Devkota,NEW KhatriNepal Journal and Neupane of Water Conflicts in Urbanizing Regions inPublished the Himalaya by NPRN Social Science and Hosted by SIAS ANGLE Public Policy Available at www.nepalpolicynet.com December 2018, Vol. 5(1), pp. 1-25 [in Press] WATER CONFLICTS IN URBANIZING REGIONS IN THE HIMALAYA: CASE STUDIES FROM DHULIKHEL AND BIDUR IN NEPAL Kamal Devkota*1, Dil Khatri1 and Kaustuv Raj Neupane1 ABSTRACT Evidences suggest the growing problem and/or control over water; b) tension of water scarcity in Himalayan towns due caused by disparities in water distribution to rapid urbanization, variation in land within urban region and c) competing use use and climate change. The scarcity has of water for domestic and other purposes. led to different forms of water related The major drivers of such conflicts include conflicts. This paper documents the drivers growing water demand both in upstream and dynamics of water related conflicts and downstream areas, declining water in Himalayan towns and explores the sources exacerbated by climate change and potentialities for cooperation in resolving urbanization. In both cases of Dhulikhel these conflicts based on detailed case study and Bidur, water for municipal supply of two mid-hill towns in Nepal. Data were was acquired from upstream rural areas gathered using key informant interviews, using political influence. However, the focused group discussions, stakeholder agreements forged between towns and consultations and participant observations. upstream villages were later contested by The key forms of conflicts emerged from empowered upstream people. This suggests the case study include a) upstream- that socio-political relations have key role in downstream contestation for access to governing water access. Insights from these * Corresponding Author: [email protected] 1 Southasia Institute of Advanced Studies (SIAS), Nepal. © Devkota, Khatri and Neupane, 2018 1 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 5(1), December 2018 cases reinforces the argument that local conflicts over water resources (Falkenmark, water management is a political agenda and 1992). resolving contestation and conflicts require enhanced cooperation and deliberation. We There are different forms of water related see the need for institutional mechanisms conflicts or contestations. Some are related for forging cooperation and inclusive to access to and control over water resources decision-making practices towards better while others are linked with distribution local water governance. (Water Aid in Nepal, 2012). The most prominent form of contestation appears Keywords: Water conflicts, urbanization, to be between upstream communities upstream-downstream cooperation, and downstream users. The upstream- Himalaya. downstream conflict is, in most of the cases, between rural and urban dwellers as the water sources for the towns are in INTRODUCTION upstream rural areas (Celio et al., 2010). This also reflects the contestation between A study suggests that two-third of the relatively wealthy urban dwellers and poor world population is living in extreme rural communities who live with subsistence water scarcity at least one month a year farming, in most of the cases (Slaymaker (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016) and the and Bain, 2017). Another important form situation is likely to further deteriorate of contestation is related to distribution due to rapidly growing urban population of water within urban areas. For example, (UN Water, 2018). A United Nations report corporate clients and few wealthy people stresses that the growing problem of water are often privileged with better access to stress is not only due to urbanization and water with better quality, while poor people population growth but it is also because in marginal areas, i.e., informal settlements, of changing pattern of water use. On are bound to live with scarcity (Malama and the one hand, the existing water sources Kazimbaya- Senkwe, 2004). This suggests are declining, and drying in some cases, that the water related conflicts are linked while on the other, per capita water use with political economic structure and power is increasing resulting into the overall dynamics in the society (Swyngedouw et increase in water demand (Bartlett, al., 2002). 2003; Bhatia and Falkenmark, 1993) as Accelerating conflict and contestation urban lifestyle demands more water for over water resources has drawn increasing showers, washing machines and flush toilets scholarly attention in recent decades. There (McDonald et al., 2011). The increasing is an emerging body of literature that delve water stress is leading to contestations and into multiple dimensions of water conflict (Just and Netanyahu, 2012; Link et al., 2016). 2 Devkota, Khatri and Neupane Water Conflicts in Urbanizing Regions in the Himalaya Yet, issue surrounding trans-boundary understand the political dynamics of water water conflicts has got relatively greater conflicts. This paper seeks to contribute to attention compared to local and municipal this emerging field of local water conflict level conflicts (see Wolf et al., 2003; Zeitoun by examining the drivers and dynamics and Allan, 2008; Swatuk and Wirkus, 2009). of water related conflicts in the growing The literature on trans-boundary water Himalayan towns. The issue is explored governance and conflict primarily deals with examining case of two mid-hill towns of the sharing of freshwater resources (Gooijer Dhulikhel and Bidur of Nepal. and Thomasson, 2006). A key emphasis of this body of work has been the political The inquiry is inspired from urban political dynamics and political-economic relations ecology (UPE). The UPE approach allows between different countries (Zeitoun and to explore the political, economic, and Mirumachi, 2008; Mollinga, 2008) and ecological processes underpinning access stresses for understanding governance of and control of water at local level (Heynen, water resources as political process. 2016). It provides lenses to explore who gets or controls water resources and at what A growing body of literature has started costs, in other words, who benefits and who to emerge on local water governance suffers from particular processes of socio- (Mweemba et al., 2010; Funder et al., environmental change (Swyngedouw and 2010). There are studies on diverse aspects Heynen, 2003; Heynen et al., 2006; Desfor of local water governance focusing on and Keil, 2004). Urban water management is urban (ibid) as well as peri-urban areas. For highly complex and extremely political issue instance, Mehta and Karpouzoglou (2015) (Dabelko and Aaron, 2004; Swyngedouw, examine the water governance in peri- 2009) and water management, as a urban areas focusing on social complexities hybridized socio-natural flow fuses together and inequalities. Similarly, Vij et al. (2018) nature and society in inseparable manners explores the dynamics of core – periphery (Swyngedouw, 2006). In this context, conflict in Gurgaon of India. These studies UPE offers analytical lens to unravel explored the diverse factors of water stress. these conflicts, complicities and political Yet, more focus has been on demand side dynamics as it helps examining urban water issues like population pressure, agriculture governance issues from political ecological productivity, economic development and perspective (Swyngedouw, 2009) Angelo less has been done on supply side issues and Wachsmuth, 2015). For instance, it (Bohmelt et al., 2014). However, there are analyzes who has the power (by custom or very few cases of violent conflicts over local law) to use the available water from a river water management. or to dig wells that reach the water table excluding others (Rodríguez-Labajos and As the water stress in Himalayan towns are Martínez-Alier, 2015). This paper examines mounting every day, it becomes vital to 3 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 5(1), December 2018 the different aspects of municipal water Swyngedouw, 2009) on contestation over governance and dynamics of conflict and access and control of resources by different contestations taking insights from the UPE. actors. We focus on two major forms of These conflicts involve unequal power contestation; upstream-downstream, and relations and political influence in access equitable distribution of water within and control of water sources. This dynamics municipalities. In each aspect, we will are caused by unequal distribution of water explore the patterns of conflict, and the within the towns (Ranganathan, 2014) as underlying drivers that relates to the well as rural-urban water transfer (Hommes changing ecological, socio-economic and and Boelens, 2017). political dynamics in both upstream and downstream areas. The towns of Dhulikhel and Bidur have been facing the challenge of water scarcity This paper is divided into six different in recent decade and the primary reason is sections. This introduction follows the the escalating demand of water due to rapid description of field sites in section two and urbanization (Devkota et al., 2014; Devkota then methods in section three. The key and Neupane, 2018). As we will elaborate in patterns, drivers and dynamics of water this paper, the agreement reached between conflicts from the cases are explained in municipalities and upstream rural areas are section four. Analysis and discussion in contested challenging the earlier power section five is followed by a brief conclusion configurations and new conditions for in section six.