predicted value)×100) ……………… 4
Table 5. Results of conformity test Input variables Micro Hardness D T Ht Measured Predicted % Error 14 130 3 81 80.143 1.07 8.0 225 7 48 50.584 -5.11 11 450 12 74 72.086 2.66 18 500 14 56 57.971 -3.39 30 510 5 77 74.002 4.05
4. Results and Discussion
The developed regression model presented in equation (3) correlates the significant parameters such as weight % of reinforcement, sintering temperature, and holding time of the hardness of cast Al-Si-Mg/CSAp composite. Using the developed regression model, the micro hardness has been calculated for different combinations of parameter values by varying one parameter value from its minimum level to maximum level while keeping the other two parameter values at their centre levels. The obtained values are presented
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in graphical form. The possible causes for the effects of each parameter on the micro hardness are discussed below. Also, the possible hardness mechanisms were examined with the help of SEM micrographs.
4.1 Effect of CSA Reinforcement (D)
Figure 3 shows the direct effect of the weight fraction of coconut shell ash on hardness of the composite. It is noticed that the hardness is minimum (48 HRB) for 5Wt% CSAp. It is also observed that beyond this point the hardness increases consistently to a value of 60HRB at 10Wt% CSAp. This can be explained by the fact that as the 10Wt% of reinforcement (higher hardness component) increases, the ratio of reinforcement–to–matrix becomes richer in CSAp content which imparts increased hardness to the composite.
Figure 3. Rockwell hardness in HRB v/s weight fraction of reinforcement in gm
The 12.5Wt% CSAp addition yielded the highest hardness value. As far as hardening behavior of the composites is concerned, particle addition in the matrix alloy increases the strain energy in the periphery of the particles in the matrix and these tendencies may be due to the formation of the dislocation at the boundary of the ceramic particles by the difference in the thermo-expansion coefficient between the matrix and ceramic particles since a lot of dislocations generate in the main matrix/particle interface13-14. Thus, dislocations cause the hardness increase in composite as well as residual stress increase because of acting as non-uniform nucleation sites in the interface following the age treatment. It is thought that the higher the amount of the ceramic particles in the matrix, the higher the density of the dislocation, and as a result, the higher the hardness of the composite14-15.
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4.2 Effect of Sintering Temperature (T)
Figure 4. Rockwell hardness in HRB v/s sintering temperature in oC
Figure 4 gives the effect of sintering temperature (T) on the hardness. It is observed that there is an optimum temperature (~200°C) at which we can produce the composites with a hardness of around 80HRB. The effect of sintering was to remove moisture and harden the matrix. However, at temperatures other than this value hardness has a tendency to decrease. This may be due to the fact that, at lower temperatures, the sintering is still not effective and at higher ones the particulates of CSA seem to soften out. It implies that sintering forces tends to decrease with increase in temperature.
4.3 Effect of Holding Time (Ht)
Figure 5. Plot of Rockwell hardness in HRB v/s holding time in Hours Figure 5 shows the effect of holding time on the hardness of the composite. Again, it is observed that there is an optimum holding time (~4 Hrs) which will result in a hardness of around 69HRB.
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Figure 6a. SEM image for 2.5Wt% CSAp
Figure 6b. SEM image for 12.5Wt% CSAp
Representative microstructures of the composite produced are presented in Figure 6. From Figure 6(a) the coconut shell ash particles dispersed in the Al-Si-Mg alloy matrix of the single reinforced composite (Al-Si- Mg/2.5wt% CSAp) are revealed. Figure (6b) shows the dense distribution of particles in the composite containing 12.5wt % CSAp which is due to the higher volume percent of the reinforcement.
5. Conclusions
The following conclusions are arrived at from the above investigations. 1. The relationships between process parameters for micro hardness of Al-Si-Mg/CSAp composite have been established. The response surface methodology was adopted to develop the regression
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models, which were checked for their adequacy using ANOVA test, scatter diagram was found to be satisfactory. 2. Confirmation experiments showed that the developed model is reasonably accurate. 3. An increase in the sintering temperature and holding time leads to the increase in the micro hardness; and it reaches a maximum value and then decreases. The higher the amount of reinforcement, the higher the hardness of the composite. 4. Micro structure analysis shows the uniform distribution of coconut shell ash particles in the metal matrix. The microstructure also revealed good interfacial bond between matrix and CSA particles.
References
1. Prasad N. Development and Characterization of Metal Matrix Composite Using Red Mud an Industrial Waste for Wear Resistant Applications, PhD Thesis Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology, India; 2006. 2. Manocha L.M., and Bunsell A.R. Advances in composite materials. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1980; 02:1233-1240. 3. Joshi S.V., Drzal L.T., and Mohanty S.A. Are natural fiber composites environmentally superior to glass fiber reinforced composites? J. Composites: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2003; 35:371- 376, 4. Prasad S. D., and Krishna R. A. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology. 2011; 33:51-58. 5. Alaneme K.K., and Adewuyi E.O. Mechanical behaviour of Al-Mg-Si matrix composite reinforced with alumina and bamboo leaf ash, Metall. Mater. Eng. 2013; 19 (3): 177-187 6. Alaneme K. K., Akintunde I. B., Olubambi P. A., and Adewale T. M. Mechanical behaviour of rice husk ash–alumina hybrid reinforced aluminium based matrix composites, Journal of Materials research and Technology. 2012; 2: 34-47 7. Hussain S.A., Pandurangadu V., and Palanikuamr K. Mechanical properties of green coconut fiber reinforced HDPE polymer composite, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST). 2011; 3:112-125 8. Bienia J., Walczak M., Surowska B., Sobczaka J. Microstructure and corrosion behaviour of aluminum fly ash composites, Journal of Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials. 2003; 5(2):493– 502. 9. Kumar B. A., Murugan N., and Dinaharan I. Dry sliding wear behavior of stir cast AA6061-T6/AlNp composite, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China. 2014; 24:2785−2795
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10. Hassan S.B., Aponbiede O., and Aigbodion V.S. Precipitation hardening characteristics of Al- Si- Fe/SiC particulate composites, Journal of alloys & compounds. 2008; 466:268-272 11. Palanivel R., Mathews P.K., and Murugan N. Development of mathematical model to predict the mechanical properties of friction stir welded AA6351 aluminum alloy, Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review. 2011, 4 (1):25-31. 12. Kim I. S., Son K. J., Yang Y. S., and Yaragada P. K. Sensitivity analysis for process parameter parameters in GMA welding process using factorial design method, International Journal of machine tools and manufacture. 2003; 43:763-776. 13. Suresh S., Christman T., Sugimura Y. Accelerated aging in cast Al alloy-SiC particulate Composite, Scr. Metall. 1989; 23:1599–1602. 14. Aigbodion V. S., Hassan S. B., Dauda E. T., Mohammed R. A. Experimental study of ageing behaviour of Al-Cu-Mg/Bagasse Ash particulate composites, Tribology in industry. 2011; 33 (01): 345-360. 15. Salvo L., and Svery M. Effect of reinforcement on age-hardening of cast 6061-AlSiC and 6061 Al- Al2O3 particulate composite, Metall. Trans. 1996; 22:2553–2653.
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Research Article
The Effect of Vegetation in Enhancing the Performance of Courtyard in Buildings of Tropical Climate Modi S. Zango1,2*, Dilshan R. Ossen1, Doris H. C. Toe1, Pontip S. Nimlyat1, Oluwagbemiga P. 1 1 Agboola , Bobai J. Luke
1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. 2 Department of Architecture, Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic, Zaria, Kaduna, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t Vegetation and Built environments usually have a relationship in terms of air Article history temperature mitigation, However, courtyard buildings, as a microclimate Received: 15/07/2017 modifier is rarely assessed. The study examines the courtyard air temperature Accepted: 05/08/2017 difference of the atmospheric condition in Chinese shop-house in Malacca, Malaysia. Advocacy, utilizing field measurement and centring on the Courtyard, Vegetation, Air difference in air temperature of the courtyard with 69% vegetation and Temperature, Building courtyard with 18% vegetation under the same state of courtyard Area and height. The Microsoft Excel was used as the Statistical tool throughout the Envelope, Sky view Factor. Analysis. The outcomes demonstrate that there exists a difference of 3-degree centigrade in the courtyard with 69% vegetation and courtyard with 18% vegetation. The results demonstrate that vegetation regulates the air temperature within the courtyards.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The courtyard is defined as the internal space within the building that is open to the sky. Traced back to the pre-historic period courtyards are utilized extensively in China and Morocco. The functions of the courtyard are to prevent/protect the occupants from the harsh weather and provide environmental activities such as ventilation and lighting (27). The form of a courtyard, affected by the climate conditions of the region, in China the form reduces from the north to south. In general, the design and size of the courtyard have a greatly influenced by its performance (27). According to (27), the courtyard can be divided into; fully enclosed, semi-enclosed, and semi-open courtyard. Fully enclosed courtyard is attributed to elongate buildings as such comfortable spaces could be introduced to the core of the building through the courtyard.
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The performance of the courtyard can be optimized by considering the building shape and the heat gain control devices. The forms of the courtyard have taken functional forms other than the quadratic forms of traditional ideas (1). The creation of new and modern forms typified as; U, L, T, or Y. The previous studies on courtyard houses though limited, but some of them focused on ventilation related ;(2), (3), (4),(5), (6),(7), (8), and (9). Others work on the effect of the courtyard on indoor thermal environments see ;(1), (10), and (11); ventilation effects of the courtyard; (7), (12), (13), (14). Several studies are developed on passive strategy by courtyards, e.g., (6). Energy assessment was conducted out by, for example, (10). Thermal performance of courtyard was analysed ;(15), (16), (17), (8), (13), (18), (19), whereas vegetation effects of courtyards were analysed in some studies; (20), (21), (22)(23), and (24). Courtyard houses are commonly found in China or Southeast Asia as well as in numerous different region of the universe (2). Past studies was directed on courtyard houses and their warm impacts, yet the majority of these studies were led in hot, dry atmospheres(25);(9), and a few studies were led in hot, sticky atmospheres. A part of the studies that were led in tropical atmospheres incorporate (13), (14) and (6). For instance, (13) researched the potential utilization of a courtyard for inactive temperature reduction in a solitary story thick-walled building situated in the ardent, moist atmosphere of Colombo, Sri Lanka. These findings gave huge knowledge into courtyard plan in tropical regions. Yet a large portion of them concentrated on isolated houses, which are not the same as Chinese Shop House column houses. Not at all like segregated houses, a lengthened column house normally just has a couple of openings, and in this way, its indoor warm conditions are essentially diverse. However, virtually many of the above subject were made in hot-dry climates and moderates climates and there are few studies that discuss the performances of vegetation within the courtyard houses in hot-humid climatic conditions. This research discourses the effects of vegetation on the courtyard air temperature in a Chinese shophouse in Malacca, Malaysia based on the findings of field measurements.
2. Methodologies
In The field mensuration was done in a 2 no. two storeys Chinese shophouse from 15/10/2014 to 22/10/2014. These shophouses are located in the central part of the heritage zone in Malacca, Malaysia. (2.2 0 N and 102.2 0 E), as showed in figure 1 & 2. The justification for selecting Malacca is because of significant of that Chinese shophouse as it originates from china. The shophouse peculiar because of the presence of the deep courtyard in which is common among the Malaysia traditional building. The two shophouses is located in the same area in the central row with a shallow frontage and along the deepness. This shophouse earlier built between the 1600s and 1800s with the solid mold of the Dutch Architecture. Malaysia has a closely consistent climate condition end-to-end of the year, for instance, the mean monthly
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air temperature at Malacca weather station ranged from 26.50 C -27.8 0 C for a small variant of 1.30 C over the last thirty years.
Fig. 1. Case study shophouse 1 (a) Location (source: google earth, retrieved on 34th October, 2014); (b) Front exterior view
Fig. 2. Case study shophouse 2 (a) Location; (source: google earth, retrieved on 24th October, 2014); (b) Front exterior view
Figure 3 & 4 shows floor plans of the case study. The two shophouse are located in almost the same location, as shown, the shophouses have three each deeply atrium-type courtyards at front (CY1), centre (CY2), and the rear (CY3) of the extended structure. In this case, CY1 of the first, and the CY3, of the second courtyard were selected, and they are almost in the same area (15 square metres). The sky view factor for the CY1 for the first shophouse was measured at 4.7% while CY3 the sky view factor for the CY3 of the second shophouse was measured at 7.4%.
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Fig. 3. (a) Floor plans of case study Chinese shophouse 1 and (b) views of the three courtyards
Fig. 4. (a) Floor plans of case study Chinese shophouse 2 and (b) views of the three courtyard
The thick clay tiles were applied for roofing without ceiling and thermal insulation while the wooden boards were adopted for the ceiling. On the first floor, wooden boards were also applied to the floor on the first floor, meanwhile, on the first floor was tiles. Windows and doors were created of wooden stuff without glass in. Floor materials for the CY1 were marble tiles while that of the CY3 was concrete.CY1 was covered with about 18% of potted plants, while the case of CY3, about 69% was covered with potted plants. The defined space height at first floor was almost 3.7m for CY1 and for the CY3, 3m. A veranda with a depth of 2m was located in front of the first shophouse while a depth of 1.8m was recorded in the second shophouse. The first shophouse is located at 85, Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock while the second shophouse is
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located at 18, Jalan Tukang Emas. Both the shophouses are open to the street and it's used for commercial purposes. The building in use during the measurement and is occupied by only three people. The air conditioner did not install at all. Air temperature and relative humidity at 1.5m above floor were mensural at the centre of the two courtyards (T & D TR- 72), at the interval of ten minutes. Surface temperatures of roofs near the courtyards were calculated. The measurement takes about seven days, meanwhile, outdoor air temperature, relative humidity, and atmospheric pressure were measured at the veranda (see fig. 3 & 4), whereas a weather station (Daris vantage pro 2) was placed in a small space located about 500m away from the measurement site (at 4m above the ground). The measurement was recorded at two courtyards CY1 and CY3 of the two shop houses.
3. Results and Discussion
Evaluation of Temperature of the courtyard with 69% vegetation (CY1) and courtyard with 18% vegetation (CY3). The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of vegetation on the air temperature of a courtyard. Fig. 5 & 6 shows the temporal variables of major thermal variables that were measured in the courtyard at a height of 1.5m above the floor during the seven-day measurement period. The outdoor condition in these figures represents the values that were measured at the veranda located in front of the two shophouses. The veranda space was accompanied by a man-made surface such as asphalt (fig. 1 & 2), and thus reported higher temperature throughout the day. Nevertheless, measurement of the veranda space is representative of the ambient environment.
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Fig. 5. Temporal variations in shophouse 1 (a) air temperature and (b) relative humidity with the corresponding outdoor conditions.
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36 Outdoor Courtyard3 Air Temperature GF Courtyard3 Air Temperature 1F Adjacent3 Air Temperature GF
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Fig. 6. Temporal variations in shophouse 2 (a) air temperature and (b) relative humidity with the corresponding outdoor conditions
Evaluating the two courtyard CY1, and CY3, the hottest day was selected during the measurement period and the temperature analysis was conducted. It was observed that though the courtyard areas are approximately the same and the height of the courtyard is also the same. The thermal components of the courtyard building in terms of material composition are the same, there is a temperature variation between CY1 and CY3 of 30c between 12.00pm – 2.00pm, implying that courtyard with 69% potted plants performs better in reducing the courtyard air temperature compared to a courtyard with 18% vegetation, as shown in figure 7.
Graph showing the temperature between CY1 and CY3 35 30 25 20 15 10 TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE 5
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07:00 11:00 15:00 19:00 23:00 03:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 TIME
CY3 CY1
Fig. 7. Graph showing the temperature difference between CY1 and CY3
4. Conclusion
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The findings of the field measurement demonstrate that the temperature of the courtyard with 69% vegetation CY1 and the courtyard with 18% vegetation CY3 have a 30c in courtyard air temperature difference between 12.00 pm - 2.00pm. The result verified that vegetation within the specified area affects the microclimates, most especially the temperature, in the context of the tropics. Another reason for the temperature is due to evapotranspiration and Photosynthesis activities of the plants. In the case of Evapotranspiration vapour is released into the surrounding to reduce the temperature.
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23. Hassan AM, Lee H. A theoretical approach to the design of sustainable dwellings in hot dry zones: A Toshka case study. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol [Internet]. Elsevier Ltd; 2014;40:251–62. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2013.10.017 24. Taleghani M, Tenpierik M, van den Dobbelsteen A. Energy performance and thermal comfort of courtyard/atrium dwellings in the Netherlands in the light of climate change. Renew Energy [Internet]. Elsevier Ltd; 2014;63:486–97. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.09.028 25. Al-Hemiddi NA, Megren Al-Saud KA. The effect of a ventilated interior courtyard on the thermal performance of a house in a hot-arid region. Renew Energy. 2001;24(3-4):581–95. 26. Edwards, B., SIibley, M., Land, P. Courtyard Housing: Past, Present, & Future. Taylor and Francis, New York. (2006) 27. Hyde, R. Climate Responsive Design A study of buildings in moderate and hot humid climates.E & FN SPON, New York (2000)
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Research Article
Investigating Ethnic Residents’ Satisfaction within Neighbourhood Open Space towards Achieving Appropriate Improvements in South-West Nigeria 1 2 3 4 5 O. P. Agboola *, M. H. Rasidi , I. Said , S. D. Zakka , A. W. Shuaibu
1, 2, 3 Faculty of Built Environment, Department of Landscape Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. 4, 5 Faculty of Built Environment, Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Email:[email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t To improve challenges that associated with neighbourhood open space such as Article history market square through its utilization, differences in ethnic users’ satisfaction Received: 15/07/2017 were explored for appropriate remedy and policy formulation. The study Accepted: 05/08/2017 focused on satisfaction degree within three markets square in rural neighbourhoods of South-west, Nigeria. The market conditions were studied Neighbourhood open space; through a critical investigation of qualities conditions such as facilities, Market square; Satisfaction; maintenance, amenities, and environmental pollution amongst others. In this regard, the study’s adopted quantitative approach encircled the survey Rural; Nigeria questionnaire data obtained from 382, Yorubas, Hausas, and Ibos respondents. The data were analysed using the SPSS software. The ethnics’ respondents’ demographic data was analysed by cross-tab in order to compare their variables and deduce the highest percentages, while ANOVA analysis used to compare the means results among the ethnics’ groups. The research findings indicate a significant difference in residents’ satisfaction in market maintenance (P ≤ 0.006); satisfaction with amenities (P≤ 0.004); and lastly satisfaction with environmental pollution (P ≤ 0.003). The insignificant difference was obtained in residents’ satisfaction with market square facilities and conveniences (p≥0.097). Residents’ satisfaction degree is a reflection of an experience manifested within the interplay of their experience and market physical environment. Thus, adequate improvements are needed on the case study markets’ facilities and conveniences. This study’s recommendation could better equip the professionals in consolidating the future in the built environment through the creation of an adequate open space and community revitalization efforts.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 1. Introduction
Past studies have examined residential satisfaction and neighbourhood satisfaction in diverse terms 1,2,3,4. This current study explores ethnic residents’ satisfaction with market qualities conditions. Satisfaction is coined as people’s perceptual evaluation of environment either in a positive or negative manner5. To ameliorate the challenges called for appropriate measures towards improving the social and physical condition of the market space to meet the users’ satisfactions. The design and management of neighbourhood open space such as market square, in particular, should give opportunities for government and private interventions towards its improvement to better encourage the users and the visitors. It has been established that open space with appropriate facilities could enhance interactions and thus, meet the need of all and sundry6. Recent developments in the field of built environment call for consolidating the appropriate social links and belonging among diverse groups. This study explored the residents’ satisfaction level with about the present conditions of market facilities, maintenance adequacy and environmental conditions in the rural community of Southwest, Nigeria through quantitative methods. The successful physical appraisal of market square depends on its qualities, design, and planning, which would invariably improve the general well-being of its users. Evaluation in this study focused on residents’ satisfaction with the market square environment in Ijebu jesa, Iloko and Ijeda township areas of Osun state, Nigeria.
1.1 Literature review: Perception of Satisfaction and Well-Being of Users
Scholars defined users’ satisfaction with place base on the cognitive, affective and behavioural components. The affective constituents’ definition hinged on users’ satisfaction with the place as a reflection of happy feelings. On the other hand, the cognitive constituents’ definition responds to users’ satisfaction by comparing the existing situations with the standards in terms of expectations and demands7. Residents’ satisfaction degree in the neighbourhood open space such as market could be in form of positive or negative views via the characteristics and condition of its surroundings. The positive might affordance for social economic, cultural, religious, and safety. The characteristics might include the features, facilities, and general condition of the area. Whereas, the negative appraisal includes degradation condition of roads and state of the facilities, amenities, and maintenance. In addition, the personal characteristics of the users and visitors such as sexes, age groups, educational background, and frequency of visiting the market could determine their perception of satisfaction. A well designed, landscaped and managed market square within the neighbourhood/ environment can trigger and improve the quality of life and wellbeing. Well-being refers to ‘people’s positive evaluation of their lives and includes positive emotion, engagement, and satisfaction8. In the same vein, a well-managed, equipped and functional market square will not only promote the physical well-being of an individual. Rather it improves the social well-being by promoting social interaction among diverse ethnics, encourage a sense of community and enhancing community
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 cooperation, and creates a feeling of safety and security9. Improving the physical conditions of the market square will further enhance its sustainability. The schematic representation of the phenomena that influence the perception of residents’ satisfaction about the market is depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Framework of perception of residents’ satisfaction about the market square (Agboola et al.)
1.2 Research setting
Research setting is located in the Southwest zone of Nigeria with a total landmass of about 76,852 square kilometres; comprises of six states such as Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Oyo. The zone is occupied by the various ethnic groups out of which the dominant group is the Yorubas as the host. Two other prominent groups include the Hausas and the Igbos. The case study market is about 2.04 km2 within the Ijebu-jesa neighbourhood with an average coverage area of 88.76 km2 as depicted in Figure 2. Meanwhile, the pictorial pictures of the case study market are depicted in Figure 3. The area covered by the market square as commercial zone included retail shops, shopping center, and temporary sheds, access roads, and open space where goods are displayed. The total built up area coverage for the neighbourhood comprises of (i) areas covered by the market square itself, (ii) residential and government coverage area that includes those of residential houses, local government buildings, health centers, dispensary, community town hall, palace, magistrate court and small -scaled agro-allied industrial structures, (iii) educational institution coverage area comprises of primary and secondary schools and tertiary institution, (iv) religious coverage area made of churches, mosques and shrine, and (v) green space and open space coverage area incorporates
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 green areas, undeveloped vacant land, playing ground, open space between and around the building, and transformation park.
Figure 2: Neighborhood base map indicating the position of the market square
Figure 3: Pictorial pictures of the case study market
2. Measurement of variables Methodology
A host of methods and measuring techniques are currently used for measuring satisfaction. The quality and types of facilities that a place provides and the degree of their expectations as to the quality of the place will determine their satisfaction level7. Satisfaction variable in this study is measured by four items that sought responses from visitors and users of the market square. The variable and constructs were adopted from
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 relevant literature from the field of recreation and community sociology in which it was established that social criteria have a significant role to play in place satisfaction10,11,12,13,14. Market square’s quality condition measurement was adopted from different past studies15,16,17. Previously, this main study’s adequacy of the survey questionnaires was assessed through the conduct of a pilot study with 100 respondents initiated at the case study markets. The questionnaires consisted of two sections, with the demographic questions as the first part which sought respondents’ age, sexes, marital status, educational background, ethnicity amongst others. Meanwhile, the second sections comprising questions relating to residents’ satisfaction degree within the case study areas. The distribution of questionnaires was conducted on a face-to-face basis. The contents sought respondents about their level of satisfaction with certain statements on Likert scale ordered in the continuous base such as, “1”-extremely dissatisfied “5” extremely satisfied. Respondents were asked to answer their satisfaction degree question of ‘How do you feel with the provision of sanitary facilities such as toilets, refuse disposal point? “How do you feel with the market square maintenance in connection with its environment?” How do you feel with market square essential amenities such as water, electricity, roads among others? “How do you feel with the market square environmental pollution, such as noise, waste, debris amongst others? Overall, the research sample consisted of 382 potential visitors and users of the market square, through structured survey questionnaires conducted based on face to face manner between Monday, 7th July 2014 and Monday, 13th October 2014. The collated data was analysed with SPSS statistical package program through cross-tabulation and One- way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tools.
3. Results and Discussion
The data were subjected to reliability test using Cronbach’s Alpha, with the value ranging from 0 to 1, to measure the reliability in order to affirm the authenticity of the results. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient stood at 0.861, the value higher than the minimum value of 0.7 as suggested 18. Therefore, this result output is reliable. The overall survey samples comprised of 382 with details of their demographic characteristics were presented. Table 1 indicates a summary of respondents’ demographic characteristics in the study areas with respect to their ethnic background. The variables assessed include gender, age, employment status, neighbourhood affiliations and how often the residents visit the market square? The data showed that 49% of the respondents were male, while 51% were female (Figure 4). Of these proportions, 18.10% of the respondents were between the ages of 12 and 18, while 33.20% were between 19 and 29 years of age. Also, 27.50% of the respondent’s ages were between 30 and 59 years. 21.20 % were aged 60 years and above (Figure 5). The employment status indicates that 9.40 % of the respondents were Government employee, 37.40 % were self-employees, while 7.30% were not employed and 21.50 % were students. Meanwhile, 4.50% were apprentices, while 11.50% were retired, civil servant. Other work categories were 8.40% of the total populations (Figure 6). Considering the neighbourhood affiliations of the respondents, 42.90% of 47 | P a g e
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 them resided in Ijebu-jesa, Also, 31.40% were affiliated with Iloko town, while 25.7% resided in Ijeda town ship areas (Figure 7). About 73% of the respondents visited market square very often, 22.30% often visited, while 3.10% sometime and lastly 1.60% rarely visited the market (Figure 8).
Table 1: Demographic characteristics of Ethnic group’s users’ extracted from cross tabulation
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Figure 4: Gender illustration Figure 5: Age categories
Figure 6: Employment status Figure 7: Neighbourhood affiliations
Figure 8: Frequency of residents’ visiting market square
The answers to the research questions were designed to measure both the users’ and the visitors’ satisfaction degree within the market. The results of the one-way ANOVA analysis in Table 2 revealed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in the respondents’ satisfaction with market square maintenance (SAQ2), with F (2,379) = 5.224, p = 0.006. The similar significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) was observed in respondents’ satisfaction with the market amenities (SAQ3) such as water, electricity amongst others: F
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 (2,379) = 5.957, p=0.003. Meanwhile, the last significance difference was seen in respondents’ satisfaction with market environmental pollution (SAQ4): F (2,379) =5.539, P=0.004. An insignificant difference was obtained only from residents’ satisfaction with the provision of sanitary facilities such as toilets, waste disposal etc. (SAQ1). This is an indication that the three ethnic residents opined that challenges in the regards are obvious. Post Hoc test result shown in Table 3 revealed that the residents’ satisfaction with market’s maintenance (SAQ2) exhibited significance difference between Yoruba and Igbos. Same was exhibited by the Yoruba and Igbos as regards their satisfaction with the market’s essential amenities (SAQ3) and market environmental pollution (SAQ4). Mean differences remained insignificance between Hausa and Ibos in their satisfactions with respect to SAQ2, SAQ3, and SAQ4. The outcome of this result represents a good representation of the users and the visitor’s perception of satisfaction as shown in Table 1, thus, the result could be generalized to other similar markets in the South-west, Nigeria.
Table 2: One-way ANOVA results showing the significance differences between the variables
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Table 3: PostHoc Test table of groups difference (Multiple comparisons) Tukey HSD
4. Conclusion and Recommendation
The three ethnics’ residents observed challenges in the quality conditions of the market. The market needs improvements in the provision of sanitary facilities, such as refuse disposal gadgets, toilets facilities, electricity, and good roads amongst others. This paper suggests remedy through better management in order to consolidate market square in the built environment. It equally calls for proper planning, design, and development. It becomes imperative that the government and the private organization should intervene in safe guiding the market, in view of its significance contribution to the local state and the nations’ economic revitalization bid. Planners and designers are encouraged to provide necessary facilities and amenities to this typology of open space in the future. In addition, the policy makers are enjoined to come out with the policy that will assist in long time maintenance of these markets. Public enlighten program becomes necessary to iterates the users on the significance of imbibing good culture towards the use of the markets’ facilities and amenities. This study has contributed to the knowledge, as it provides valuable feedback on residents’ satisfaction within typical open space studies for future improvement towards consolidating the future in the built environment. 51 | P a g e
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1. Amérigo, M. A., & Aragonés, J. I. A Theoretical and Methodological Approach to The Study of Residential Satisfaction. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 1997. 17 (1): 47-57. 2. Lu, M. Determinants of Residential Satisfaction: Ordered Logit vs. Regression Models. Growth and Change. 1999. 30 (2): 264-287. 3. Rodgers, W. Density. Crowding and Satisfaction with the Residential Environment. Social Indicators Research, 1982. 10 (1): 75-102. 4. Tan T.H. Neighbourhood Satisfaction: Responses from Residents of Green Townships in Malaysia", International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, 2016.Vol. 9 (1), Pp.137 – 155. 5. Davis, M.C, Leach, D. J. & Clegg, C. W. The Physical Environment of the Office: Contemporary and Emerging Issues in G.P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (eds), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Wiley, Chichester, UK, 2011. Pp. 193–235. 6. Cooper Marcus, C., and Francis, C. People Places: Design guidelines for Urban Open Spaces. John Willey and Sons, New York. 1998. 7. Sivalioglu P. & Berkoz L. Perceptual Evaluation of the National Park Users. Social and Behavioural Sciences, 2012. 50, 928–940. 8. Newton, J. Structures, Regimes and Wellbeing. ESRC Research Group on Wellbeing in Developing Countries. WED Working. 2007. Paper 30. 9. Hutchinson, S. L., & Kleiber, D. A. Gifts of the Ordinary: Casual Leisure Contributions to Health and Wellbeing. World Leisure Journal. 2005. 47 (3), 2-16. 10. Eisenhauer, B. W., Krannich R. S., and D. J. Blahna. Attachments to Special Places on Public Lands: An Analysis of Activities, Reasons for Attachments, And Community Connections. Society Nat. Resources, 2000. 13:421–441. 11. Mesch, G. S., and O. Manor. Social Ties, Environmental Perception, And Local Attachment. Environment. Behaviour. 1998. 30 (4):504–519. 12. Stedman R.C. Is It Really Just a Social Construction? The Contribution of the Physical Environment to Sense of Place, Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal, 2003. 16 (8), 671-685. 13. Kyle, G., Graefe, A. R., Manning R. E. & Bacon, J. An Examination of the Involvement: Place Attachment Relation Among Hikers Along the Appalachian Trail, Journal of Leisure Research. 2004. 35. 249–273. 14. Kyle, G., Mowen, A., & Tarrant, M. Linking Place Preferences with Place Meaning: An Examination of the Relationship Between Place Motivation and Place Attachment. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 2004. 24, 439–454.
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 3 (8): 43 - 53, 2017 e-ISSN 2360-8013 15. Yuksel, A., Yuksel, F., & Bilim, Y. Destination Attachment: Effects On Customer Satisfaction and Cognitive, Affective and Conative Loyalty. Tourism Management, 2010. 31, 274-284. 16. Gobster, P. P. H. Managing urban parks for a racially and ethnically diverse clientele. Leisure Sciences, 2002. 24(2), 143-159. 17. Pasaogullari, N, and Doratli, N. Measuring accessibility and utilization of public spaces in Famagusta. Cities, 2004. 21 (3), Pp. 225–232. 18. Nunnally, J. H. and Bernstein, I. H. Psychometric Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 1994.
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Research Article
Review On Organizational Culture Typologies 1,2 2 1 Sani Abdullahi Sarki , Razali Bin Adulhamid Mahmood W. Y. W
1Department of Quantity Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia 2 Quantity Surveying Department, School of Environmental Studies, Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic, Zaria, Nigeria Email: [email protected], [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t There have been many studies on organizational culture, and its performance Article history for the past four decades in management and behavioural studies. The study Received: 15/07/2017 pays much attention to the corporate culture due to its direct connection with Accepted: 05/08/2017 performance, which can be supported by scholarly publication. Recent researchers confirmed that organizational culture has a great influence on Culture; Theories of Culture, organizational performance outcomes. It plays an important role in Organizational cultures determining the success or failure of an organization and distinguishes one organization from other through cultural profiles, some organizations have culture that give rise to excellent performance and it happens when organization have intelligent and logical persons, otherwise it does not allow such greatness in performance and such kind of persons causes failure of the organization. A systematic approach was adopted to review the relevant previous literature. This paper provided a review on cultural typologies used in measuring organizational performance.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
It has been attempted by many researchers to establish a definite interpretation of culture, and also dodged by few researchers exploring this area. It is attributed to the various viewpoint from which the culture viewed, approached and the various theories supporting it. According to Bodley1 had compiled 160 different definitions of culture2. Culture plays a great role in shaping the behaviours consciousness in the society it also codified situation and word gives it a new meaning1. Organizational culture differed in their cultural profiles, it is confirmed by researchers that organizational culture has cultures that gives rises to achieve higher performance outcomes, and this occurred within the organization especial when there are intelligent and logical members that work tirelessly or otherwise recorded poor performances out comes3.
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Literature Review
Culture
Most of the researcher undertaken in culture advocates the concept of culture is the setting and practices that organization cultivates within it a domain and people in order to promote values and statement of their beliefs. The responsibly lies on the leader to create and manage a culture4. The word culture derived from the word cultivate cultivation of soil for production of crops, which means the way people behave and act in nature, in the case of human being, culture is the set of ideals, ethics, attitude and belief that are shared by the member of organization5.
Theories of culture
There are many studies and publications describing theories of culture6. Provide an insightful discourse on the varied and complex theories that cultural anthropologists have suggested Cultural anthropologists have done a great work of classifying culture theories that might characterize by their particular assumptions as shown in (Figure 1).Schools of thought prompted by1, 6-7 described comprehending tools that give a clear understanding of these theories with different views that related them to the notion or discipline example humanity, management and organizational literature. The difference is between theories in which culture is perceived as ensnared in the societal structure “socio-cultural system’’ and those that perceived culture as an “ideational system’’ (a system of ideas). Theoretically and logically different from the social structure these theories are examined below as shown in appendix.
Culture as a sociocultural system
Anthropologists of an early period regard culture as a ‘sociocultural system ‘with renowned exemption of Marvin Harris.it is sub divided into four schools of thought according to the perception or notion of time. The two schools are structural functionalist and functionalist there emphases is on the study of culture at a given period part and called synchronic ‘and the other two are the historical-diffusionist and the ecological- adaptionist schools considered time dimension and focus on developing a particular culture and called diachronic schools. The functionalist school promoted by Malinowski described culture as an active device by which an individual use it day by day in dealing with the precise impediments challenged to satisfy needs. Their functional necessity explains indicators of culture such as institutions and myths for the fulfilment of vital human needs. It presumes that all the institutions myths and others display of culture will occur in order to satisfy the need of all member of society. Hence it indicated the commitment that need- grounded theory to carry out in the research this means the researcher is demanded to focus on those within the culture and their needs. Perspectives and definitions notwithstanding, some themes are shared to all the
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diverse explanations that are vital to understanding the culture. For a structural-functionalist, such as Radcliffe-Brown. Believed Culture is an accommodative device which people used to facilitate day to day live affair in community setting and manoeuvre social life as a command. Culture is part of social system which comprises of societal component that up hold the guidance of social lives moreover, acceptable mechanisms that regulated and maintained balance with physical environment. The ecological-adaptationist school perceives it as a behaviours that transmits through social pattern which link human societies and their ecological surroundings. ‘Sociocultural systems’ and immediate environments mediate through dialectic interactions in mutual manner. Environment is not only simply factors that restricted the development of culture but also contributed significantly in guiding the evolution of culture and characteristically impact the ecological setting. The historical-diffusionist school regards culture as interactive super organic patterns of practice develop from history. Anthropologists conceived culture as tradition which are interested in movement from system to system and places in different process as a result of assimilation and or acclimatization.
Cultures as Systems of Ideas
Culture as a system of ideas comprises of four school of taught the cognitive schools, which is promoted by theories of Good enough and the understand culture as cognitive structure and process by knowledge or ideas learned through perceiving, evaluating and acting. A societal culture are any things acceptable to all members of the society that guide it action within it environmental settings8. Structuralism school advocated by Levis Strauss believed in universality of human culture which is manifested only at level unconsciousness.in popular writes up says that ‘mind elaborates of kingship at level of unconscious structure’ in different region and societies marriage roles are Similar and its attitude toward kings9. This shows that in all cases the practical phenomena are interplay generally but hidden laws10. Mutual equivalence supported by Wallace which considered culture as a standards guideline or rules that regulate and monitors human behaviours in a particular environmental setting and it also used for mutual prediction of members or individuals behaviour in that environment. Cultures are transferred from old member to new ones and group to group in gradual process for the purpose of establishing standards way of doing things between members to facilitate mutual equivalence11. The symbolic is the last part of ideational system which promoted by Geertz Schneider theory, emphases that culture is not from people head but rather it is the products of human mind and shared meaning and symbols by the actors in the famous write up by12 .as shown in figure 1.
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Organizational Cultures
Many authors have consensus agreement of shared as the important ingredient in their definition of organizational culture and also believed and defined culture as patterns. Which can be imagine and as implying to the notion of integrations 13 ,14. Similarly Believe and values are also common assumptions that shared by member of organizational which are called organizational culture. The simple way in which one organization differentiate itself from another is through Culture different13,14. This perspective conceded beliefs, arts behaviour patterns, and institutes and all other artefact of human work and thought17.
2. Methodologies
The research is a review of literature on cultural typologies and exploring the different types of organizational culture used by researchers in studying organizational practice outcomes. Relevant data for the study were obtained through secondary sources which include academic journals, conference papers, articles, textbooks and the World Wide Web (cyber internet). Several international journals and reports were reviewed and identified via comprehensive review of relevant literature. A systematic approach was adopted to review the relevant previous literature. This review study was conducted to identify the different cultural typologies used in measuring organizational practice outcomes.
3. Results and Discussion
In the area of cultural typologies, many research has done and comes out with different instrument for measuring culture base on dimensions of culture 1 ,16 , 17 Hofstede’s Value Survey Module (VSM) 20 and the work of Quinn and Cameron ‘Competing Values Framework’ (CVF) 21 is the common research found in the literature that dealing with a multitude of dimensions of cultural typologies as an alternative to providing a simplified means of measuring cultures. Typologies describe some ideal types of culture, each of them easy to imagine, against which the culture being assessed is compared22. Different researchers have analysed organizational culture and offered the following typologies shown below:
Typologies of culture Authors
1 Cameron and Freeman (1991) identified four organizational culture types: Clan culture Adhocracy culture; Hierarchy culture; Market culture
2 Herminingsih, (2014)
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Reward culture, Stability culture, Competitive culture Performance orientation culture cooperate social responsibility culture, Innovative culture and Supportive culture Olanipekun & Aje, (2013)
3 In later research the authors (Deshpande & Farley 1999) identified four types of cultures: Competitive culture; Entrepreneurial culture; Bureaucratic; and Consensual Geldenhuys, (2006)
4 Wallach’s (1983) organizational culture index profiles culture in three Stereotypical dimensions: Bureaucratic culture; Innovative culture; and Supportive culture Geldenhuys, (2006)
5 The measuring instrument for the research is Denison Surveillance of Organizational Culture (Denison, 2000). Involvement Consistency Adaptability Mission Geldenhuys, (2006)
6 Culture in this study refers to the socio-cultural environment in its entirety. It is measured in terms of Attitudes Beliefs Norms and Values which the people of a nation have and hold on to in general Aluko, (2003)
7 Gershon, Stone Bakker & Larson (2004) Identified four dimensions of cultures
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Leadership characteristics Group Behaviour and relationship Communication Structural attributes of quality work Gershon, Stone Bakker & Larson (2004) in (in Ng, Fong, & Wang, 2011) Organization Culture Dimension Measurement Authors
8 Organization Culture Dimension Measurement Instrument Power Roles Task Person M.C Knowles, Prasuna Reddy, Kinga konczey (2002)
9 Emmanuel Ogbonna and Lloyd C. Harris used this Dimension in (2000) Innovative culture. Competitive culture. Bureaucratic culture. Community culture Ogbonna & Harris, (2000)
10 (Trompanaars 1993 Identified seven different dimensions of cultures Particularize versus Universalism, Diffuse versus Specific, Neutral versus Emotional, Individualism versus Communication, Ascription versus Achievement Attitude to environment& Attitude to time (Trompanaars (1993) in Todeva, (1999)
11 (29) four dimensions of organization culture Power distance: Individualism Uncertainty and avoidance Masculinity Hofstede, (2011)
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12 Quinn and Roorbaugh (1983) considered organization dimensions as four Rational (or market) culture, Hierarchical culture, Group culture (or clan) culture and Development culture Ali, Ahmadi, & Salamzadeh, (2012)
13 Alexander (1983) describe organizational culture as these Organizational and personal pride, Performance excellent Teamwork and communication, Leadership and supervision, Cost-effectiveness and productivity, Associate Relations, Citizen Relation, Innovation and creativity, Training and development. Conduct and openness Alexander (1983) in Giorgi, Lockwood, & Glynn, (2015)
14 Ankrah 2007 used these and measured organizational culture of construction firms in United Kindom Leadership culture Client culture Team culture Project delivery culture Workforce culture Ankrah, (2007
15 Sarki and Adulhamid (2016) identified the culture of paymasters in construction industry organization in Nigeria Norm of Work Culture Task Culture Constructive cultures Passive/defensive cultures Bureaucratic Culture Innovative Culture
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Supportive Culture
4. Conclusion
Typologies are utilized in the study of organizational culture this is because of its ability to link culture in a simpler sense of its meaning Table1 outlines various typologies commonly found in the literature of organizational culture. The use of typologies in cultural studies is challenging although they are easier to understand and communicate. The main weakness in their method is the incapacity of real cases to match with any single typology.it has been used by the researchers to study organizational culture with prevailing typologies orientation. However an organization has a crossbreed of typologies and classification as one or other culture may be misleading. A general caveat in the use of typologies is the fact that they are metaphors and are meant to serve illustrative purposes only. Over-stretching meanings may lead to a misrepresentation of organizational cultures.
References
1. Ankrah Na. An Investigation Into The Impact Of Culture On Construction Project. 2007. 2. Ahmad Ms. Impact Of Organizational Culture On Performance Management Practices In Pakistan. 2012;5(1):50–5. 3. Kotter JP, Heskett JL. Corporate culture and performance [Internet]. Administrative Science Quarterly. 1992. 214 p. Available from: http://books.google.com/books?id=pWudzigl0ucC 4. Schein EH. Defining Organizational Culture. Class Organ Theory. 2005;6th:369–76. 5. Matsuno K, Mentzer JT. Market Orientation: Reconciliation of Two Conceptualizations. Proceedings of the 1995 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference. Springer; 2015. p. 49–55. 6. Allaire Y, Firsirotu ME. Theories of Organizational Culture. Organ Stud [Internet]. 1984 Jan 1 [cited 2014 May 31];5(3):193–226. Available from: http://oss.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/017084068400500301 7. Theories of Culture Author ( s ): Roger M . Keesing Source : Annual Review of Anthropology , Vol . 3 ( 1974 ), pp . 73-97 Published by : Annual Reviews Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2949283. 2008;3(1974):73–97. 8. Works H. Some Definitions Of Culture Language and Culture in the Deaf Community. 1981;1–3. 9. Allaire Y, Firsirotu ME. Theories of Organizational Culture. Organ Stud. 1984;5(3):193–
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10. Lévi-strauss C. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU FONDATEUR DES SCIENCES DE L ’ HOMME par. 1962; 11. Wallach. Individual and Organizations:The cultural Match. Train Dev J Febr. 1983;25–6. 12. Geertz C. The interpretation of cultures selected essays /. 1973; 13. Manley K. Organisational culture and consultant nurse outcomes : part 2 nurse outcomes. 2016;(July). 14. Olanipekun a O, Aje IO. Effects of Organisational Culture on the Performance of Quantity Surveying Firms in Nigeria Department of Quantity Surveying. Int J Humanit Soc Sci. 2013;3(5):206–15. 15. Boulding W, Kalra A, Staelin R, Zeithaml VA. A dynamic process model of service quality: from expectations to behavioral intentions. J Mark Res. American Marketing Association.; 1993;30(1):7. 16. Waldman DA, de Luque MS, Washburn N, House RJ, Adetoun B, Barrasa A, et al. Cultural and leadership predictors of corporate social responsibility values of top management: A GLOBE study of 15 countries. J Int Bus Stud. JSTOR; 2006;823–37. 17. Dictionary AH. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language. Answers com. 2000; 18. Abu-jarad IY, Yusof N, Nikbin D. A Review Paper on Organizational Culture and Organizational Performance. Int J Bus Soc Sci. 2010;1(3):26–46. 19. Cooke R a., Szumal JL. Using the organizational culture inventory to understand operating cultures of organizations. Handb Organ Cult Clim. 2000;147–62. 20. Hofstede G. Cultural dimensions in management and planning. Asia Pacific J Manag. 1984;1(2):81–99. 21. Choo CW. International Journal of Information Management Information culture and organizational effectiveness. Int J Inf Manage [Internet]. Elsevier Ltd; 2013;33(5):775–9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2013.05.009 22. Janicijevic N. The influence of organizational culture on organizational preferences towards the choice of organizational change strategy. Econ Ann [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2014 Jun 30];57(193):25–51.Availablefrom:http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=0013-32641293025J 23. Herminingsih A. Organizational Culture Typology for Competitive Private University. 2014;2(4):321–5. 24. Geldenhuys T. Organisational Culture As a Predictor of Performance : a Case Study in Liberty Life. 2006;(November). 25. Aluko M a O. the Impact of Culture on Organizational Performance in Selected Textile Firms in Nigeria. Nord J African Stud. 2003;12(2):164–79.
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26. Ng S-M, Fong TCT, Wang X-L. The role of holistic care culture in mitigating burnout and enhancing engagement: A study among elderly service workers in Hong Kong. Aging Ment Health. 2011;15(6):712–9. 27. Ogbonna E, Harris LC. Leadership style, organizational culture and performance: empirical evidence from UK companies. Int J Hum Resour Manag. 2000;11(4):766–88. 28 Sarki, S. A., & Adulhamid, R. Bin. Paymaster’s Cultures for Nigerian Construction Industry. Indian Journal of Science and Technology.2016; 9 (46). 29. Todeva E. Models for comparative analysis of culture: the case of Poland. Int J Hum Resour Manag [Internet]. 1999;10(4):606–23.Available from: http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/entrepstrategy/8 30. Hofstede G. Dimensionalizing Cultures : The Hofstede Model in Context. Online Readings Psychol Cult. 2011;2(1):1–26. 31. Ali S, Ahmadi A, Salamzadeh Y. Relationship between Organizational Culture and Strategy Implementation : Typologies and Dimensions. 2012;4(3):286–99. 32. Giorgi S, Lockwood C, Glynn M a. The many faces of culture: Making sense of 30 years of research on culture in organization studies. Acad Manag Ann. 2015;(May 2015):37–41.
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Research Article
Assessment of the Production Capacity of Cement Factories and Prices of Cement in Nigeria Okigbo O. N.1, Gana A. A.1 and Fabunmi F.O.2 1Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal Polytechnic Bida, Niger State, Nigeria. 2Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t
Article history The paper aimed at relating the production capacity of four cement production Received: 15/07/2017 factories with market price of cement from 2005 – 2014. The data on Accepted: 05/08/2017 production capacity of this four factories used were gotten from cement manufacturers association of Nigeria (CMAN) while the price of cement was gotten from market survey. Regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between production and price of cement in the four factories within ten years of study. In regression analysis X represent production capacity, cement, industry, variable while Y represent price variable. The output shows the P value of price, production 0.000 which is less than 0.05, this shows that there is relationship between the production and price of cement. As the production is increasing the prices of cement was reducing. The paper concluded that to achieve less price of cement the production capacity of these company must increase. The paper recommends that all effort must be put by all the stake holders so as to support factories so as to increase their production.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The cement industry in Nigeria has experienced immense growth in recent past. Although it is capital intensive due to high cost of construction of high capacity plants and the heavy machinery deployed in running the business. Cement demand has been on the rise since conception of cement production in 1957. At present, the total installed capacity is about 28 million tones as at 2012, while local consumption is
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estimated at 19 million tones. In all business environments, the level of infrastructure development provides the basic foundation for the overall economic development and growth. The cement industry supplies that critical ingredient that holds together infrastructure projects. This is showing that there is much room for expansion and the industry is just getting started in a developing country like Nigeria. Therefore, it is an obvious fact that with rising investment in infrastructure in Nigeria, the demand for cement in the future is almost insatiable.
Cement is one of the main materials used in construction work. It is used in building construction, road construction, bridge construction, dams and the construction of nuclear structures. It is used in producing concrete, sandcrete blocks, compressed earth blocks and stone pitches. Its use in construction is very vast hence its high importance in construction and infrastructural development. This underscores the importance of cement to the economy of the nation. One of the banes of the Nigerian economy has been the low level of development of the nation’s infrastructures. The level of the Nigerian infrastructure has been at its lowest receding tide hence the extreme need of the Nigerian government to develop the infrastructures of the country. To this end the need for the development of the all-important raw material for infrastructural development will never be over emphasized. Among other cement companies in Nigeria one company that had pursued this vision of cement sufficiency in Nigeria is the Dangote cement company. Therefore, the paper is aimed at relating the production capacity of four cement production factories with market price of cement from 2005 – 2014. The objective was to determine the relationship between the productions and price of cement in Nigeria from 2005 – 2014. A hypothesis was set for the study, which states that;
HO1- there is no significant relationship between production and prices of cement in Nigeria.
2. Methodology
In achieving the aim of the paper, four cement companies that have their factories in situated inNigeria were chosen. The companies were; Dangote cement industry, Lafarge Wapco Plc, Ashaka Cement Industry and Cement Company of Northern Nigeria. The prices of cement were gotten from market survey. These price covered a range of ten years that is, 2005 to 2014.The data on the production of cement were gotten from cement manufacturer association of Nigeria (CMAN). A hypothesis which says there is no relationship between production and prices of cement was set. In testing this hypothesis, linear regression analysis was used. Production was denoted as X, while price was denoted as Y.
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3. Data Presentation and Data Analysis
Table 1: Production and Price of Dangote Cement Plc from 2005 – 2014.
S/N Year Production (MT) Price/Bag (N) Brand
01 2005 1,871,769.80 950.00 Dangote 02 2006 1,790,427.80 900.00 Dangote 03 2007 2,112,180.60 900.00 Dangote 04 2008 2,574,930.72 1,000.00 Dangote 05 2009 2,900,946.74 1,050.00 Dangote 06 2010 4,196,043.34 1,000.00 Dangote 07 2011 5,807,710.34 1,000.00 Dangote 08 2012 7,189,859.15 1,200.00 Dangote 09 2013 9,168,147.20 1,350.00 Dangote 10 2014 10,774,199.80 1,350.00 Dangote Source: Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) 2014
Table 2: Production and Price of Lafarge Wapco Nigeria Plc from 2005 – 2014
S/N Year Production (MT) Price/Bag (N) Brand
01 2005 154,703.70 1,050.00 Lafarge Cement 02 2006 174,573.90 1,050.00 Lafarge Cement 03 2007 147,980.00 1,100.00 Lafarge Cement 04 2008 212,820.67 1,200.00 Lafarge Cement 05 2009 239,766.23 1,050.00 Lafarge Cement 06 2010 346,807.30 1,200.00 Lafarge Cement 07 2011 4,800.13 1,100.00 Lafarge Cement 08 2012 594,249.26 1,050.00 Lafarge Cement 09 2013 755,515.80 1,350.00 Lafarge Cement 10 2014 890,498.70 1,500.00 Lafarge Cement Source: Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) 2014
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Table 3 Production and Price of Ashaka Cement Company Plc from 2005 – 2014
S/N Year Production (MT) Price/Bag (N) Brand
01 2005 35,207.00 900.00 Ashaka 02 2006 33,677.00 1,050.00 Ashaka 03 2007 39,729.00 1,000.00 Ashaka 04 2008 48,433.09 1,200.00 Ashaka 05 2009 54,565.09 1,350.00 Ashaka 06 2010 78,925.36 1,350.00 Ashaka 07 2011 109,239.96 1,400.00 Ashaka 08 2012 135,237.45 1,600.00 Ashaka 09 2013 171,938.00 1,600.00 Ashaka 10 2014 202,657.00 1,500.00 Ashaka Source: Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) 2014
Table 4 Production and Price of Cement Company of Northern Nigeria (CCNN) From 2005 – 2014
S/N Year Production (MT) Price/Bag (N) Brand
01 2005 9,319.50 1,000.00 CEMNN 02 2006 8,914.50 1,050.00 CEMNN 03 2007 10,516.50 1,200.00 CEMNN 04 2008 12,820.52 1,400.00 CEMNN 05 2009 14,443.75 1,450.00 CEMNN 06 2010 20,892.01 1,450.00 CEMNN 07 2011 28,916.46 1,350.00 CEMNN 08 2012 35,798.15 1,350.00 CEMNN 09 2013 45,513.00 1,500.00 CEMNN 10 2014 53,644.50 1,500.00 CEMNN
Source: Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (CMAN) 2014
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Table 5 Summary of Output of Regression Analysis of the Relationship between the Production and Price of the Four Cement Factories
Exp X Y Model Observation Inferences NO Linear Adjusted F cal. Pvalue Remarks Action Regression r2
1 Production Price of Linear 0.892 83.755 0.000 SS Rej. Ho of Dangote Dangote 2 Production Price of Linear 0.640 18.799 0.002 SS Rej. Ho Lafarge Lafarge Wapco Wapco Cement Cement 3 Production Price of Linear 0.911 103.327 0.000 SS Rej. Ho of Ashaka Ashaka Cement Cement 4 Production Price of Linear 0.640 18.799 0.002 SS Rej. Ho of CCNN CCNN
Key: SS = statistically significant. Rej = reject
4. Discussion of result i. Observation From the above, the linear regression experience between the production and price of Dangote cement exhibited positive correlation. The adjusted (R2) of the four experiment were observed to be high 0.896,
0.643, 0.976 and 0.971 respectively. The action of the hypothesis (Ho) is reject because the probability value were 0.000- 0.002. This was less expression value of 0.005.
ii. Inferences The following were drawn from the observation of the experiments. The prices of cement increased as the production of cement increased this indicated a positive correlation. The inference of the adjusted (R2) were very high. It was inferred that the relationship between the variables were statically significant. The null hypothesis was thus rejected.
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5. Conclusion From the findings, the following conclusion were made. The price of cement is being determined by the rate of the production of cement by the manufacturers. It was concluded from the analysis that was carried out that; there was statistically significant relationship between the production and price of cement by different manufacturers. From the above conclusion the following are recommended; · The government should ban the importation of cement to Nigeria so as to encourage many companies to go into cement production in Nigeria. · The government should reduce the tax and lending rate to the cement manufacturers in Nigeria to allow more peoples to come into the cement manufacturing. · The cement manufacturers association of Nigeria (CMAN) should establish a policy on quality and even price of cement to all cement manufacturers in Nigeria.
References
Barry R. (2000). The Construction of Building Vol. (iv), Cross by Logwood Staples Publication. Pp 15 -16.
CMAN Business Day (2012). Communiqué at the Conference on Cement Based Construction in Nigeria Organized by, Cement Manufacturers Association of Nigeria and Business Day Media Ltd Pp. 8.
Denzin N. K and Lincoln Y. S (1998). Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Equity Research, Banking Group 7th May, 2011, Pp. 25
JonhMaxwel C. (2013). Cement Manufacturing Industry Report of Lead Capital Equity Research April 2013, Pp. 7 - 11.
Makoju, J. O. (2010). Cement Industry in Nigeria; the Journey so far. A paper Presented at the 2nd Abitem International Cement Conference, Ikeja, Lagos, Pp. 12. Michael M. and Williams, J. H. (1999). Materials for Civil and Construction Engineer, Pp. 671.
Mojekwu, J. N., Ademola I., and Oluseyi S. (2011). Analysis of the Contribution of Imported and Locally Manufactured Cement to the Growth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Nigeria (1986 – 2011).
Nwosila, V. (2012). Businessdayonline.com 16th May 2012.
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Sidney M. and Francis Y. J. (2002). Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers.pp 671 – 679.
Steve K. and Williams P. (1988). Design and Control of Concrete Mixes, Portland cement Association Skokie II. Pp. 205, 210, 217.
The Guardian, Monday, May 28, 2012. Pp. 27.
Wapco (1990). West African Portland Cement Company Plc: Corporate Plan (1990 – 1992). India Equity Research/Cement (2009). Pp. 7 – 10.
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Research Article
A Proposed Method of Exploring the Use of Kinetic Architecture for Housing the Migrant Fulbe in Nigeria Sarkile Abubakar Kawuwa*1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Technology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, P.M.B 0248, Bauchi, Bauchi State, Nigeria
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t This paper presents an investigation on methods of exploring the use of kinetic Article history architecture for housing of Fulbe Migrants. The Fulbe are the pastoral group Received: 15/07/2017 who occupy the Northern part of Nigeria, Northern Cameroon, Guinea, and Accepted: 05/08/2017 Senegal. They are predominantly herders with a strong drive for movement in with their cattle, sheep and goats. They are in constant movement in search of pasture for grazing of their livestock. Due to their high-level of mobility, they occupy tiny tents and hamlets. The aim of this study is to explore the use of kinetic architecture to meet the housing demand of nomadic Fulbe by Fulbe, migrants, kinetic, providing kinetic buildings or structures with variable location or mobility buildings, structures , such as portable buildings like caravans, tents and prefabricated barracks movement model that can be implemented by the government and stakeholders © Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The dynamics in the standard living of a man over the ages have numerous effects on the housing and the environment. These changes therefore call for constant checks on housing conditions and requirements of the people for the purpose of keeping them up to acceptable standards Nomads in Africa constitute about 6 percent of the total population and are to be found in at least 20 African countries (Stephen, 2006). In many of these countries, statistics indicates that education provision has failed to reach nomadic communities. Despite high investment levels and rapidly rising enrolment ratios, nomads are still underserved and
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disparities within countries are apparent (Danaher, 1999). Providing education to nomadic communities is one of the most challenging and urgent issues currently facing education policy makers, practitioners and other actor within the field (Anyanwu, 1998). In Nigeria, Nomadic Education Programme was set up by the Federal Government in 1990 to take care of educational needs of the nomads. The programme had effects on the reasoning, aspirations and needs of the nomads but there was never any attempt by the government in terms of housing provision (Aminu, 1999).
In most nomadic population, the housing provisions are essentially carried out by the individuals and their communities’ in order to meet the increasing housing needs of the people whereas assistance from the government is not readily available in most of the Nomadic areas. The nomads however, neither live in the urban areas nor ordinarily in the rural areas; rather they inhabit a region of the rural areas that can best be described as the core of the rural areas. This is to explain that they are further into hamlets and bushes where they seek sustenance of their animals and themselves through the mercy of ecology (Chatty, 2010). From the review of selected nomadic communities around the world, it was observed that the some governments has played a leading role in steering the communities into more consciousness, through their unceasing attempts to make them sedentary, but has played little or no significant role in enhancing their comfort through the practical involvement in the housing scheme .
The apparent omission of a specific housing scheme for the nomads in the series of reports of the on-going “Agenda 21” of the United Nations, under the Global Shelter Strategy to the year 2000 and beyond, has further established doubts in genuine intention of the state in enhancing the quality of life of the nomads. This omission becomes more serious in view of the fact that the nomads constitute about 40% of the total rural population in the world (Doxiadis, 1972) this makes their population highly significant for consideration. There seems to be a belief that the nomads area group of “housing carefree” individuals with no natural instinct for housing. This is indeed erroneous as preliminary studies carried out on some nomadic groups in Nigeria, has established a number of housing needs and their requirements (Awotona and Daramola, 1996). Housing should be seen as a life necessity aimed at housing provision in form of a home, and of adaptation to built environments (Awotona, 1989). Such adaptation symbolizes the values, desires, and adaptive capabilities of the people as a group.
1.1 Bacground into Fulbe Migrants
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The Fulbe are the pastoral group who occupy the Northern part of Nigeria, Northern Cameroon, Guinea, and Senegal. They are predominantly herders with a strong drive for movement in with their cattle, sheep and goats. They are in constant movement in search of pasture for grazing of their livestock. Due to their high-level of mobility, they occupy tiny tents and hamlets (Sa’ad, 1983). Their temporary or semi- temporary settlements are mainly tents and huts which according to Doxiadis (1972) mark their mobile outlook as the nomads take their tent with them to where ever they go, while they abandon the huts whenever they have to move.
In a study carried out by (Daramola, 2006) on Nomadic Homestead and Role Structure amongst Fulbe nomads, discovered that some subtle developments around the homestead of the Fulbe nomads in Nigeria. These contemporary developments are in the area of their homestead settings, furniture arrangement, academic pursuit, dressing and the entire family set-up. The nomads are greatly influenced by on-going development around them. The study further established that age structure, size of family and nature of movement are the three major factors that influence the housing needs of the Fulbe nomads. Another research done by Stephen, (2006) in Sudan on Nomadic Settlement, discovered serious competition over natural resources and land for settling the nomads. The study went ahead and recommended integration of the nomads as a policy, provision of all needed services as a package to active functional integration within the spatial dimensions which include housing provision. Also in a further study on Nomadology in Architecture, Ephemerality, Movement and Collaboration by Cowan in 2002, he identifies the significance of nomads as users and exponents of architecture despite exclusion from architectural history. He further found in cultures and sub-cultures the ephemeral, mobile and the collaborative as strategies for making their architecture. In the same study, he recommended the continuing research into, and interpretations of nomadology in architecture are proposed as a basis for critical theorization and reflective practice of architecture.
Nomadic Fulbe temporary structures represents an architecture that evolved organically as a response to the needs of its beholders and consist mainly in the provision of functional spaces, using light and easily erectable components which are not required to last for more than one year (Kawuwa, 1999).
In terms of weather, the migrant Fulbe structures does not protect the occupants from attack as the materials are not strong, hard and durable; hence not resistant to climatic agents and unhygienic to the users, moreover they are prone to attacks form reptiles and rodents. The creation of this housing contributes a lot 74 | P a g e
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to the desertification of the environment especially in the study area by cutting trees and not planting any. This affects the ecology of that environment.
Another important issue is the mobility of these people that demands a housing situation that will suit their lifestyle; satisfy their housing requirements without affecting the nature and ecology of any environment that they would find themselves. In terms of Sustainability the creation of this structure serves as one of the major stressor of the environment; and balance is not maintained between use and conservation of environmental resources which is use as materials for construction by the nomads. The whole process of constructing a typical nomadic shelter does not help in reducing environmental waste and pollution associated with buildings and above all cannot save cost and time.
Due to the transient life, the architectural character has been less permanent because it is vegetable oriented piece, this implies that the structures created are collapsible and perishables. Because of the defect of existing housing situation there is need to explore an architecture that can meet and improve on this condition.
Figure 1. Fulbe concentration in West Africa
I. Kinetic Architecture
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Generally, kinetic structures in architecture can be defined as buildings and/or building components with variable mobility, location and/or geometry (Fox 2001a), i.e. kinetic architecture can refer to buildings or structures with variable location or mobility such as portable buildings like caravans, tents and prefabricated barracks (Kronenburg 2002). However, it can also be buildings or structures with variable geometry or movement, i.e. soft form buildings with transformation capacity made by membrane structures, cable-nets pneumatic structures, or rigid form buildings with deployable, foldable, expandable or rotating and sliding capacity of rigid materials which are connected with joints (Güçyeter 2004, Korkmaz 2004).
A kinetic construction is a construction or a constructional element which function is made possible due the fact it can move. Some examples of kinetic constructions are stadium roofs, that can slide away, movable sun protection or bridges that can be lifted up and down. The main advantage of such structures is that they can adjust to the environment: they can be modified to the needs of the people
Kinetic structures can also be classified according to their structural system. In doing so, four main groups can be distinguished: spatial bar structures consisting of hinged bars, foldable plate structures consisting of hinged plates, strut-cable (tensegrity) structures and membrane structures (Hanaor and Levy 2001, Temmerman, 2007). These structural systems have been classified by their morphological and kinematic characteristics in Figure 1 (Hanaor, et al. 2001). Much research has been done with respect to improve the efficiency of these kinetic structural systems which can facilitate a flexibility in building design and give rise to a search for responsive architecture which can physically convert themselves to adapt to the ever- changing requirements and conditions (Zuk, et al. 1970, Fox 2001a, Temmerman 2007, Liew, Vu and Krishnapillai 2008). This could theoretically be buildings consisting of rods and strings which would bend in response to wind, distributing the load in much the same way as a tree. Similarly, windows would respond to light, opening and closing to provide the best lighting and heating conditions inside the building. However, any approach to producing responsive, adaptive architecture must consider architectural and engineering knowledge to ensure robustness of the structure.
General Kinetic Typologies In Architecture
1. Embedded Kinetic Structures
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These are systems that exist within a larger architectural whole in a fixed location. The primary function is to control the larger architectural system or building, in a response to changing factors. Changes are brought by both environmental and human factors and include axial, torsion, flexural, instability, vibration and sound.
2. Deployable Kinetic Structures
These typically exist in temporary location and are easily transportable. Such systems possess the inherent capability to be constructed and deconstructed (Kronenburg, 1998a).
Application may include travelling exhibits, pavilions and self-assembling shelters in disaster areas. An example is may be transportable public computer terminals, which can automate their own security (Zuk, 1995).
3. Dynamic Kinetic Structures
Dynamics act independently with respect to architectural whole. Application may include louvers, doors, partitions, ceilings, walls and various modular components. An example may be an auditorium with ceiling configurations that can change depending on the audience and the performer locations for obtaining optimal acoustic properties (Yeh, 1996).
These dynamic structures can be explored categorically as mobile, transformable and incremental kinetic systems (Zuk, 1995).
II. Application Of Kinetic Architecture On Housing
1. Existing Kinetic Buildings
In all periods of human history, man has wanted to create buildings or building parts that move, either in response to the environment or the needs of people. A large number of kinetic structures have been proposed and are currently used for a wide variety of activities such as sporting, conferences, music and performing art events. It is a response to this wide variety of uses that kinetic architecture has been developed and found in some cases to be more economically and more attractive.
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In ancient times, kinetic structures were built with flexible outer skins from the simple nomadic tent to the large-scale awnings. The first convertible structure in history has been the simple tent construction. In tent constructions of early ages, the cover material, which played the role of a roof, could be carried away and by this way different needs were responded. The possibility of convertibility in tents was a part of construction. Afterwards Greeks and Romans used large-scale awnings to protect the spectators from the sun and the rain at their amphitheatres.
Awning constructions became widespread in Europe in 18th century. Large open spaces and streets were covered again in sunny and rainy days. Plate 15 shows a large convertible awning constructed in Italy in 1795. The structure, which has been supposed to block sunlight, has been fixed to a building with five points. Five cables coming out of these points lied towards ground and are fixed to foundations. The cover materials are hung between these cables and move easily.
III. Representation of Results
Table. 1 Estimated population of Nomads in States of Northern Nigeria
State Fulbe Shuwa-Arab Baduma Kwanyaro Total
Abuja 800,000 800,000
Adamawa 1,300,000 1,300,000
Bauchi 700,000 700,000
Benue 200,000 200,000
Borno 600,000 1,011,519 105,000 60,000 1,176,519
Gombe 900,000 900,000
Jigawa 350,000 350,000
Kaduna 400,000 400,000
Kano 1,000,000 1,000,000
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Katsina 500,000 500,000
Kebbi 300,000 300,000
Kwara 420,000 420,000
Kogi 400,000 400,000
Niger 400,000 400,000
Plateau 450,000 450,000
Sokoto 650,000 650,000
Taraba 1,200,000 1,200,000
Yobe 500,000 315,723 - - 815,723
Zamfara 250,000 250,000
Total 11,320,000 1,327,242 105,000 60,000 12,812,242
Data will be collected from both primary and secondary data sources. For the primary sources, the following techniques will be adopted:
2. Selection Study Area:
As seen in Table 1, Adamawa State being located in Semi-Arid Zone of the country and having the state with the highest population of pastoral Fulbe nomads, it was selected as case study for the group. Also, the movement of pastoral Fulbe nomads is usually from the far northern end of Adamawa state to the southern end of the state in search of grazing field for their flock of cattle and other livestock. The following five locations were selected to serve as the study area; Jada (Jada Village), Mayo-belwa (Sebore), Numan (Savannah), Song (Jabbi-Lamba) and Yola (Ngurore). The selection is based on centrality of their locations (pastoralist Fulbe), and these locations experienced a large concentration of the nomads at different periods of the year. The pastoralists Fulbe are seen passing to and from their point of origin to destinations, the locations are situated within the upland and lowland of the state with diverse vegetation potentials
3. Time of Survey:
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The pastoralists Fulbe are more relaxed and receptive during the rainy season when here are no problems of getting grazing land and spaces for their animals. The months between May and October are the best period to achieve the best result for any research associated with nomadism. However, the pilot survey will be carried out between September and November; this time is the ending period of the rainy season and transhumance still very active in the selected study areas.
4. Population of Study:
Asika (2006) stated that a population is made up of all conceivable elements, subjects or observations relating to a particular phenomenon of interest to the researcher. Subjects or elements are individual items that make up the population. The 1992 and 2006 Census did not make provision for tribal enumeration which makes it difficult to ascertain the actual number of the pastoralist nomads. But in a study carried out by the National Nomadic Education Commission (NNEC) in 2009 put the estimated population of nomads in Adamawa State 1,300,000 million. For the purpose of this research, this estimated figure will be the reference population.
In determining the sample size the 1.3m will be further divided into household sizes using an average person/household formula. It should be noted here that the pastoral Fulbe nomads are homogenous group which share a lot of things in common. A small family unit will therefore represent a very large one.
5. Study Target Respondents:
The head of each household as earlier mentioned will be the target of respondents because they are trustees of the household funds and responsible for the activities in their household. Amongst the pastoral Fulbe, the male are the household heads and in most cases lead the itinerary. Only responses from the household heads who are actively involved in nomadic lifestyle will be used for analysis.
6. Data Collection Techniques:
The need to improve the housing condition of migrant Fulbe calls for a thorough understanding of who they are. In order to achieve this, the following will be adopted for this research work; Semi-structured interview, Observer and Focus group interview.
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(i) Semi-Structured interview: this study will apply this technique because of the exploratory nature of the study; the technique will enable the respondents to answer questions freely, without necessary guidance. It will also enable them to answer questions outside the main question and will build up a qualitative profile of an individual group, family and e.t.c.
(ii) Observer: This will involve observer and participant which is recommended for most ethnographic studies. The entire environment and life-style profile will be observed, together with the physical environment including building materials as well as the activities that go around it. According to Ziesel (1984), observing physical traces can be invaluable at the beginning of the project
(iii) Focus Group Discussion: This approach will be used in establishing the honesty of the respondents. Sometimes respondents hide or give false information during person-to-person interview, but at group level becomes difficult. Specialists groups such as National Nomadic Education Commission (NNEC), Miyetti Allah Cattle Rearers Association, Pastoral Resolve and others will be contacted and interviewed
(iv) Measured Drawings: Measured Drawings will be used to collect data; this involves measuring the volumetric aspect of the existing nomadic shelters and describing them in their present condition. With traditional graphic tools of architecture, plans, elevations, sections, and axonometric views as well as interior elevations and details will be shown. This will provide architectural representations drawn to scale of their existing buildings.
7. Data Analysis Techniques
The nature of the survey in this research calls for qualitative rather than quantitative data analysis. Descriptive analytical techniques such as the study model, focus group discussions, data summarization models, cross tabulation and percentages will be employed in the course of this study. The findings of the research would be thoroughly discussed so as to come out with inferences that will assist in improving their shelter (nomads) using the technology of kinetic architecture.
Since the major goal of this research is explore, identify, explain in an objective way and application of kinetic architecture to pastoral Fulbe housing need. Within the spatial context, two multivariate analytical techniques will be employed, they are factor analysis and the standard score additive model (Z – score). These methods have been used in spatial trends and spatial analysis of some phenomena. The factor 81 | P a g e
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analysis has the advantage of being able to reproduce both positive and negative coefficient in a data set. The techniques will explain the relationship to be observed for demographic, environmental, cultural, socio- economic, mobility and settlement variables.
Conclusion
In recent years, due to urgent need for multi-functional buildings and also the necessity to maintain and respect the environment in front of building's wastes, the demands for kinetic, transformable, and changeable structures has increased rapidly. The contemplation of contemporary architectural designs shows an increasing demand for the development of more mobile, adaptable, flexible and transformable structures. This structure can adapt with different environmental conditions and meet different functions and helps in reducing environmental waste and pollution associated with many buildings and above all can save on cost and time. In conclusion, this study is a provision of more adaptable and habitable building model for a typical nomadic Fulbe house and probably for the development of a blue print for the transient cultures of the country. The present examples of how various ways of kinetic architecture has been used in housing and determine nomadic Fulbe vernacular architectural elements, thereby creating a national pride in belonging to a culture that gave birth to such. The study also shows that using kinetic modular designs can create a changeable module that is not only able to respond to different functions and environmental changes but it is also able to shape different configuration which will be able to respond to different user's ambitions. The compactability of this structural model will make its transportation fast and with minimum costs. These capabilities will make this structure suitable for not only nomadic Fulbe but also temporary buildings such as exhibitions centers, temporary settlements or hospital in damaged areas during disasters.
REFERENCES
Aminu J. (1999), Justice with Dividend. In Journal of Nomadic Studies No. 2 (1999), p71-74 Anyanwu,C.N (1998), Transformative Research for the Promotion of Nomadic Education in Nigeria. In Journal of Nomadic Studies 1 (1), P44-51 Asika, N. (2006), Research Methodology in the Behavioural Sciences, Ikeja: Longman Nigeria Plc Awotona, A.A (1989), Housing. Journal of Tropical Architecture, Nigeria. Vol. 4 No. 1 March 1989. Awotona, A.A and Daramola, A. (1996), Housing the Nomads: International Studies Of the Nomads and their Habitats, A Research Report for the World Bank/Nigerian Universities Commission, CARDO, University of Newcastle UponTyne, United Kingdom. Chatty, D. (2010), Articles on Nomadic life (1983–2009)
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Danaher, P.A(1999), Learning Under Ferris Wheels and Big Tops: Comparing The of Education Australian Show and Circus People. In Journal of Nomadic Studies No. 2 (1999), p25-30 Daramola, A. (2006), Nomadic Homestead and Role Structure amongst Fulbe Nomads. In FUTY Journal of Environmental Sciences; Vol. 1, July, 2006 Doxiadis, (1972). “Ekistics” Oxford, United Kingdom: Pergamon Press Fox, M. A. (2001a), "Beyond Kinetic," In Transportable Environments, School of Design and Environment National University of Singapore. Güçyeter, B., A. (2004), "Comparative Examination of Structural Characteristics Of Retractable Structures. Unpublished M.sc Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University. Hanaor, A., and Levy, R. (2001), "Evaluations of Deployable Structures for Space Enclosures, “International Journal of Space Structures, Vol.16, p211-229 Kawuwa, A.S (1999), Nomadic Architecture: Pastoralists Fulani Architecture in Gombe. Unpublished B.sc Project, Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria Korkmaz, S. (2004), "An Analytical Study of the Design Potentials in Kinetic Architecture”. Izmir Institute of Technology. Kronenburg, R. (1998a), Transportable Environments, Papers from International Conference on Portable Architecture. London: E & FN, Spoon, London. Kronenburg, R. (2002), Houses in Motion: The Genesis, History and Development of the Portable Building (2 ed.), Chichester: Wiley- Academy Liew, J. Y. R., Vu, K. K., and Krishnapillai, A. (2008), "Recent Development of Deployable Tension-Strut Structures," Advances in Structural Engineering, 11. Sa’ad, H.T (1983), Reflections in Fulfulde Typonymy: Case Study of Fulbe Towns Stephen, A. (2006), Nomads Settlement in Sudan: Experience, Lessons and Future Action. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan Temmerman, N. D. (2007), "Design and Analysis of Deployable Bar Structures for Mobile Architectural Applications," Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architectural Engineering Yeh, B. P (1996), Kinetic Wall, Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge. Ziesel, J. (1984) Inquiry by Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Zuk, W. and Clark, R.H (1970), Kinetic Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
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Research Article
Botanical Gardens as Drivers of Climate Change Mitigation and Urban Sustainability in Ondo-State, Nigeria 1* 2 3 Afolabi Festus Akinyoyenu , Mohammad Rafee Bin Majid , Irina Safitri Zen
1,2,3 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t The increasing pace of urbanisation implies that the fate of urban biotic Article history communities, of which the local botanical gardens are a vital part, will Received: 15/07/2017 continue to hang in the balance. The disappearance of plants from urban Accepted: 05/08/2017 environments often endangers humans, reduces urban cooling and increases global warming and climate change. Consequently, threats to botanical gardens Urban biotic communities; often provoke negative impacts on human ability to resuscitate and restore Local botanical gardens; damaged native plant species, and invoke greater damage on the environment from permanent loss of plant conservation and genetic diversity. This paper Global warming; Climate utilises site visits, oral and telephone interviews of eleven (11) botanical change mitigation; Urban garden operators from the three geopolitical zones of the State, and published sustainability. sources during the study. It was revealed that poor awareness and funding, lack of interaction, and non-implementation of botanical gardens criteria, are some of the problems facing botanical garden operators in the State. To date, attempts at linking the local botanical gardens to climate change mitigation and urban sustainability in Ondo-State is lacking, Policy measures that target the identified administrative and technical lapses are therefore recommended.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
It is no exaggeration that there has been a dramatic shift in the nature and form of urban living today from what we used to know. As far back as 1900 or thereabout, only a meagre 10% of the world’s population was urban, but the current world’s population has risen to over 50% or more1. Even so, some more fearful estimates put the figure at over 60%2. It is also estimated that the world population could further increase by 2,700 million people between 1995 and 2030, with the bulk of the population occurring in the developing countries, where almost 85% of Latin Americans, 60% of Europeans, and 50% of Afro-Asians will be living in the cities by the year 20303. These figures seem to confirm the earlier World Bank estimate that
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more people will live in the cities than the rural areas in the coming years. As the global urban population continues to rise through conscious efforts to build cities and support human demands for growth and survival in them, such efforts continue to generate environmental repercussions, which negatively impact the urban ecosystems and cause significant disruptions to the supply of ecosystems services that are vital for human well-being4. Five of the repercussions include land use and land cover, biogeochemical, hydro- systemic, and climatic and biodiversity changes. While these changes represent the scientific dimension of the impact, the socio-cultural correlate, which involves the disruption to indigenous people’s long-standing relationships with their homelands, constitutes yet another unreported aspect of the problem5. With respect to the impact of changing climate on biodiversity, it is reported that more than half of the habitable surface of the plant earth has been significantly altered by humans, to the extent that plant and animal species are now on the verge of extinction6. It has also been revealed that more than 40% of the earth’s terrestrial components responsible for net primary productivity have been negatively altered through agricultural habitat destruction, pollution, invasive plant species, conversion and fragmentation, among others6,7. However, the more-worrisome dimensions of the impact of climate change are the reports of extreme weather, droughts and floods in places where none existed before, and the predicted disappearance and or submergence of many of the world’s most beautiful places in the next 50 years or so8. As city populations continue to grow, there are always great threats to urban ecosystems arising from fragmentation, conversion, and or outright bulldozing of urban forests, including the indigenous botanical gardens, due to the poorly-cultivated and poorly-implemented urban forest policies in many of the developing countries 9,10. Contrary to popular opinion in many parts of these countries, the indigenous botanical gardens are not only a vital part of the urban biotic community, but an essential element of urban green infrastructure, which help to recharge the depleted stock of plants and trees that are lost to the forces of urbanisation sweeping through the cities today. The indigenous botanical gardens as special, purpose-created and managed ecosystems, are supposed to constitute ready-made store-houses for re-stocking and replacing damaged or dead plants, as well as provide an assurance for the maintenance and sustenance of plant genetic diversity, which are required for effective ecosystem services and urban sustainability. It appears that the primary concern over the accelerated loss of plant species to urbanisation is the resulting loss of ecological functions on which man depends for his survival. If, therefore, the plants that are supposed to nurture humans in the cities are being cut down without conscious efforts to replace them, and the botanical gardens that ought to serve as store-houses for the replacement of damaged plants are, themselves not spared, it only portends a serious future catastrophic climate change. The basic questions therefore are: (i) how can the citizens, in deploying the forces of urbanisation, be made to respect and preserve the sanctity of the indigenous botanical gardens? (ii) how can the capacity of the local botanical gardens be strengthened for climate change mitigation and urban sustainability strategies? and, (iii) In what ways should the government
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incorporate the indigenous botanical gardens into its future plans for the sustainability of the State? This paper is set to address these issues. The aim of this study is to determine the extent to which the Ondo-State government has incorporated or co-opted the indigenous botanical gardens into its climate change mitigation and urban sustainability plans for the State. The objectives of the study are: (i) to determine the existing status of indigenous botanical gardens in Ondo-State; and (ii) the extent to which the State Government has incorporated them into its climate change mitigation and urban sustainability plans in the State. The study area is Ondo-State, Nigeria (Fig 1). Ondo-State is one of the thirty-six states of Nigeria. It is located in the South-Western part of the country. Ondo-State has a population of 3, 441,02420. The State covers a land area of 15,500sq kilometres and has abundant forest resources as well as agricultural crops, which include cocoa, cashew, and palm produce, among others. It also has large quantities of crude oil and mineral resources some of which are granite, columbite and marble. Ondo-State State also has some medium-scale industries, such as ceramics and cocoa processing industries. The State also has in addition many primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions within its domain. However, the spate of urbanisation in the State’s major towns has resulted in the wanton destruction of trees, which ought to provide the needed cooling effect the cities need. Part of the effects of illegal destruction of trees and other urban ecosystems is the recent bulldozing a few months ago of a local, formerly-popular horticultural garden, where people used to purchase flowers and other seedlings for planting purposes. Although, the Ondo-State Government has commenced the implementation of a series of climate change mitigation and urban sustainability projects such as massive tree planting, urban rehabilitation and redevelopment, as well as road-widening, however, a lot more can be achieved if the State Government involves the indigenous botanical gardens in the exercise, rather than making it a solo effort as is the practice at present.
Figure 1. Map of Africa showing the position of Nigeria.
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Figure 2. Map of Nigeria showing the position of Ondo State.
2. Literature Review
Climate change could be defined as the long-term alteration or change in weather pattern of any place21, or a long-term shift or alteration in the dominant pattern of climate of any location22. Experts have argued convincingly that it is the long-term accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of the developed and the developing world that is responsible for changes in weather and climate. However, greenhouse gases are composed of rising air, gases and fumes, which are trapped in the atmosphere, and produce great heat and stress on the city and its surrounding environment. Other components include water vapour, ozone, nitrous oxide, and methane and carbon dioxide23. Climate change is, therefore, associated with long-term changes in weather, which produce characteristics and results that have never been experienced before. Human beings in general are accused as the major cause of much of the global warming, through actions that discharge large quantities of carbon-dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. Such actions include his extractive activities and the burning of fossil fuels24. Although the developed countries are often fingered as the major culprits behind the factors that eventually lead to climate change, through the flaring of noxious gases and fumes into the atmosphere from high-tech industrial and commercial developments, the developing countries cannot also be spared, despite their low-level of technological development because of deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels. While the opinion of the scientific community on climate change represents the judgment of experts regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring, its causes and consequences, both potential and actual, are real rather than theoretical. Consequently, there is, more than ever before, a congruence of opinions among individual scientists, universities, research centres and laboratories, that the global climate system is indisputably warming and that humans, perhaps, are responsible for more than 90% of it through activities that further concentrate the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere25. From scientific reports, the actual and projected estimates of the global temperature have continued to rise by 0.80 °C (1.40 F) since 188026 until now, and resulting thereby the in observed
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temperature anomalies in many places27. According to the United States’ National Space Administration, the quantities of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere are higher than they were 400,000 years ago, and that these have now risen to over 400 parts per million (ppm)28. Similarly, it is also reported that the world has witnessed unprecedented rise in atmospheric carbon concentration from 280 parts per million volumes (ppmv) at the beginning of the century to 389 parts per million volumes (ppmv) in 201029. Although these estimates vary, they however point to the fact that the world’s atmospheric carbon is getting higher by the day. The composition of greenhouse gasses in the United States, for example, reveals that energy-related carbon dioxide is 5,825.5(or 82%), methane 605.1 (8.8%), nitrous oxide, 378.6 (5.4%), hydrofluorocarbons, 157.6(2.2%), while carbon dioxide,108.8 (15%)30. It should be noted, however that, these constituents vary from place to place, depending on location, latitude and longitude, and level of economic and technological prosperity, and atmospheric mixing, among others. In another dimension, the global sectorial allocation of the contributions of different sectors to greenhouse gas emissions and hence global warming, indicates that energy supply from automobiles appears to take the greatest share of 26%, while industry takes 19%, forestry (17%), agriculture (14%), transportation (13%), residential (8%), and commercial (3%)31, respectively. In a nutshell, it appears from these estimates that there is no single human activity, ranging from as little as the electrical lighting of a bulb, or a minute call from a cell phone, to the highly-disturbing, supersonic sounds of the aircraft, that does not contribute to global warming and climate change.
2.1 Statement of the Problem
Man derives a lot of benefits from the existence of living plants and the natural environments around him. These benefits, which can be collectively called ecosystems services, comprise of provisioning (food and fibre), regulating (nitrogen fixation), supporting (pollinating), and cultural (tourism), services 11, 12. Apart from this broad grouping, the benefits of living plants include moderating temperature, reducing solar radiation and the impact of climate change13, acting as natural air filters to reduce urban health hazards13, providing shade and shelter13, providing physiological and psychological restoration for city inhabitants14, and repaying our “carbon debt”15 among others. However, the role of botanical gardens extends a little deeper to include, acting as store-houses for re-stocking and resuscitating damaged plants species, providing mechanisms for plant conservation and genetic diversity, as well as providing environmental, aesthetic and recreational values to urban residents, which could be summarized under nutrition, healthcare, poverty alleviation and community welfare16. As important as the botanical gardeners are, however, only a scanty attention is paid to their role in the State. Besides, there has been no coherent effort to study and document their operations, or link them with government’s climate change mitigation and urban sustainability agendas. To date, no serious study exists on the status of indigenous botanical gardens in the State to act as a springboard for any worthwhile academic study. Yet, preserving and strengthening them is germane to
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retaining and transmitting indigenous ethno-botanical values and knowledge systems of plant conservation, that have been in existence before the advent of modern conservation science17. More importantly, too, the need for Nigeria (and her constituent States) to implement the Sustainable Development Goal 13 on Climate Change18, through the planting of trees and the lowering of atmospheric Carbon in cities, is imperative. By my definition, the local or indigenous botanical gardens are gardens set up by native retired, unemployed, or freelance persons, either for profit or for interest, dealing in native (and exotic plants, if available), but lacking, in most cases, the scientific or educational persuasions of the standard botanical gardens. I contend here that without improving on the knowledge and practices of the indigenous operators, it may be difficult to get them fully mainstreamed into the business of re-greening and re-constructing the damage done by urbanization in the State’s cities. Enhancing the capacity of the indigenous botanical farmers will also help to conserve foreign exchange from the import of exotic plants, while also preventing the menace of invasive plant species that is threatening Nigeria’s biological diversity today19.
2.2 Methodology
The methods used for this study include oral (face to face), as well as telephone interviews with eleven (11) of the botanical garden operators in the three geopolitical zones of the State, as well as government officials in charge of the State’s Horticultural Centre, (the equivalent of a botanical garden), in the State. Published information on the existing registered botanical gardens in Nigeria was also used. To complement these sources, personal visits were paid to some of the botanical gardens to assess their present status and the challenges they face. The information extracted was converted to tables and charts for ease of understanding and comparison.
2.3 Greenhouse Gases, Climate Change and the City
It appears that one of the best documented evidences of greenhouse gases and global warming is its impact on cities. Scientific evidences continue to assert that the accumulation of greenhouse gases over cities, due to albedo effect and the trapping of rising gases, is responsible for the urban heat island effect on city inhabitants32. Urban heat islands (UHIs) are pockets of elevated temperatures in and around the cities, as compared to the lower temperatures recorded in their outlying suburbs or rural areas. Urban heat island (UHI) is often reported to be due to the alteration of the energy budget parameters in the cities, land use and land cover, increase in city sizes, reduced percolation, reduction in vegetal cover and green spaces, and the trapping of hot, rising air within the wide-spread, high-rise buildings33. Apart from the threat of global climate change on cities, their inhabitants also suffer from poor air quality, increasing incidence or mortality from heat-stroke, cardiovascular and other air-borne diseases, and from the loss of green space, biodiversity and ecosystem functions, which negatively impact energy budget. Climate change also causes financial
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damage too; its financial effect can just be as damaging as the physical ones, as expenditures to correct the impact of unexpected storms, flooding and drought, can lead to unimaginable disruptions in business operations and city budgetary costs32. From the above, it is evident that biodiversity has been falling, and if climate change and anthropogenic disturbance will continue, therefore, a strong justification exists for the strengthening of the indigenous botanical gardens, not only to stabilise threatened plant species by replacing them and improving agricultural practices, but also to ensure the inter-generational existence of valuable plants for human survival. The loss of biodiversity and the need to reverse this trend through the botanical gardens is one of the wisest decisions that man can take to further secure his existence on planet earth. The option of the botanical gardens is one of the ways to anticipate and tame the climatic vulnerabilities that the future holds for cities, since the smart cities are now moving out of the seemingly-old, climate change mitigation and adaptation paradigms, and opting for resilience towards unexpected future climatic changes.
2.4 Climate Change and City Sustainability
The term, sustainability, has come to be applied today both as a literary and a technical jargon. The World Commission on Environment and Development (now the Brundtland Commission), defines sustainable development as the ability of the present generation to use or exploit today’s resources without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs34. City sustainability, which is an outflow of this basic concept, implies the adoption by city administrators, of measures aimed at creating smart and efficient cities that will be conducive for the promotion of and revitalisation of the health, environmental, economic, social and psychological dimensions of a city. A further explanation of this concept lists the three basic characteristics of a sustainable city, which are (i) awareness about the impact of its development on itself, its inhabitants and other regions; (ii) accountability and responsibility; and (iii) economy, ecology and social35. Therefore, the botanical gardens can be a good resource to the city in helping to achieve environmental sustainability for the citizens.
2.5 The Role of Botanical Gardens
The Botanical Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) defines a botanical garden as any “institution holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education”36. However, Mueller, as cited by Wall, emphasises the independence of botanical garden as an institution existing for scientific ends, which is dedicated to the acquisition and dissemination of botanical knowledge37. According to the Botanical Gardens International, the following criteria must be fulfilled before a garden can be so addressed. The criteria include the following, among others: it must be relatively permanent, scientifically-based, cultivate the habit of proper documentation of its plants, ability to monitor the plants in its collection, ability to embark on adequate labelling of the plants, be open to the
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public, be able to communicate information to other gardens, institutions and the public, get involved in continuous exchange of seeds and other materials with other research institutions, and continues to undertake and sustain scientific and technical research programmes in plant taxonomy36. But as important as these characteristics are, however, many so-called botanical gardens in the developing countries may not meet these criteria, because the factors which shape the botanical gardens and their destiny, include institutional history, opportunity, and availability of resources16.
Figure 3. Typical examples of high standard Botanical Gardens.
The role of botanical gardens as purpose-created and managed ecosystems include: acting as an interface between man and nature in the provision of economically-valuable, i.e. edible, medicinal and ornamental plants, and providing genetic resources for the stability, survival and improvement of man. Consequently, the loss of botanical gardens often constitutes a major challenge to biodiversity, which is also a major threat to human survival, developmental goals and progress for generations16. Plants are therefore of a vital essence to the world’s biodiversity, and an essential resource for human welfare. In spite of this awareness, however, it appears that a crisis point has now been reached, as an estimated 60,000 to 100,000 living plant species are now being threatened world-wide by extinction37. Yet, it is reported that approximately half of all synthetic drugs, including 10 of the 25 best-selling drugs in the US, have a natural original traceable to plants38. With respect to botanical gardens, however, the advantages include the preservation of economically-valuable plant species, creation of a friendly and secure environment, improvement in the beauty and aesthetics of settlements and environments, restoration and repatriation of rare or threatened plant species, serving as a city’s store of green resources, provision of medicinal and therapeutic advantages, and providing avenues for education and enlightenment on the stewardships of man to nature, among others.
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2.6 Urbanisation and the Local Botanical Gardens
Urbanisation is defined as the spread of settlements over a particular territory, or the living of a large proportion of its population in cities39. Consequently, the role of man in directly modifying the environment, particularly in controlling plant richness, evenness and diversity, is very well documented. Man is, for instance, reputed for his ability to alter biological communities in his decision to write and re- write the templates that determine the kinds of plants that could grow at particular locations and times. Such templates have not only altered plants’ biotic communities, but have also decreased the resilience of urban ecosystems and their functions. In the Patagonian landscape, which is one of the world’s most fragile ecosystems, for example, studies have confirmed that species richness and diversity often contribute to the attenuation of drought effects40. But since plants always constitute the prime targets for elimination in the urban development process, their ability to protect the city from environmental stress becomes severely limited. As the impact of urbanisation continues, the indigenous botanical gardens are not also spared any sacred existence, even for their role as custodians of native or local knowledge of raising indigenous plants, or for their possession of vast cultural and psychological resources that could be harnessed. Notwithstanding, botanical gardens ought to be respected for a sense of peaceful co-existence and love, and for their tangible and intangible resources that man depends upon16. Botanical gardens also play important ecological, environmental, scientific, aesthetic, and recreational roles. As important to humans as the botanical gardens are in the contemporary era, however, the structure of botanical gardens often depends on its location, which is influenced by the prevailing climatic, economic, socio-ecological, as well as ethno- cultural and technological conditions. It appears a lot of these factors negatively interact to define the present configuration or status of most of the indigenous botanical gardens in the study area. Other factors that may also help to emphasise its local, regional or national importance, may have to do with the level of development which may, invariably, define the extent of awareness and sensitivity to the value of botanical gardens, among other reasons. The lack of understanding among many of the State’s stakeholders about the remote and immediate connections between botanical gardens and climate change mitigation, may constitute a major policy plank for the government to build up the limited citizens’ awareness and support towards achieving its city sustainability and resilience-driven goals. Other areas in which botanical gardens are also related to major aspects of human well-being is seen in the historical linkage of plants to man’s earliest travails for survival during his evolutionary phases of development.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Administrative
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3.1.1 Distribution and Status of Botanical Gardens in Ondo-State.
The botanical gardens cannot, strictly speaking, be called gardens, if the laid-down criteria stipulated by the BGCI are rigidly applied. For example, most of the gardens operate on temporary sites, located either near road sides, or along river banks, where they are easily affected by road-widening activities, or by flooding from adjoining rivers. The only exceptions are the Ondo-State Horticultural Centre, The Federal University of Technology, Akure and the Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Parks and Gardens, which are on permanent sites, and are deeply sheltered from roads or rivers. The lack of permanent locations for the activities of the other botanical gardens does not give room for meaningful contributions to the State’s sustainability plans.
3.1.2 Non-incorporation into town planning and other environmental laws.
Another related finding, which probably is a precursor to the first, is that the State’s botanical gardens are neither explicitly packaged as a town planning issue to warrant compulsory incorporation into the State’s town planning agenda, nor specifically built into any environmental law of the State. The only opportunity for their existence lies in the existing government regulation on the provision of adequate setbacks to roads and river courses, where majority of them are to be found. Currently, the botanical garden operators have no special rights of existence to secure their present locations against the unpredictable but seemingly more- powerful public interest issues, or other socioeconomic forces warranting road-widening.
3.1.3 Non-implementation of standard botanical gardens’ criteria
Most of the botanical gardens do not execute the core mandates of standard botanical gardens. They mainly operate as orchards with a bias for economic gains rather than for research and education. This is expected, since most of the farmers are retirees, unemployed or non-professionals. The absence of a scientific orientation or basis for most of their operations appears to constitute a fundamental deficiency in the operation of botanical gardens in the State.
3.1.4 Insufficient capital to finance operations
Most operators do not have access to capital to be able to foster meaningful improvements in the status of their gardens. The lack of financial capacity earlier reported by Borokini41 is, till today, unresolved. The physical appearances of these gardens during the visits confirmed this factor. Also, the interviews conducted on three gardens, physically, and two, on phone, further confirmed this factor. There is a particular operator, LUCADO who, however, allows his garden to be used by students of the Federal University of Technology, Akure, as an outlet for the study of Botany as revealed in his response.
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3.1.5 Inadequate awareness about the value and role of botanical gardens
One of the perennial problems of indigenous botanical gardens in the study area is lack of awareness about the remote, but important link, between urban botanical gardens and climate mitigation. In particular, the role of the botanical gardens as store-houses for replenishing damaged plant species is yet to be fully appreciated.
3.1.6 Lack of healthy interactions among the botanical gardens is a great limitation on their activities.
The indigenous botanical gardens do not have anything in common with either the State’s Horticultural Centre, or with FUTA or RUGIPO, since no platform connects them on any issue. Under this condition, there is no way a better knowledge of existing best practices can be gained and or shared.
3.2 Technical
The technical problems are those connected with compliance or otherwise of the standard criteria set by the Botanical Gardens Conservation International, for the recognition of a botanical garden. Sifting nine (9) out of the over a dozen criteria set by this body, it is discovered that none of the gardens under reference actually performed well on any of the scales as revealed in figure 1. With reference to the core mandates expected of a standard botanical garden, which include being on permanent location, being science-based, and regular conduct of research, and publications, all recorded very bad performances. With these performances, it is easy to imagine why the State Government might not want to relate so much with them because they appear not to have so much to offer. Viewed from another angle however, the lack of executive capacity in the botanical gardeners may constitute an incentive for government to positively take some interest in their plight and help them. The most visible implication of the technical deficiency of the local botanical gardens lies in their inability to contribute meaningfully to climate change mitigation and urban sustainability in their present form. This demands that the government should see the issue beyond the narrow confines of climate change mitigation and urban sustainability, and embrace the multiplier effects that adequate training will bring, not only in helping government to meet its environmental sustainability goals, but in identifying and assisting a people in dire need of appropriate training and empowerment to help themselves, the environment, and the State. Without any doubts, the issues to this approach are quite enormous, but they are not insurmountable, as long as government can muster enough political will, while also using the opportunity of the enlightenment to elicit support on the need for partnership to sustain the environment for the collective good. The table and the chart below depict the score cards of the botanical gardens, and these further illuminate the discussion as it is cast.
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Table 1. Compliance with Assessment Criteria by Sampled Indigenous Botanical Gardens in Ondo-State. S/ Locatio Numbe Owner- Perm Scienc Labeli Resear Publ Lin Ex- See Capaci Sourc N n r of ship anent e- ng ch i- k- situ d ty es botanic locati based catio ages collec exc buildin of al on n t- h- g seeds garden ions ang s e sample d Akure 1 Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 2 Akure 1 Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 3 Akure 1 Private 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 4 Ondo 1 Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ADP 5 Owo 2 Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 6 Ikare 1 Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 7 Okitipu 1 Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lagos pa 8 FUTA 1 Public 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 9 RUGIP 1 Public 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 ADP O 10 Horti- 1 Public 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 Benin cultural and Centre. Lagos Total 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 Sampl ed Total 4/11 3/11 3/11 3/11 0/11 1/11 0/11 1/1 1/11 Score 1 Total 100.0 36.4 27.3 27.3 27.3 0.0 9.1 0.0 9.1 9.1 Percen t Score Source: Author’s Fieldwork, 2016
FUTA: Federal University of Technology Akure. RUGIPO: Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo Parks and Gardens. ADP: Agricultural Development Programme;
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Figure 2. Assessment of compliance of botanical gardens to the BGCI criteria in Ondo-State.
3.3 Policy Implications
A lot of policy implications are embedded in the nature of the problems that the indigenous botanical gardens face, particularly with the desire to get them involved in climate change mitigation and urban sustainability agendas in Ondo State. The first step in this direction however, lies in the recognition of the goal to be achieved: that is, using the botanical gardens to restore and regenerate dead or damaged plant species. The following policy measures become necessary therefore: i. There is the need to incorporate the botanical gardens into the State’s environmental or urban planning framework, however sketchy this may be at the beginning; ii. Government needs to identify and strengthen the local gardens through generous loans and subsidies, capacity building and patronage, and embrace them into its sustainability programmes for the State; iii. Government should encourage the establishment of more indigenous botanical gardens that will be close to the people, in order to extend government programmes on climate change and urban sustainability to the nooks and crannies of the State, through regular patronage from customers; iv. Government should strengthen its own botanical gardens to make them fully operational or functional, and to lead the way in research and dissemination of the results to other botanical gardens; v. Government should create awareness in the citizens about the role of plants (and, in particular, the role of botanical gardens), in the environment; vi. Above all, government should make the botanical garden operators partners-in-progress in its efforts to secure the State from the undesirable impacts of future climate change.
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4. Conclusion
As the spate of urbanisation continues, astute city management demands that the future impact of climate change should be sufficiently anticipated. Pitiably, however, many cities of the developing world are often caught in the web of unpreparedness arising from late responses to signals of on-coming environmental problems. Regrettably too, it also appears that majority of these countries’ stakeholders do not yet fully understand the connections among the important city elements that make a city liveable without adequate enlightenment. This calls for urgent policy measures on environmental awareness in the first place. This study has identified the need for incorporating indigenous botanical gardeners as one of the important drivers of climate change mitigation and urban sustainability in Ondo-State, but the lack of awareness about these roles, has contributed to their estrangement from the process. Other problems that may need to be urgently addressed include the lack of incorporation of the local botanical gardens into any definitive environmental or physical (urban) planning framework, as well as the shortage of funds to boost their operations. Coincidentally, the local botanical gardens represent one of the many important options that the State Government can take to tackle the problem of future climate change impacts. It is hoped that as the value of the indigenous botanical gardens becomes better appreciated through increased funding, education and enlightenment, more useful developmental roles will continue to be assigned to the State’s indigenous botanical gardeners in the years ahead.
References
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8. 10 Places to see before they disappear. Matadornetwork.com/life/10-places-to-see-disappear/ Last Accessed 4th May, 2016. 9. Choi, J.A. Cultivating urban forest polices in developing countries. Sustainable Development Law and Policy. 2010; 01(14):38. 10. Turner,W R; Nakamura T and M Dinetti. Global urbanization and the separation of humans from hature. Forum: Bioscience. 54(06):585-590. 11. Sarakhan J. and A. Whyte (Eds) Millennium ecosystem assessment. ecosystems and human well- being: synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. 2005. 12. Ecosystem Services – TEEB. www.teebweb.ord/resources/ecosystem-services/ Last Accessed 4th May, 2016. 13. Ephraim E.E and A.A. Mbina. The impact of greenery on the urban microclimate and environmental quality of Uyo metropolis, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Scholarly Journal of Scientific Research and Essay (SJSRE). 2014; 03(02): 22-27. 14. Thompson C.W; Roe J; Aspinall P; Mitchell R; Clow A and D. Miller. More green spaces is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2015; 105 (02): 221-229. 15. Owolabi, J.T and W.O. Adebayo. Economic and environmental benefit of trees in urban centre. Journal of Applied Chemistry (IOSR-JAC). 2012; 03 (02): 33-35. 16. Kuzevanor V; and S Sizykh. Botanical gardens resources: tangible and intangible aspects linking biodiversity and human well-being. Hiroshima Peace Science. 2006; 28: 113-134. 17. Adeniyi A.J. Plant conservation before science. African Botanical Gardens Network Bulletin No 7, August 2003. 18. SDG 13: Climate action goal 13 targets. Sustainable development goals: 17 goals to transform our world www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ climate-change-2/ Last Accessed 1st May, 2016. 19. Borokini T.I. Invasive plant species in Nigeria and their effects on biodiversity conservation: Short Communication. Tropical Conservation Science, 2011; 04(01): 103-110. 20. Facts and Figures on Ondo State. Published by Department of Research and Statistics, Ministry of Economic Planning and Budget, Akure, Ondo State. 2010 Edition. 21. Climate change in urban communities: Get informed and take action. Urban Environmental Programme. EPA Region 1. New England: 1-26 22. Ayoade J.O. as cited by Akpodiogaga P and O. Odjugo. Quantifying the cost of climate change impact in Nigeria: Emphasis on wind and rainstorms. Journal of Human Ecology. 2009; 28 (02): 93- 101.
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40. Gaitan J J; Bran D; Oliva G; Maestre, F. T; Aguiar M. R; Jobbagy E; Buono Gustavo Ferrante D; NakamatsuV; Ciari G; Salomone J and Massara V. Plant species richness and and shrub cover attenuate drought effects on ecosystem functioning across Patagonian rangelands. Biology Letters. 2014; 10: 1-4. 41. Borokini T I. Overcoming financial challenges in the management of botanical gardens in Nigeria: an overview. International Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2013; 02(02): 87-94.
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Research Article
Performative Culture: National Museum Akure as a Spectator of Cowry Head Cult in Akure Kingdom
Olufemi Timothy Ogunbode1, Abdulmallik Aminu2, Ezekiel Babatunde Ogunbode3
1National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Museums Department, Curatorial Unit, Akure, Ondo State. Nigeria. 2Model Learning Secondary School, Samaru, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria 3School of Environmental Technology, Department of Building, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State. Nigeria. Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t This study is to re-enact the past objects in the museum store that has been Article history kept mute over years due to the absence of an action that brings to limelight Received: 15/07/2017 exhibition in the museum practice. This action is what makes museum a Accepted: 05/08/2017 spectator and not a player. It is the art of researching into the unconscious past that is made conscious through continuous probing into the object in the museum store. This study is not really interested in the external visitors but the inner visitors (Museum Officers). Therefore, the Cowry Head Cult which is found in the store of the National Museum Akure in Akure Kingdom of Ondo Sculpture, Assemblage, State is studied. The art of spectating comes first before the art of playing that Being-Culture, Performative comes thereafter. There is no doubt that, the head was/is considered the most Culture important part of the human body by generations then and now. Thus, it is of great influence to the being of any culture in performance. This being of culture in performance, is a sample of critical visual interest; negative and positive attitude occupying spaces. This research emphasizes living heritage; intangible and tangible. There is no tangible heritage that could exist without the counterpart of the intangible vis-a-vice. Of course, one could argue that every being-culture in performance has an oral or performative background. Performative culture and the recognition of this intangible cultural heritage makes alive the thought of man in sculpture or in the tangible. This study has therefore considered Cowry Head Cult that makes National Museum Akure a Spectator. Thus, National Museum Akure is a spectator of Cowry Head Cult under the Assemblage Sculpture of Akure Kingdom being-culture in performance.
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1. Introduction Alexander (2004) opines that, performative is understood as the constitution of meaning through acts or practices. However, not all acts are necessarily performative; imitation may lack a constitutive effect on reality. Recently, certain researchers have described our whole culture as performative. Also, the 101 | P a g e
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performative research method observes, the conditions of meaning-production through detailed analysis of the social, spatial, structural, and physical conditions of the act, whether it is intentional or unintentional (Alexander, 2004). This paper negates the ideology of detached culture in all spheres, that is to say, separation of subject and object of a culture from the culture being of Cowry Head Cult in performance. Performance in this sense, is the probing into an object in National Museum’s store not the exhibition parse that comes thereafter. Therefore, information are gathered by Curator or Exhibition officer concerning an object in view. This ideology of detached subject and object of culture, for ages this has been a discourse in the traditional media, in the study of culture, against the Performative Culture of construct and interpretation. In addition, Performative Culture creates the being in every culture either as a Player or Spectator. Therefore, one thing is true, and every individual is a performer actively involved in the being-culture of any existence. Gadamer, (2011), articulates the mode of being of art, history and language in one of his works and emphasized them as cultural phenomena. So, in understanding the mode of being of culture in performance in this essay. It fits to follow Gadamer (2011) conceptual selection, which he developed, to articulate his understanding of art, history and language as dynamic change that retains the being in culture while in performance. Thus, all culture is a culture played and viewed by a being, the maker of the culture either in the past or in the present. Culture is playing and spectating of a being of the past then and past now, what keeps a being- culture is the cultural materials; tangible or intangible. In the opinion of this paper, Culture is limited to presenting itself as a being of spectator and player respectively. Also, its mode of being is self-presentation for post-production. Thus, visitors to the Museums Galleries, visit to observe the transformation that the being-culture has gone through in the past and now which can be in assemblage, casting, modelling, textile, and carving forms. In this mode of performance, Museum is the player in the performative culture, because of the visitor that has come to spectate the cultural objects on exhibition in the gallery. In other words, it is what the Museum plays that the visitor sees as being-culture. Moreover, when there is no Exhibition and the Museum is making plan to present a being-culture to the audience, the Museum stands as a Spectator in its strategy of what to select, how to arrange it and the theme that best fit the being-culture to be mounted for Exhibition as either permanent or temporary (Agarwala, 2011). On this note, this paper hangs on culture as a being and Museum as a spectator of the being of a culture. Nonetheless, Museum and visitor belong to the same culture of a being, spectator. But in order to save conflict, the level of engrossment in culture differs, based on the role of the mode of a being of a culture that is temporal and historical in the nature of a being-culture. Thus, the spectator of the play that has taken place in the past, is in itself would be player of the play that is continuing now in the being of a culture. So, it is in the Museum Practice, the usage of sculptural material at its disposal for spectating. The play of a
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being-culture is moral and ethical like the sittlichkeit of Hegel and ethos of Aristotle. This explains why a player has to be first a spectator and a spectator has to be a player thereafter. This is a permanent claim that always needs to be concretized as placed by being-culture to which we belong. Performative Culture here is a structure of the past then available for interpretation now (Agarwala, 2011). We all belong to a being- culture that is active always not a passive one. Belonging refers to the transcendental relationship between being and truth. Therefore, belonging is knowledge conceived as an element of being itself and not primarily as an activity of the subject according to Gadamer (2011). This article will concentrate on Cowry Head Cult an artefact made for the being Dada also known as Dreadlock in modern terms, it represents assemblage in pretence. Hence, Beauty makes an object pleasing to the spirits, the beauty of Cowry Head Cult appease the spirits of the being-culture of locks (Dada).
2.0. Concept clarified 2.1. Cultural Object Cultural object is a heritage which encompasses the entire corpus of national life of a community. In other words, UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 observes it as the manifestation of human ingenuity in the past or in the present as the case may be. This cultural object has the capacity or potential to contribute to our understanding or appreciation of human story which is an important part of continuing cultural tradition in a spiritual and emotional sense; positive and negative space. So, people their perceptions, values, and aspirations are therefore at the centre of cultural object, and movable cultural heritage is a cultural object of sculptural material too (Mumma, 2008). In addition, Ndoro and Kamamba (2008) observes that, in English speaking Africa perspective, cultural object according to the legislation of states is referred to as antiques. Also, cultural object is movable objects which include archaeological object of stone, wood, metal and other materials which depict the historical and cultural development of man from the earliest period till date. Also included in this category are human skeletal remains, both the fossilized remains of hominids and the skeletal remains of more recent populations (Ndoro and Kamamba, 2008).
2.2. Sculptural Material Artist Adolph ‘Ad’ Reinhardt an American, 1913–1967 once commented, ‘Sculpture is something you bump into when you back up to look at a painting.’ Despite Reinhardt's belief in the pre-eminence of painting relative to sculpture, three-dimensional works of art have withstood the test of time literally and figuratively (Getty, 2013). Sculpture according to Hugo Weber is a three-dimensional of human thoughts, emotions, and desire. Sculptural material is a work of art that has the features of three-dimensional or two- dimensional art creation especially by assemblage, carving, modelling, and casting at the same time a cultural movable heritage. In other words, Frances (2000) claims that, it is a value depicting the culture in a
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mild way in order to safeguard the antique of the object depicted in sculpture, in form of line, volume, plane, colour and texture. Also, it is information made available about an object that is composed, considering the research made about images.
2.3. Performative Culture In the opinion of Jain (2008), the aim of the performative approach to curating is to actively structure and mediate the relationship between art and its audience, as well as to reconfigure the relation between the curator and the artist. Performative curatorial practices adapted the working models of relational aesthetics, inasmuch as the outcome and the processes of performative curating are likewise realized through the active participation of the artist (player) and the viewer (spectator) Furthermore, the relational in contemporary art is also a form that calls the normal modes of exhibition production and display into question (Jain, 2008). Thus, performance refers not only to performance of art (which is still often at a distance from not only the larger art institutions but which has also been adapted by institutions by means of relational aesthetics) but to a visible performativity. This performativity is visible with regards to curatorial conceits; to strategic interventions into exhibition spaces, collections, expected and projected roles of audience and more. This curator is acting performatively, the store itself is presenting a performance to a spectator. Performative culture describes the speech act theory in a cultural objects and sculptural materials that constitutes an act of some kind that is, cultural objects and sculptural materials are operational in their attitude, with an observation that many cultural objects and sculptural materials do not merely describe reality but also have an effect on reality as being interpreted by the curator. Cultural and Sculptural objects are the performance of some orate acts rather than a report of their performance. In other words, it is the climax of art that resides in the functions of art works because it deals with the interpretation of the objects. Thus, the symbol of art works can also be said to epitomize the aesthetic, religion, ethical and social values of a society (Gadamer, 2011). In addition, the research has observed performative culture as a structural- functional ideology that reflects the management of negative and positive space of an object either tangible or intangible in an existence with experiences as a being-culture.
3.0. Historical Background of Akure kingdom Akure kingdom like any other town in yoruba kingdom is traced to Oduduwa, the ancestor of the Yoruba race and to Ile-Ife (the home for expansion) the ancestral home of Yoruba (Afrifalo, 1991). It is a possibility that Akure is one of the oldest towns in Yorubaland because it came into being around 1100s. Akure kingdom lies 311 kilometres north east of Lagos, the commercial centre of Nigeria. River Ijala or Ala river surrounds Akure town and which is buried in myths and traditions. Akure Kingdom boasts of 47 kings that had emerged and ruled. In the immediate past, it spread over three Local Government Councils; Akure
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north and south and Ifedore before and during the reign of Oba Olofintade Adesida Afunbiowo I (1897- 1957) (Ige, 2005). This kingdom is not too far from the Iwo-Eleru site at Ifedore, Local Government, where human fossils were discovered, dating 9000 B.C. Akure kingdom is now the state capital of Ondo state which came into existence in 1976 (Arifalo, 1991).
4.0. Overview of Museum in Nigeria Museum is buried in the Greek myth of the nine muses, the daughter to Zeus and Mnemosyne. It is attached to the sanctuary dedicated to these Muses in its original sense. The Greek word for Museum is ‘Museion’. The Muses were charged with these commands; to protect and encourage; art and science, poetry, music, dance and history of the Greece. These Muses are good dancers and singers which led to the relaxation of humanity from sorrow and anxiety. In the later years it became place where man’s mind found rest and aloofness from day’s stress and a place for inspiration. It also became a place for learning of encyclopedic normative science of human conduct; voluntary or involuntary. This is because the Muses were credited with great deal of imagination and infinite memory. This ideology was first practiced in Alexandria in 290 BC. According to the American association of Museums, it is a non-profit permanent established institution not existing primarily for the purpose of conducting temporary exhibition exempt from the federal and state income taxes. Also, ICOM came with her own definition of Museum which worked on the American Association of Museums and other definitions in 1951, 1971 and 1974. The 1974 definition as at today is relevant to us as far this study is concerned. The definition goes thus; it is a non-profit making permanent institution in the service of society and its development and open to the public which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits for the purpose of study, education and enjoyment, material evidence of man and his environment (Okpoko, 2006). The emergence of modern Museums in Nigeria can be traced to 1927 during the colonial rule, during this period Kenneth Murray an art teacher in British service was appointed to advice the government on the effect of colonial education system on local arts. In the process of making researches to give response to the question posed he gathered some of these Nigerian Cultural Heritages which later led to his advice to the government to establish Museum and make law that will guide against illegal exportation of these Heritages in 1933 which was punctuated by the World War II. On 28th July, 1943 Nigerian Antiquities Services was established in response to Kenneth Murray and Duckwork agitation. In 1946 Braunholtz J.H a keeper in the Department of Ethnography of British Museum was sent to Nigeria (Lagos) by the Colonial Office to advice the government on the preservation of Nigerian Heritages. In 1947 a trained Archaeologist B.E.B Fagg was appointed as Archaeologist and Assistant Surveyor of Antiquities which led to the establishment of Jos Museum in 1952 and excavated objects are preserved till today in the Museum. It was in 1953 that a
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law was enacted to protect the Heritages of Nigerian Arts through the Antiquities Ordinance No. 17. This automatically led to the institution of National Department of Antiquities and other laws; Antiquities Commission (1954), Export Permit (1957), Antiquities Amendments (1969), Prohibited Transfers (Decree No. 9 of 1974). In nut shell, the National Department of Antiquities led to the establishment of Museums in Nigeria. In 1979 there was review of the law guiding Nigerian Heritages which made possible Decree No. 77 that negated the National Antiquities Commission and Department of Antiquities for National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM). Since then the government has been maintaining Museums in places such as Esie (1943) Jos (1952), Lagos (1956), Ife (1954/6), Oron (1959) Benin (1960), Port Harcourt (1970), Ibandan (1970), Enugu (1970), Kano (1970), Sokoto (1970), Maiduguri (1970), Kaduna (1985), Calabar (1986), Oyo (1987) , Owo (1987), Akure (1988), Kogi (1989), Minna (1989), Ilorin, Abeokuta (1989), Birnin-Kebbi (1993),and Katsina (1990) among others as at present we have over thirty Museums in Nigeria which spread to almost all the thirty-six states and the federal capital as the headquarter of the museums under this caption NCMM. This was instituted by the Decree No.77 of 1979, Part 2, Item 3 of the concurrent list of 1999 constitution under the control of a Director-General. The commission is one of the Parastatals in Nigerian Federation under the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and National Orientation. The general application of Museums in other states of the world is also workable in Nigeria as a place where the Heritages of the generations before ours are preserved and conserved. These materials to be cared for are got either through excavated objects or contemporary sculptural objects. The word Museum in Nigeria is used interchangeably with the National Commission for Museums and Monuments but in the organization of the Commission, Museum is a Department meaning Museum in Nigeria could be holistic encompassing the entire Six Departments; Administration and Supplies, Finance and Accounts, Museums, Monuments, Heritages and Sites, Research, Planning and Publication, Educational Services and Training in the Commission (Okpoko, 2006)
4.1. National Museum Akure The National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Akure is instituted along Deji’s Palace. The National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Akure was established in 1987 and took off officially in 1988 and is sited in the former Local government Council Office. It is also called National Museum Akure (National Museum Records, 2014).
4.3. Relevance of the National Museum Akure • It interprets the society’s objects, tradition, custom, values, interest, belief and institution among others • It preserves the society heritage both in moveable and immovable setup
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• It maintains the society the statoscope of a living society by reenacting the known facts of the past • It is a subset of society due to the link, it provides to the public as exhibitor, educator, entertainer, reenactor and instructor among others • It finds its living in the society through performative culture because the society supply all that the museum needs for her existence.
5.0. Performative Culture: Cowry Head Cult Makes National Museum Akure A Spectator In achieving this goal, one of the techniques of sculpture will be considered in this analysis of the study which includes assemblages, texture, line, volume and colour. The technique to consider is the dimension of Assemblage Sculpture. Sample of this is from the Store of National Museum Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. From observation over the years, it is discovered from the store of the museum that, Cowry Head Cult is an assembled sculpture of a three-dimensional object with length, width and depth. Figures 1 presents a full display of the cowry head cult in the National Museum Akure’s Store. The figure illustrates the cowry head cult four components; cowry, rope or twine, three sea stones and white flat plate The label of the three dimensional object of cowry head cult in the National Museum Akure
Figures 1: A full display of the Cowry Head Cult in the National Museum Akure’s Store
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Figures 2: An enlarged display of Cowry Head Cult in the National Museum Akure’s Store showing the primary three (3) components: Cowry, Rope or Twine, three (3) Sea Stones only.
In addition, it is in a balance which has negative and positive spaces which evolved into emotional tone or visual interest (Agarwala, 2011). Thus, Sculpture can also transform physical spaces; negative and positive into art. Art is skill or expertise in societies’ agreed symbolic values. Also, Performative Culture is a cultural object that is considered acceptable to a social system because it is a skill and an agreed symbolic value of a social system being of her ingenuity in choice making for structural and psychological functionalism. The social dimension of National Museum Akure as spectator of assembled Cowry Head Cult made the art that reenacted the dreadlock belief for appeasement to the gods; Ori (Head) and wealth. Therefore, it is an instrument that enhances the performatory culture for an equilibrium social order in the 21st century Museum Practice most especially in Nigeria and the world at large.
5.1. Cowry Shell an Instrument in the Performative Culture in Akure Kingdom Cowry (Kauri) shell is a beautiful white shell of an invertebrate ocean animal with glossy shell, a tropical invertebrate sea animal that has a glossy brightly colored shell with a long central toothed opening. Cowry is small gastropod mollusks commonly found in the Pacific and Indian oceans. It was once used as currency in many Asian and African kingdoms. Thus, it belongs to the family Cypraeidae, and collected from a seashore which has flat side with a longitudinal slit and smooth rounded side. Consequently, Cowry shells have been used for decoration and formerly used extensively as currency in Asia and Africa and the scientific name for Money Cowry is Cypraea moneta. It is this type that is used in the making of the cowry head cult in the National Museum Akure’s store (www.africaimport.com, 2012).
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5.2. Material Components of Cowry Head Cult in National Museum Akure’s Store Sculpture frequently occupies space in the same way as humans occupy space, man can identify with sculpture in a multiple different ways than with painting. Unlike painting, which traditionally represents an illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat surface, sculpture actually inhabits the space shared by the viewer or spectator. Sculpture is also a concrete being, one can actually touch it and feel its various textures and forms. More so, looking at sculpture is a dynamic activity: the work changes as the viewer moves through space and time (Getty, 2013). The four (4) components of the Cowry Head Cult which made National Museum Akure, Ondo State a Spectator include these; • Cowry Shell, • Rope or Twine, • White flat Plate and • Three Sea Stones (National Museum Akure Store, 2013).
5.2. Practical and Functional perspective of Cowry Head Cult in Performative Culture The functions of Cowry Head Cult are as follows; • Divination, • Appeasement of gods, • Replication of the Dada being-culture, • Ocean Spirit of wealth and earth, • The goddess’s protection, • Power of destiny and prosperity and • It taught the story of humility and respect (www.africaimport.com, 2012)
6.0. Analysis of National Museum Akure, Cowry Head Cult as Spectator in Akure Kingdom 6.1. National Museum Akure: A Spectator of Cowry Head Cult in Akure Kingdom Before dwelling on Museum as a Spectator of Cowry Head Cult, it will be good to define Museum within the scope of this study. Therefore, Museum is a building or institution where objects of artistic, historical, or scientific importance and value are kept, studied, and put on display. Besides Museum is an institution dedicated to helping people understand and appreciate the natural world, the history of civilizations, and the record of humanity’s artistic, scientific, and technological achievements. Museums collect objects of scientific, aesthetic, or historical importance; care for them; and study, interpret, and exhibit them for the purposes of public education and the advancement of knowledge (Ellen, 2008). In other words, Museum is defined as a place in which the past is remembered not only by the inclusion or exclusion of what is exhibited but also by how the past is interpreted within particular ideological frameworks. In addition,
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according to the ICOM’s definition of Museum, cited in Hudson, (1977), it is an institution which serves the community. It acquires preserves, makes intelligible and, as an essential part of its function, presents to the general public the material evidence concerning man and nature. It does this in such a way as to provide opportunities for study, education and enjoyment (Okpoko, 2006).
6.2. Justification of National Museum, Akure a Spectator in respect to Cowry Head Cult in Akure Kingdom Simon (2012), Performative curatorial strategies were emboldened by the biennial boom of the 1990s, offering more opportunities to experiment with new formats beyond the bureaucratic bounds of the museum. However, many practitioners of this type of nomadic curatorial attitude became affiliated as directors with different European institutions, providing the opportunity to elaborate on the experience within the frame of ‘new institutionalism (Simon 2012).’ • The activity of a being of a culture is past and the National Museum Akure tries to awake the paste consciousness of the Cowry Head Cult and its intangible values through exhibition in the gallery in modern day terms with critical construct and interpretation before the visitor arrives. • Cowry Head Cult is a religious material that initiates sacrifices which National Museum Akure cannot do, but can watch and imitates its processes for detailed understanding for the sake of posterity. • The critical study of the object of Cowry Head Cult by National Museum Akure is to identify its material components in terms of functions, techniques and types of sculpture, in this wise the Museums is a spectator. • The orientation of National Museum Akure as the custodian of cultural and sculptural materials makes it a spectator • The being of the sculpture, Cowry Head Cult is Dada which means without this Dada there cannot be this object that represents a being of a culture of appeasement to the god of the Head Cult. • National Museum Akure is not the real actor of the play of the being in space and time, she only tries to make up for it on exhibition. But as long as the Cowry Head Cult object remains in the store, she is a spectator. • The development of National Museum Akure has its place in safeguarding the cultural objects and sculptural materials by subjecting it for objective criticism and documentation in a digitalized format which make do with acceptable representations of the owners’ ideology for an ideal preservation and conservation where necessary and among others. • It is performatively conceived exhibitions that are self-reflective and employ experimental methods. Talks and discussions can be incorporated into this project as artworks, while artworks may take the form of
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exhibition decor, lighting, or labeling design and gallery furniture. Other works move around, are added, taken away or are placed outside of the institution. • It is Performative curating ideology, thus, it is interested in: dialogue (a curatorial praxis that develops together with artistic practices and reacts to former curatorial strategies); transparency (Schleiben, 2014).
7.0. Conclusion The study purposed at finding out the performative culture potentials in Cowry Head Cult of Akure Kingdom that is preserved in store of National Museum, Akure, Ondo state, Nigeria. One of the findings is that Cowry Head Cult like other objects are indispensable to the understanding of the tangible and intangible cultural values of the assembled object of any society. However, from viewpoint of performance, it is the spectator role that National Museum Akure played first thereafter the player’s role. In this paper the museum has played the role spectator because, she awakes the dead past which the external visitors can not appreciate if not appreciated by the museum practitioners as a spectator (inner visitor). Also, this paper has captured a life that neglects detached art for the study of culture of any kind. In other words, this has helped in the need for the reawakening of the sculptural materials in her custody as an assemblage that make museum a spectator or player. Thus, exhibition is what changes the level of any museum in the world either as a player or a spectator. Therefore, if museum is not interested in the being of a spectator, it must move its objects out of the store now for the role of a player. But as long as it is still in the museum’s store for keeping sake and for interpretation that will not see the light of exhibition, Museum remains a spectator and cannot go beyond this level no matter her effort in the preservation of culture. Exhibition is what makes National Museum Akure reflects its structural function as either player or spectator of any object in the museum custody while she prepares object for final exhibition either temporary or permanent. The Performative Culture could still prove to be a vital curatorial method. It may be practiced best as an independent agent, frequently collaborating with artists and occasionally with institutions, with the curator taking the same amount of existential risk as artists typically do, and inventing new methods of mediation.
REFERENCES Agarwala, B. K. Performative Culture: A Phenomenological Ontology of Culture, (The NEHU Journal, Vol IX, No. 2, July 2011), Pp. 25- 30
Mumma, A. “Framework for Legislation on Immovable Cultural Heritage in Africa”, In Webber Ndoro, Albert Mumma and George Abungu (eds), Cultural Heritage and Law Protecting Immovable Heritage in English Speaking Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, (2008), Pp.102, 104
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Alexander J.C., ‘The Cultural Pragmatics of Social Performance: Between Ritual and Rationality. Blurred Boundaries: Rethinking Culture in the Context of Interdisciplinary Practices’. Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, 13-14 December, 2003. Sociological Theory. No. 22.4. 2004. pp. 527 - 573.
Afrifalo S.O. An Analysis and Comparison of the Legends of Origin of Akure, Bola-Sola Press, Akure, Ondo State, 1991:2-4
Austin J.L., How To Do Things With Words, (Harvard University Press, 1962).
Ellen, H. ‘Museum’. Microsoft Encarta 2009 (DVD), Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Frances R. Guild to Sculpture, 2010
Getty, J. Paul, About Sculpture in Western Art, www.getty.edu.com, accessed on the 24th June, 2013
Ige, Timothy, Brief History of Akure, Before the Colonial Era, (Ondo, 2005):107-108
Judith B. Gender Trouble – Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, (Routledge, 1990).
Schleiben, K. ‘Curating Per-Form’. 2002. http://www.kunstverein- muenchen.de/03_ueberlegungen_considerations/en_performative_curating.pdf, accessed 5th March, 2014
Milton S. When a Great Tradition Modernizes, an Anthropological Approach to Modern Civilization, (Praeger Publishers 1972).
National Museum Akure’s Store, 2013.
National Museum Akure Records, 2014
Okpoko, A.I., Fundamental of Museum Practice, (Afro-Orbis Publishing Co. Ltd, 2006), P.2
Jain, S. I. The Transformative Power of Performance, A New Aesthetics, (Trans Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2008)
Simon, S. Burning from the Inside, New Institutionalism Revisited, In Beatrice von Bismarck, Jörn Schafaff, Thomas Weski (eds.), Cultures of the Curatorial, (Berlin, Sternberg Press, 2012) P.361-372
www.africaimport.com, accessed 20th January, 2012.
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Research Article
Ethnocide and Genocide of the Relics of Nigerian’s Mother Culture: Community Museum as a way forward
Olufemi Timothy Ogunbode1, Yakubu Aminu Dodo2, Ezekiel Babatunde Ogunbode3
1National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Museums Department, Curatorial Unit, Akure, Ondo State. Nigeria. 2Faculty of Built Environment, Department of Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 81310, Skudai. Johor Bahru. Malaysia. 3School of Environmental Technology, Department of Building, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State. Nigeria. Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t The common origin of cultural or sculptural objects of Nigerian Nation-State, Article history as she is getting democratized are becoming obsolete in the attitude of Received: 15/07/2017 Nigerians. This in a way is changing the style of our collective memory into Accepted: 05/08/2017 collected memory, by emphasizing cultural beliefs that are individualistic and troublesome. Day in day out, this emphasizes cultural suicide of our inherently nurturer, especially when so many other generations depend on her for essence. In order to resolve this problem, bring to limelight the Community Museum as a way forward in preserving and conserving the relics of our Mother Culture, Community ontological digitalized representation information. In this period of Museum, and Culture unconsciousness of our shared past, which is an inspired creative process of beauty; product of the mind and hand of man. This cultural object is as a soul is to a man, so it is to the body. Thus, it is all that is made by man. Cultural beliefs can’t cross boundary on their own but cultural objects do. Then, it makes expedient for cultural objects to be encouraged and communicated to the limelight in Nigerian history. On this pedestal stands what will be discussed in this thesis, if the cultural heritages will not be Ethnocide and Genocide; Cultural Suicide of our Mother Culture in Sculptural Arts which are the properties given to us by our Ancestors. Then, Cultural dimension and discuss to the Mother Culture must reflect the samples of the culture made by them in sculpture such as Nok, Ife, Benin, Igboukwu, Owo and Esie among others which are meant to be kept in the museum owned by the community in order for them to watch the authenticity of the cultural values as represented by the collective memory of the people.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The social dimension of democratizing process has created in Nigerians this attitude of cultural suicide because of the neglect of the collective unconscious shared past. Let us stop thinking about the destruction
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of our unconscious shared past. Let us stop asking what our conscious present is going to do for us. Let us stop depending solely on our Government for a working democratization process. Let us stop saying bad things concerning Nigeria. Nigeria might have failed and disappointed us, but our future is in our hands, unconscious shared past was handed over to us all at different times in history. Let us imbibe the love of wisdom to make our world better. It is all because we never appreciated the Mother Culture; Nok, Ife, Benin, Esie and Owo among others (Ogumor, 1993), that made our unconscious shared past to be on the hedge of final collapse. Our cultural objects have for ages been a medium for our development and identity in all areas. It allows individual ingenuity, unlike cultural belief which is dogmatic, pessimistic and religious. We should try to learn and be full of life whenever we hear the word; NIGERIA. It is our home and place of rest, do you care for one? Then, try to embrace her now and save our future via cultural objects, the Mother Culture.
This paper is captured in this sentence, ‘a life that neglects his culture; cultural objects is like a life divorced of reality and then embraces Cultural Suicide; Ethnocide (destroying people) and Genocide (destroying race).’ This makes real the need for the reawakening of the Cultural and Creative Arts of Nigeria by making do with the idea of Ethnology. The complexity of the modern day Nigeria and the emergence of western knowledge system and application of this knowledge system’s idea has done us more evil compared to the good in this aspect of self-satisfaction, fulfilment and security of our modern day society, placing it by the side of Historical Particularism propounded by Franz Boas under the theory of Cultural Evolution. This theory emphasizes uniqueness of Culture which also compliments the diffusionism theory that portrays the common origin of Culture. The common origin of Nigerian’s Culture is our Cultural Objects in sculptures which portrays our ingenuity in creativity. Without any doubt, it is clear that the future of Nigeria hangs on this unconscious shared past as an instrument for Tourism, Investment, Specialization, Packaging and Marketing among others of our cultural heritages as a re-branding mechanism of values and re-orientation in a democratizing society (Bodley, 2007).
The representation of this collective memory of Nigerian’s Culture can be picked from any of these levels; National (holistic), Regional (ethnic, linguistics and religion differences in a society), Gender, Generation (grandparents, parents and children), Social and Corporate. These levels are the holism of humanity existentialism; Nigeria is a part of the sum in preservation and conservation of the cultural objects for democratization of the societal values for a better Nigeria in the face of freedom of choice (Li and Karakowsky, 2003). This paper intends to be an eye opener and proffer of Community Museum as solution for Nigerian’s development and strength as a democratizing Nation-State ignoring her sculptural objects for cultural beliefs. The climax of Nigerian Art resides in the functions of art because it deals with the
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interpretation of the Objects. The symbol of art can also be said to epitomize the aesthetic, religion, ethical and social values of a society. Art is the human structure and function over the years in all sphere of life. In other words, Art is skill or expertise in societies’ agreed symbolic values. These Cultural Objects that will be considered in this paper are acceptable to the Nigerian society because it is our skill and agreed symbolic values of our ancestors’ ingenuity in choice making for structural functionalism and psychological functionalism.
2.0. Concept clarified 2.1. Mother Culture Mother Culture is the socially acquired unconscious shared past bestowed on people. In other words, it is Digital Ontology or Representation Information concerning a culture (Watry, 2010). Besides, it is the inspired creative process of Beauty of a community in an unconscious shared technique. In addition, it is the wholeness of love, patience, wisdom, foresight and firmness of education as an atmosphere of discipline and life (Mason, 2011). According to Karen, Mother Culture is an exploring of interests, to find a little time especially when so many others depend on her for essence (Mason, 2011). Mother culture is inherently a nurturer; nurturer of human societies and lifestyles (www.ishmael.com).
2.2. Community Museum Community Museum is participatory management technics in the preservation of cultural heritage. In other words, it is also referred to as community involvement pragmatic design for museum and community. A community refers to a group of people with ethnic bonds that are linked into a unit with a common cultural identity, defined by racial origins, religion, nationality or tribal affiliation. Also, it is a process whereby members of a community participate directly in decision making in the museum programmes and activities in the preservation of cultural heritage. Community Museum is a bridge merging two institutions: Museums and Community into one fundamental ideology. Most museums in the world today have been transformed and taken communities as partners in their programmes and activities in the preservation of heritage properties. This new approach has created a favorable working condition between museums and communities as community museums; about people and created by the people themselves. Community Museum is the methodology set to represents the historical activities of a community with bulk of its management coming from the community. In other words, it is the locus of social organization and mobilization as an ongoing process for make-belief reality. Also, Community Museum is the mechanism with divergence of functions such as defending human rights, forgiveness platform; healing of memories and cultural beliefs injuries among others by cultural objects (Ellen, 2008).
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Thus, Community Museum is a multiple strategies system that communities have developed to resist imposition and strengthened their own culture; cultural objects in the contest of globalization. Besides, it is the accentuating of the interdependence between vast sectors of many societies and generating new dynamics and structures of supranational connections. It is the imaginative strategy community has developed to sustain their culture, appropriating tools for cultural objects preservation. Community Museum is a strategy by community in controlling the future by controlling the past. In addition, it is a vehicle for collective process of interpretation, through which new element of debate and consensus is created (Anacostia Museum, 2008).
2.3. Culture It is the pattern of behaviour and thinking of people that are living in a social group by learning, creating and sharing. British anthropologist Edward B. Taylor gave one of the first complete definitions of Culture in his book ‘Primitive Culture’ (1871). His definition stated that, ‘Culture includes socially acquired knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs, and habits’. Nevertheless, Culture can also be defined to be cumulative deposit of knowledge, experiences, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of time through individual and group striving. It could also be viewed as system of knowledge shared by relatively large group of people. In another wise, it is communication; agreed medium for coordination of a society for peaceful coexisting. Besides, a symbolic communication that include; group’s skill, knowledge, attitude, value and motive, the meaning of these symbols are learned; encultured and deliberately perpetuated in the society through its institution. Finally, Culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes a member of a group from another (Li and Karakowsky, 2003). In nut shell, Culture is the product of the mind and hand of man. It is also a soul to man as it is to the body. It is all that is made by man (Ajayi, 2005).
3.0. An Overview of Nigerian State Nigeria is a political entity named after the great River; Niger. This river runs through the present border in the North-West to the coast in the South. Nigeria is the only known Country in Sub-Saharan Africa to have produced a large variety of high qualities of works of Arts. She is the most populous Country in Africa and the largest in landscape area of West Africa, the estimated population is 135,031,160 according 2006 population reviews. In another wise, she was a twentieth century colony that came into a full fledge Independent Country on the 1st October, 1960. This Nation-State has aged a century plus; 1914-2016. She was a creation of the colonialist in which various Cultural objects became one entity through the machinery of the imperialists. This single attitude led to the institution of the Federal State Culture in 1954 under the
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Lyttleton’s Constitution. The name Nigeria came into being in 1897/1898; Seventeen/Sixteen years before the blending of the country and the wed lock between Lord Lugard and Flora Shaw. Although, Flora was a London News Journalist in the period under review, this reflects the complimenting attitude of Lord Lugard with that of Flora Shaw as a dream come true.
This territory was divided into four regions in 1950s; North, West, East and Lagos Colony. In 1957 West and East became self-governing regions while the North got hers in 1959. Nigeria is a political unit of an invention of Lord Lewis Harcourt; Britain’s Secretary of State for colonies from 1910 and Lord Frederick Lugard; a Colonel in the Royal Niger Company’s Army, Pioneer High Commissioner of the Northern Protectorate (1900-1907), Governor of the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigerian from 23rd October, 1912 and Northern Protectorate from 24th October, 1912. It is a British invention. Nigeria is a State that got her independence on an unequal tripod. Nigeria is the mistake of 1914, which has come to light; this was the opinion of Alhaji Ahmadu Bello, The Sardauna of Sokoto (Akinade, 2004) The reason for his notion and many of the general public was because they lay emphasis on the Cultural Beliefs which differ from one group to another being the fact that it can’t cross boundaries of other cultures without conflict. Besides, She covers a landscape area of 923,768 square kilometers with an Official language of English, Presidential system of Government as at present, total number of Thirty-Six States, Seven Hundred and Seventy-Four Local Governments, Three Hundred and Sixty members of House of Representatives, One Hundred and Nine members of Senate, making a total of Four Hundred and Sixty-Nine Parliamentarians in Nigerian Environment among others (Akinade, 2004). The Parliament met for the first time in Abuja, August 1999 after nearly Sixteen years of Military Rule. The Federal Capital territory is now in Abuja. If Nigeria will be the Giant of Africa (World) as we claimed to be at independence, Fifty-five years ago, then we need to wake to the clarion call by the ‘Mother Culture’ and Community Museum as a way forward. In nut shell, what is referred to as Nigeria today was made out of the varieties of people with different cultures; symbols, heroes and rituals. This culture dated back as Two Thousand (2000) years ago. It’s some of these Cultures that will be treated in this paper as Cultural Objects not Beliefs for a democratizing nation-state.
4.0. Evolution of the Relics of Nigerian’s Mother Culture and Community Museum as the way forward Nigerian veracity (reality) in Art is so great that it is generally felt all over African Nation-States. Nigeria is a principal trustee durable fruit of black artistic genius. However, it is believed that language of a Culture is imbibed in the Sculptural Art. Art is an element of Culture at the same time a category of Culture because of its dynamism; subjected to the laws of change and continuity. It began in the dim past and runs through
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our times and forges ahead into the future. The foundation of Nigerian Art is based on better known ancient traditions which include; Nok, Ife and Benin among other. The oldest Sculptural Arts found in Nigeria were from the Southern Zaria and Benue areas of Central Nigeria. Nigerian culture consist Terracotta made by people who achieved a high degree of Cultural Sophistication of Iron Age. These Sculptural Arts together with other Cultural Elements are referred to as Nok Culture. These Cultures have these motifs; Zoomorphic, Geometric and Anthropomorphic in their Sculptural Arts designs (Odewumi, 2009). Two of these Cultures will be treated one after the other to consolidate the place of Community Museum in safeguarding the relics of the Mother Culture. These culture belong to some people that understand the collective values, these people should be encouraged and empowered for the preservation and conservation of these cultural objects with this ideology there will be sense of belonging; these things are ours which portrays the concept of Cultural Democracy. Community Museum has its place in safeguarding the cultural objects by subjecting it for objective criticism and documentation in a digitalized format which make do with acceptable representatives of the owner of the culture for an ideal preservation and conservation where necessary. This will be purely academia for a good catch of the reality of Nigerian ingenuity in Arts, Nok and Ife will be considered.
4.1. Nok Culture Nok Culture is dated between 500BC and 200AD also referred to as Nok Figurine Culture. It was in a small village in the outskirt of Jos; Benue Plateau, where mining village was established, the evidence of the Art was got in 1928 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010). Its major works consist of human representations or existence. Nok might have provided a main foundation for the styles of the Southern Art Cultures of Nigeria. Nok Culture is what the people thought, it is not about nature (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010). Evidence shows that Nok people had knowledge of iron smelting and adorned themselves with tin and stone, beads, earrings, and bracelets. The source of the knowledge of an iron technology has been attributed to the Civilization of Meore in what is today know as Republic of Sudan, as well as Carthage in North Africa. According to Fagg B.A.B. the Nok manifestation or existentialism in 1944 represented Terracotta Head found; a 3 Dimensional Object about 8metres in the ground near Jemma. In 1956 pieces of trunk wood were found. The Culture represented a well-organized society with good artists. Examples of artifacts are padlocks, head, beads, and the size measure for the objects ranges from 10centimetre to 1.5metre (Figure 1).
Community Museum consciousness in Nok’s Culture include; • Anthropomorphic Terracotta;
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• Eyes are schematized and rendered in form of triangle or a soft ‘V’ or segmented circle or elliptical; (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010) • Naturalistic; • Imagination of artist; • Iron age culture; • Stylistically homogenous and • Three dimensional object (Osagie-Erese and Ogunsina, 1988).
Figure 1: Samples of Nok’s Culture Sculptural Arts in Community Museum
4.2. Ife Culture This Culture includes Bronze Head, Figuring terracotta, Quartz Stools and Figures. Ife Heads designs were realistic King figures and it dated 1000AD to 1400AD. Ife culture is highly modeled and displayed in a good understanding and facial features information representation on objects. Ife is unique in Africa in its stylistic tendency. However her portion of human size is realistic. The head are life sized and bears the well-known Yoruba tribal marks or facial scarification. The culture is based on ideal nature and sometimes on local style e.g. Olokun Brass Head, Animal, Stones, Human Beings Head, Mud Fish and the Culture is good in Wood carving. The examples of Mother-Child statue, Twin Figure, Bowls and Dishes, Ceremonial Staff, Assorted Masks, Verandah Posts etc. are the representation of the Art (Figure 2). Community Museum consciousness in Ife’s Culture include; • Anthropomorphic Brass and Terracotta; • Naturalistic and stylistic; • Facial Sculptural Art; • Hieratic rather than Aristocratic; • Three dimensional object; • Deities; • Stylistically heterogeneous;
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• Conical shaped object and • Closed teeth as sign of dignity. (Osagie-Erese and Ogunsina, 1988)
Figure 2: Samples of Ife’s Culture Sculptural Arts in Community Museum
5.0. Community Museum: Trends of Ethnocide and Genocide on Nigerian’s Mother Culture 1. Colonialism 1897-1960; 2. Imperialism 1960-2016; 3. Nigerian Civil War 1967-1970; 4. Ethnic Wars 1954-2016; 5. Revealed Religions Consciousness at the expense of the Indigenous Religion 1500-2011; 6. Projection of the Evil in the Sculptures 1500-2016; 7. Discouragement of Study of History or Cultural Arts in our Schools by Government 1897-2016; 8. Bad Government 1897-2016; 9. Bad Planning 1897-2016; 10. Inadequate attractive Museums’ Galleries 1956-2016; 11. Neglecting the Principle of History in Cultural Heritage materials 1897-2016; 12. Ethnicity Consciousness 1914-2016 13. Theft of Nigeria’s Sculptures by Nigerians and Foreigners 1897-2016 and 14. Insurgencies (Boko-Haram 2002 till date, Niger Delta 1999 till date and Cattle greasing palaver 2010 till date among others).
5.1. Role of Arts and Culture as the way forward in Community Museum • Intellectual Development; • Understanding of our contemporary societies and culture;
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• Triggering Development at multitude of levels; • Intercultural Competency; • Employment; • Economic Gains in terms of Tourism; • Educating; • Meditating and • Facilitating.
5.2. Others Means as the way forward in Community Museum • Nigerian turning to culture as a means of self-definition and mobilization by asserting their cultural objects (Ayedime, 2005); • Doing away with the evil in culture and art; • Gender question to be erased; • Erasing the notion that Nigeria has no culture of her own; • Cultural objects is the language of Nigerian Nation-State; • Enculturating and acculturating the younger ones before their minds are made solid; • Nigerian activities are realities that worth truthfulness and • Encouraging the young talents in Sculptural Arts to make it treasures.
6.0. Conclusion Since, cultural beliefs can’t cross boundary which are on their own culture. Then, it makes expedient for cultural objects to be encouraged and communicated to the limelight in Nigerian history. On this pedestal stands what have been discussed in this thesis, if the cultural heritages will not be Ethnocide and Genocide which later will lead to Cultural Suicide of our Mother Culture in Sculptural Arts which are our properties given to us by our Ancestors. The Cultural dimension to the Mother Culture reflected in the samples of the culture made by them. Then, devotion must be given to the artifacts; Material Culture because of its informational representation in ideas, thought, processes and creativity. The suffering we have undergone, made it necessary to handle our Material Culture very well with the sense of Aristoi. This reality is the historical materialism emphasizing transcendentalism poststructuralism. This is portraying the fact that showcasing our ‘Mother Culture’ will mean blessing to our world. If, this modern state builds on it, it will go a long way in enculturating and acculturating the coming generations. Art and Culture are our pride which must be guarded with all diligence. We need to view our cultural heritage from the Emic and not Etic perspective by believing that Nigeria has a Beauty, we can all hold on to save the coming generation from Ethnocide and Genocide of our Mother Culture. The battle is not over until it is over, so let us rise and save
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our Nation; Nigeria from the impending doom on our culture. Wake up, Wake up, and Wake up from your slumber fellow Nigerians. Democracy as a universal value is bloodier than either aristocracy or monarchy. Remember, democracy never lasts long. It soon wastes, exhausts, and murders itself. There is never a democracy that did not commit suicide that is why we need to take caution of what we murder in our Sculptural Arts based on the free will of every man.
REFERENCES Anacostia Museum. Microsoft Encarta 2009 (DVD) Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Ajayi, S.A., The Concept of Culture, in Ajayi,A.S, (ed), ‘African Culture and Civilization’, (Ibadan: Atlantis Book, 2005), 1-6
Akinade, J.A. ‘Dictionary of Nigerian Government and Politics’, (Lagos: Macak Books Ltd, (MBL), 2004), 3, 5
Ayedime, K.S., Understanding Nigerian History and Culture through its Theatre and Drama, In Ajayi, A.S. (ed.), ‘African Culture and Civilization’s, (Ibadan: Atlantis Book, 2005), 197
Bodley, John H ‘Culture’ Microsoft Student 2008 (DVD). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2007.
Mason, C. (ed), Mother Culture in Parents’ Review, A Monthly Magazine of Home-Training and Culture, volume 3, No. 2, 1892/93:92-95, www.amblesideonline.org Retrieved 4th February, 2011.
Mason C. Research and Supply Company, Mother Culture, www.charlottemason.com Retrieved 4th February, 2011.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Student and Home Edition, Chicago, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010
Ellen. H. ‘Museum’ Microsoft Encarta 2009 (DVD) Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008
Li and Karakowsky, Do We See Eye-to-Eye? Implications of Cultural Differences for Cross-Cultural Management Research and Practice, In ‘The Journal of Psychology’, 2003: 135(5), 501-517.]
Osagie-Erese U. and Ogunsina, E.O., ‘Creative Arts and Crafts for Junior Secondary Schools Bk 1-3’,( Ibadan: Longman, 1988), 96-98
Odewumi, M.O. ‘Junior Secondary Cultural and Creative Art, Book 1’, (Ogbomoso: Ayekooto Press, 2009), 31
Ogumor, E. ‘Certificate Art for Junior and Senior Secondary School’, (Ibadan: University Press, 1993), 129
Osagie-Erese U. and Ogunsina, E.O., ‘Creative Arts and Crafts for Junior Secondary Schools Bk 1- 3’,(Ibadan: Longman, 1988), 96-98
Watry, P. Digital Preservation Theory and Application: Transcontinental Persistent Archives Test bed Activity, in an ‘International Journal of Digital Curation, 2007. 2(2). Retrieved 31st May, 2010.
www.ishmael.com Retrieved 4th February, 2011.
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Research Article
Performance Assessment of Sustainable Architectural Practice in Nigeria: Insights from the Diminishing Role of the Architect
Enwerekowe, Ebelechukwu Obianuju, Tsok, Dauda Joel
1Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos, P.M.B 2084, Jos, Plateau state, Nigeria
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO A b s t r a c t This paper aims at examining the effect of the diversification of the Article history increasingly shared role of the architect and the other allied building Received: 26/07/2017 professionals on the future of the architectural profession in the country. A Accepted: 05/09/2017 mixed-method study of the expanding role of the architect, public awareness of the diversification in construction industry practices and the effect on the users of the built environment show that architects participated in 83.3% of the observed cases during pre-construction or design stages but only 33.3% of the cases during construction. Architects are twice as likely to be supplanted on Architects, diversification, construction sites by allied professionals because client and user perception ideology, Nigeria, sustainable holds that architects fail to provide “realistic” solutions to the brief and charge practices too much in professional fees. The study recommends: 1) architects need to embrace the diversification of roles in the construction industry through specialised tools such as project management, scheduling, cost reconciliation, property development and product marketing; 2) improvement in the level of creativity and practice ideology to prevent architects from getting supplanted on grounds of incompetence and 3) reminds legislative bodies, stakeholders and clients to protect the constitutional role of the architect and increase public sensitisation of the need to engage architects to preserve the essence of the built environment.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction An architect is someone who plans, designs and reviews the construction of building and other related structures: a service which not only involves the design of buildings and related structures but as a licensed professional they are also responsible for public safety and overseeing of projects. This responsibility goes beyond the initial concept stage of the project to the official handover and, in some specific cases, extends to building maintenance and management, and building reuse (Sokanu, 2017, https://www.sokanu.com/careers/architect). The practice of architecture covers any sector that is involved in
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the shaping or reshaping of the built environment either as a consultant in private firms, as a public servant, as a design/build professional or as an academician; all of which are seen as viable options for practice by the Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON) and Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA). Other options of architectural practice though not specifically listed in the code of conduct of ARCON and the NIA, but are going on without attracting any sanction include sales and manufacturing of building materials, project management, technical staff of the works department in private companies, journalism, politics and free-lancing. The production and submission of all architectural documents including the sketch and detailed drawings, the specifications and the bill of quantities for approval by local, state and national planning authorities remains the constitutionally-protected right of only registered architects (ARCON, 2011). Architects have a rich professional heritage as the team leader of the construction industry yet the prevailing situation in the sector is that present day professional practice is losing ground as the clamour by allied professionals is on the rise for the role as the “Prime Consultant”. Recent reports out of Nigeria have assessed the challenges facing sustainability of architectural practice, harmful trends to practice development and factors leading to the diminishing role of the architect (Haruna, 2008; Delano, 2010). The architect plays a role that is very significant to the construction industry and adds value to the built environment (and society at large): exclusion or marginalisation is tantamount to a downward spiral in the quality of the built surroundings. This study examines the challenges causing the redundancy of architects and proactive means used to overcome those challenges hence, securing future practices. In order to study the problems leading to the diminishing role of the architect holistically, the paper looks at three interrelated aspects of sustainable architectural practice development, namely: 1) the expanding roles and services of the modern day architect, 2) societal perception and appreciation of the role of the architect and 3) the resultant effect of shrinking architectural services on the built environment.
2.0 Sustainable Architectural Practice: The Paradigm Shift in Nigeria
The architect is a licensed design professional who blends intuitive techniques with rational knowledge of building structures and materials to create environments suitable for human (and in some cases, non-human) activity. The architect is expected to work with a utilitarian client budget, standards and legal requirements as well as cultural and aesthetic contextualisation in order to balance out the private needs of the client with the overall improvement of the built environment. By virtue of the rigorous and multifaceted training program, architects are trained and specialise in many areas from construction to structural engineering to historic preservation to computer programming and environmental biology (Souto deMoura, 2016).
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To be able to see a project through from inception to completion, the architect must undergo years of training and lengthy internships on both technical and theoretical disciplines. In the past, such education was obtained as an apprentice under the tutelage of a “chief or master builder” who could be a sculptor, artist, engineer or carpenter who, according to Vitruvius, spent several years mastering their craft. By the end of the 19th century, architectural education became formalised; by the turn of the Millennium it expanded to meet the rising demands of 21st century development by introducing diverse areas of study such as sustainability, history, environmental concerns, retrofitting, project management, computing techniques and mechanics. Similar to other professionals like doctors and lawyers, the process of becoming an architect does not end after training or apprenticeship – all architects have to endure a tedious and expensive licensing procedure with the professional body in their locale (Anthony, 2008). The involvement of the architect in construction meant a shift in power. The client was expected to engage the services of an architect to receive the design brief and interpret it into a physical, tangible form through the use of drawings and specifications which the building team was responsible for erecting under direct instructions from the architect (Langford, 2017). The architect therefore became a mediator between the client and the builders. Today, the role of the architect is not as clear-cut as it used to be. The construction industry is currently made up of a large team of professionals and the architect is not always in pole position which was the more traditional assumption. The quantity surveyor evolved as a professional that protected the client from the architects’ perceived fanciful designs and adamant luxuries which may not have been requested by the client. The engineer took care of advanced structural and mechanical details outside the scope of the architects’ competence. The project manager was introduced to assure the client that the project time schedule was maintained under optimal technical performance within the agreed upon budget (Ahmadu, 2012). With the increase in complexity of design knowledge, the architect spent more time designing and less time constructing which pushed the other allied construction professionals into the limelight. This diversification of roles and duties in addition to upheavals in global economies, increased environmental concerns and decline in skilled labour has resulted in worrisome global unemployment rates for undergraduate architects and job cuts in the profession (Censky, 2012; Rosenfield, 2014). However, the broad-based training that an architect receives creates many career opportunities which can be focused on individually or in combination. Table 1 shows the specific competencies required for the various capacities in which architects can maintain sustainable mainstream practices:
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Table 1: Required competencies for architects in diverse areas of practice by Haruna, 2008 and Ola- Adisa, 2016
s/no. Specialisation Required competencies
1. Private practice (salaried Architects need to be expert designers over a wide range of building or self-employed) types reflecting sustainable practice ideology.
Competency in producing the building design and support documentation through all its stages from inception to completion.
Ability to achieve equitable balance between building quality and functional performance despite pressure of cost and time control.
Ability to inspect and monitor the construction process from inception to completion; must be professional and responsible to the client, the allied professionals, special consultants and society at large.
2. Public sector In addition to the competencies in the private sector, the architect should regulate public interest in the assessment of private sector services.
Public sector architects should be able to respect and protect the Code of Conduct, Ethics and Bye-laws of the profession as given by the professional regulatory body in the area.
3. Academics While encouraging dynamism in knowledge, architects in the academia are expected to specialise in one or more areas of private practise for effective educational delivery. Emphasis on professionalism, mannerism and the ideals of the Code of Conduct in practice.
4. Politics Architects in politics are expected to make an impact on shaping policies that would create a better physical and enabling environment.
5. Sales/marketing Adequate knowledge about product specifications, performance, availability, installation, maintenance, warranty and brand options in order to facilitate client selection.
6. Project management Ability to oversee project time schedule is maintained without compromising on technical performance and deliver same within the project budget agreed upon with the client.
7. Environmentalism Proficiency in vast areas of architectural practice with emphasis on building form and function for renewable energy, low- or zero- tolerance for carbon emissions, retrofitting for green building index, stopping climate change and other projected related concerns for environmental friendliness.
8. Administration Architects can arrange and run professional organisations such as NIA, ARCON and ACA etc. as well as run complex business corporations which require managerial and entrepreneurial skills.
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It is a growing perception that society and not the architects themselves, sets the goals and assigns to the
architect the means of achieving them. The architects’ role in the society is determined by the amount of
perceived benefits the society derives from the services rendered – although the debate lingers on whether
the conduct of the architect is actually what influences the perception by society (Oyekola, 2010). With a
reduction in services such as project management, contract administration, cost control, energy efficiency
consultation and owners representation, architectural services are shrinking to little more than minimalistic
computer drafted drawings and generic specifications. Several factors have been held responsible for the
decline in architectural roles which include the reluctance of architects to step up and efficiently provide
those services which allied professionals provide with less hassle; failure to utilise specialised tools for
expanded roles in the construction industry and architects’ tenacious grasp on a romanticised view of their
importance on the built environment. Other factors include inadequate tutelage by young architects into the
cadre of experienced designers; compromises in the quality of architectural service output; lack of proper
enforcement of professional and legal polices that guide architectural practice and an overall lack of
awareness by the public on what exactly it is architects do.
3. Understanding the Practice Dynamics of the Architect
Not understanding what the architect does is the major reason why all the other aforementioned factors exist
in the first place. Public perception suggests that architects are proponents of unrealistic design proposals
which are disconnected from the real life wants and needs of the clients. Architects are discriminated
against due to perceived arrogance about their self-importance and largely introverted social habits
(“Personality types – INTP”, 2012). Many people wonder why architects (who on their part bemoan
underpayment and lack of respect) still charge so much in professional fees when there are several
computer-aided design tools and software available which require manipulation from even untrained
designers and children to produce basic schemes. Table 2 shows the three main roles of the architect and the
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commensurate payment milestones approved by the Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON),
Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA) and Association of Consulting Architects Nigeria (ACAN):
Table 2: Scope of architectural services and payment milestones by Delano, 2010 and ARCON, 2011
Architectural role Summary of commitments to the client Payment milestone
Design phase Commitment: Milestone 1 - 15% of (Stage I) Receipt of letter of commission; estimated project cost Receive and appraise client brief; for new projects Outline potentials and demerits of the proposed scheme; Receive and interpret the site analysis and report; Advice on budget planning Concept design: Milestone 2 – 20% of Site situation and planning, outlining space provision; estimated project cost Preparation of anticipated project timeline, estimated cost and planning relationships; Preparation of list of allied consultants and specialists Construction Coordinated detail design: Milestone 3 – 25% of drawings Production of site design and location of structures on estimated project cost (Stage II) site; Preparation of all graphical representation of the building; Coordinate input of allied consultants and statutory planning authorities Construction documentation: Milestone 4 - 40% of Selection of contract documents; adjusted final project Compilation of supporting design documents from the cost allied professionals; Full preparation and reconciliation of Specifications and Bill of Quantities Tendering and Tendering: Milestone 5 – Time Construction Advice client on prequalification of contractors, sub- charges or Man-hour services contractors and tender awards by qualified firms rates (or lump sum) (Stage III) Construction services: Milestone 6 – Time Organisation of site meetings and visitations; charges or Man-hour Overseeing construction and providing clarification rates (or lump sum) about the design and any additions; Sign off on various works, certifying completion for contractors’ progress billing; Review of shop drawings and fabricated materials /samples from vendors; Prepare building and project appraisals; Prepare and manage all intermediate and final progress reports and certificates for the architect and allied consultants; Prepare project for handover ad manage the defects liability period
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The production and submission of all architectural documents including the sketch and detailed drawings,
the specifications and the bill of quantities for approval by local, state and national planning authorities
remains the constitutionally-protected right of only registered architects (ARCON, 2011). This legally-
backed privilege for architects typically remains easier to protect in public-sector rather than private-sector
construction. Architects generally can and do make positive and often considerable contribution to a project
both in terms of cost efficiency and ultimate overall value yet the decision to forgo the services of an
architect beyond the phase of construction drawings is on the increase largely due to contention with the
scaled and lump sum figures attracted by professional fees. So, with the ever-shrinking role of the architect
due to the resurgence of allied professionals and diversification of roles in the construction industry, how
sustainable are architectural practices in the coming years? The answer to this lies in the findings from
performance assessments which support improvement in the quality and long-term sustainability of the built
environment by architects who make a claim to usefulness of the profession to the general public (Hughes
and Hughes, 2013). The most visible effect of the detrimental practice of supplanting the architect is evident
in the increase in failed buildings around the country which has tainted the construction industry and
stunted growth of the profession as a whole (Umeora, 2013; Uji, 2016). A building is said to have failed
when it does not meet the functional, structural, technical, aesthetic, cultural, organisational or
environmental purpose(s) for which it was erected. Building collapse is the end result of a building that
suffers permanent structural damage.
This study examines public opinion on the effect of the diminishing role of the architect on sustainable
architectural practices in Nigeria and proffers practical suggestions on mitigating measures needed to
improve and sustain service delivery in the profession. Very little research has been published about
performance assessment and post-occupancy evaluations on architectural output without the current fixation
with energy efficiency and this has failed to yield an evidence base for reference (Enwerekowe & Abioye,
forthcoming). Due to slow technological advancement of infrastructure across the nation, Nigeria has a low
Human Development Index (HDI) and a world ranking of 156 out of 187 participating countries
(Ohajuruka, 2013). This is because the domestic construction industry pays little attention to concerns for 129 | P a g e
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green building retrofitting and energy performing buildings – outside modern adaptation of traditional
building forms such as the open courtyard and impluvium in both private and public buildings – despite
documented financial, social and health benefits to the users (Maina, 2013). However, central to
overcoming the criticism of being inefficient, of poor quality and obsolete, performance assessments and
post-occupancy evaluations of architectural service delivery provides a bottom-up approach to experienced
learning and improvement of products and processes in the construction industry as a whole (Hay, Samuel,
Watson & Bradbury, 2017). By bringing to the fore issues surrounding assessment of the services of the
professionals who are in the construction industry, this research aims to enlighten the practice environment
on the learning loops and the effect on the future of the practice on an evidence base rather than on isolated
experiences of individual professionals as discussed on informal social sites and gatherings (Hajiri &
Crozier, 2009; Henderson, Ruikar & Dainty, 2013).
The study is situated in the capital city of Jos, Plateau state in the north central zone of Nigeria which
witnessed exponential building development and reconstruction following ethnic and religious conflict from
2001 to 2008. The zone also holds the second largest concentration of architectural firms in the federation
(Ola-Adisa, 2016).
4. Methodology
This study is a fusion of literary research, field studies and data interpretation. Literary research covered the
review of existing knowledge and trending debates on the changing roles and duties of the architect and the
challenges to architectural service delivery and practice development. The field studies gathered the
responses from clients and building users around the Jos metropolis on their perceived benefits or
discontent with architectural service delivery as a bottom-up approach to a quantitative analytical process.
The sample was randomly drawn from demographics of clients and building users around Jos based on the
statistics of the Office of Development Control at the Jos Metropolis Development Board (JMDB). The
sample size was obtained using the Moser-Kalton (1974 In Uji, 2009) derivative method. From the Jos-
based statistics, less than 18% of the approximately 480 building construction documents and drawings
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submitted for planning authorisation each year meet the stringent approval requirements. Most private
sector construction spans a duration of 2 (two) to 5 (five) years from conception to final completion. As a
consequence, the assessment for the study was based largely on the opinions of clients and users of legal
buildings which met minimum requirements for approval from the Board within the last 5 (five) years. The
relationship between the services rendered by architects and other building professionals was further studied
using the Hierarchical Cluster Analysis procedure which functions by creating groups that have minimum
variance within and maximum dissimilarities between them. Zand, Wang and Hilchey (2015) observed that
the distances between points and their relative locations reflect the proximity (similarity or dissimilarity) of
the variables, as measured by a metric function of their attributes, such as Euclidean distance where the
distance is an indication of the degree of the strength of the relationship. The means of simple statistical
analysis such as pictographs, index ranking and means of statistical dispersion were also utilised for
analysis into public perceptions of the shrinking role of the architect in the Nigerian society. By
derivation, a minimum of 52 questionnaires are required to give a credible sample size. A total of
57 questionnaires were properly filled and returned out of 60 distributed.
5. Data presentation: Discussion and analysis
The results from the field study present the data on public opinion about the role of the architect in the built
environment and evaluate the perception about the changing dynamics in the profession. The sample was
made up of male (62%) and female (38%) respondents all of Nigerian descent. All of the respondents
engaged in privately-sponsored development, 16% of which were commissioned by corporate organisations
or joint private partnership initiatives and from Table 3 it was observed that most of the respondents were
above middle-age.
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Table 3: Age range of respondents that did or did not employ the service of a building construction professional as the leading consultant
Age Range of Did you employ a building construction professional? Respondents Yes % No % Below 35 years 0 0 0 0 36-45 years 9 37.5 17 51.5
Above 46 years 15 62.5 16 48.5
Housing was observed to be the most frequent building type in the sample. 54.1% of the buildings in the
sample were residential buildings (of which 75% were single floor dwellings), 12.5% of the buildings were
designed for religious purposes. Institutional and commercial buildings made up 16.7% each of the
observed buildings in the survey. The higher number of residential buildings is indicative of the housing
needs in most Nigerian communities which are yet to overturn the national housing deficit.
The demographic findings in Table 4 show that 57.8% of the respondents opted to forgo the services of any
building professional as the leading consultant (popularly known as the Prime Consultant) during the course
of executing their building projects. This decision was based on a number of reasons among which cost
implication of engaging a building professional seemed “unnecessary” when the building project had a
small scope. Most of the older respondents who declined the services of a building professional opined that
building was a “straightforward process” that they had participated in before which required more
experienced wisdom than professional or technical know-how, thereby making the involvement of a
building professional a redundant expense. The architects were particularly criticised for being responsible
for producing “unrealistic” designs which in many cases where adjusted or corrected by more
“experienced” artisans on the site during construction, most of whom had no formal training. 21% of the
respondents admitted to carrying out their building project using building drawings adopted from other
works with or without modification – an act which further undermines the role of the architect who is due
remuneration for even prototype or repeat works. The actions by the building users and clients were
completely ignorant of current sustainable practices and ideologies geared towards green retrofitting or
ecological viability.
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Table 4: Which building professional do you prefer to act as Lead or Prime Consultant?
Preferred professional Frequency Percentage (Lead consultant) Architect 8 14.0 Builder 6 10.6 Land Surveyor 3 5.3 Quantity Surveyor 2 3.5 Town Planner 0 0 Civil / Structural Engineer 4 7.0 Mechanical/Electrical Engineer 1 1.8 None 33 57.8
Considering Nigeria’s low ranking of the Human Development Index (HDI) and the decline in service
opportunities for building professionals, architects could well endear themselves to more sustainable
building practices such as developing indoor environmental simulations and green building retrofitting
which involves renovation or refurbishment of existing buildings for ecological and resource-management
purposes. Such practices ensure that buildings are used sustainably and guarantees healthier occupancy in
the face of rising energy demands in Nigeria. The high cost of retrofitting, however is a source of concern to
proponents in the face of waning public interest in a profession that already has a negative reputation for
being over-priced and poor on service delivery. The onus rests on building professionals like the architect to
ginger public interest in sustainable materials, solid waste management and sanitation, energy efficiency,
ecology, pollution, emissions reduction and innovative designs.
Another key finding from the study of building trends that undermine the role of the architect reveals that
fewer architects are involved in the building process after the design stages I (design phase) and II
(production of construction drawings). Although architects were the most frequently-selected leading
consultants in the sample where acknowledged, more than two-thirds (67.7%) of the sample selected an
allied professional as the leading consultant which indicates a shift in the status quo where the architect held
a monopoly on the role of the Prime Consultant. Further insight into the respondents’ views on the specific
roles given to building professionals show that where construction professionals are engaged, architects
play a more dominant role in pre-construction activities (see Table 5).
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Table 5: Number of participating building professionals during key stages in the construction process
Work Stage Consultants Number of % participants Stage I Architect 20 83.3 Others 4 16.7 Stages I and II Architect 11 45.8 Others 13 54.2 Stages I, II and III Architect 8 33.3 Others 16 67.7 Stage III Architect 6 25.0 Others 18 75.0
Additional statistical analysis on the service usage at various construction stages shown in Table 5 using the
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis procedure (computed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences [SPSS]
version 22.0) reveals a better understanding of the service participation levels of architects and allied
professionals during key stages of construction based on user assessment. The results of a proximity matrix
(in this case, to examine the level of dissimilarity between the services of the architect and other allied
professionals at key construction stages) shows that architects have the greatest level of dissimilarity at
Stages I (pre-construction) and III (construction) which would require direct intervention strategies to
overcome as the margin increased at an exponential rate (see Table 7).
Table 7: Proximity matrix of service participation levels for architects and allied professionals
Case Euclidean Distance Stage I Stage I & Stage I, II Stage III II & III Stage I 0.000 12.728 16.971 19.799 Stage I & II 12.728 0.000 4.243 7.071 Stage I, II & III 16.971 4.243 0.000 2.828 Stage III 19.799 7.071 2.828 0.000
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Table 8: Average linkage (between groups) based on the proximity matrix
Agglomeration Schedule Cluster Combined Stage Cluster First Appears Next Stage Coefficients Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Stage I 3 4 2.828 0 0 I II 2 3 5.657 0 1 II III 1 2 16.499 0 2 0
Figure 1: Dendrogram using average linkage (between groups) based on the results of the proximity matrix The proximity matrix in Table 7 is symmetrical (the numbers on the lower half are the same as the numbers
in the top half). From the table, the closest distance between the roles of the architect and the other building
professionals during key stages in key construction process has a value of 2.828 while the farthest apart
roles are valued at 19.799. The symmetrical proximity matrix reveals that architects find themselves largely
out of contention during the construction process and public perception shows that allied professionals
handle construction duties as efficiently as architects. From the proximity matrix, a hierarchy of cluster is
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built as shown in Table 8 and the computed agglomeration schedule shows the average linkage between
groups based on bottom-up approach. Finally a dendrogram (Figure 1) relates the cluster solution to a
graphical distance or dissimilarity problem which illustrates the existing gap between architects dominating
service delivery at Stage I and other professionals dominating at Stage III. The user-based performance
evaluation of the services of architects and other professionals given in Table 9 shows that one of the major
reasons why architects seem to be losing ground to other professionals at the construction stage is because
the quality of their service output delivery seem to be on par but architects demand more in wages and
remuneration.
Table 9: User-based performance evaluation of the service delivery of architects and other professionals
Traits Satisfied Undecided Unsatisfied Architects Others Architects Others Architects Others Professionalism 78.6 92.3 21.4 7.7 - - Integrity 71.4 69.2 21.4 23.1 7.2 7.7 Competence 78.6 61.5 14.3 23.1 7.1 14.4 Diligence 64.3 61.5 28.6 23.1 7.1 14.4 Punctuality 28.6 53.8 35.7 30.8 35.7 14.4 Fees and other charges 42.8 61.5 28.6 23.1 28.6 14.4 Attitude/Ideology 78.6 76.9 14.3 7.7 7.1 14.4 Literacy and eloquence 85.8 61.5 7.1 30.8 7.1 7.7
Average 66.1 67.3 21.4 21.2 12.5 11.5
Table 10 gives the public perception on the preferred terminal stage of work where the architect is best
suited as the Leading Consultant. This finding indicates a general lack of confidence by users on the
capabilities of the architect beyond the stage(s) of pre-construction documentation. This development is
largely due to the fact that only building drawings produced by or under the supervision of a registered
architect are considered for approval by State and Federal planning regulation bodies but construction
(partial or full) can be supervised by any other consultant in the construction industry. This loosely-defined
condition for building approval and erection often creates loopholes for building drawings produced by
allied professionals to meet the requirements for planning approval as long as a registered architect endorses
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them. Allowing the definition of architectural services to be blurred by these recurrent practices threatens
the sustainability of the architectural profession in modern times.
Findings from the study also show that more than half of the respondents (57%) were not satisfied with the
development of trends in the built environment and construction industry for a number of specific reasons,
such as the considerable evidence of poor quality workmanship in projects executed due to lack of synergy
between all the members the consultation team. In most projects, popular opinion criticised the high
incidence of budget over-run and delayed completion of works when the project consumed more than what
was budgeted as its initial cost. The incidence was noticeably higher when the architect acted as the
Leading or Prime Consultant and was responsible for the project management. Consequentially, 15% of the
respondents observed the project suffered cut-backs and amendments to the original scheme in order not to
exceed the budget which disappointed the clients in the long run. This further underscores the high public
dissatisfaction stemming from fees and professional charges incurred during Stage III which were more
ambiguous and liable to manipulation than the scaled fees incurred during Stages I and II.
Table 10: At what stage in the building process should the architect serve as the Leading or Prime Consultant?
Building stage Frequency % Pre-design 6 25.0 Sketch design 3 12.5 Detailed drawings and specifications 4 16.7 Construction 5 20.7 Landscaping 1 4.2 Interior design 1 4.2 Facilities management and building maintenance 1 4.2 Re-modelling/renovation 2 8.3 Project management 1 4.2
The emphasis of the study focuses on the public perception of the changing roles of the architect in the built
environment and the sustainability of the profession as a whole. The architect used to be seen as the
professional who best represented client interest on the construction site and demonstrated competency in
all key stages of the construction process but other professionals appear to have stepped in to provide these
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same services just as effectively as and with less hassle than the architect. The findings from this study
suggest it is expected that the architectural profession re-examines its position in the built environment both
in code and practice in order to become sustainable. Although this study did not examine the effects of
diversification of architectural roles from the perspective of the architects themselves, several indices from
the perspective of the consuming public seem to corroborate what little is known about the threats to
sustainable architectural practices in Nigeria.
6. Conclusion
The study examines the effect of diversification of architectural roles on the sustainability of the
architectural profession in Nigeria. While some of the challenges emanate from the code of architectural
practice in the profession, others arise from the inability of the architect to properly meet the needs of
clients and to adapt to changing environments, viable practice ideologies and practice goals. Architects need
to remember their basic duties to the client and take advantage of specialised tools for project management,
scheduling, cost reconciliation, property development, product marketing, etc. which have become more
integral in developing and sustaining viable architectural practices. The architect may not be able to cling
indefinitely to the monopoly of design stages I and II as a means of sustaining the profession.
This study advocates further research and implementation of professional fullness in building up a
progressive construction industry. More than any other building professional, the architect has to take
cognisance of the fact that the role of the Prime Consultant ceases to be a romanticised or idealised position
held without due competence and willingness to adapt to practice diversification. Architects have a
constitutionally-given duty to protect and promote the image of the profession and this is best achieved by
an evolution of expanded roles geared towards remaining relevant in the construction industry. Architects
need to diversify their practices and improve their level of creativity and innovation through use of new
materials and construction techniques so they do not get supplanted on grounds of incompetence. Architects
need to “pay their dues” in training and practice development to ensure they improve the quality of their
service delivery; legislature and professional bodies need to take decisive action on quackery and
unlicensed practices to ensure fairness and equality in irregular billing practices. In the public sector, 138 | P a g e
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approval boards should ensure the professionals in charge in building drawings approval are made up of a
well-trained architectural team. The implementation of a digitalised monitoring database to protect the
copyrights of architectural drawings would also protect the rights of architects whose works are
unknowingly duplicated without proper consent and remuneration.
Most members of the public are ignorant about the role of an architect in the society and therefore make
wrong conclusions by assuming anybody that can draw a building plan or has a little knowledge about
building construction is able to perform all the duties of an architect which could lead to cases of building
failure and/or eventual collapse. This study therefore recommends regular and on-going public awareness
initiatives by stakeholders in the profession on the role of the architect in society. The study also
recommends awareness initiatives for architects in training about what it takes to become an architect, the
challenges they may face in practice and how to handle such challenges without compromising with the
professional standard.
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