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STC Scholars Vision Vol. 1, Issue No. 6 Annual Journal of Multidisciplinary/Interdisciplinary Studies and Research

Vol. 1 Issue No. 6 Jan - Dec. 2017 ISSN 2321 – 6425 Impact Factor: 3.62

S. No. Contents Page

1. Choice Based Credit System-Pros and Cons - Dr. K. Rani, Dr. Sr. Mercy.P 6 2. Capacity Building for Sustainable Aquaculture for Food Security and Rural Livelihood 11 through Fisheries Education and Extension in India – B. R. Chavan1, M. T. Kamble2, V. B. Sutar3 and R. Pai1 3. Academic flexibility and choice based credit system concerns and challenges – 20 Dr. Fathima Rani. D 4. Higher Education in India – Issues, Challenges and Suggestions. - Dr. M. Rama 23 5. Emerging trends in the Indian Higher Education System - Dr. C.A. Jyothirmayee, 27 6. Challenges and Opportunities of CBCS in Higher Education - 31 *Dr. M. Padmaja , **Dr. Mary Celine Rose 7. Adolescents in Their Growing Personality - Dr. Sr. Marietta D’Mello 35 8. Emerging Trends Of Academia-Industrial Collaboration In India 39 Mr. N. V. N. B.Srinivasa Rao1, Mrs.N.Gayatri Devi2 9. CBCS A Satisfactory Method to Impart Skill Based Education in the Fast Developing 45 Countries – With Special Reference to Selected Colleges in Eluru. – Dr. Mrs. C. Satyadevi 10. Challenges of Choice Based Credit System - Sr.Sunila Rani. P. 50 11. Creating Demand for Communication Skills Training Among the Students – 53 *K.Hymavathi, **Santosh Jhawar 12. Taxonomical and medicinal properties: Case study of adaptations of Avicennia marina 56 (Grey mangrove) at Machilipatnam seacoast, Andhra Pradesh, India. - Madhuri Vajha 13. Problems of Women Street Vendors in Urban Unorganized Sector (A case study in Guntur City) 60 - Nallavelugula Radha 14. Health Status of Tribal Women in India - D. Naga Malleswari 70 15. Anthropometrically determined nutritional status of schoolchildren aged 4-14 years – 79 A case study of West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. - Dr. N. Nagavardhanam, 16. Food Security In India-A Few Issues - Dr. P. Ratna Mary 84 17. The Economic Analysis of Turmeric Cultivation - Badugu Prakash Babu 89 18. Problems Of Rural India And Government Programmes For Rural Development – 101 P. Bharathi Devi 19. Food Security (Public Distribution In Andhra Pradesh) - K. Kishore Kumar 105 20. The Economic Analysis of Chilli Cultivation - L Kodandaram 110 21. Adoption of Improved Production Technology in Tomato by Tribal Farmers for Higher Yields 117 Dr. E. Karuna Sree, DR. R.V.S.K. Reddy. 22. Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in India *Dr. S. Pratima Kumari 121 & M. Rama Satyavathi; ** Kusuma Kumari, & K. Sushma, ***Girish Dasgupta & Kanishkan Dasgupta 23. Millets for health & nutritional security for rural/tribal households 125 E. Karunasree* and R.V.S.K. Reddy** 24. Breaking Silences and Shaping Destinies - Resonant Voices of Post Modern Indian English 132 Women Poets. Dr .R. Madhavi 25. A Study on Dalit Women - Human Rights - P. Raja Ramesh 139 26. Child labour in Informal sector - V. Ranjith Kumar 144 27. Socio – Economic Conditions of Fishermen in Andhra Pradesh - M. Luke Steeven Babu 151 28. The Role of Aquaculture in Rural Development in India (Food Security, Rural 156 Development and Poverty Alleviation) - Yadala Surya Sowjanya

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Editorial: This Journal focus on the main intention behind the implementation of CBCS is to leave the flexibility of choosing a course by students, as observed in many European and American Universities. At present most of our Educational Institutions in India having Under Graduation and Post Graduation courses has already introduced this scheme. Professional expertise in all fields believe that if this program is followed the way it has been suggested in UGC guidelines, it will revolutionize higher education sector and ensure excellent quality academic future for our youth. Considering the various factors prevailing in this part of the world, it is a debatable issue whether we can benefit from this scheme or lose the advantages of already existing system. The Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) is a flexible approach to learning in which students have a freedom to choose inter-disciplinary, intra-disciplinary and skill- oriented courses making Job oriented education broad-based and on par with global standards. To complete one course, the students can study at different times and in different institutions. The students can learn at their own pace, take additional courses and acquire more than the required credits prescribed for the degree they are pursuing. The system is based on semester pattern and entails awarding grades rather than marks. The grading system in CBCS across all Universities would ensure seamless mobility of students in the higher education institutions in the country and abroad along with the facility of transfer of credits earned by students. The CBCS is a shift from the traditional teacher-centric to learner- centric education in which the main focus will be on the learner who will be at the centre stage of all academic transactions. A student who is working on a part-time basis can earn a few credits, pursue skills to enhance employability and stretch his studies to four or five years according to his convenience. Teaching Community trust that implementing a common core syllabi/curriculum would make all universities in the country to follow same curricula, scheme and mode of evaluation and this will gradually wear away the autonomy of universities and make them to lose whatever academic initiative they had built up at their own. These Universities would now look up to the UGC for every academic direction. They believe that a common syllabus all over the country might benefit the students who are migrating to other Universities of abroad but it would badly affect a voluminous majority of students who are reside in one place. Some critics have come to conclusion that grading system will not take individual performance into account which will discourage students and on the other hand credit system will inflate marks and degrade the quality of assessment, resulting in the de-valuation of degrees. But most of the Internal Professional expertise believe that in a complete free atmosphere with teaching community at the receiving end, there is every chance that students who has no settled home or job and they would hardly care for studies. This Issue of our Journal of Multidisciplinary/ Interdisciplinary Studies and Research aim to promote and encourage the research scholars gives you the analytical research articles on" Taxonomical and medicinal properties as well as adaptations of Avicennia marina (Grey mangrove) at Machilipatnam seacoast, Andhra Pradesh, India, Problems of Women Street Vendors in Urban Unorganized Sector (A case study in Guntur City), Health Status of Tribal Women in India, Anthropometrically determined nutritional status of schoolchildren aged 4-14 years –A case study of West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. Food Security In India-A Few Issues, The Economic Analysis of Turmeric Cultivation, Problems of Rural India and Government Programmes for Rural Development, Food Security (Public Distribution In Andhra Pradesh) and The Economic Analysis of Chilli Cultivation

Dr. Mrs. I. Annapurna Editor - in – chief Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today. - Malcolm X

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Choice Based Credit System-Pros and Cons * Dr. K. Rani **Dr. Sr. Mercy.P Abstract The aim of the education is the all round development of the student including cognitive abilities. UGC has recently decided to ask all universities to move to choice based credit system. Therefore, it is necessary to know each & every aspect of CBCS. CBCS is internationally acknowledged system; it offers opportunity and avenues to learn core subjects and also additional learning beyond the core subjects for holistic development. CBCS provides better facility to the learners like freedom, flexibility, advanced learning opportunities, fulfillment of students’ academic need and aspirations, intra and inter institutional transferability & quality education. Provides a ‘cafeteria’ approach in which the students can take courses of their choice, learn at their own pace, undergo additional courses, and acquire more than the required credits. The grading system is considered ‘better’ and ‘desirable’ because this will facilitate student mobility across institutions within the country and across other countries, and also enable potential employers to assess the performance of students. Indian education system is expected to go under reformatory process. Undoubtedly, it would cast positive effect on the higher education system. But, India is a giant country in terms of education system. Maintaining harmony, among all the courses and streams, is a tough task. However, it has been assumed that implementation of CBCS would be a challenging task in higher education system. Flexibility in choosing credits, opting different soft course, mobility of students and common syllabi are the major features of CBCS. . Therefore, it should be better for educationists and policy makers to go with open debates, seminars and conferences as well as go through the basic problems of CBCS and its implications to the broader perspectives. There is the need to explore the concept of CBCS. Everyone should be well known with CBCS so that the opportunities can be utilized in the best way. In India CBCS requires more attention for its proper implementation and effectiveness. Keywords: Choice Based Credit System (CBCS), University Grant Commission (UGC), holistic development and learning opportunities. ********** Introduction The aim of the education is the all round development of the student including cognitive abilities. UGC has recently decided to ask all universities to move to choice based credit system. Therefore, it is necessary to know each & every aspect of CBCS. CBCS is internationally acknowledged system; it offers opportunity and avenues to learn core subjects and also additional learning beyond the core subjects for holistic development. CBCS provides better facility to the learners like freedom, flexibility, advanced learning opportunities, fulfillment of students’ academic need and aspirations, intra and inter institutional transferability & quality education. Provides a ‘cafeteria’ approach in which the Students can take courses of their choice, learn at their own pace, undergo additional courses, and acquire more than the required credits. The grading system is considered ‘better’ and ‘desirable’ because this will facilitate student mobility across institutions within the country and across other countries, and also enable potential employers to assess the performance of students. Education is a light that shows the mankind the right direction to surge. The purpose of education is not just making a student literate but adds rationale thinking. It is an engine for the growth and progress of any society. It not only imparts knowledge, skill and inculcates values, 6

but is also responsible for building human capital which breeds, drives and sets technological innovation and economic growth and survival. The institutions, relationships and norms that emerge from higher education are instrumental in influencing the quality of society’s interactions, which underpin economic, political and social development. Higher education has many purposes:  Acquisition of concrete knowledge and skills.  Developing the ability to reason systematically about critical questions and issues.  To place facts in a broader context.  To consider the moral implications of actions and choices.  To communicate knowledge and questions effectively.  To nurture habits that promotes lifelong learning behaviors outside the formal settings. There are number of drivers of change in higher education today, including technology, globalization, changing demographics, Economy, Changing employer needs, increased demand for accountability, changing students expectations and so on. The impact of any one of these drivers is significant and in total is transformative. Realizing that the present system offers a very rigid pattern, which is inadequate to satisfy the interests and aspirations of the students. Indian education system is expected to go under reformatory process. Undoubtedly, it would cast positive effect on the higher education system. But, India is a giant country in terms of education system. Maintaining harmony, among all the courses and streams, is a tough task. However, it has been assumed that implementation of CBCS would have been succeeded in equalizing the higher education system through the uniform evaluation system. Flexibility in choosing credits, opting different soft course, mobility of students and common syllabi are the major features of CBCS. What is Choice Based Credit System? University Grants Commission has come up with the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) programme in which the students have a choice to choose from the prescribed courses, which are referred as core, elective or minor or soft skill courses and they can learn at their own pace and the entire assessment is graded-based on a credit system. The basic idea is to look into the needs of the students so as to keep up-to-date with development of higher education in India and abroad. CBCS aims to redefine the curriculum keeping pace with the liberalisation and globalisation in education. CBCS allows students an easy mode of mobility to various educational institutions spread across the world along with the facility of transfer of credits earned by students. How does it work? It has the following basic elements:  Semesters: The assessment is done semester wise. A student progresses on the basis of the courses taken rather than time like three years for science, arts, commerce or four years for engineering etc. Each semester will have 15–18 weeks of academic work which is equal to 90 teaching days. There is flexibility in creating the curriculum and assigning credits based on the course content and hours of teaching.  Credit system: Each course is assigned a certain credit. When the student passes that course, he earns the credits which are based on that course. If a student passes a single course in a semester, he does not have to repeat that course later. The students can earn credits according to his pace.  Credit transfer: If for some reasons, he cannot cope with the study load or if he falls sick,

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he has the freedom to study fewer courses and earn fewer credits and he can compensate this in the next semester.  Comprehensive continuous assessment: There is a continuous evaluation of the student not only by the teachers but also by the student himself.  Credits offer flexibility of learning at one’s own pace.  Credits can be earned in a shorter or expanded period depending upon the capacity of the learner.  Provision of transfer of credit is a facility for students to move from one branch to another.  Possibility of doing majors in more than one subject if provision of earning credit is available in the coursework, and  In interdisciplinary courses, credits can be earned by taking courses across departments and institutions.  Stigma of “fail” is minimized in grading and  The grading system is considered “better” and “desirable” because this will facilitate student mobility across institutions within the country and across other countries, and also enable potential employers to assess the performance of students. Pros of Choice-Based Credit System Following points can be said the pros or advantage of credit based choice system.  It can be seen as a major shift from the teacher centre to learner centre education.  Provides a ‘cafeteria’ approach in which the students can take courses of their choice, learn at their own pace, undergo additional courses, and acquire more than the required credits  Learners can offer as many credit as they can cope up the pressure of the examination.  It permits learners to choose soft courses of different interdisciplinary and intra disciplinary subjects with the core subjects.  It is also helpful to the learners to choose courses and papers as per their choice and interest.  It promotes mobility of learners from one institution to another one.  It would take education system as par the global standard.  It also helps to the learners to pursue their courses at different times.  It helps learners to realize their potentials through the flexibility in offering courses.  It has broadened the base of education system.  All round development of learners or multi facets personality of learners can be promoted.  It is also helpful in employment, as knowledge of different soft courses may helpful for that.  Stress and anxiety of learners can be reduced through it.  Work efficiency can be enhanced.  Development of professional skills can be possible.  It puts emphasis on seminar presentation, assignment, discussion, project etc. based teaching.  Slow learners can get advantage from it, as it has the flexibility in choosing credits at one time.  Equality among the learners can be ensured through it, as it has the grading system.  Learners could pace their learning or course as per their habit and ability.  It is also helpful in building favourable learning environment, as everyone is supposed to take part in learning process as per their ability and competency.  Cooperation and healthy work temperament can be ensured and developed among the learners.  Habits of work commitment of learners can be strengthened.  The grading system is considered ‘better’ and ‘desirable’ because this will facilitate student mobility across institutions within the country and across other countries, and also enable 8 potential employers to assess the performance of students Cons of Choice-Based Credit System In spite having advantages, following could be the disadvantages of Choice-Based Credit System.  It would be tough to measure or calculate the exact marks.  Work load of teachers would be increased a lot.  Regular teaching would be affected.  Mobility or transferring of students from one institution to another one would be problematic.  Maintaining compatibility among main subject’s papers and soft papers would be challenging one.  Offering more than one programme of different nature simultaneously would be challenging one.  Extra burden would be experienced by the institution as CBCS has the flexibility in taking or choosing credits.  Mastery over concerned subject would be hampered.  Problems of indiscipline would happen as full liberty or choices of students are given maximum importance.  Different nature and standard of institution will force problem to maintain the equality in terms of mobility of students as everyone would desire to move from sub standard institution or university to standard one.  It may pose problems in maintaining the cumulative record of every student.  Seriousness of students will go away from the examination as much weightage is given to continuous or internal assessment and evaluation.  Most of the time will have to be consumed for setting papers for different type of examinations.  It will call to increase the infrastructure to house or accommodate the students.  Equalisation of performance through it may discourage the gifted and talented students.  Research work and innovation would get hampered, as most of the time teachers have to be involved in setting papers and making arrangement for the examinations. To implement the CBCS at UG level, very massive office automation, classroom teaching using ICT facilities, MOOCs, Wi-Fi facility, Virtual classrooms and library facilities, automation of examination, transparency in evaluation, digital evaluation and digital printing of marks cards and degree certificates are essential with security features. “We cannot blindly follow the US; we are not such a sound economy. Due to the OBC reservations and other factors, very soon there is going to be a huge mix of students’ population which will have the special need Suggestions/Opinions Following points could be considered as the suggestions/opinions regarding the CBCS.  Undoubtedly, CBCS is students’ friendly but things are yet to be needed to justify the efficacy of it.  Class room teaching should be given importance.  Seminars, Conferences and debate should be organized to discuss its merits and demerits in detail.  Professional training should be given to the teachers to handle it effectively. 9

 Provision of both Percentage and grading system should be maintained.  Its adaptation should be optional or choice based rather than mandatory.  Equalization in standard of education system should be maintained so that mobility of students could be checked.  Selection of papers and choosing credits should be governed by the concerned Department/ institution.  To make it more effective, guidance and counseling services should be arranged for the teachers and students while choosing soft core papers. Conclusion Indian education system is expected to go under reformatory process. UGC has confirmed compulsory that CBCS to be implemented across the Nation. Undoubtedly, it would cast positive effect on the higher education system. But, India is a giant country in terms of education system. Maintaining harmony, among all the courses and streams, is a tough task. However, it has been assumed that implementation of CBCS would have been succeeded in equalizing the higher education system through the uniform evaluation system. Flexibility in choosing credits, opting different soft course, mobility of students and common syllabi are the major features of CBCS. . Therefore, it should be better for educationists and policy makers to go with open debates, seminars and conferences as well as go through the basic problems of CBCS and its implications to the broader perspectives. There is the need to explore the concept of CBCS. Everyone should be well known with CBCS so that the opportunities can be utilized in the best way. The most important thing is that there is freedom to opt any of the courses by any student without any limitation of their stream of study. The CBCS is wholly based on this principle. But there is the need to test its effectiveness. How do students feel about this system? Are they satisfied by this system? Or there is any need to reform. Since CBCS provides opportunity to make some necessary reform keeping, students point of view in mind. This will help to support students as well as teachers. References 1. UGC guidelines on adoption of choice based credit system retrieved Mar. 03, 2015 from http://www.du.ac.in/du/uploads/Guidelines/UGC_credit_Guidelines.pdf.. 2. Alka S. Kelkar & Laxshmy Ravishankar (2015). Choice based credit system: boon or bane? 3. University Grant Commission (2012) action plan for academic and administrative reforms. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2015 from http://gndu.ac.in/ugc_acad.pdf. ------*Associate Prof. Dept. of Home Science, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s Autonomous College for Women, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh. **Principal, Associate Prof. Dept. of Home Science, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s Autonomous College for Women, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh.

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Capacity Building for Sustainable Aquaculture for Food Security and Rural Livelihood through Fisheries Education and Extension in India B. R. Chavan1, M. T. Kamble2, V. B. Sutar3 and R. Pai1 Abstract The food requirement of millions of people around the world, to a great extent, depends on protein and other nutritional requirements, which can be derived from fisheries resources. Sustainable development of aquaculture/fisheries is an integral part of government policy plan to address the issues of food security and malnutrition among rural populations in India. In the last three decades both national as well as state governments have placed greater emphasis on establishment of institutions dedicated to promote education, research and extension activities in fisheries sector. In India, the first “College of Fisheries” was started in Karnataka in 1969 on an experimental basis. The college has been a great success and has attracted graduate students from all over the country; and thus, triggering demands for more such institutions to cater the needs of the country. At present, there are 17 Fisheries Colleges in the country established by the state governments under the agricultural universities, on under central university and one under deemed university. To date fisheries colleges have produced 5238 fisheries graduates all together. The eligibility criteria for admission in the bachelor degree in fisheries science is completing XII standard from state board of higher secondary education or an equivalent examination with physics, chemistry, biology/mathematics and English. In addition to this several general universities in India have been offering fisheries as a special paper at the post graduate level in the department of zoology. Recently, some state government introduced fisheries as a vocational course at 10+2 level with assistance from NCERT. Also some of coastal districts have fisheries schools at fishermen's dominating villages under the department of fisheries. Some general universities have started three year degree program in fisheries science. In order to meet the growing education needs of the country in Aquaculture/ Fisheries the Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) has been accorded university status under the ICAR system. Hence this institution is the country’s first fully-fledged national university for fisheries offering post-graduate and doctoral programs in all major disciplines of aquaculture/fisheries. In addition to CIFE there are seven fisheries colleges in the country which offers post- graduate and doctoral degree programs. Evidently, there is increased attention of government on aquaculture/fisheries education much would be required in order to develop and sustain a critical mass of graduates with doctoral level degree, which at present stands at low. Moreover, in general professional status of bachelor degree holders in fisheries is yet to reach the similar level as to that of from other fields such as engineering, agriculture and management, particularly the job conditions in the private sector. The employability of fisheries graduates in India it appears that public sector remains the primary employer and eventually, the most desired sector for graduates to seek employment. Kew words: Aquaculture Education, Fisheries Education, Fisheries Employment, Aquaculture institutes. *********** Introduction The importance of the fisheries sector in India is demonstrated by the fact that it employs more than five million people (Anon, 2009), contributes to food and nutritional security and employment, supports livelihoods, and raises the socioeconomic status of poor fishing communities (Gopakumar, 2007). During the past half-century, Indian fish production registered excellent growth, from a meager 0.75mt in 1950 to 6.38mt in 2008 (Anon, 2009). The industry contributes nearly INR 200 trillion to the national economy, forming 1.4% of national gross domestic product (GDP) and 5.4% of agricultural GDP (Anon, 2009). The sector is one of the major contributors to foreign exports. Food and high quality protein derived from fisheries and aquaculture. Capture fisheries remains stagnant-putting more responsibility on aquaculture to meet the aquatic food demand (Pillai and Katiha, 2004). Developing suitable aquaculture and fisheries will have increasingly important role in rural development, poverty alleviation and food security by enhancing food fish production to 10 million tones by 2012. (Pawar, 2009) 11

Extension has been the weakest link in the development and modernization of the fisheries sector in India. Unlike agriculture sector, no dedicated extension support is ever available to the fisheries sector. The availability of technical personnel in the Department of Fisheries (DOF), the line department in the States/ Union Territories (UTs), to support the vital extension functions at the grassroots level has been negligent, resulting in poor Transfer of Technology (TOT), Additionally, lack of coordination with other link departments and poor research linkages have created further confusion. Due to lack of focus on extension, the resultant training need assessment and the human resource development (HRD) at all levels in the DOF, as also at the field and farmers level has remained neglected. It is well recognized that technical, financial and management skills are of vital for the development of any food production sector; unfortunately this aspect has received the least attention in the fisheries sector. Further, management skills are also essential to forge linkages, develop skills and capacities and provide technical backstopping at the cutting edge level. Therefore, there is an urgent need to strengthen HRD in the fisheries sector and also consider promoting alternatives mechanisms of delivery through innovative methodologies, which meet the growing needs of the sector. With the importance of fisheries/aquaculture in India in mind, the present paper provides an imminent into aspects of the country’s fisheries/aquaculture education status, trends, and future prospects. Based on the observations, recommendations are made about how to develop further fisheries/aquaculture education sector in India. Data Sources and Methodology The present study is based on literature searches and analysis of secondary and primary data gathered from institutes of fisheries/aquaculture education, research and extension under ICAR and State Agricultural University (SAU) reports. Fisheries related data were collected from various reports on fisheries statistics Government of India. The observations and recommendations were based on analysis of primary information and on the responses of researchers and aqua culturists gathered. Results and Discussion Status of Fisheries Education in India: In the last three decades both national as well as state governments have placed greater emphasis on establishment of institutions dedicated to promote education, research and extension activities in fisheries sector. At present, there are 17 Fisheries Colleges in the country established by the state governments under the agricultural universities, and one under deemed university (Table 1). In India, the first “College of Fisheries” was started in Karnataka in 1969 on an experimental basis and the success of this institution has gradually resulted in the emergence of other colleges (DoF, 2009). The college has been a great success and has attracted graduate students from all over the country; and thus, triggering demands for more such institutions to cater the needs of the country. There are several general universities in India have been offering fisheries as a special paper at the post graduate level in the department of zoology. Recently, some state government introduced fisheries as a vocational course at 10+2 level with assistance from NCERT. Also some of coastal districts have fisheries schools at fishermen's dominating villages under the department of fisheries. Some general universities have started three year degree program in fisheries science.

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Tabe1. Fisheries Colleges in India

According to the information gathered from college administration, to date fisheries colleges have produced 5238 fisheries graduates all together (Table 2). There are 4689 members have been graduated (B. F. Sc.) with fisheries professionals, Master in Fisheries Science (M. F. Sc.) are 1586 numbers and 245 have been acquired doctoral degree (Ph.D.). By analyzed data indicates that there are 72 percent, 24.33 percent and 3.76 percent of B. F. Sc., M. F. Sc. and Ph.D. respectively, produced fisheries professionals in India. (Figure 1).

5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 Degree completed Degree 1000 500 0 B.F.Sc. M.F.Sc. Ph.D. Name of degree

Figure - 1 Number of fisheries professional in India In order to meet the growing education needs of the country in Aquaculture/ Fisheries the Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) has been accorded university status under the ICAR system. Hence this institution is the country’s first fully-fledged national university for fisheries offering post-graduate and doctoral programs in all major disciplines of aquaculture/fisheries. In addition to CIFE there are seven fisheries colleges under the state agriculture university in the country which offers post-graduate and doctoral degree programs (CIFE, 2009). Earlier Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai was established in 1961 as an in-service training centre mainly to impart proficient training and education to the fisheries professionals where trainees were exposed to various operative learning strategies so as to equip them to face the challenges of the fisheries sector. By year 1979, CIFE had imparted a lot of 13 talent to the in-service candidates and in recognition of the growing needs and the services provided to the sector in particular and society per se; CIFE came under the administrative control of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). In recognition of its yeomen services and expertise, CIFE was deservingly conferred the Deemed-to-be University status by University Grant Commission (UGC) in 1989. Subsequently the scope and mandate have been widened to include education as well as research. This fostered a positive atmosphere to different stakeholders and facilitated them to fulfill their career objectives and goals. Till date there are 1125, 437 and 101 of D. F. Sc., M. F. Sc. and Ph.D. respectively, fisheries professional have been generated by the CIFE (CIFE, 2009) (Table 2). Table 2: Sate wise Fisheries professionals in India Sr. No College in respective state B.F.Sc. M.F.Sc. Ph.D. 1 COF, Andhra Pradesh 273 - - 2 COF, Assam 268 - - 3 COF, Bihar 123 - - 4 COF, Gujarat 231 - - 5 COF, Karnataka 1164 448 84 6 COF, Kerala 649 94 17 7 COF, Maharastra* 555 98 9 8 COF, Orissa 338 80 - 9 COF, Rajesthan 42 - - 10 COF, Tamil Nadu 542 254 29 11 COF, Tripura 58 - - 12 COF, Utaranchal 264 49 5 13 COF, Punjab* - - - 14 COF, West Bengal 182 126 - 15 CIFE, Mumbai, Maharashtra - 437 101 Total 4,689 1,586 245 * 02 Colleges newly started Figure 2 shows the distributions of the total number of students have been graduated from each college in a respective state.

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1200 B.F.Sc. M.F.Sc. Ph.D. 1000 800 600 400

Degree completed Degree 200 0

Bihar AndhraAssam Gujarat Kerala Orissa Tripura Punjab Rajesthan Karnataka Maharastra Tamil Nadu Utaranchal West Bengal CIFE, Mumbai Colleges in respective State

Figure – 2 Fisheries professionals in India Duration and Admission Eligibility Duration of degree: Eight semesters (Four year) is minimum period is required for bachelor of fisheries science (B. F. Sc.), for Master of fisheries science (M. F. Sc.) are four semester (two years) of minimum period, and six semester (three years) is minimum period for doctoral degree program (Ph. D.). The minimum residential period is two and half years required. 14

The eligibility criteria for admission in the bachelor degree in fisheries science is completing XII standard from state board of higher secondary education or an equivalent examination with physics, chemistry, biology/mathematics and English. The admission for master (M. F. Sc.): Only those candidates having their Bachelor’s Degree in Fisheries Science (B. F. Sc.) under10+2+4 system is eligible to apply for admission. Candidates must have obtained at least 60 percent marks or an overall grade point average (OGPA) of 6.50 out 10.00, 3.25 out of 5.00 or 2.60 out of 4.00. Minimum age limit is 19 years as on 31st August of the same academic year starting on 1st September. Admissions to M. F. Sc. Programme are conducted through Education Division of ICAR. New Delhi. Admission for doctoral (Ph.D.) program: M.F. Sc. (4 years B. F. Sc.+2years P.G/3 years B.Sc.+3years P.G. pattern/M. Sc. offered at CIFE (Up to 1995) (or) D. F. Sc. Provided candidates hold a Bachelor’s degree in Biological Science and has two years of experience in fisheries development work after obtaining D.F. Sc. In case of sponsored candidates, those holding M. Sc. in Fish and Fisheries, and related disciplines with at least two years experience in fisheries development work are also eligible to apply. The minimum age limit for admission to Ph. D. shall be 22 years. The age shall be reckoned as on 30th September preceding the Academic year starting on 1st October. For admission in CIFE for M. F. Sc. and Ph. D. need to take all India level entrance examination of junior research fellowship (JRF) and senior research fellowship (SRF) which is conducted by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. There are some doctoral program seats are reserved in some premier institutes like National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) etc for those are qualified of senior research fellowship examination which is conducted by University Grant Commission (UGC). The admission for M. F. Sc. and Ph. D program is carried out on the basis of state level entrance examination conducted by the state agricultural university. Admission Procedure for Under Graduate The admission procedure of bachelor degree program required the candidates should have respective state domicile. Some admission on the basis of National Talent Scholarship entrance test which is conducted by ICAR, New Delhi, India. Weightage given to various courses offered by the university, there are some Weightage are given for the B. F. Sc. admission Percentage of aggregate marks of qualifying CET examination. 10 points are given for those candidate completing grade XII examinations under 10+2 pattern with the vocational/optional subjects (Fisheries related). Candidate for Fisherman's or Agriculturist’s family having land in his/her parents as evidenced by 7/12 certificate Land-less Agricultural Labor or Agriculturist certificate from Tahasildar are given 12 points. Candidate with participation in inter-college sports/games: 2 points. Candidate with NCC ‘B’ or ‘C’ certificate/Air/Army/Naval wings/N.S.S. for at least 240 hrs/Special camp: 2 points. Candidate whose parents are/were the employees of the Agricultural Universities/of SAUs and on deputation to Agricultural Universities: 3 points (MCAER, 2009). Admission Procedure for Post Graduate Degree The Central Institutes at present admits students to the P.G under two separate streams as Open competition and foreign students. The admission policies and procedures have been prescribed by the Academic Council keeping in view the distinct needs and requirements of candidates coming from each stream. An advertisement for admission to PG courses is published in the leading newspapers of India each year during March /April inviting 15 applications for admission. The last date for receipt of applications shall generally be in the last week of May. The total number of students to be admitted in Master’s and Doctoral degree programs in an academic year is decided by the respective Academic Council, keeping in view the available of teaching faculty and the laboratory facilities. The number of seats available in each academic discipline is clearly indicated in the admission notice and is not altered without the concurrence of the Academic Council. System of Education for Under Graduate Level A revised ICAR model syllabus for UG program is implemented in the country from the academic year 2007-08. Under the SAUs, Fisheries Colleges has 6 teaching departments which undertake various courses of Fisheries science (Table 3). Table - 3. Distribution of B. F. Sc. courses

Each course is divided into credits and during UG course student has to undergo a total of 172 credits to complete degree program. Each credit means 50 marks and internal and external evaluation is done 20% and 80% respectively. The evaluation is done on semester- wise term papers of the respective subjects of the six teaching departments of college. The following departments conduct a Internship/Work experience program during last semester of degree program in which intensive field training is given to each student and their working ability and decision capability in field is judged by experienced field managers. 1. Department of Aquaculture 2. Department of Fish processing Technology and Microbiology 3. Department of Fishery Engineering 4. Department of Fish Resources, Economics, Statistics and Extension Education. 5. Department of Fishery Hydrography 6. Department of Fishery Biology Apart from this experimental learning, study tours are organized for field training during course work such as induced breeding, seed production and hatchery management of Indian Major Carps, breeding and seed production of Common Carp by the Department of Aquaculture. Study tours to South and North India are organized to visit important institutes and place of Fisheries importance during third and final year students with the financial assistance of the Council. System of Education for Post Graduate Level The courses offered in College of Fisheries under State Agricultural University are implemented in all the six departments viz. Aquaculture, Fisheries Technology, Fisheries Biology, Fisheries Hydrography, Fisheries Resources, Economics, Statistics and Extension Education and Fisheries Engineering, but the specialization is depends on the availability of the faculty members in a concerned departments. 16

The Central Institute of Fisheries Education offered specialization in M. F. Sc. level is Fisheries Resources Management (FRM), Inland Aquaculture (AC), Mariculture (MC), Freshwater Aquaculture (FWA), Post Harvest Technology (PHT), Fish Genetics & Biotechnology (FGB), Fish Pathology & Microbiology (FPM), Fish Nutrition & Biochemistry (FNB), and Fisheries Business Management (FBM). For doctoral degree program (Ph. D.): Fisheries Resource Management, Inland aquaculture, Mariculture, Post Harvest Technology, Fish Genetics, Fishery Biotechnology, Fish Pathology & Microbiology, Fish Nutrition & Biochemistry and Fisheries Business Management The minimum grade point required for passing in a particular course is 5.5 for UG and 6.5 and 7.0 for M. F. Sc. and Ph. D. courses respectively. For all courses minimum attendance of 80% of total number of scheduled lectures and practical separately in a course during a semester is compulsory. However, the Associate Dean is empowered to condone the shortage of attendance up to a maximum limit of 5% on valid grounds. Advisory Committee of PG Students For each student admitted to post-graduate degree, an advisory committee consisting of minimum three members and not exceeding five from both major and minor fields of specialization is constituted. A proposal for the formation of advisory committee shall be forwarded in the prescribed Performa for the approval to the Dean/Associate Dean within six weeks from the date of registration in the first semester. A copy of the approved advisory committee should be sent to the Registrar. Every student shall have a recognized major advisor from the major field of specialization and he shall function as Chairman of the Advisory Committee. The other members of the advisory committee shall be suggested by the Chairman of the advisory committee in consultation with Heads of Department of major and minor disciplines and also with the knowledge and consent of the members concerned. The second member in the advisory committee shall be from the student major field. No faculty member shall generally be a member of more than ten advisory committees unless permitted by the Dean. In case of newly admitted students, the concerned Head of the Department shall function as Chairman of the advisory committee till the advisory committee is constituted. All the members of the advisory committee should be recognized teachers by the University. Seminar and Evaluation of thesis For master’s degree, the student has to give one credit seminar from his major field while the Ph.D. student has to give an additional seminar from his minor field. The evaluation of thesis for master’s degree is carried out by an external examiner appointed by the university and the final viva voce examination is conducted by the academic staff member appointed by the Associate Dean as his representative along with the advisory committee. The evaluation of thesis for doctoral degree is carried out by two external examiners appointed by the university and the final viva voce examination is conducted by one of the external examiners and the advisory committee. Linkage of Fisheries/Aquaculture Research Institutes The educational institutes maintain good linkages with various national and international Institutions and agencies for educational, research and developmental collaborations. International institutions: World Fish Center, Penang, Malaysia and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. While in national level some important Linkage of Fisheries/Aquaculture Research Institutes are Central Institute of Fisheries 17

Education (CIFE), National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR), Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute (CICFRI), Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), Coldwater Fisheries Research Institute (CFRI), Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture (CIBA), Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) and Fishery Survey of India (FSI). Employment of Fisheries Graduates in India The fisheries alumni are occupying prestigious position in the state as well as at national level in various SAUs, national institutes under the ICAR, in fisheries department as Assistant Fisheries Development Officer (AFDO)/Fisheries Extension Officer (FEO), and District Fisheries Officer, Nationalized banks, and foreign services. Some students entered state services through the public service commission. Fisheries professionals can get self employment as an entrepreneur, after obtaining the professional degree in B.F. Sc., candidate can start their own enterprise. The financial support can be obtained through NABARD or through other nationalized banks. The main area in which fisheries enterprise can be developed are: Feed manufacturing, feed sales, ornamental fish culture and breeding, aquaculture, hatchery and seed production, commercial pearl production, fish processing are marketing, net making fish disease establishment of agric lines. Successful students can work in agro-industries, Fish industries as a manager or officers in seafood processing and export units, aqua feed plants, fishing gear industries and in pharmaceutical companies. There is great paucity of skilled manpower in the area of designing, construction, management of fish farms and hatcheries. Conclusions and Recommendations Aquaculture/Fisheries undergraduate programs in India is heavy in terms of course content, but need develop models to give students more opportunity to work on real world problems. Academic institutions should integrate with the industry, so as the graduates will get hands on training, and this may contribute in improved employability of aquaculture/fisheries graduate. Aquaculture/fisheries courses need to focus more on student’s skill in business plan development. Indian has a well developed mechanism to link educationists, researchers and scientist under ICAR system- similar approach can be adopted by other Asian countries to establish network of academic institutions. India has introduced fisheries as vocational course at 10+2 level; however, in order to educate the young kids aquaculture/fisheries curriculum need to integrate with general biology at the high school level, as being practiced in USA: At least 15 high schools around the state of Arizona have an aquaculture program as part of their agriculture curriculum. Alabama has a state approved aqua-science core curriculum, and there are approximately 50 teachers in Alabama that teach aquaculture in high school classrooms. Evidently, there is increased attention of government on aquaculture/fisheries education much would be required in order to develop and sustain a critical mass of graduates with doctoral level degree, which at present stands at low. Moreover, in general professional status of bachelor degree holders in fisheries is yet to reach the similar level as to that of from other fields such as engineering, agriculture and management, particularly the job conditions in the private sector. The employability of fisheries graduates in India it appears that public sector remains the primary employer and eventually, the most desired sector for graduates to seek employment. 18

References 1. Anon (2009): Handbook on fisheries statistics, Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture and Co-operation, Fisheries Division), Government of India.150 p. 2. CIFE (2009) Alumni list of Diploma in Fisheries Science (D. F. Sc.) published by Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai. 3. DOF (2009): Handbook on fisheries statistics, Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Fisheries), Government of India.119 p. 4. DOF (2008): Annual report published by Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi, India. 107 p. 5. Gopakumar, K. (1997):. Fisheries World, Feb.22. 6. MCAER (2009): Admission criteria published by Maharashtra Council of Agricultural University Examination Board, Pune. 7. Pillai, N.G.K.and Katiha, P. K. (2004): Evolution of Fisheries and Aquaculture in India. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi, 34 p. 8. Pawar, S. (2009): National Conference of State Fisheries, Orissa, 4th July. ------1 College of Fisheries, Dr. B. S. Konkan Agricultural University, Ratnagiri (MS), India 2AARM, Asian Institute of Technology, Kluang Luang, Thailand 3College of Fishery Sciences, (MAFSU), Udgir (MS), India. Contact e-mail: [email protected]

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Academic flexibility and choice based credit system concerns and challenges Dr. Fathima Rani. D Abstract Formal education is one of the modern and important ways through which higher education attempt to import students a variety of knowledge and competencies in the form of curriculum. Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of individual. It is high time to shift from the traditional teacher centric to learner-centric education in which the main focus will be on the learner who will be at the centre stage of all academic transactions. In this direction CBSC appears to be a ray of hope to rejuvenate our higher education. It is an ideal scheme that may bring out the true power of youth to make them able to complete at the global level and resolve their unemployment problems. The uniform grading system will also enable potential employers in assessing the performance based on the skill. Key words: Competencies, Formative Effect, Physical Ability, Learner-Centric, Transactions, Rejuvenate. ************* Introduction: The choice based credit system (CBCS) is a flexible approach to learning in which students have a freedom to choose inter-disciplinary, intra-disciplinary and skill oriented course making education broad based on par with global standards. The main intent behind the CBCS is to leave the flexibility of choosing a course by students as observed in many European and American universities. During the last two decades there is huge expansion of the higher education particularly in the college sector without proper infrastructure, physical and human in the newly established colleges. With respect to the methodologies evolved by teachers to adopt to the credit based system and majority have come up with newer methods of teaching, learning like use of case studies, seminar presentations, industrial visits and online study etc. it also allows greater flexibility for students to opt various inter-disciplinary courses and to bring academic programs on pr with standards of international universities premier Indian institutions. In tune with global trends and the adaptation of the proper grading system for measuring performance of the learner, the choice based credit system imminently fits into the emerging socio-economic milieu. The main advantages that support CBCS are: Self learning Flexibility Why Student autonomy Choice Student work load Based Student mobility Credit Internal assessment System? Slow learners and advantages Favorable learning environment Teacher centric to learner centric Maintenance of global standards Realizing potentials Reduction of stress and anxiety Promotion of multi facets Personality of learners Possibility of development of professional skills It is assumed that the implementation of CBCS would bring renowned change in uniform evaluation system, student autonomy; self learning and all-round development of 20 students, but in spite of all the above discussed advantages there are some disadvantages which would be more challenging: - Difficulty of offering of more than one program Simultaneously with different - Rise of problems of indiscipline Challenges To - Effect on regular teaching Be - Necessity of infra structure Faced - Performance and evaluations problems - Lack of seriousness towards examination system - Mobility of students - Comprising on Autonomous system - Difficulty of centralization of universities - Lifeless uniformity - Loss of creativity - Difficulty in synthesizing different disciplines - Student entry level competence - Faculty recruitment - Difficulty in framing syllabus and conducting Examinations - Innovative barrenness

There is a growing criticism on then implementation of the system and concerns have also been raised on the university’s autonomy and its problems on outside interference in its functioning. But to compete globally CBCS would be a good choice and it would be helpful to uphold the quality to examine how CBCS is going to cater to the needs of the learners. CBCS would be a better developmental indicator because it has vast range of choice. It has academic flexibility to have greater choice of courses appropriate to their interests, needs and long term goals. - Choice of departmental electives,

Ex: arts, science, technology and management

- Choice of faculty member

- Choice of project work - India or Abroad

- Choice of research Ex: In a foreign university

Academic - Choice of value added certificate

Flexibilities - Choice of new elective with latest development

- Choice of integrated programs

- Choice of flexible timings

- Choice of online course

- Choice in selecting course as electives

- Choice of elective in unrelated discipline with an intension to

seek an exposure

- Choice of credit transfer

Every ladder of the education has its own problems and prospects so major invention and innovations have direct bearing on the quality of higher education. Out of three forms of education like primary, secondary and territory, the process of developing nation much lies on territory education sector. Choice based credit system or a cafeteria like system is the solution for the transformation from traditional teacher oriented education to a student centered education through which students can benefit the most from all the available resources so

21 academic commissions and comities such as U.G.C, NAAC and NAAC recommended CBCS for higher education.

- Aspects of CBCS and maintenance of clarity - Betterment system must be included - CBCS should be based on present and future needs Suggestions - Provision of infrastructure -Syllabus and schedule -Student mobility and facility -Orientation programs and works on CBCS

Conclusion To conclude a choice based credit system can function only when we start to see our students as mature individuals capable of making their own decisions. It is also important to understand CBCS which has emerged as a alternative thinking as part of new academic venture because the present scenario wants to look beyond where one could apply his or her knowledge at application level. In order to explore to the needs and to the necessary skills of the learners we need to have value based curriculum. As Indian education system is in the midst of politic crises in this post modernism where the world is fast changing we need to we need to understand what is lacking in the present education system and formulate new programs of study to match with the societal needs. References: 1. U.G.C guidelines on adaptation of choice based credit system, university grants commission Bahadurshah Zafar Marg New Delhi 110002 2. U.G.C guidelines on adoption of choice based credit system, university grants commission, India. http://collegesat.du.ac.in/ugc_credit_guidelines.pdf 3. Higher education in India: strategies and schemes during XI plan (2007-2012) for universities and colleges, university grants commission, January 2011,P.76. ------Associate Professor, Dept of English, St. Theresa's (A) College for Women, Eluru.

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There is no end to education. It is not that you read a book, pass an examination, and finish with education. The whole of life, from the moment you are born to the moment you die, is a process of learning. Jiddu Krishnamurti

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Higher Education in India: Issues, Challenges and Suggestions. Dr. M. Rama Abstract Higher education has significant role in supporting knowledge driven economic growth strategies. It provides an opportunity to critically reflect upon the social, economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues facing humanity. It contributes to national development through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. Issues like access, equity, inclusion, quality, privatization and financing concerning higher education, are very complex and interrelated with political, economical geographical and international dimensions. Indian economy is facing various challenges regarding higher education, which need to overcome through appropriate policy formation and their effective implementation. To develop India as an education hub or to become a prosperous partner in global economy, India has to qualitatively strengthen education in general and higher education with research and development in particular. For better contribution of higher education in Indian economy, there is emergence of paradigm shift from literature type education to productive, job oriented education as per requirements. Key words: Higher education-National development-Quality-Research-Paradigm shift. ************** Introduction: Higher education is very important for a developing country like India and it is encouraging to increasing human development. According to the National policy on Education (NPE) -86, Higher education provides people with an opportunity to reflect on the critical social, economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues facing humanity. It contributes to national development through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. Higher education is presumed as education beyond the school level. It has a place at a university or at a college or an institute. Higher education typically comprises under-graduate, post graduate degrees and pre-doctoral and doctoral programs. This sector can be further classified as technical and non-technical education. While, the UGC is an umbrella regulation which governs any institution imparting degree, the institution carrying out technical education also needs to comply with operational norms specified under All India Council for Technical Education AICTE (for engineering, management studies etc.) and Medical Council of India MCI (for medical) among others. Indian higher education is in need of radical reforms. A focus on enforcing higher standards of transparency, strengthening of the vocational and doctoral education pipeline, and professionalization of the sector through stronger institutional responsibility would help in reprioritizing efforts and working around the complexities. The rise of IT sector and engineering education in India has boxed students into linear path without giving them a chance to explore and discover their passions. Concerted and collaborative efforts are needed in broaden student choices through liberal arts education. Issues in Higher Education in India: There are various issues that stand before the system of higher education in India. Access and equity: The twin issues of inclusion and equity need to be given due importance while making policies for expanding access to higher education. Thus, several social, economic and political reasons seem to act as constraints to access and equity in higher education in India. Enhancing social access as well as to bring equity in quality of higher education is still important in the country. 23

Quality: Quality in higher education is another burning issue which can be ensure through regular review of the functions of the institution either through self assessment or through outside agencies and by accrediting the institutions. The various regulatory bodies regulating higher education have constituted autonomous bodies for monitoring quality standards in the institutions under their purview e.g., NAAC, NBA, AB, DEC etc. Financing of higher education: One of the most important thing that have to be noticed is the issue of financial constraints regarding higher education before the government and the State Government has already been spending 20-30 per cent of its revenue budget on education. It could not afford to spend more. In India, higher education has received less attention in terms of public spending than other levels. Privatization: In India both public and private institutions operate simultaneously. Approximately 50 per cent of the higher education in India is imparted through private institutions, mostly unaided involving high cost. Lower level of teaching quality: Our education system is torture by issues of quality in many of its institutions and universities. Many of the issues like lack of faculty, poor quality teaching, Traditional teaching methods, outdated and rigid curricula and pedagogy, lack of accountability and quality assurance and separation of research and teaching are raise questions on Indian education system. Traditional methods of teaching: Earlier, the teachers were committed to their students to their subjects and to their profession. Today, high salaries are available but the commitment is less. Professors still stick to those older methods of teaching like board, marker. They don’t like to make use of audio visual aids in teaching. Also they are not up to date with the information available and what global industry demands. Indian education system is more focused on theoretical knowledge rather than practical knowledge. Inadequate facilities and infrastructure: In India, many of the universities don’t have adequate infrastructure or facilities to teach students. Even many private universities are running courses without classrooms. Internet and Wi-Fi facility is still out of reach of many students. Quota system: Bringing the reservation and quota system for different categories in education lost its quality. Even deserving candidates of general categories are ignored and on quota we have to select other person from reserved category even though he is not suitable. Emerging Challenges: The system of Indian Higher education is the second largest in the world which fulfills the educational requirements of millions of students who come from different sections of the society since it is the student community that can help to generate healthy academic atmosphere in institutions of higher learning. But in the last few decades a countrywide Problems / challenges have emerged in Higher Education system in India. Our heterogeneous education system: Based on geographical, rural-urban, rich-poor set up have posed in great challenge for the educational institutions. Varieties of colleges, universities, technical institutions have produced and different types and quality of Education. Some of them are really imparting qualitative education although a few others are doing the dirtiest job. Interference of political factors: Most of the Institutions, imparting education (Aided-non- aided) are owned by the dominant political leaders, now playing key role in governing bodies of the Universities. They exploit the students’ energy for their political purposes. The students forget their own objectives and begin to develop their career in politics. Economic Difficulties: Economic miseries have grown due to the increasing prizes, habits of wasting money on luxuries, increasing population, scarcity of food supply, corruption, selfish 24 etc. Near about seventy five percent of the total students community today, have been facing the financial problems. Earn while learn scheme cannot adequately support student to face economic challenges. Lack of Moral values: Rapid growth of science and technology and subsequent industrialization has caused a great and danger to our old moral and values. The younger generation’s dissatisfaction and revolt is the outcome of a decaying system of values. Lack of relevance: Enabling an education that is relevant to the economy and society is another challenge. The development of human resources for the economy has been translated into action through vocational and professional education. Suggestions for improving quality of higher education: There are some suggestions and Expectations from Government, Industry, Educational Institutions, Parents and Students for improving quality of higher education. Student-Centered Education and Dynamic Methods: Student-centered education and employment of dynamic methods of education will require from teachers new attitudes and new skills. Methods of teaching through lectures will have to subordinate to the methods that will lay stress on self-study, personal consultation between teachers and pupils, and dynamic sessions of seminars and workshops. Methods of distance education will have to be employed on a vast scale. Examination Reforms: Examination reforms, gradually shifting from the terminal, annual and semester examinations to regular and continuous assessment of student’s performance in learning must be implemented. International Cooperation: International cooperation is gaining importance as yet another function. With the increased development of transport and communication, the global village is witnessing a growing emphasis on international cooperation and action to find satisfactory solutions to problems that have global dimensions and higher education is one of them. To increase Quantity of Universities: We need more universities because we are more in number and present number of universities is too less. National Knowledge Commission (NKC) has recommended setting up of 1500 universities by 2015 so that gross enrolment ratio increases to 15 percent. It has also called for establishing an Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education (IRAHE) to monitor the quality of overall higher education in India. Cross Culture Programmes: After education, tour to every the places in India and world as far as possible with the cooperation of government is necessary so that one can understand about people, culture, arts, literature, religions, technological developments and progress of human society in the world. Action Plan for Improving Quality: Academic and administrative audit must be conducted once in three years in colleges by external experts for ensuring quality in all aspects of academic activities. The self-finance colleges must come forward for accreditation and fulfill the requirements of accreditation. Universities and colleges should realize the need for quality education and come forward with action plan for improving quality in higher educational institutions. World Class Education: India must aspire for the international standard in education. Many national universities like in the USA, UK, Australia, etc. allow studies in higher education for foreign students in their countries and through correspondence courses as well. In the same way India Universities of world class education can also offer courses of studies to foreign students taking advantage of the globalization process. To achieve that goal it must adopt uniform 25 international syllabus in its educational institutions. Personality Development: Education must be for the flowering of personality but not for the suppression of creativity or natural skill. In the globalized world opportunity for the educated people are naturally ample in scope. As a result business process outsourcing (BPO) activities have increased competition in the world trade leading towards the production of quality goods and their easy availability everywhere in the world market. That is the way the world can be developed for peace, prosperity and progress by able and skilful men. Conclusion: Indian higher education system has undergone massive expansion since independence. And thus there has been considerable improvement in the higher education in India in both quantitative as well as qualitative terms. India is not knocking at the doors of the world but world is knocking at the doors of India. In order to respond to the global challenges more strongly than ever before, India today needs a knowledge-oriented paradigm of development to give the country a competitive advantage in all field of knowledge. The present system of higher education produced some degree holders with mere knowledge and information in a particular area, but it has failed to develop general employability skills needed for entry level employee. Hence, it is high time for planners, policy makers and practitioners of higher education to ponder over it and make necessary reforms in the course and strategies so that employability skills can be developed among the students. Indian student is required to develop a multifaceted personality to cope up with the rapid changes in the world at large. References 1. National Education Policy 1986 2. Reforming higher education with transparency - University World News". 3. www.universityworldnews.com. Retrieved 2016-06-28 4. Choudaha, Rahul. "Three Solutions for Reforming Indian Higher Education ~ DrEducation: Global Higher Education Research". www.dreducation.com. Retrieved2016-06-28. 5. Choudaha, Rahul. "Why India should go beyond engineering and diversify with liberal arts education? ~ DrEducation: Global Higher Education Research". www.dreducation.com. Retrieved 2016-06-28 6. .Goel, M.M. & Walia, Suraj (2011), “Education and Economic Growth in Haryana (India): Using Granger Causality Approach” in international journal, Journal of South Asian Studies, Vol.17-1. 7. Goel, M.M. & Walia, Suraj (2011), “Higher Education: An Engine of Economic Growth in Post Reform India” Research Journal Social Sciences, Panjab University, Chandigarh. Vol. 19, No.3. 8. Madhavi, N.R. (2011), ‘Higher Education in India: Progress and Emerging Needs’, Southern Economists, October 01, 2011. 9. Padhi, S.K. (2011), ‘Issues, Challenges and Reforms in Higher Education for a Knowledge Society,’University News, vol. 49(26). 10. University Grant Commission (UGC) Reports. ------Associate Prof. Dept. of Chemistry. Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s College for Women, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh.

Knowledge is power. Information is liberating. Education is the premise of progress, in every society, in every family. - Kofi Annan

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Emerging trends in the Indian Higher Education System Dr. C.A. Jyothirmayee, Abstract The importance of higher education has been clearly expressed by our first Prime Minister Mr. Jawaharlal Nehru in the following words: “A university stands for humanism, for tolerance, for reason, for the adventure of the ideas and for the search of truth. It stands for onward march of human race towards even higher objectives. If the universities discharge their duties adequately, then it well with the nation and the people”. It indicates that higher education occupies a crucial position in education system of a nation as it affects the overall development of a country. Higher education: Concepts and Meaning Indian education ladder starts at 6 years of age. It comprise of 10 years of primary or elementary and secondary stages, 2 years of higher secondary stages, 3 years bachelor’s degree, 2 years of masters degree and at least 3 years beyond masters degree for a Ph.D. According to NEP 1968, 1986 this is known as 10+2+3 system. The Post Higher Secondary Education is known as Higher Education in India. Six problems with the Indian Higher Education System 1. Too much time spent on assessing the problems, rather than finding tangible solutions 2. Miss match in supply and demand 3. Mushrooming of low quality, money making Institutes. 4. India’s obsession with the service industry. 5. Ineffective Foreign Education Providers Bill 6. Lack of relevant opportunities and project based learning. Emerging trends in Higher education: In the current Topic, we will try to understand the influence of changing world scenario and the emerging trends in the Indian Higher Education system. 1. Collaborative Education Collaborative education is an emerging concept in the Indian education system, whose basic idea is to promote the interaction and sharing of knowledge for the enhancement, creation and expansion of new knowledge. It includes inter-institutional arrangements where two or more institutions agree to offer jointly a study programme in terms of study credits and credit-transfers, so that students pursuing their studies in one institution have their credits recognized by the other, and accepted for transfer in order to continue their studies. 2. Trans-national Education Transnational education providers inhabit different national education systems with different sorts of arrangements. It involves cross-border mobility depending on what and who crosses the border. Key words: Higher Education, Collaborative Education, Trans-national Education, Humanism, Tolerance. ********** Introduction Higher education: Concepts and Meaning The term Higher Education is ambiguous in nature because it is used in variety of way by different people, different country and in different point of time. In fact, there is no straight forward definition of Higher Education. Internationally after school education can be divided into Higher Education and Further Education and is known as Tertiary Education. Indian education ladder starts at 6 years of age. It comprise of 10 years of primary or elementary and secondary stages, 2 years of higher secondary stages, 3 years bachelor’s degree, 2 years of masters degree and at least 3 years beyond masters degree for a Ph.D. According to NEP 1968, 1986 this is known as 10+2+3 system. The Post Higher Secondary Education is known as Higher Education in India. 27

Six problems with the Indian Higher Education System 1. Too much time spent on assessing the problems, rather than finding tangible solutions At any educational conference we have hour-long speeches, expert panel discussions and solutions from experts in the industry. And these solutions are more or less the same – “Attitude needs to change”, “We need to get back to the basics”, “Funding needs to increase”, “Structural and design changes”, “Awareness needs to increase” and my personal favorite, “we need more data and analysis". In the end the sponsors get their 2 second vote of thanks, visiting cards are exchanged and everybody leaves with some souvenirs to carry home. 2. Miss match in supply and demand: India has the largest population of teens with close to 100 million in number ranging between 17 to 19, but each year only 20 million i.e., 19 % students enroll into higher education institutes according to a joint survey by aspiring minds and NASSCOM in 2013.80 million in number who do not have the opportunity to study even if they wanted to. And 3.5 million graduates join the workforce each year among the 20 million. There is a massive gap that is created due to the difference in the number of schools and higher education institutes that really needs to be bridged. The government apparently has a vision to increase this to 30 percent by the year 2020. 3. Mushrooming of low quality, money making Institutes: As a result of that huge gap, Politicians, realtors, businessmen/women - basically anybody who wants to mint some serious cash, start to open colleges. Take Bangalore for example, by the time you travel from one part to the other, you will notice colleges at every nook and corner, housed in what probably looks like a 3 storied apartment complex. It’s hard to even imagine quality infrastructure and facilities inside these colleges. And a glimpse of the teaching staff shows you how poor they are in quality. This farce exists not only in a large city like Bangalore, but in smaller areas as well. 4. India’s obsession with the service industry: Along with the I.T and B.P.O industries, education institutes started seeing themselves as service providers, rather than being a place where the youngsters were molded into innovators and architects of the future. The service they provided was that of certifying graduates as “employable by the service industry”. For 3 to 4 years, students stuff their minds with information which they would probably never use, because each of these I.T and B.P.O companies have their own training programs which have no relation to a student’s field of study. And finally, the most terrible effect it has had is that it provides no incentives for these colleges to improve. 5. Ineffective Foreign Education Providers Bill: In September of 2013, the government of India passed an executive order to allow the top 400 universities in the world to set up campuses in India and allow them to function independently, without the requirement of Local Partners. This sounded promising and one can see the possibilities when universities such as Duke University and Georgia Tech, both among the top fifty U.S Universities, started to show interest. So why aren't more universities lining up:  Firstly, they aren't allowed to take surplus profits out of the country, with the compulsion of a 5 $ million buy in and maintenance of escrow accounts.  Secondly, they have to deal with getting permissions from the University Grant’s Commission. The foreign education providers Bill can be more effective if stops trying to control and regulate universities and instead be similar to their Singapore and Dubai counterparts - granting quick permissions, infrastructure and subsidies. These countries are quickly emerging as top quality higher education hubs for students from around the world. 28

6. Lack of relevant opportunities and project based learning: Most of us in the cities have had the privilege of studying in some of the better institutions. To put things into perspective, engineering graduates have to study about 40 subjects - spend an average of 6000 hours attending classes out of which only 500 hours are spent interacting in “Labs” across 4 years, have to write 120 internal assessment papers and 50 main exams, undertake a couple of "projects" which was probably stolen from their seniors and let's not even get into the amount of time and resources spent on travelling and studying. And then after all that effort, most of them get jobs in the I.T service industry which has absolutely nothing to do with what they learnt. Only 15 % are lucky enough to get into relevant industries. Emerging trends in Higher education: In the current Topic, we will try to understand the influence of changing world scenario and the emerging trends in the Indian Higher Education system. Due to Information and Communication Technology Revolution, there has been a rapid and phenomenal increase in the interaction between communities, polities and societies in today’s world. Our Indian social system is also going through massive change to meet the needs of modern world. The society has different subsystems and Education is one of them. 1. Collaborative Education: Collaborative education is an emerging concept in the Indian education system, whose basic idea is to promote the interaction and sharing of knowledge for the enhancement, creation and expansion of new knowledge. Any institution has its premises of generating knowledge, which can be enriched by introducing the culture of collaborative education. Due to not having suitable facilities or availability in a particular institution, the students suffer a lot. For the proper understanding of any key subject, there must be need to consult the specialized institutions. The collaborative education is paving this path of bringing various specialized institutions in a link according to the need of students. It includes inter-institutional arrangements where two or more institutions agree to offer jointly a study programme in terms of study credits and credit-transfers, so that students pursuing their studies in one institution have their credits recognized by the other, and accepted for transfer in order to continue their studies. It may also be termed as twinning programmes. The students can access the audit courses of other institutions with permission to their mother-institution for making better understanding of concepts. So through this, the outreach of institutions is expanding and students will have more options to choose. The quality of education is also getting enhanced because of specialized faculties of different institutions. The concept of collaborative education can be seen in the following types:  Institution-Institution Collaboration  Institution-School Collaboration  Institution-Community Collaboration  Institution-NGO Collaboration  Institution-State Collaboration  Institution-State-NGO Collaboration  Institution-Industry Collaboration and various other forms. 2. Trans-national Education: Transnational education refers to a situation where the educational provider and the students opting for education are located in different countries. The educational discourses between the educational providers and students are carried out through multiple means, namely, mail, computer network, teleconferencing, radio or television network, 29 etc.Transnational Education denotes any teaching or learning activity in which the students are in a different country (the host country) to that in which the institution providing the education is based (the home country). This situation requires that national boundaries be crossed by information about the education, and by staff and/or educational materials. (Global Alliance for Trans-national Education (GATE), 1997, p. 1) Transnational education providers inhabit different national education systems with different sorts of arrangements. It involves cross-border mobility depending on what and who crosses the border. We can see the Trans-national Education in the following forms:  People mobility-based education: a person can go abroad for educational purpose.  Programme mobility-based education: an educational programme can go abroad.  Institution mobility-based education: an institution or provider can go or invest abroad for educational purposes. Conclusive Remark: Education is an inseparable entity of any nation. India as a nation has its educational agreements with different countries and international global bodies. Hence the structure of education in India is taking new shape accordance with the changing scenario. The major challenge before the country is to accept the new educational ideas with retaining own education ethos. The issue of maintaining the quality of higher education institutions with absorption of increasing quantity of students is also a serious concern. The different forms of educational set- up mentioned above are contributing to deal with the challenges and making the higher education system more efficient. The government alone can’t make improvements as much as it is their job. Reforms that are not name sake, heavy involvement from the private sector and more youngsters venturing into the field of education are few of the things that could help alleviate the problem. But we need to start somewhere. In order to effectively plan for reforms and improvement, it is necessary to have in realistic perceptions of what is possible and what is not. ------References 1. Sharma Sharda, UGC and Higher Education System in India, 2. Powar, K. B. (2002). Indian Higher Education: A Conglomerate of Concept, facts and practices. Concept publication company, New Delhi 3. Mishra Sharda, (2006). UGC and Higher Education System in India. Book Enclare, Jaipur.302006. 4. National Knowledge Commission, Report to the Nation (2006), New Delhi (2007). National Knowledge Commission 5. Agarwal P. (2006). Higher Education in India: The Need for Change, ICRIER Working Paper, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, 180. 6. Stella A. (2002). External Quality Assurance in Indian Higher Education: case study of the National Assessment and Accreditation Council. Paris: International Institute for Education Planning, UNESCO. 7. Gupta, Asha(2011). UchchatarShikshakebadalateaayam. Hindi KaryanvayaNideshalaya, University of Delhi, Delhi. 8. Mitra, C.R.(2005). Higher education in changing scenarios. Samskriti Publication, New Delhi. ------Associate Prof. Dept of Chemistry, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s (A) College for Women, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh.

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Challenges and Opportunities of CBCS in Higher Education *Dr. M. Padmaja **Dr. Mary Celine Rose Abstract: All the major higher education institutions across the world are implementing a system of credits. India too adopted the CBCS on recommendations of both the 11th Five Year Plan and the National Knowledge Commission to ensure quality in higher education. National Knowledge Commission has called for reform of existing universities to ensure frequent curricula revisions, introduction of course credit system, enhancing reliance on internal assessment, encouraging research, and reforming governance of institutions. Thus the University Grants Commission, India’s statutory body for higher education proposed a semester pattern in curriculum instead of yearly examinations and grades instead of numerical percentages in mark sheets with minimum 90 days of teaching for learner teacher engagement and made the CBCS mandatory for all 400 public universities at the undergraduate and postgraduate level beginning in the academic year 2015-2016. Under Choice-based Credit System (CBCS), students pursue three types of courses - Compulsory Foundation Courses (relating directly to the subject of study), Elective Courses (allowing for interdisciplinary studies) and Core subjects, where it is compulsory to pursue core subjects every semester and choose electives from a pool of subjects unrelated to their disciplines. This means a Science student can opt for any subject of Commerce or Arts discipline as an elective. The current higher education curriculum in India does not impart the necessary skills that would make the students employable adequately; there is a lack of interdisciplinary approach. The traditional method used teacher centric approach, the evaluation methods are largely based on memory recall processes which do not allow students to learn, think or analyse on their own thus the system is not effective enough in meeting/ empowering students to think on matters/issues independently. While the CBCS is aimed at ushering in a multi-disciplinary approach to undergraduate curriculum, enabling students to select courses from a wide range of disciplines to gain mastery of a subject of their choice and establish uniformity and parity within and across institutions; between Indian higher educational institutions and international institutions, which follow a similar pattern. Keywords: Choice based credit system, education system, UGC, letter grading system ******* Introduction The University Grants Commission (UGC), India, has brought out guidelines for the introduction of the choice based credit system (CBCS) in higher educational institutions for graduate, postgraduate, diploma and certificate programmes. The UGC has embarked upon measures since November 18, 2014 to introduce CBCS very judiciously and develop skills to meet the day to day requirement of students across the higher education institutions in the country as well as abroad. India’s statutory body for higher education proposed a semester pattern in curriculum instead of yearly examinations and grades instead of numerical percentages in mark sheets with minimum 90 days of teaching for learner teacher engagement and made the CBCS mandatory for all 400 public universities at the undergraduate and postgraduate level beginning in the academic year 2015-2016. Under Choice-based Credit System (CBCS), students pursue three types of courses - Compulsory Foundation Courses (relating directly to the subject of study), Elective Courses (allowing for interdisciplinary studies) and Core subjects, where it is compulsory to pursue core subjects every semester and choose electives from a pool of subjects unrelated to their disciplines. This means a Science student can opt for any subject of Commerce or Arts discipline as an elective. According to UGC guidelines, in the new system there is a shift in focus from teacher-centric to learner- 31 centric education. Emphasis is on studying/learning and not on teaching, with the learner being at the centre stage of all academic transactions. The basic elements of CBCS are semesters, credit system, credit transfer, comprehensive continuous assessment and grading. There is a continuous evaluation of the student not only by the teachers but also by the student himself. This will ensure to engage the students in the campus culture; rather than provoking students’ unrest. CBCS offers flexibility for students to study at different times and at different institutions to complete one course. Credits earned at one institution can be transferred to another institution.UGC aims at introducing a paradigm shift in curriculum from teacher-centric to student-centric through the CBCS. CBCS will facilitate in creating employability as it helps the students to imbibe skill based knowledge that benefits practically. Common minimum standard is maintained across all universities in India and integration of project work/dissertation boosts skill development for exploring, analyzing and solving problems in an existing environment. The current higher education curriculum in India does not impart the necessary skills that would make the students employable adequately; there is a lack of interdisciplinary approach. The traditional method used teacher centric approach, the evaluation methods are largely based on memory recall processes which do not allow students to learn, think or analyse on their own thus the system is not effective enough in meeting/ empowering students to think on matters/issues independently. While the CBCS is aimed at ushering in a multi-disciplinary approach to undergraduate curriculum, enabling students to select courses from a wide range of disciplines to gain mastery of a subject of their choice and establish uniformity and parity within and across institutions; between Indian higher educational institutions and international institutions, which follow a similar pattern. The UGC has always initiated measures to bring efficiency and excellence in the Higher Education System of India but as far as CBCS is concerned it is too early to say if this system will be successful in the Indian Universities or not. The basic motive is to expand academic quality in all aspects, right from the curriculum to the learning-teaching process to examination and evaluation systems but the CBCS seems to narrow the role of education from encouraging the development of well-rounded individuals to training for marketable skilled workforce. CBCS seems to increase the need for faculty and workload of teachers, as institutions are supposed to widen their offerings to provide more optional courses but unfortunately, there was no attention paid on reflecting upon the curricular or pedagogic issues involved. Thus instead of targeting the core problem areas in the Indian education system, the CBCS is set to increase the already existing problems in the higher education. However considering the diversity the implementation of the choice based credit system seems to be a good system in assessing the overall performance of a student in a universal way of a single grading system. What is needed is that the universities implement the CBCS following some rigorous elaborate steps such as review of curricular contents, subdividing into units and subunits as well as assigning numerical values and termed credits. This will bring more clarity to the faculty, students and examiners. Another aspect that is closely linked to the CBCS is adoption of letter grading system. The UGC recommends adoption of nine-letter-grades including one-letter-grade for the absence of the student in the examination. The grades may be relative or absolute. The switchover to grading system based on the process of simple mapping of percentage of marks to grades without the distribution of marks of students being taken into account can therefore serve only 32 limited purpose and can never be considered a progressive step. It must be noted that most of the institutions of higher education have been following the system of percentage of marks and the credit system can pose no challenge as the weight of the credit can be suitably factored into maximum marks awarded for the particular subject. The expressive stated purposes of the introduction of the scheme are mainly to provide opportunity for students to have a choice of courses or subjects within a programme resembling an la carte menu — as against the mostly fixed set of subjects now being offered except for the limited choice of electives in professional degrees and postgraduate programmes - with the flexibility to complete the programme by earning the required number of credits at a pace decided by the students. This would mean that the programme would emphasize more on students earning the prescribed number of credits to qualify rather than being herded to come out successfully within the normal stipulated time for the degree. For these reasons, the CBCS is touted as a cafeteria approach to education. The scheme is also expected to provide mobility to students within the country, and, eventually, even internationally, as the credits earned at one institution can be expected to be transferred freely. To ensure uniformity, a system of classification of courses or subjects within the programme is made. It would seem that the element of uniformity sought to be achieved is addressed, and the concept of portability in higher education has been realized. At the same time, flexibility is needed for dovetailing the structure of the programme by the institutions concerned to suit local educational needs. While there can be no argument against the imperative to have portability in education at college and university-level and also providing opportunity to students to choose, it is a fact that only a small percentage of the institutions in the country are in a position to bring in these changes in letter and spirit. As a matter of fact, these institutions have been offering such options for quite some time wide choice of subjects in the form of interdisciplinary and open electives to their students supported by the presence of number of diverse departments with qualified faculty members and an established culture of research and consultancy. Consequently, these institutions can smoothly change over to the new system both in style and substance. Conclusion: The rich diversity of programmes, faculty and students is an important feature enabling this changeover. And these institutions can aim at reaching the benchmarks set by leading foreign universities such as Stanford in offering opportunity for the students to major in computer and music or computer and literature simultaneously, thus providing true meaning to the word ‘choice’ and exploring its limitless possibilities. That leaves us with the bulk of institutions of higher education which, though willing to switch over to the new system, have to counter their inherent limitations to make the changeover indeed meaningful. Even in the case of faculty, the preference for local candidates in recruitment is understandable as it can secure some kind of insurance against higher faculty turnover. The revenue model and the practical working condition of these colleges would not enable them to have the luxury of a number of diversified departments manned by quality teachers.

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References: 1. Dr Muhmmad Amin Malik: Choice Based Credit System: Concerns and Challenges ahead, Greater Kashmir, Wednesday, March 29, 2017 | 29, Jamadi Al Sani, 1438 2. Arvinder Kaur, IIManju Sharma: Academic Curriculum Reform of Indian Higher Education: Choice Based Credit System (CBCS), International Journal of Advanced Research in Education & Technology (IJARET) 78 Vol. 3, Issue 1 (Jan. - Mar. 2016) ISSN : 2394-2975 (Online) ISSN : 2394- 6814 (Print) © IJARET All Rights Reserved www.ijaret.com 3. UGC guidelines on adoption of choice based credit system retrieved Mar. 03, 2015 from http://www.du.ac.in/du/uploads/ Guidelines/UGC_credit_Guidelines.pdf. 4. University Grant Commission (2012) action plan for academic and administrative reforms. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2015 from http://gndu.ac.in/ugc_acad.pdf. 5. Dutta, I. & Dutta, N. (2013). Choice Based Credit System: An Academic Reform in Higher Education. UNIVERSITY NEWS, Vol. 51, No. 08, p. 6-13. ISSN: 0566 2257 ______*HOD, PG. Dept. of Nutrition, Ch S. D. St. Theresa’s College for Women; Eluru. Andhra Pradesh. **Lecturer, Dept. of Physical Education, Ch S. D. St. Theresa’s College for Women; Eluru. Andhra Pradesh.

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Adolescents in Their Growing Personality Dr. Sr. Marietta D’Mello Abstract The word “adolescence” comes from the Latin word adolescence meaning “to grow into maturity”. A period of transition from childhood to adulthood is marked with developmental tasks. Adolescence is characterized by a rapid physical, mental, moral and social growth. In the process of development an adolescent is able to widen his social activities to personalize specific standards and values. He/she builds up a satisfactory relationship with himself/herself, other adults and friends. Adolescence is a stage where interests develop depending on the environment situation and friends. In adolescence, both boys and girls are well aware of their good and bad traits, and they appraise these in terms of similar traits in their friends. They are also well aware of the role, personality plays in social relationships and thus are strongly motivated to improve their personalities; by reading books or articles on the subject, for example, in the hope of increasing their social acceptance. Adolescents are also aware of what constitutes a “pleasing personality”. While every age has its problems, those of adolescence are often especially difficult for boys and girls to cope with. There are two reasons for this. First, throughout childhood, their problems were met and solved, in part at least, by parents and teachers. As a result, many adolescents are inexperienced in coping with problems alone. Second, because adolescents want to feel that they are independent, they demand the right of coping with their own problems, rebuffing attempts on the part of parents and teachers to help them. Because of their inability to cope with problems alone as well as they believe they can, many adolescents find that the solutions do not always come up to their expectations. Key Words: Adolescence, Transition, Personalize, Traits, Appraise, Pleasing Personality, Inexperienced, Expectations. ********** Introduction: Adolescence is one of the most important period and stages in human growth. It takes place between the 11 to 21 years of age. The term adolescence derives from the Latin word adolescence meaning “to grow” or to grow into maturity.” The World Health Organization refers to people aged 10-19 years as adolescents. It is the transition period in life, when an individual is no longer a child, but not yet an adult. Stanly Hall has described adolescence as a period of “storm & stress”. The main characteristics of Adolescence 1. Adolescence is an important period. During which rapid physical development takes place along with Social and Mental developments take place. These developments lead to adjustment while they establish new attitude, interests, beliefs and values. 2. It is a transitional period. The adolescent cannot act childish neither act like an adult. They need to learn a new ways or pattern of behavior, values and attitude in order to adjust themselves. 3. It is a period of change. During this period especially during early adolescence as physical changes are rapid, so also attitude and behavior too are rapid. During early stages there is a heightened emotional upsurge, rapid changes in sexual organs and sexual behavior, changes in their bodies and their interests, change in the behavior pattern and values. Most of the adolescents are ambivalent about changes.

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During adolescence period, the adolescents require to face, certain developmental tasks which will enable them to overcome certain childish behavior patterns as well as attitude that are habitual. Gradually they are prepared to enter into adulthood. The adolescents have to undergo certain expected changes and they have mastery over these developmental tasks inspite of the stress, conflict and anxiety they undergo during this period. Most of the adolescents find it quite difficult to accept these changes specially their physiques, if they had developed a concept in their childhood as how to look like or how they wanted to look like, when they have grown up. So it may take time to accept this concept and it make few efforts to improve upon this concept, leaving few ways to improve their appearance. Building up relationship with the opposite sex will be an interesting thing but also have to go through acceptance of the adult approved sex role. The adolescents find it a bit hard to make adjustments and it will take more time even years to make adjustments. It is a major task in the period of adolescents. At time developing new and more mature relationship with the same sex or age-mate may not be that easy at this period. Emotional independence from parents and other adults is another developmental task. Emotional independence is not the same an independent behavior. Many adolescents who want to be independent want and need security that emotional dependence on their parent or some other adult gives. This is especially true for adolescents whose status in the peer group is insecure or who lack a close tie with a member of the peer group. Economic independence is another task where adolescents have to make adjustments, where in they have to choose an occupation and prepare for it. So they have to remain dependent until they have completed their training for their chosen vacation. The adolescents have to face emphasis placed by the educational institutional in developing intellectual skills and concepts which are important for civil competence. In practical situations, few students are able to achieve their skills; especially those who participate actively in extra-curriculum activities get practice in the educational institutions. Educational institutions imbibe in the student those values that are in harmony with those held by adults; parents contribute to their development. The task of developing socially responsible behavior is always in clank with values held by adults and values held by adolescents. Most adolescents wants to be accepted by their peer groups, so they give importance to their peers and not adult. Hence the adolescents are involved in arguments and ‘show of behavior’ as if they know everything. And it’s one of the traits in the adolescents. Even more important is the so-called “generation gap” between adolescents and their parents. This gap is partly the result of radical changes in values and standards of behavior that normally occur in any rapidly changing culture, and partly the result of the fact that many young people now have greater educational, social, and cultural opportunities than most of their parents had when they were adolescents. Thus it is more correctly a “cultural gap”, not due to differences in chronological age. Parents cannot be blamed for all the friction that develops between them and their adolescent children. Parents likewise find it difficult to accept their adolescent children’s objections to the restraints they regard as necessary; and they may be impatient with their failure to assume responsibilities that they feel appropriate for their age. These sources of irritation generally reach their peak between fourteen and fifteen years, after which there is generally an improvement in parent-child relationships. Equally important, many adolescents feel that their parents do not “understand them” and that their standards of behavior are old-fashioned. This is 36 due to the cultural gap, and differences in age. Although the sources of friction between adolescents and members of their families are myriad, certain ones are almost universal in some families of today. These may be greater in early than in late adolescence and they may be more common among girls than among boys. Interests of Adolescents All young adolescents possess certain universal interests to a greater or lesser extent, and they all have certain specific interests that fall within the different categories, the most important of which are recreational interests, social interests, personal interest, educational interests, vocational interests, religious interests, and interest in status symbol. Recreational interests of adolescents are – Games and Sports, Relating and talking with their friends, they often eat while gossiping and exchanging jokes. Also adolescents enjoy travelling during vacations and may want to go farther and farther away from home. Dancing is another type of recreational interest in adolescents. For reading, they prefer magazines for books. Also Radio, record and T.V are the most recreational interests in adolescents. Day dreaming is a popular recreation among all adolescents when they are bored or lonely. Personal interests include interest in appearance which covers clothes, personal adornment, grooming and sex-appropriate physical features; Interest in clothes which meet approval of the peer group and social acceptance; interest in achievements bring personal satisfaction as well as social recognition. Interest in money is another feature of adolescents. Sooner or later they discover that money is the key to independence. Educational interests are an important aspect in adolescence. Young adolescents complain about school in general and about restrictions, home work required courses, food in cafeteria and the way school is run. They are critical of their teachers and the way they teach. The attitudes of the older adolescents toward education are greatly influenced by their vocational interests. If they are aspiring to occupations which require education beyond high school, they will regard education as a stepping stone. Vocational interests also develop in adolescents as they think seriously about their future. Boys are usually more seriously concerned about an occupation than girls. Older adolescents have a growing realization of how much it costs to live and they also know what young people, just out of school can expect to cam. As a result of this greater realism, they approach the choice of their careers with a more practical and more realistic early adolescence, many boys and girls judge different lines of work, such as law and medicines, in terms of the stereotype presented in the mass media. Religious interests play an important role in the lives of adolescents. Many adolescents begin to question the religious concepts and beliefs of their childhood and this has led adolescence to be called the period of religious doubts. Many adolescents investigate their religion as a source of emotional and intellectual stimulation. Social interests are depend partly on what opportunities adolescents have to develop such interests and partly on how popular they are with members of the peer group. Common social interests of adolescents are attending parties, drinking alcohol, conversations with peers and opposite sex, helping other, world affairs, criticism and reform. Interest in Status Symbols during adolescence, status symbols serve four important functions; they tell others that the adolescent has a high or even a higher socioeconomic status than other members of the peer group; that the adolescent is superior in some achievement that is valued by the group; that the adolescent is affiliated with the group and is an accepted 37

member of it because of appearance or actions similar to those of other group members; and that the adolescent has a near-adult status in society. Effects of Immaturity Adolescents who know that their attitudes and behavior are viewed by the social group as “immature”, and who realize that others consider them incapable of handling the adult role successfully, may develop inferiority complexes. Even if they do not set unrealistically high standards for themselves, there will still be a gap between what they want to be and what they think they are-as reflected in what they believe others think of them. If this gap is small, adolescents will experience some self-dissatisfaction but, if it is wide, they are likely to consider themselves worthless and contemplate or even attempt suicide. Even when self-rejection is not overtly expressed, it is evident in ways that may be regarded as danger signals of maladjustment-indications that individuals are dissatisfied with them and have self-rejecting attitudes. Conclusion The adolescent is on the boundary line demarcating childhood from adulthood. She/he is typically a person who needs security, moral guidance and support from parents like a child and at the same time she/he has independent views of her/his own and craving for independence; wishes to have economic self-reliance, liberty and autonomy in her/his functioning. The children at adolescent stage start reacting strongly when their parents and elders still treat them as a child. They to assert themselves and displays dissent to being controlled by powerful others. They possess a strange mixture of dependence and independence which creates conflicting situations and problems at adolescent age. Adolescence is a process of achieving the desirable growth, attitudes, beliefs and methods of effective participation in society as the reversing adult. Whatever may be the definition the psychology of the adolescent who is no longer a child, but not yet are adult in important in the study of human behavior. ------Reference 1. Dr. A Alphonse; “Developing the adolescent personality”, Better yourself Books, Bombay 2001. 2. C. L. Kundu and D.N Tutoo; Educational Psychology”, Sterling publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2001. 3. Child and Adolescence-Psychology, Published by III B.A Telugu Academic, Hyderabad 2010 4. Elizabeth B. Hurlock; “Personality Development”, Tata Mc Grow Hill Publishing Comp. Pvt Ltd, New York, TMH Edition, 1976. 5. Elizabeth B. Hurlock, “Developmental Psychology”, Tata Mc Grow Hill Publishing Comp. Pvt Ltd, New York, 5th Edition, 1981, Pg. 234-240. 6. John Joneway conger and Anne C. Peterson, (1984). Adolescence and youth; psychological development in a changing world, 3rd edition, publishers, New York 7. Rajammal Devadas and N. Jaya, Child Development, published by S. G. Wasabi for Macmillan India LTD. 8. S. K Kochhar “Guidance and Counseling in colleges and Universities”, sterling publishers Pvt Ltd.., New Delhi, 1989. ------Associate Professor, Head, Department of Psychology, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s (A) College for Women, Eluru, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, 534003, India.

“Do not train a child to learn by force or harshness; but direct them to it by what amuses their minds, so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of each.” ― Plato 38

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Emerging Trends of Academia-Industrial Collaboration In India Mr. N. V. N. B. Srinivasa Rao1, Mrs. N. Gayatri Devi2 Abstract This paper discus on the collaboration of academia and industry, University-industrial linkage is of vital importance for the progress and prosperity of the nation. It is essential to identify the areas of collaboration, coordination and mutual support between the two basic sectors for national sustainable progress. Universities and industry, which for long have been operating in separate territories, are rapidly inching closer to each other to create synergies. In the era of globalism Industry-Academia connection have become significant to generat e industrially relevant knowledge at inexpensive price. The current level of industry–University/academia/R&D institutions linkages in India has to go a long way to work concurrently. There are several institutional hindrances in forging such relationships and these hurdles need to be overcome in the interest of the nation and competitiveness of the Indian industry in the global arena .The students of higher education are not getting expected practical benefits of knowledge through education. This is equally applicable to the students of technical education also. This paper attempts to discuss on the emerging trends in industry and academia collaboration and efforts made and role being played by the part of all concerned. This paper suggests various modes, modalities, methods of the industry and Academia Interaction. Lastly the paper proposes an integrated model of several new collaborative approaches that are possible, mainly in the present Indian scenario to strengthen Academia-industry interface. Key words: Academia - Industry, Linkage, Knowledge, Education, Collaboration, Coordination. *********** Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Literature Review 3.0 Discussion And Recommendations 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 References Introduction The linkage between Academia and University is very much essential for the growth of the nation. It is necessary to know the areas of collaboration, support and coordination between the two sectors to achieve sustainable progress for the nation. Many Scholars did research in socio-culture and economic variables and it is crucial for the purpose of development in every sector of the national economy and it is the main key factor in the development of the nation, Charles (2003), Cooke (2001), Nelson (1993, 2004) and Kitgawa (2004) played important role in the regional and national economic development. Higher education should be made available in line with the industry demands. Academia is facing severe pressure and it is having necessity to improve the quality of education to meet demand du to the globalization on Indian Economy, development of new technologies and due to improvement in the Information Technology and other Industry sectors. Fine tuning in the Academia gives better support to the Industry eventually makes a platform for the growth of National Economy. Existing education should provide more stress on the skill 39 development to make the youth self employed and put forward them to become great entrepreneurs. So far, very minimal success is seen and hence we need to have different approach to make our youth more qualified and fit for the purpose. To achieve such changes, our expert bodies, educational institutes, Government sectors, industry sectors, policy makers, politicians, Technical Institutes, IITs, Research Institutes, etc., should have that zeal, attitude, concept and more drilling towards the mutual growth and support each other of these Academia and Industry fields. Higher education, Technical education and job oriented training centers should change their attitude and should give plenty of scope to the youngsters to improve skills, develop excellence, creativity, innovative thinking, and finally to overcome the current impediments. More vocational training, skilled workforce having with practical industry experience and having modern day to day requirements in the Higher Education System shall lead to pave the way towards National Economic growth. Industries are facing severe shortage of skilled workforce. Due to Globalization, more competition is there in securing the jobs. Every graduate who is coming out from the colleges is having stiff competition not only with his own community but also from people who are coming from other countries (Nangia 2011). The National Policy on Education in India has put great emphasis on the need for academia industry interaction. However, in spite of so many efforts undertaken by the Center and State governments, university-industry interaction has failed to prove a noticeable progress up till now. (Khambayat, 2005) Nowadays, many Universities, Technical institutes are having tie ups with the Industry sectors and providing necessary training sessions as per the Industry requirements, Developing skilled workforce, improvement in knowledge, establishing professional quality bodies to meet the current market demands. The National Policy on Education [19] in India has put great emphasis on the need for university industry interaction; however, there are still some limitations in implementing them. Necessary funds are required to make it successful. More transparency and awareness on the relationship between Academia and Industry is required. As per the National interest, our Higher Education System requires more changes to meet the required skilled work force with proper knowledge, expertise as per the Industry requirements. 1.0 Literature Review During the last two decades, there has been a continuous demand for the high knowledge workers with soft skills and high levels of technical expertise in India. Increase in awareness on the role and responsibility of education is seen in the current education system. Due to Globalization, vast expansion is taking place in different industry sectors and all such industries needs highly qualified, skillful and knowledgeable workforce to meet their competitive market growth. Indian higher education system is producing 350,000 engineers and around 2.5million University graduates annually to the industry needs, still at any given point of time India remains at 5 million graduates unemployed. According to the survey done by Mckinsey Global Institute indicates that multinational companies can employ only 25% of Indian engineers. NASSCOM report says that currently there is a shortage of around half a million skillful workforce. It is necessary to understand the industry needs, different sectors specific skills, requirement of training to improve the performance of the workforce, incorporating the industry expectations in the education system and involvement of industry forerunners with the education institutions. Collaboration between Academia and Industry is essential to meet the India’s long term 40

business growth in this competitive economy world. Bigger platform is necessary to tie up the Industry and Academia. As per the current situation, according to All India Council of Technical Education, Technical schools and Engineering colleges are trebled in the last decade. However, as per the latest statistics, only 7 percent of Indians aged 18 to 25 years are going to college and more than 40% of the people aged 15 years are illiterate. Hence, it is becoming difficult task to reduce the gap between the demand and supply of talented professionals as Industry needs. Nowadays, many companies are taking proactive approach by dealing directly with the Institutions and providing necessary training and giving sponsorships to mitigate the shortage of skilled workforce. Some companies even started their own education institutions to meet their requirement. (Example: Tech Mahindra started their own Engineering College). Faculty up gradation, giving trainings, conducting workshops, providing internships, research incubation, etc., are necessary to maintain good partnership between the Industry and Academia. It is necessary to take joint initiatives by the Industry and academia to overcome the talent gap in near future. 2.0 Discussion and Recommendations Partnership between Industry and Academia needs proper design, implementation and continuous monitoring to meet local, regional and global needs to get the more benefits to the society. The question is can the improved collaboration between Academia and Industry gives the best alternative models to meet the challenges of the 21st century? It is essential to have a strong and mutually benefitted relationship between the Industry and Academia to cope up with the long term strategies and economic development of the World. Considering the facts, all we need is structured model which overcome the following. a) Working relationship towards the benefits of the Society but not for the self interest of anyone b) Research and innovation, better education, creativity and service to the society is required c) Education, learning, knowledge development is from the Academia and whereas Industry is to make products and services for societal needs with an economic return. These two are not mutually exclusive or incompatible. d) Flexibility, openness and transparency is required in both areas e) Establishment of good working environment, improving ethical values, goals and objectives is necessary f) Good communication is necessary to develop the long term relationship. g) Patenting promotes openness, hence understanding of patenting is required h) Improving the higher education to suit the industry requirements, professional work experience training, changes in the Academic system towards industry suitability is necessary i) Government bodies, Private industries, Educational institutions, politicians should take proper steps to give best practices which are useful for the Industry/Academic relationship. j) Invite and identify the organizations who can assist to promote the Industry/Academic partnerships. To enhance the quality of life, the contribution from the Industry and Academia is taking a vital role. Research and development in the science and technology is needed for the innovation, which improves the creativity and develops good culture and accepting the failure while innovation paves the way for future development. Interaction between Industry and Academia shall lead to revolutionary innovations in areas such as energy production and use, 41 personal transportation and information technology; it changes almost every aspect of our world. Failure to have such partnerships results in many drawbacks in the society, such lack of food security, not having clean water supply, not meeting the energy needs, not having proper affordable health care, not having healthy atmosphere, not having sustainable and equitable future. For the next generation, the future seems to be dangerous unless and until we make a good path for their wellbeing. New collaborations, productive partnerships shall build and face the global challenges, eventually make a best society. This partnerships has made several researches in the fields of Agriculture, information technology, medicine, engineering, biotechnology and in nanotechnology, now it is giving more contributions to society. Exchange of valuable resources, working closely with each other, involvement of Government bodies and players of the society can promote a well developed nation with good culture and quality life. The above practices should need freed of movement, expression and communication for scientists, association, and access to data, information and resources for research. It is the responsibility of all the sectors and they need to work with integrity, respect, fairness, trustworthiness and transparency, recognizing its benefits and possible harms. Right models of interaction among academic and industrial partnerships are necessary to meet the needs of society. But in some cases, neither academia nor industry has sufficient capacity to work together for future oriented innovation. Higher education sector needs more funds to develop core education functions, knowledge production capacity and to develop enough skilled workforces. Despite the pressing need, several industries and research organizations are neglected to invest in substantial research and development. For example, in the last 30 years, no new antibiotic class was developed. It shows that the present innovative capacity within the industry (pharmaceuticals) is very low. New models should be useful to the needs of the society. The models should show potential for industry to tap the underutilized capacity of graduate programmes to work on problems important to the development of industry. The human genome project is bearing fruit with personalized medicines that are making huge advance in cancer therapy. Information technology is allowing medical information to be used in new and exciting ways and increasing the evidence base for medical practice. Second example is the scale and magnitude of global food security challenges. Hunger and malnutrition is the largest threat to world health. Lack of food security is linked to the diseases. Climatic changes, insufficient water, low productivity soils, reducing subsidies etc., are the major factors in lack of food security and increase in adulteration. Through the partnerships of Industry and academia, development of new crops but it will be equally important to address socio-economic issues of distribution and waste. In most developed countries, at least 30% of food is discarded after purchase, much of it is still edible and in the developed countries, 50% of farm produce is lost before it reaches the market due to lack of proper transportation, lack of storage facilities and not having suitable prices. This type of challenges can overcome if we have proper monitoring and applications of relatively inexpensive, low technology solutions such as provision of cold storage and providing proper transport infrastructure could greatly reduce those loses. If higher technology solutions are used through existing market based structures could gain more production and may reduce the wastage also. Hence, research and industry partnership could do miracles in the developing nations. 42

The challenges such as population growth, sustainable development and ecological integrity, accessible health care for all, equitable access to medicine, providing clean water and energy, mitigation of climate changes etc., such issues clearly needs innovation and funding in addressing them. In the recent times, the student market is drastically increased because of mass education in the nation. Students are to be provided with solid education, creative and challenging basic education. Leading institutions should pave the way to develop the customer focused research centers. By establishing the well equipped partnership in between Industry and Academia brings credibility, cutting edge knowledge, new and interesting idea and intellectual and physical resources to the table while industry brings influence, training, technical know- how, significant research problems and financial resources. Constructive partnership between academia and industry gives benefits for society. 3.0 Conclusion Partnership between academia and industry is essential for both ends to establish transparency, cooperation, to achieve their goals and objectives and to eliminate their constraints in achieving them. All the respective sectors are to be involved from regional to national level to make effective interactions between industry and academia. Academic institutions can be benefitted with the resources and facilities to design and develop new and unique technologies that can deliver to the public by making good relationship with the industries. Industry can also provide employment and possible individual endowment funding from wealthy industrialists who get to know researchers and come to value working with academia. Thus academia, in cooperating with industry, shall attain freedom to pursue basic research ideas and to build up their general competences. Academia has been a trusted source of wisdom since long but the industry is often does not understand the significance of the need of academic sector. Hence, intellectual freedom is to be appreciated by Industry. Mutual trust and cooperation between the Industry and Academia stands to benefit the development of the nation. To overcome any imbalances and increase understanding, the academic sector should consider offering to industry such opportunities as visiting professorships, service on boards contributing to the formulation of curricula, guest speaker slots, advice on application of research results etc., on the other hand Industry should support academia by providing internships, trainings and fund support to academia. Government and non-government organizations should work hand in hand to improve the partnership between academia and industry. Balance platform is to be maintained in between the industry and academia for their future and to develop a quality life to the society. Summarizing the above, all we need is freedom of communication, good investment in research and development, patenting, acceptance of failure, introducing changes in the higher education to suit the industry needs, understanding the academic needs by the industry by investing more funds and opening the gates for the employment, internships, training, professorships, guest speakers etc., to make it successful bondage between the industry and academia and to develop better resourced, knowledgeable society and quality of life. 4.0 References 1. Challenges in Industry-Academia Collaboration; https://www.iiitd.edu.in 2. A New Relationship Between Business and Academia – Rochester institute of Technology; https://www.rit.edu 3. Academy Vs Industry: an Updated opinion posted by Mark C. Chu-Carroll on Dec 23rd, 2009. 43

4. Industrial Research versus Academic Research by Dr. Vivekpriy Dave, PhD. 5. Ten simple rules for choosing between industry and Academia; journals.plos.org 6. Academia Vs Industry an Updated Opinion – Good Math, Bad Math- Scienceblogs.com 7. Academia Vs Industry: Chemistry ; https://www.reddit.com 8. PPT; Industrial vs Academic research; https://www.cs.princeton.edu 9. Science Research at the Crossroads: Academia Vs Industry-Bitesize Bio; bitesizebio.com 10. Comparing Industry versus Academic Postdocs-Computing Research Association; cra.or acg. 11. Academia Vs Industry; industry provides resources to create products and ways for its workers to develop……; acg.media.mit.edu 12. Interactions between academia and the pharmaceutical industry by Per J. Kraulis 13. Industry Vs Academia; http://mobil.the-scientist.com/article/13331/industry-academia 14. Mobility of researchers between Academia and Industry –12 practical recommendations- Europa.eu.

------1Lecturer in Chemistry, DRG Govt.Degree College, Tadepalligudem 2Lecturer in Chemistry, Ch.S.D.St.Theresa’s Autonomous College, Eluru.

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 CBCS A Satisfactory Method to Impart Skill Based Education in the Fast Developing Countries -With Special Reference to Selected Colleges in Eluru Dr. Mrs. C. Satyadevi. M.Com, Ph.D. Abstract Education is the most important issue for the fast development of a country both economically and socially. After independence the Government of India progressively developed higher education. Education is dynamic and changes along with the changing needs of economy. Thus it requires constant reforms and developments. Reforms are very much essential for education system of any country because education is the only way to get required human resource for all kinds of economic activities. In the absence of skill development economic progress is not possible. Economic and social needs are continuously changing whew change is the symbol of development. The recent development is introduction of CBCS to impart more skills to students. CBCS means Choice Based Credit System which is very popular in all the advanced countries of the West and the East. This proved to be useful system for the development of skill oriented education. Key Terms: Intellectual Investment, Credit Transfer, Choice based credits, Skill based education *************** Introduction Education is the basic input for the future progress of a country. Higher education and economic development are positively correlated. Thus it is the responsibility of the country, society and also individuals to promote good education system for younger generations. In this context V. R. Teja expressed that, “Education is an attempt on the part of adult members of the human society to shape the development of the coming generations in accordance with its own ideals of life.” Education alone can develop the dormant skills and latent potentials of man. It is a technique to mould the skills of man suitable to achieve required developments. Education is the biggest asset to a country which cannot be robbed or destroyed. But important feature of it is that it requires constant up gradation. If not it may not be useful to the person and to the country. In this context L. Mukharjee says, ‘other countries of the World are in quest of reforming their education structure to suit the need of present age.’ Education system and its structure depend on certain elements which are different in different countries. Each country has its own specific socio-economic needs and opportunities. The weaknesses and limitations of the countries also differ. Educational reformers need to consider all these issues. The Government of India constituted several committees from time to time to bring reforms in education structure. CBCS is the latest suggestion from the UGC. Therefore it is necessary to make intensive study of the system and suggest the most suitable one for our structure. Objectives of the study  To make a study of existing system in higher education  To make a study of CBCS and its impact on quality in higher education.  To conduct opinion study of selected students from Eluru colleges Methodology 45

For the study data is collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data: Data is collected through a semi structured questionnaire distributed to 70 students selected at random from different colleges. Some group discussions were also conducted to get the opinion of students. Secondary data: Information is primarily collected from the UGC web site and also from UGS papers and books. Information is also collected from different books and journals. Sample: A group of 70 students from 5 colleges were selected at random with equal ratio of male and female respondents. What is education? The word education is derived from the Latin word ‘Educatum’ which means to bring up or to nourish. Education in general means imparting knowledge and skill essential for the progress and development of individual and also the nation. Definition: According to Oxford Dictionary education is, “Systematic training and instruction designed to impart knowledge and develop skills.” According to Draver, “Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character and behavior of young are shaped and moulded.” Educate means to train the mind and abilities. Education System Education is as old as human civilization. The most ancient civilization in the world is Indian civilization which dates back to more than 6000 years. During the remote ancient period also there was systematic education system and much priority was given to the concept of education. The oldest scripture in the world, the Rigveda says, “Education is something which makes a man self-reliant and selfless.” Higher education: In the context of existing education system higher education means University education which includes UG and PG Courses. Professional courses are also included in the list of higher education. Nature of higher education  Very systematic with controlled and regulated frame work  Triangular in nature that connects student, Institution and the higher authority  Well defined purpose  Primarily for individual growth  It is science and also art  This is both theoretical and practical.  It is a base for better life  It is imparting new knowledge and new skills.  Changes according to the changing needs of socio-economic and local needs.  This is highly formal in nature. Aims of higher education  Educational development of the students  More concentration on skill based courses suitable for employment  Moral and spiritual development  Intellectual development  Harmonious living  Service to the society and also the country at large. 46

Skill based education: Skill means ability to do the required task or work completely with efficiency. Education is imparting skills and developing skill based efficiency. Different methods are applied to impart skills to students. Methods  Giving strong theoretical knowledge with detailed information.  Problem solving and case study  Practical/ experimental method of teaching and learning.  Direct experience Educational Reforms Reforms are very much essential for education system of any country because education is the only way to get required human resource for all kinds of economic activities. In the absence of skill development economic progress is not possible. Economic and social needs are continuously changing whew change is the symbol of development. Educational reforms are essential to  To train the students to equip them with the changing job market needs and demands.  To train them in the technical skills which are constantly enhancing the efficiency and improving tools of technology?  To train the students for earning livelihood in conformity of economic needs and demands and also with the norms of economic behavior accepted by the society and the nation. Therefore along with the changing needs of socio-economic system, education system should also change. To go with the change the Government of India introduced several reforms in the higher education with the support of UGC. CBCS is one of such reforms. CBCS CBCS means Choice Based Credit System which is very popular in all the advanced countries of the West and the East. What is CBCS? CBCS is a system in higher education which offers a pool of subjects under a course, out of which he can choose suitable combination of papers under a particular course structure. CBCS consists of some core papers, electives, skill oriented courses and inter departmental courses. This is highly flexible structure which allows the students to choose the papers according to his interest and his need. The system follows grading which is better than marks system. Advantages of CBCS 1. The system was highly flexible to the needs and the capability of the students 2. This is more student-centric education system where student has choice to decide his course structure. 3. Student can opt for as many credits as he can manage. Thus advance learners can get more credits. 4. It helps the students to study inter-disciplinary, intra-disciplinary and skill oriented papers and also the papers in which he is more interested. For Ex. A engineering student can take a paper from literature or Anthropology. 5. This system is global in its nature and standards. Therefore students can study anywhere in the world. 6. It gives a chance for credit transfer which facilitates study in different institutions. 47

7. It helps in improving thinking and analytical ability of the students. 8. It helps in self learning ability of students which enhances the knowledge base of the student. Eluru Eluru is a big town and is the head quarters of West Godavari District in A.P. It is more an educational town of West Godavari as it is having all kinds of national and state level educational institutions, degree and intermediate colleges of both private and Government. All colleges are affiliated to ANUR, JNTU, AU etc. Eluru is a town predominantly rural in character. Majority of people are from agricultural background. Profile of the colleges In Eluru there are 5 engineering, one Pharmacy, one Medical College, one Government Degree College and 2 aided degree colleges and several private degree colleges. All the collages have semester system with credit grading along with marks. Choice Based Credit System is not adopted by any of these colleges. There are proposal from the UGC to all the colleges to adopt CBCS. Opinion Study of students For the study a group of randomly selected 70 students from different colleges were taken and interviewed in small groups and also collected information was collected through questionnaires. Profile of respondents Respondents are the students of different courses from PG and UG.

S.No Particulars Total 1 Engineering 10 2 Pharmacy 5 3 Post Graduates 20 4 Under Graduates 35

Awareness on CBCS; To a question whether they know about the CBCS the response was in the following way. Do you know CBCS? S. No Particulars Yes No No clear idea 1 Engineering 2 2 4 2 Pharmacy - 2 3 3 Post Graduates 5 11 4 4 Under Graduates 14 9 2

From the above table it is clear that all the respondents are not aware of the concept CBCS. Even those who said yes have no complete knowledge of CBCS. All the respondents are aware of credits but no idea about credit transfer. Quality of education: In the opinion of students the quality of education is not satisfactory because of several reasons. During discussion with the students in small groups they expressed several reasons for dissatisfaction. One of the striking opinions of them is lack of flexibility in the entire structure of Indian education. 48

Students Old syllabus No Practical No Technical Poor soft skills Skills skills Engineering - 2 2 6 Pharmacy - 1 3 1 Post Graduates 10 all all all Under Graduates 13 9 all all

From the above table it is clear that students are not satisfied because of several reasons present education system is not able to get them immediate employment To improve what do you suggest?

Students Inter- Practical Technical soft skills disciplinary skills Skills courses Engineering All 2 2 all Pharmacy 2 1 3 all Post 5 all all all Graduates Under 10 all 8 all Graduates

Eluru is a rural area and majority of students are from rural and agricultural background. Thus they are asking for soft skill which they mean spoken English, Findings of the study  Majority of the respondents have no idea of CBCS  Hundred percent of PG and UG students are thinking if practical skills are given they get jobs easily and are of opinion that all these skills are essential to improve the quality of education.  Majority of engineering and pharmacy students are interested in inter- disciplinary courses.  Majority of engineering and pharmacy students are interested in business and management skills and also Indian Economy. Conclusion Though the students are not aware of CBCS they are of opinion that such kind of education can improve the quality of education. All students suggested to improve the skill based and student centric education system. Reference  Christopher Jencks & David – Academic Revolution  Mukharjee.L. – Comparative education – Allied Publishers – Bombay.  N.P.Pahuja – Theory and Principles of Education – Anmol Publications, New Delhi  Sir Percy Nunna – Principles of education – Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi  Sundaram PS. & A.B.Shah – Education or Catastrophe?- Vikas Publishing House Ltd. New Delhi.  Vidya Ratna Teja – Educational Thought and Practice – Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd 49

 UGC Website. ------HOD, Dept of Commerce, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s College for Women (A), Eluru. “STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Challenges of Choice Based Credit System Sr. Sunila Rani P Abstract Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) University Grants Commission has come up with the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) programme for comprehensive continuous assessment in which the students have a choice to choose from the prescribed courses, which are referred as core, elective or minor or soft skill courses and they can learn at their own pace and the entire assessment is graded-based on a credit system. Under the design of “Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)’ the curriculum has been molded into three-tier structure. Hard Core Papers – These are papers that the parent department decides as compulsory for the learners aspiring for a degree in that discipline. Soft Core Papers – These are papers allied to the learners. They are inter-disciplinary and application oriented. Learners are given options to choose from the list of soft core papers provided by both parent as well as other departments. Key Words: Comprehensive, Assessment, Prescribed Courses, Three-Tier Structure, Inter-Disciplinary. ********* Introduction Education is a light that shows the mankind the right direction to surge. In a changing context, the needs of the students have to be met through the curriculum and curriculum transactions. There are number of drivers of change in higher education today, including technology, globalization, changing demographics, economy, changing employer needs, increased demand for accountability, changing student’s expectations and so on. The impact of any one of these drivers is significant and in total is transformative. Realizing that the present system offers a very rigid pattern, which is inadequate to satisfy the interests and aspirations of the students. It is necessary for the higher education institutions to satisfy more with the times and offer programmes to cater to the diverse needs of the students according to their learning ability and pace of learning through CBCS. Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) Under the design of “Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)” the curriculum has been molded into three tier structure. Hard Core Papers: - These are papers that the parent department decides as compulsory for the learners aspiring for a degree in that discipline. Soft Core Papers: These are papers allied to the learners. They are inter – disciplinary and application oriented. Learners are given options to choose from the list of soft core papers provided by both parent as well as other departments. Optional Papers: These are Papers the learners pot to choose according to their own preference from the main discipline as well as from other departments. These are papers the learners opt to choose according to their own preference from the main discipline as well as from other departments. Courses like Value Education, Women Studies, and Personality Development are incorporated in the curriculum for the holistic development of all the learners. CBCS provides better facility to the learners like freedom, flexibility, advanced learning opportunities, fulfillment of students’ academic need and aspirations, intra and inter institutional transferability & quality education but India is still facing lot of challenges in its implementation which 50

includes lack of proper and good infrastructure for a universal spread of education, lack of proper training & educational programmes. CBCS requires more attention for its proper implementation and effectiveness. Every ladder of education has its own problems and prospects. However, attempts have been taken to lesson complexities. From ages, time to time commissions have been constituted to improve and remove the anomalies of Indian education system especially, ensuring quality and uniformity in India education system. Idea of quality assurance cell has not only been mooted out but also implemented across the nation level. Ensuring uniformity in education system, especially at under – Graduate level, Choice – Based credit system has been confirmed mandatory. The core courses, elective courses, foundation courses. General elective expands the scope of learning and exposure to different domains / disciplines nurtures the student’s proficiency / skill. Choice Based Credit System was proved to be effective for student’s overall progression. However this system has its own pros and cons in the higher education. All the major higher education institutions across the world are implementing a system of credits. Pros  Credits often flexibility of learning at one’s own pace  Credits can be earned in a shorten on expanded period depending upon the capacity of the learner.  Provision of transfer of credit is a facility for students to move from one branch to another.  Possibility of doing majors in more than one subject. If provision of earning Credit is available in the course work.  In interdisciplinary courses, Credits can be earned by taking courses across departments and institutions.  Grading provides a more realistic assessment of the learner.  Stigma of “fail” is minimized in grading.  Grading enables the use of both “absolute” and “relative” grading depending upon the context. Cons  If would be tough to measure on calculate the exact marks. Work load of teachers would be increased a lot.  Regular teaching would be affected.  Mobility or transferring of students from one institution to another one would be problematic.  Mastery oven concerned subject would be hampered.  Seriousness of students will go away from the examinations as much weightage is given to continuous on internal assessment and evaluation.  Equalization of performance through it may discourage the gifted and talented students.  Pressure on students to secure more Credits.  System will create a lot of confusion among the staff as the electives chosen might not be uniform and we might face shortage of teachers, if there are a range of electives chosen by each student. Conclusion

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So the major issues and challenges that are plaguing the higher educational institutions in one country such as academic backwardness, unsuitable curriculum. Inadequacy of qualified teachers and unavailability of quality faculty can be over comed by this system. If one takes it (CBCS) as Navigation Key and road map for the faculty and learners. Let us make CBCS a Cafeteria and a Buffet System for the students to strike over the unemployment and to tap the advantage to enhance their knowledge levels. Let us think differently, choose a choice for a better chances in life. References: 1. Ashish Kumar Chaubey: Choice Based Credit System (CBCS): A Better Choice In Education System International Journal Of Creative Research Thoughts, Volume 3, Issue.6, June 2015, Page Nos. 1 -12 2. Dutta, I. & Dutta, N. (2013). Choice Based Credit System: An Academic Reform in Higher Education. UNIVERSITY NEWS, Vol. 51, No. 08, p. 6-13. ISSN: 0566 2257 3. CBCS Handbook University of Mysore. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2015 from http://www.unimysore.ac.in/assets/downloads/ dec09/English.pdf. 4. Pathania, K.S. & Pathak, A. (2013). Choice Based Credit System: The Need of the Hour. UNIVERSITY NEWS, Vol. 51, No. 08, p. 1-3. ISSN: 0566 2257. 5. Sreeramana Aithal and Suresh Kumar: Analysis of Choice Based Credit System in Higher Education, 19 May 2016 Online at https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/71743/ MPRA Paper No. 71743, posted 6 June 2016 07:23 UTC. 6. Rumani Saikia Phukan: What is CBCS or Choice Based Credit System? How Does It Work? http://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/education/what-is-cbcs-or-choice-based - credit-system- how-does-it-work, 24/06/2015.

------Controller of Examinations, Ch. S. D. St.Theresa’s College for Women, Eluru.

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Creating Demand for Communication Skills Training Among the Students *K. Hymavathi, **Santosh Jhawar Abstract: Communication skills are one of the elements of generic skills that are essential among university students. Throughout their years, the students would have been exposed to situations, in and outside of the lecture halls, where they have to use their communication skills, for example group assignments and class presentations. The process of communication generally involves four elements, which are the speaker, the receiver, communication channel and feedback. A few researchers have defined communication as verbal communication, written communication, non-verbal communication, listening and giving feedback Therefore, the aim of this paper is to investigate the level of communication skills among students which are measured via a self-administered oral, written and social behavior. Key words: Communication skills; generic skills; social communication, verbal and written communication, Students. ****************** Introduction: Communication skills are essential for the successful future career of a student. In today’s competitive world, communication skills in business are the most sought after quality of an educated person. Reading, writing and listening carefully are the three most important communication skills for students. These skills like most of the communication skills sounds too familiar as a result of which students take them for granted. As regards reading and writing, the only thing that students need to tackle is to adapt with our growing age and concentration. With these two qualities, it is possible to develop reading, oral communication skills and writing skills. Apart from reading and writing presentations, reports and speeches are a part of school curriculum. This has been introduced in schools and colleges for the overall development of students. This makes expressive skills and managing skills also important for a student. It is also important to develop communication skills in relationships. What deserves more attention is that 53 most of the students do not feel confident to make presentations and speeches. But realizing the importance of these skills in modern day life, most good educational institutions have made it a regular part of their curriculum. Here comes the role of expressive skills and managing skills. Expressive skills are those which are used to express our feelings, thoughts and expressions and thus get across our point successfully to the listener. To develop expressive skills, students need to learn is how to communicate effectively and get the full attention of the listeners. After this, management is an important part of a student’s life so development of management skills is also important for the success of the student. Listening skills are also an important skill that should be taught to a student. Listening skills should not only be limited to the classroom but also in a normal conversation. Students should be taught as how to give undivided attention to a person with whom a conversation is taking place. Also, students should be taught as to how to show the other person respect when the other person is speaking. Such etiquette is a part of conversation in every sphere of life, be it professional or personal. Now that have learned as to what specific communication skill a student must have, it is important to learn how to develop communication skills in a student. Communication Skills & Importance: The first activity to develop communication skill in students is group activities. Teachers should limit group activities not only in the classroom but also ask students to complete assignments in equally divided groups. Also the teacher should continuously change the groups. This is so that there is more interaction among the students. This process helps a lot in the long run. The next activity is to develop communication skills for students. This is to put in the habit of active listening. For this, the teacher should continuously read out something from newspapers magazines and other sources in order to ask questions from that. Also the teachers should make it a point to encourage active participation of the students. By infusing a healthy feeling of competition and curiosity in students, it would become possible to develop communication skills for students. With these few activities one can instill confidence among students by putting them into practice. Effective skills in communication are necessary to maintain and increase the quality of our lives and our relationships. All have misunderstandings within our relationships. And it would be very easy to become confused, frustrated and disappointed simply because students are unable to communicate appropriately. Broken and difficult relationships can be avoided by understanding the principles of communication, and the pitfalls encounter. When student knows and understand the process of communication, can actively implement the principles, hone their skills, avoid the problems and become the effective communicators that all they desire to be. To become better at communicating, and to understand others’ perceptions, students needs to ask questions, need to listen, learn to delay their reaction until they have more information so they don’t form inaccurate assumptions. In the real world everything is extremely complex. With language, students simplify it by categorizing their words and ideas, and often the categories are either/or opposites. In the process of simplifying things, every one omits details, forget differences, ignore uniqueness’s, and eliminate the various levels of meaning. When they view life through such a narrow spectrum, thinking that life is as simple as an “either/or” situation, communication breakdowns are bound to occur. So, to guard against these pitfalls, a student needs to develop an open mind with each other and within their relationships. If students believe that reality is as simple as hot or cold, then they can only accept someone and accept what they say or students

54 have to reject that person and reject what they say. If students have an open mind, students have more options. In the real world everything occurs within a context. Students have probably all been misunderstood or had misunderstandings when something has been taken out of its original context. Although students don’t fully understand how much their environment influences them, students need to consider that when they communicate. Students must be able to understand the context of their own communication. And students must understand that every message students receive has its own context. With these principles in mind, here are five things students can begin to do to help students become a better communicator: 1. Ask questions: Don’t assume students understand what a person means. Once students ask a few questions, it doesn’t take long to really find out what she really means. 2. Listen: To become a better communicator, students must be willing to listen so students can understand the other person’s perspective. Observe and be willing to verify the information students receive. Let people know what students are thinking by sharing it. By disclosing information about students self, it aids the other person in understanding who students are and how students are understand them. 3. Take some time to think about a specific communication problem (difficulty, challenge) students have had recently or in the past. In a few sentences, describe the problem. In what environment (context) did this communication problem occur? (home, extended family, workplace, other) 4. Was the communication problem resolved? If so, was it resolved to students’ satisfaction? How was the communication problem resolved? What principles of communication could help students with this situation or other communication challenges in the future? If one is able to answer self some tough questions about how they communicate one can overcome the barriers of communication:  Can one understand the person communicating?  Is one listening and really hearing what the speaker is saying?  Is the point of view expressed by the speaker, easy to understand?  Is there anything in the nonverbal communication (tone of voice, body language, etc.) that one doesn’t intend to communicate?  Whether there is a quick judgment without examining the facts? Developing student’s communication skills and abilities is a lifelong process. Throughout their lives students are faced with challenges in communicating effectively. Students can learn to be a more effective communicator by: 1. Observing and imitating excellent communicators. 2. Learning from students own and others’ mistakes. 3. Developing a conscious awareness of communication habits, patterns, styles, strengths, student’s weaknesses. Applying principles of effective communication. 4. The constructs and sub-constructs of communication skills are skills that students should equip themselves with before they venture into the working world. These three skills can be combined and incorporated into the learning process. Conclusion: The Students not only to get develop their communication skills through discussions and presentations in the class room, but also get to familiarize with communication situations in the real world. Therefore, everyone must keep pushing and improving the students to help and to 55 develop and horn their communication skills that is essential towards their future and career development. References: 1. https://postudentsrtochange.com/students/people/communicate/ 2. Covey SR. Effective leadership begins with seven habits: An interviewwith Stephen R. Covey. Interview by Nancy I. Hahn. J Am Diet Assoc1994;94:382-5 3. What makes a role model communicator? eHow. Available from: http://www.ehow.com/info_12038411_role-model-communicator.html. [Last cited on 2013 Apr 30]. 4. Jung HP, Wensing M, Grol R. What makes a good general practitioner: Dopatients and doctors have different views? Br J Gen Pract 1997;47:805-9. 5. Halpern J. Empathy and patient-physician conflicts. J Gen Intern Med2007;22:696-700. ------* Research Scholar, K L University, Guntur. ** Research Scholar, Andhra University, VSKP

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Taxonomical and Medicinal Properties: Case study of Adaptations of Avicennia Marina (Grey Mangrove) at Machilipatnam Seacoast, Andhra Pradesh, India. Madhuri Vajha Abstract Mangroves are specialized ecosystems, known to tolerate high salinity, tidal extremes, and high fluctuations in wind, temperature and muddy anaerobic soil with the development of some adaptive morphological characteristics. Krishna vegetation is a fragile ecosystem changing rapidly due to natural calamities, deforestation, aquaculture, over-exploitation, absence of proper management, conservation etc. It is proved that mangroves with densely populated vegetation act as natural protectors to control the cyclonic winds and tsunami waves. Therefore, a detailed study of Krishna mangroves is very important in Gilakaladindi (Machilipatnam) and its nearby villages Pedapatnam, Polatitippa and Pallethummalapalem. As a part of this, in this review, Avicennia marina (grey mangrove) belongs to the family Verbenaceae, is studied for taxonomical and medicinal properties as well as adaptations). As with other mangroves, it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas. This species is used for food, fodder, fuel wood, construction materials and medicine in some areas within its range. Avicennia are generally considered pioneers of mangrove forests. They occupy a diversity of habitats within the tidal range and across salinity extremes of tropical and subtropical sheltered areas. In tropical regions, this often includes a select group of co-inhabitors, like Rhizophora. Keywords: Salinity, Avicennia Marina, Grey Mangrove, Taxonomical, Medicinal Properties ************ Introduction The word 'mangrove' is used for salt tolerant plants. Mangroves are specialized ecosystems, capable of living under the influence of salt water, along the estuarine sea coasts and river mouths in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, mainly in the intertidal zone. These plants are specialized to tolerate high salinity, tidal extremes, high fluctuations in wind, temperature and muddy anaerobic soil with the development of some adaptive morphological characteristics. No other groups of terrestrial plants survive well under such conditions. The research review was carried out to compare taxonomical and medicinal properties as well as adaptations of white, red and black mangroves in around Machilipatnam. The port at 56

Gilakaladindi near Machilipatnam is going to be expanded and hence the study was carried out to identify the mangrove patches present in Gilakaladindi and its nearby villages Pedapatnam, Polatitippa and Pallethummalapalem (2). Pedapatnam is a mid-sized village located at a distance of 23km from Machilipatnam, mandal head quarter in the district of Krishna. Gilakaladindi village is about 5km east to Machilipatnam. Polatitippa is a mid-sized village located nearly 14km away from Machilipatnam. Palletummalapalem is a mid- sized village located at a distance of 17km from Machilipatnam. The mangrove vegetation of Machilipatnam sea coast has been broadly classified into three main categories. They, along with their composition of species and distribution pattern, are mentioned below. 1. The interior group of mangrove vegetation, which mainly consists of species of Avicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae and Euphorbiaceae. 2. The mangrove vegetation of central area, which mainly consists of species of Sonneratiaceae, Combretaceae and Myrsinaceae. 3. Mangrove vegetation spread at peripheral or marginal areas, which consists of species of Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fabeceae and Poaceae (1). Study area: Machilipatnam is between 16°10’N to 16.17°N latitudes and 81°09’E to 81.13°E Longitudes on the southeast coast of India and in the east corner of Andhra Pradesh. Mangroves in this area lie between latitude 16° 0’ - 16° 15’N latitude and 81° 10’ - 81° 15’ E longitude. The northern distributary of Krishna river drains in this area near Hamsaladeevi. Machilipatnam sea coast is receiving a stream called Upputeru from Kolleru region at Pedapatnam. So, Pedapatnam is a riverine based mangrove region. The other field stations viz. Gilakaladindi, Polatitippa and Pallethummalapalem of the region are the mangrove areas receiving sea water by tidal effect. Hence these field stations gain significance in the study of mangroves. Mangrove vegetation is a fragile ecosystem. Krishna mangroves are changing rapidly due to natural calamities, deforestation, aquaculture, over-exploitation, absence of proper management, conservation etc. Mangrove vegetation is a natural protector from natural threats like cyclones, tsunamis etc. The cyclone in 1977 and the tsunami in 2004, which devastated Diviseema and Machilipatnam regions respectively, are examples of natural threats. It is proved that mangroves act as natural protectors to control the cyclonic winds and tsunami waves, with densely populated mangrove vegetation (1). Therefore, a detailed study of Krishna mangroves is very important. Avicennia marina (grey mangrove) belongs to the family Verbenaceae. A distinguishing feature of this Avicennia marina is the numerous spongy pencil-like pneumatophores (peg-like roots) that spread out from the base of the trunk. Pneumatophores originate from horizontal, underground lateral roots and grow vertically through the soil surface to enable the mangrove roots to breathe. Taxonomical features of Avicennia marina (White mangrove) Family: Acanthaceae (Avicenniaceae or Verbenaceae) Avicennia marina (Forrsk.) Vierh. Synonym: A. officinalis L., Sceura marina Forssk., Local Name: Qurm, Gurm Arabic Name(s): Shorah, Qurm, Mangrove. Common name: Mangrove, Grey mangrove,Tivar. Description: Small evergreen tree, up to 10 m high, trunk to 40 cm in diameter, stem is erect with fine pale gray scales. Leaves are simple leathery, opposite, ovate, petiolate with entire margin and acute tip, dark glossy green on the upper surface, dull greyish on the lower surface with excreted salt crystals. Inflorescence (Fig 1) is cymose, in small terminal or axillary clusters on short stalks, flowers are bracteate, scented; calyx lobes 2-4 mm long, obtusish, fine fimbricate 57 marginated; corolla dark yellow, exceeding the calyx with 4 unequal spreading lobes exceeding the tube. Fruit is 2-valved capsule, globose, pale green, 1.5-2.5cm long; Seeds 2-4 large. As Avicennia is growing in a specialized habitat, which is poorly aerated, it is adapted to life in this habitat by the presence of erect leafless outgrowths of the roots called pneumatophores or breathing roots up to 50 cm long, they stick out above water and absorb air, which thought to oxygenate the roots. Pneumatophores are numerous and upright of 10-15 cm high and 6 mm in diameter.

Fig 1: Inflorescence of Avicennia marina Fig 2: Fruit of Avicennia marina Traditional & Medicinal Uses: Bark is astringent and is used as aphrodisiac, for scabies, anti fertility agent and has tanning properties. Flowers are for perfumes. Leaves are aphrodisiac and used for toothache, Leaves and seeds forage for camels and animals. Wood was used as fuel and in traditional buildings. The plant is known for the quality of its honey and the charcoal has special uses (2). Edibility: In the Celebes, seeds, soaked in water overnight and boiled, used as famine food. In Celebes and Java, sometimes fruit is eaten by fishermen. Bitter fruits and seeds sometimes used as food eaten after baking or steaming. Folkloric: Resin from the sapwood used locally for snake bites. Seeds boiled in water used as maturative poultices and cicatrizant of ulcers. Fruits plastered on boils and tumors. Used for leprosy and hepatitis. In Arabia, the roots are used as aphrodisiac, Unripe seeds used as poultice to hasten suppuration of boils and abscesses and in Chennai, used for small pox. In Java, resin oozing from the bark used as contraceptive. Bark used as diuretic. In Indo-China, bark used for skin afflictions, especially scabies. In India, used for rheumatism, paralysis, asthma, snake-bites, skin disease and ulcers. Fruits are used as plaster for tumors. In Sundarban, India, warm juice extracted from the screen fruits of the Jat Baine tree used in the treatment of sores or blisters. Chemical constituents: Contains betulic acid, taraxerol, taraxerone and hydrocarbon, sterols (β sitosterol & stigmasterol), triterpene alcohols, iridoid glycosides and high amount of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins (3). In vitro anti - malarial activity and cytotoxicity of A. marina is reported. Biological activities detected in the plant crude extracts are related mainly to the presence of flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides in plant tissues; the latter have already been isolated from A.marina, and have preliminary anticancer activity. The presence of compounds such as flavonoids in plant tissues may be characteristic features of plant stress. The absence of toxic metabolites such as alkaloids and saponins from extracts of this plant may reflect its frequent usage as food for local people or feed for their animals (5,6). India's mangrove plants have the potential in scavenging free radicals and can be a vital source of antioxidant phytochemicals. anti oxidant, tumor, microbial, inflammatory, allergic, ageing and artherosclerotic (7). Adaptations are required for physical stability, salt tolerance, anaerobic sediments and reproduction of mangroves. The numerous spongy pencil-like pneumatophores (peg-like roots) 58 that spread out from the base of the trunk, Pneumatophores originate from horizontal, underground lateral roots and grow vertically through the soil surface to enable the mangrove roots to breathe (Fig 3).

Fig 3: Pneumatophores of Avicennia marina Physical Stability Adaptations: Root adaptations make it possible for mangroves to live in the soft sediments along the shoreline. Root adaptations increase stability of mangrove trees in the soft sediments along shore lines.

Salt Tolerance Adaptations Mangroves are allowed to live for adaptations for salt exclusion or salt excretion where as other terrestrial plants cannot. Mangroves are able to live in harsh saline environments through physiological adaptations the suitable soil salinities for white mangroves over 90 ppt. Salinities effectively limit competition from other plants, while mangroves have salt exclusion or salt excretion adaptations allowing survival in these environments. The ability to exclude salts occurs through filtration at the surface of the root (4). Root membranes prevent salt from entering while allowing the water to pass through. This is effective at removing the majority of salt from seawater. On the other hand, salt excretes remove salt through glands located on each leaf. Black and white mangroves are both salt excretes (8). White mangroves develop thickened succulent leaves, discarding salt as the leaves eventually drop. Reproductive adaptations include vivipary and propagule dispersal that give mangroves an increased chance for survival. Similar to terrestrial plants, mangroves reproduce by flowering with pollination occurring via wind and insects. Once pollination occurs, the seeds remain attached to the parent tree. They germinate into propagules before dropping into the waters below. This ability is referred to as "viviparity". The propagules either take root in the sediments near the parent tree or are dispersed with the tides and currents to other shorelines. References 1. Nabi, A., & Rao, P. B. (2012). Analysis of mangrove vegetation of Machilipatnam coastal region, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(3), 1754- 1764. 2. Bandaranayake, W. M. (1998). Traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves. Mangroves and salt marshes, 2(3), 133-148. 59

3. Bandaranayake, W. M. (2002). Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangrove plants. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 10(6), 421-452. 4. Kathiresan, K., & Bingham, B. L. (2001). Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Advances in marine biology, 40, 81-251. 5. Khafagi, I., Gab-Alla, A., Salama, W., & Fouda, M. (2003). Biological activities and phytochemical constituents of the gray mangrove Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Egypt J Bot, 5, 62-69. 6. Bobbarala, V., Vadlapudi, V. R., & Naidu, C. K. (2009). Antimicrobial potentialities of mangrove plant Avicennia marina. J Pharm Res, 2(6). 7. Agoramoorthy, G., Chen, F. A., Venkatesalu, V., Kuo, D. H., & Shea, P. C. (2008). Evaluation of antioxidant polyphenols from selected mangrove plants of India. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 20(2), 1311. 8. Burchett, M. D., Field, C. D., & Pulkownik, A. (1984). Salinity, growth and root respiration in the grey mangrove, Avicennia marina. Physiologia plantarum, 60(2), 113-118.

------Department of Biotechnology, Krishna University, Machilipatnam.

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Problems of Women Street Vendors in Urban Unorganized Sector (A case study in Guntur City) *Nallavelugula Radha, M.A., M.Phil Introduction The Unorganized Sector in India: Size and Significance: The proportion of workforce engage in unorganized sector activities in India for 1988, 1994 and 1999 within nine segments are given in Table 1.1. As per National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) data of different rounds, the highest proportion (99.4 per cent) obviously exists in case of agriculture. For the remaining non-agricultural segments of the economy, the proportion is 65.56 in financial sector, over 84 per cent in case of manufacturing, 93.25 per cent in construction, 98.81 per cent in trade and 78.85 per cent in transport, storage etc., and in mining and quarrying (54.81 per cent) and electricity. It is only in case of gas and water (4.03 per cent), the proportion is much less. Thus within the non- agricultural sector which is the concern of this study, small and micro enterprise affect the livelihood of well over 85 per cent of the workforce. And in one looks at the share of agricultural and non-agricultural sector workforce in total economy, no doubt agriculture accounts for the major share, but non- agricultural sector workforce does absorb now approximately 40 per cent of total workforce. Moreover, this proportion has been rising, as brought out by table 1.2. Table 1.1 Sector- Wise Share of Unorganised Employment In India Male Female Persons 1988 1994 2000 1998 1994 2000 1988 1994 2000 Industrial Sector 99.2 99.4 99.4 97.1 99.5 99.5 98.4 99.4 99.4 Agricultural 45.6 52.3 49.1 76.8 84.7 82.2 81.1 58.6 54.8 Mining and 77.9 80.1 81.8 78.4 93.7 91.6 77.9 84.0 84.6 Quarrying Manufacturing 21.3 30.3 4.2 00.0 71.1 00.0 21.3 35.1 4.0 Electricity, gas and 86.6 89.1 92.8 93.8 96.1 96.6 88.2 90.0 93.3 water 60

Construction 98.0 98.3 98.8 86.7 99.0 99.2 96.8 98.4 98.8 Trade 65.1 71.6 79.0 00.0 52.6 59.7 64.4 71.0 78.5 Transport, storage 59.9 67.0 63.4 22.1 73.4 71.5 55.2 68.6 65.6 etc Financial and 89.4 90.9 91.4 92.6 96.6 96.1 90.4 92.7 92.9 community services All sectors Source: NSSO Rounds 32, 38, 43, 50 and 55 Table 1.2 All- India Proportions of Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Workforce Industry Division 1972-73 1977-78 1983 1987-88 1990-91 1992 1993-94 1999-2000 Agriculture 74.0 72.0 68.1 64.1 62.0 65.3 63.9 61.7 Non –agriculture 26.0 28.0 31.9 35.9 38.0 34.7 36.1 38.3 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Total employed (in millions) 236.3 270.7 302.8 322.8 341.9 355.8 372.1 396.8

Table –1.3 Profile of Employment and Unemployment Employment growth rate (% per annum) 1983 1993-94 (million 1999-00 1983 to 1993-94 1993-94 to 1999-00 persons) All India 1. Population 718.20 894.01 1003.97 2.0 1.95 2. Labour force 261.33 335.97 363.33 2.43 1.31 3. Workforce 239.57 315.84 336.75 2.7 1.07 4. No. of unemployed (2-3) 21.76 20.13 26.58 -0.08 4.74 5. Unemployment rate (%) (4/2 x 100) 8.33 5.99 7.32 Rural 1. Population 546.61 658.83 727.50 1.79 1.67 2. Labour force 204.18 255.38 270.39 2.15 0.96 3. Workforce 187.92 241.04 250.89 2.40 0.67 4. No. of unemployed 16.26 14.34 19.50 -1.19 5.26 5. Unemployment 7.96 5.61 7.21 Urban 1. Population 171.59 243.98 276.47 3.04 2.74 2. Labour force 57.15 80.60 92.95 3.33 2.40 3. Workforce 51.64 74.80 85.84 3.59 2.32 4. No. of unemployed 5.51 5.80 7.11 0.49 3.45 5. Unemployment 9.64 7.19 7.65 Source: Planning Commission (2002) Report of Special Group on targeting ten million employment opportunities per year Table -1.4 Break-Up of Unemployed- Rural and Urban (In million person’s year) 1983 1993-94 1999-2000 All India 21.76 (100%) 20.13 (100%) 26.58 (100%) Rural 6.25 (74.7) 14.33 (7.12) 19.47 (73.3) Urban 551 (25.3) 5.80 (28.8) 7.11 (26.7) (Figures in brackets are percentages of the total (All - India)figures derived from Table 1.2) On the basis of the NSSO data, the special group has estimated the number of unemployed to be of the order of 26.58 million in 1999-2000, as against 20.13 million in 1993-94 (current daily status basis). The growth rate of unemployed persons works out to be 4.74 per cent per 61 annum for the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000 as against a decline in the number of unemployed persons during the period 1983 to 1993-94. This only underlines the fact that the unemployment rate, which was 8.33 per cent in 1983, declined to 5.99 per cent by 1993-94, but increased to 7.32 per cent in 1999-2000. Table 1.5 Inter- State Employment Scenario Unemployment Rate State 1993-1994 1999-2000 Kerala 15.51 20.97 West Bengal 10.06 14.99 Tamilnadu 11.41 11.78 Assam 8.03 8.03 Andhra Pradesh 6.69 80.3 Orissa 7.30 7.34 Bihar 6.34 7.32 Maharashtra 5.09 7.16 Haryana 6.51 4.77 Gujarat 5.70 4.55 Karnataka 4.94 4.57 Madhya Pradesh 8.56 4.45 Uttar Pradesh 3.45 4.08 Punjab 3.10 3.13 Rajasthan 1.31 2.96 Himachal Pradesh 1.80 7.32 All India 5.99 Source: Planning Commission (2002) Report of Special Group on targeting ten million employment opportunities per year. Note: Figures are based on the current daily status. States have been arranged in the descending order of unemployment rates in 1999-2000. Table 1.6 Youth Unemployment Rates (15-29 Years) For Major States In 1991-2000 State Rural Urban Kerala 363 343 West Bengal 266 240 Tamilnadu 181 136 Assam 146 206 Andhra Pradesh 99 143 Orissa 113 233 Bihar 110 244 Maharashtra 104 165 Haryana 81 83 Gujarat 67 85 Karnataka 58 103 Madhya Pradesh 49 144 Uttar Pradesh 61 125 Punjab 70 95 Rajasthan 44 33 Himachal Pradesh 61 205 All India 110 124

Note: States have been arranged in the same order as that of table 4. The data provided in table 1.6 reveals that the youth unemployment rates (pertaining to the age group of 15-29 years) are very high in Kerala and West Bengal. In the urban area, seven states show very high youth unemployment rates, viz. Kerala, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, 62

Bihar, Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra. The special group, therefore opines “This shows that apart from the genuine problem of employment for the rural sector, positive polices are needed to skilled. This is especially needed because the organized activity, while dominates the urban sector, is suffering from a near jobless growth”. The special group report mentions : “The present rising unemployment is primarily an outcome of a declining job creating capacity of growth, observed since 1993-94. The employment growth fell to 1.07 per cent per annum (between 1993-94 and 1999-2000) from 2.7 per cent per annum in the past (between 1983 and 1993-94) inspite of acceleration in GDP growth from 5.2 per cent between 1983 and 1993-94 to 6.7 per cent between 1993-94 and 1999- 2000”. (Planning Commission, 2002, p.2) Explaining the situation, the Special Group Report mentions” “the employment elasticity of 0.52 during the 1980s and early 1990s went down to 0.16 in the late 1990s. Agriculture is another source of employment generation as it accounted for 57 per cent of India’s total employment in 1999-2000. Between 1983 and 1993-94, its employment elasticity was a high as 0.70, but in the post-reform period (1993-94 to 1999-2000), its employment elasticity has declined to 0.01. “But given an opportunity policy, this section still be a gold mine for generating faster employment by changes in the sectoral position of agriculture in favour of labour – intensive high value areas like horticulture, agro- forecasting, minor irrigation, watersheds etc. The other employment generating areas identified in unorganized sector are trade, restaurant and tourism and information technology. They are all witnessing a high with of above 9.0 per cent annum and have very high employment elasticity’s. The transport, construction and other service sectors are also equally equipped for high growth of employment intensiveness. Importance of Unorganized Sector Women Workers in Unorganized Sector: According to International Labour Organisation (ILO) report women are 50 per cent of the world’s population doing 70 per cent of the world’s work but receive only 10 per cent of the income and own less than 1 per cent of the property. In most of the countries the average earnings of the women are lower than men. Their representation in gainful employment is comparatively lower. Women have confined their activities to selected professionals such as education, nursing, medicine and office work. Very few women enter into fields like industry, engineering, commerce and trade. According to 2001 census, there are 935 women for every 1000 men in the country making the female population about 48 per cent of total population. The working population constitutes around 36 per cent of total population and women constitute about 32 per cent of the working population. Majority of working women are crowded in the Unorganized Sector. As per our country report presented at the fourth world conference on women in Beijing in 1995, only 4 per cent of all women working are employed in the organized sector. The majority of the workforce today is in what is generally known as the unorganized or the informal sector. In India this sector constitutes about 93 per cent, So that for the workforce as a whole, it is the major sector of work. However, as far as women workers are concerned the informal sector constitutes more than 97 per cent. It is true that the informal sector is dominated by workforce. The Inter- state employment growth rate shows greater regional disparities in 1999-2000 as compared to 1993-94. In 1999-2000 the state with higher employment rates are Kerala with 63

20.97 per cent, West Bengal 15 per cent, Tamilnadu 11.7 per cent, Assam and Andhra Pradesh 8.3 per cent. The lowest unemployment rate states are Himachal Pradesh with 2.96 per cent, U.P. with 4.8 per cent, Punjab 4.3 per cent and Rajasthan 3.13 per cent. The gender difference in the public and private sectors and the female – male ratio (FMR) is situated. It shows the gender basis. For example the FMR’s for Public and Private sectors were 0.136 and 0.025 in 1990, which increased to 0.176 and 0.319 respectively by 2001. By 2001for every 1000 men, the number of working women was 176 in public sectors and 319 in private sectors. It is obvious that the private sector is perhaps more gender sensitive compared to public sector. There has been a significant variation in the distribution across industry in private sector. 97.73 per cent women were engaged in agriculture in Assam and 100 per cent women in Mizoram were employed in service sector. Assam has registered high employment in agriculture (i.e., tea plantation) in the private sector. Thus the special topography of the region explains the economic opportunities for women. In Tamilnadu 82.47 per cent were employed in manufacturing. All the four southern states where women enjoy relatively more freedom and autonomy have reported high levels of employment in manufacturing in private sector in unskilled category. The private employer mostly would prefer women as they are more pliable, create fewer problems and can work for relatively low wages. The women of southern states perhaps are able to meet this requirement of the private sector. Apart from Assam and Tripura, the remaining four states of North Eastern Zone (NEZ), women are mostly concentrated in service sectors perhaps because they do not have enough opportunities in other sectors. Irrespective of significant variation in the distribution of women employment in different industries, in these states the percentage of women in total employment is quite high. In Mumbai, the studies show that most of the women street vendors belong to families in which the male members were once employed in better paid, secure jobs in the formal sector. They were unemployed when their enterprises closed. Their wives took to street vending to make ends meet. They are (women vendors) mainly small vendors and they are hardly unionized (expect in Ahmadabad). These factors add to their invisibility. There is no clear picture of the number of women vendors, expect in Ahmadabad where around 40 per cent of the 80,000 street vendors are women. In other cities they are an invisible category. The level of unionization is higher among them and they are thus able to protect themselves better than the women vendors. There is therefore a need to make a proper assessment of women vendors. At a rough guess, they should constitute 30 per cent of the total population. Mumbai provides contracts as far as female hawkers are concerned. The women squatting on the pavements in the working class area of Central Mumbai have started hawking after the closure of the textile mills in that area. Their husband had worked as permanent workers in the textile mills and are now unemployed for the past several years. These women provide for most expenses for the household through their meager incomes, as they are the main earners. Siddhi Vinayak Temple at Prabhadevi, also in Central Mumbai, represents a higher income group. This temple attracts a large number of devotees on all days and more so on Tuesday. The flower sellers around the temple are exclusively women. These women too are wives of textile workers who are now unemployment. They used to face a lot of harassment by 64 the police and municipal authorities while plying their trade. In case of flower sellers an exception, because by and large female street vendors have much lower income. The NASVI study found that the income of women vendors is lower than the men because mainly of two reasons. Most of the women belonged to families that were poorer than those of male street vendors so they had less capital to invest in their business. Secondly, they could not spend as much time on their work as the males because they had to take care of the home as well. Street Vendors in India: The number of street vendors in Indian cities has increased sharply during the past few years, especially after 1991 when the policies relating to structural adjustment and liberalization were introduced. It is now estimated that around 25 per cent of the urban population is engaged in this occupation. In most Indian cities the urban poor survive by working in the informal sector. Poverty and lack of gainful employment in the rural areas and in the smaller towns drive large numbers of people to the cities for work and livelihood. A large section of street vendors in urban areas are those with low skills and who have migrated to the larger cities from rural areas or small towns in search of employment. These people take to street vending when they do not find other means of livelihood. Street vendors, on the other hand are self- employed and self- generation of income. They are sellers of produces of special kind, produced by small entrepreneurs, cheap products, daily necessity goods – selling to specific buyers- middle class and poor. They provide market channel to small products. They make their own economy without any official support. Vendors operate in the structure of local economy- local production, local resources, local supply and local demand. As a result of these an area of market operation is created for the communities marginalized by the globalization- women, poor, formally uneducated, disabled, uprooted from agriculture, migrants from villages, lower castes, retrenched workers etc. Street vendors are mainly those who are unsuccessful or unable to get regular jobs. This section of the urban poor tries to solve their problems through their own meager resources. Unlike other section of the urban population they do not demand that government create jobs for them or engage in begging, stealing or extortion. They try to live their life with dignity and self respect through hard work. The study on street vendors in seven cities shows that the average earnings range between Rs. 40 and Rs. 80 per day. Women vendors earn even less. These people work for over 10 hours a day under grueling conditions on the street and are under constant threat of eviction. A study of street vendors in Mumbai conducted by SNDT Women's University and ILO showed that an overwhelming majority of them suffered from ailments related to stress- hyperacidity, migraine, hypertension, loss of sleep etc. Studies on street vendors/ hawkers are few and are focused mainly on some cities. In 2000, the National Alliance of Street Vendors in India (NASVI) organized a study on hawkers in seven cities which included Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar, Patna, Ahmadabad and Imphal. This could be taken as one of the more comprehensive studies on street vending. Two more studies were conducted on street vendors in Mumbai, besides the one by NASVI. In 1998, the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) Commissioned Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) and Youth for Voluntary Action and Unity (YUVA) to conduct a hawkers on municipal lands. In 2001, SNDT Women’s University, in collaboration with 65

International Labour Organisation conducted a study on street vendors. Street vendors work under grilling conditions for long hours and are frequently harassed by the municipal authorities and the police. An interesting aspect of these studies is that they all find common features among street vendors. The SNDT –ILO study on Mumbai found that around 85 per cent of the street vendors complained of stress related diseases- migraine, hyper acidity, hypertension and high blood pressure. A study on street vendors conducted in these cities; show that around 30 per cent of the street vendors in Ahmadabad and Mumbai and 50 per cent in Kolkata were once engaged in the formal sector. A study conducted by Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in Ahmadabad shows that around half the retrenched textile workers are now street vendors. Problems of women street vendors in urban unorganized sector: Women vendors were harassed by the male vendors and were not allowed sitting on the pavements most of the female street vendors in these cities harassment by the police and the municipal authorities. It is common practice for the police to charge Rs. 2/- per day from each vendor. The municipal authorities’ vendors face several problems in their work place. Women vendors earn about Rs. 35/- in less than males. They sold their goods during most of the day or in the morning and evenings. The minimum time spent on street vending was 9 to 10 hours every day. In some cases, they spent 12 hours or more. Hawkers employing helpers on paid basis is very rate but 10 per cent of the hawkers are assisted by their family members. The vendors are forced to pay Rs. 2/- per day to these goons at protection, money which is popularly known as ‘Rangdhari Tax’. These goons too pick up fruits and vegetables from the vendors under their ‘protection’ without paying for them. The incomes of the vendors are quite low. These people however have to leave their homes in their villages at around 5.00 am every day in order to reach the markets on time and start work on the pavements they occupy. They commute by bus from their villages and return home at around 10.00 pm after setting their accounts. The other vendors, who lived within 10 kilometers from their work place commute on foot. Some of them left their homes as early as 3.30 am to get their goods from the market. They face constant harassment and have to pay bribes almost every day. A fruit vendor at the income tax round about told us that he sells his wares at seven road crossings and he has to pay Rs. 2/- to the police at each crossing failing which he will be beaten by the constable. At the same time, payment of fines was not a protection against eviction by the Municipality. Even after paying fines, the hawkers could have their goods confiscated by the “Halla Gari” (local name for the truck used by the Municipality to conduct raids). It seems that the only way, the vendors can escape harassment from the police and the Municipality is when their area of work is controlled by local musclemen. This is so in markets like antaghat. Only 1.5 per cent of these vendors live within 2 to 5 kilometers from their work place. Women street vendors in Mumbai conducted by SNDT Women’s University and ILO (International Labour Organisation) showed that an overwhelming majority of them suffered from ailments related to stress- hyperacidity, migraine, hypertension, loss of sleep etc. The middle income group bought clothes, vegetables and fruits from street vendors as these were cheap and fresh. There is therefore a need to make a proper assessment of women vendors. At a rough they should constitute 30 per cent of the total population. Problems faced while carrying out vending: 66

 Fear of Andhra Pradesh Authority  Harassment by police officials  Exposed to the environmental hazards  Long hours of work without rest  Rainfall damages goods and affects vending  Customer’s misbehavior  Extreme tiredness  Absence of toilet facilities  Absence of shade to protect from various weather conditions  Wastage of unsold goods such as flowers, vegetable, fruits, food items etc. especially in summer  Difficulty in procuring vending license and the fear of vending without vending license  Problems due to typing vehicles and their drivers especially the heavy vehicles where the drivers behave rudely  Situations where there is huge demand for goods sold and lack of goods in possession of the vendors the reverse situation  Difficulty in pushing vending carts from one place to another in different weather conditions especially on the damaged roads  Customers take advantage of being a woman vendor and try to bargain a lot  Problems created by customers for women vendors while vending at night out of compulsion  Uncertainty of income  Payments to be made to Market Pradhans for vending in weekly bazaars and harassment by his men if there is a delay or failure in payment  Quarrel among co-vendors which results in changing vending place  Need to do street vending at old age due to poverty and other compulsions Unorganized Sector and Status Street Vendors and the Urban Economy: Mumbai has the largest number of street vendors numbering around 2,50,000, Kolkata has more than 1,50,000 street vendors, Ahmadabad and Patna has around 80,000 each and Indore, Bangalore and Bhubaneswar has around 30,000 street vendors. The total employment provided through street vending becomes larger if we consider the fact that they sustain certain industries by providing markets for their products. A study on street vendors, conducted in these cities, show that around 30% of the street vendors in Ahmadabad and Mumbai and 50% in Kolkata were once engaged in the formal sector. A study conducted by Self Employment Women’s Association (SEWA) in Ahmadabad shows that around half the retrenched textile workers are now street vendors. A lot of the goods sold by street vendors, such as clothes and hosiery, leather and moulded plastic goods and household goods, are manufactured in small scale or home based industries. These industries employ a large number of workers and they rely mainly on street vendors to market their products. In this way street vendors provide a valuable service by helping sustain employment in these industries. The sex composition showed that 33 per cent were females and 67 per cent were males. At the same time it should be noted that the survey found that in almost all cases the male hawkers

67 are supported by their wives and one or two children If we taken this in to account, female participation in the profession will increase. Street Vendors and Public Space: Street vendors have existed since time immemorial. In recent times however they have come to be regarded as public nuisance by certain sections of the urban population. NGOs representing the elite sections, especially the residents associations of the middle class and upper middle class, are most vocal about eviction of street vendors from their vicinity. In most of cities, these associations aggressively argue for restoration of pavements as public space only when street vendors ‘encroach’ on them. At the same time these associations too blatantly encroach on public space by employment private guards who regulate entry of people through public roads that access their residential areas and they cordon off public space such as roads and lanes by erection fences and gates. The constant tirade by these elite NGOs that street vendors deprive pedestrians of their space, inconvenience traffic and encourage anti social activities find favour with the media which highlights these issues. The municipal authorities too act promptly on their advice by evicting these street vendors and depriving them of their livelihood. The inconvenience caused to the majority of the population who find it convenient to purchase from street vendors is never a consideration. National Policy of Street Vendors: The Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation has recently finalized the draft national policy on street vendors. This policy is a land mark for the urban informal sector because for the first time the government has taken steps to regularize a major section of the self-employment. If implemented, one can hope that this important sector of the urban economy will get legal recognition. The policy was prepared by the national task force for street vendors appointed by the Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation headed by the Minister of State for Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation. Other members comprised senior officials of the Ministry, Mayors, Municipal Commissioners, Senior Police Officials and representatives of the Trade Unions. NASAVI Activities: National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI) was initiated by SEWA in September 1998 to bring together the street vendors organizations of India so as to collectively struggle for macro- level changes become imminent to support the livelihood of around 10 million vendors which stood severely threatened due to outdated laws and changing policies, practice and attitudes of the powers that be. NASVI is a location of trade unions and voluntary organization working for street vendors spread all over India. NASVI’s study of street vendors found that they pay 10 per cent to 20 per cent of their earnings as rent. Need for the Study: The overall status of women is directly and decisively related with FPR (Female Participation Ration). The FPR in turn is dependent on a number of workers such as female literacy, social reform movements, caste oppression, matrilineal system, female-male-ratio, trade union activities, land reforms etc., more than development it is the patriarch that has decisive role in FPR’s. The literature on the problems of women street vendors in Urban informal sector in India, is however limited. It is more so, in the case of Guntur city. Women worker in urban informal 68

sector are concentrated in number of economic activities. Hence there is every need to take women specific studies in the urban centers. In this context an attempt is made in this study to examine various problems of women workers in Guntur city. Methodology: The study is based on the primary data collected from women street vendors in the urban informal sector of Guntur city. The office of Assistant Commissioner of Labour and other sources are consulted for data. There are three circles of which four circles namely Naaz Centre and Shankar Vilas, Railway Station Road, Market areas are purposively selected for the present study. Guntur town is purposively selected to conduct the survey because it happens to be the residential area for many of the street vendors out of the 200 street vendors in this locality especially they are selling cheap products including food, vegetables, eatable fruit, petty trades, water, cooking in the open ensured that food was fresh and unadulterated. They depend mainly on loans from friends, family or money lenders to run their business. Summary: In sum it may be conducted that majority of the sample respondents in the selected area are working for 10 hours and above per day. Sample workers expressed those family problems are the major reasons insufficient income. Majority of the respondents invest an amount of Rs. 100 per day and above. In evident that majority of the respondents are living 2-4 km away from the place of work vendors are going to place of work by bus. Street vendor are working in city. Majority of the respondents spent time on family 1 to 3 hours. Majority of the respondents are having 5 years of work experience in the present vendors. They are working every day. Sample respondents are earning an amount of Rs. 3,000/- per month, vendors husbands of all sample workers in the study are unemployed. The sample respondents do not have any work. Street vendors are spending an amount of Rs. 500-1000/- towards food items, they are spending an amount of less than Rs.100/- per month towards family members and majority of the respondents are not spending any amount towards schooling of their children. Majority of the respondents except one person among the sample are not habituated for saving even a single rupee a day. The borrowers has to pay interest regularly the collection of interest are in the form of daily, weekly, fortnightly and monthly, the sample respondents do not have any outstanding balance, Women vendors into various self-help groups to promote the habit of savings. Majority of the respondents among all locations are facing the problems the problems are more due to police people and municipal authorities in all the localities in study area. Bibliography  A.N.Sarkar, (1988) “Audit Education and Social Welfare Programmes for Women”, Kurukshetra, Vol.XXXVI, August, P.No. 15 to 17.  Archana Sinha Archana Sinha (2004), “Women in Local Self Governance” Kurukshetra, No. 10, Vol. 52, August, pp. 11 to 15  Vijaya Chandran Pillai B., Hari Kumar.V (2006), “Self- Help Groups”, Kurukshetra, Vol. 54, No. 9, 2006, pp. 30  Rajasekhar.D., Suchitra.J.Y and Manjula.R. (2007), “Women Workers in Urban Informal Employment”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 5669  Joshi. G.V., (1981) “Growth of Urban Informal Sector and its Problems : Findings of a case study in Mangalore”, p.214.  Sentbil Vadivoo.K and Sekhar. V., Kisan World, (2004) “Self-help Groups – A movement for Women Empowerment”, July, Vol. 31, Vol. No. 7, P.No. 13-14.  Kumaran.K.P. (1999), “Empowerment of Urban Poor Women Through Community Development Society” –A Kerala Experience, Nagarlok, Vol. XXXI, No. 3, ISSN0027-7584, Year PP55 to 62 July- Sep, pp. 546 69

 Kusum Lata Towari, (1995) “Women and Development”, Kurukshetra, Vol. XLIII, Vol. No.11, August-.  Sammaiah.M and Madhavi.K, (2005) “Rights of Unorganised Women Workers”, Social Welfare, Vol. 52, No. 2, May.  Manigayakarasi. V. (2003) “Women Industrial Workers”, Social Welfare, May.  Mohemmed Sherfuddin, (2002) “Morale of Working Women”, HRD Times, July, Vol. 5, No.7. ------Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna University

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Our prime purpose in this is to help others. And, if you can't help them, at least don't hurt them. - Dalai Lama

STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Health Status of Tribal Women in India *D. Naga Malleswari Abstract: Primitive Tribal Groups in health care is found to occur due to hierarchy in the quality of health care rather due to availability of them to the scheduled primitive tribal households. The study draws the attention of the Government towards improvement of quality of health care I n the tribal areas through adequate personnel, infrastructure and promoting sustainable development. The role of grass root organizations and social workers in mobilization of STs on their rights is also emphasized. The women empowerment proxy indices such as education, economic participation in non-agricultural sectors, exposure to media and wealth are inadequate among tribals. Thus, they remain largely marginalized, poor and socially excluded, and their health outcomes are not optimal. Working with these imbalances is of further importance for the researchers, policymakers, programme managers and civil society groups. The former three tribes access the free health care services of NGOs and rely mainly on them while for the latter the main source was private health care for which they pay. In spite of the greater access, the quality of health care provide to the scheduled tribes has been perceived by the leaders as poor and the tribal leaders often complain the inadequacy of the medicine and medical staff in the public hospitals and primary health centres. Tribes live in Isolation, near to nature and hence are called ‘son of the soil’. They constitute separate socio-cultural groups having distinct customs, traditions, marriage, kingship, property inheritance system and living largely in agricultural and pre-agricultural level of technology. Scheduled tribes are officially recognized by the Govt. of India, as socially and economically backward and are in need of special protection from injustice and exploitation. They are food gat hers, hunters, forestland cultivators, and minor forest product collectors. The growth rate of tribal population was reported 29.8 percent during 1991-2001. It is higher than the growth rate of total population of the state of Rajasthan 28.33per cent. There are a number of tribals. Inhabited in the state were they constitute around twelve percent of the of the state’s total population. Tribals are economically hand to mount. There is no provision of free medicine and treatment excepting some diseases like malaria, polio diarrhea, T.B. etc., ******* Introduction Schedule Tribes (STs) constitute one of the socially excluded sections of Indian society for centuries. The most excluded and underdeveloped among them are the numerically small 70 primitive tribal groups (PTGs). Government of India recognized the need for focusing on these marginalized section of STs first in 1975 – 76 and thereafter in 1993. Ever since, the poorest of poor amongst the STs were called Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs). The Government of India has followed a threefold criterion for identification of such PTGs. They are – (1) at pre- agricultural level of technology; (2) with very low level of literacy; and (3) having a declining or stagnant population. National demographic goals committed by national population policy and Millennium Development Goals by United Nations Development Programme (UNDPs) and National Health Policy, women need to have access to comprehensive, affordable and quality health care as they play a very critical role in family health. Women need to be empowered as their sexual and reproductive health encompasses their abilities to exercise their rights regarding their body requirements; marking choices about intimate relationships, bearing children; protection form diseases associated with reproduction and access to health services. As a prerequisite for the sexual and reproductive health, quality health services must exist, and women and girls must live in environments that enable them to seek services and practice healthy behaviours. Their empowerment, autonomy and improvements in their health status were recognized by the Intentional Conference on Population and Development (1994). Tribals in India are widely different from each – other geographically, culturally and in terms of their levels of social as well as economic development, and their problems vary from area to area within their own groups. Several commissions and committees in recent past have recommended a variety of measures to remove the socio – economic imbalances among them and also to break down their age old psychological barriers confined to the tribal areas. Scheduled tribes (STs) constitute the weakest section of India population from the ecological, economic and educational perspectives. They compose the matrix of poverty and represent one of the most marginalized and economically impoverished groups I n the nation. As per the Census of India 2001, STs constitute about 8.2 percent of the total population in India. Majority of the tribals live in rural areas and are engaged in agricultural pursuits. The development of the tribal population has been a major concern for the government, voluntary agencies, NGOs, social reformers, social scientists etc. Tribes live in isolation, near to nature and hence are called ‘son f the soil’. They constitute separate socio – cultural groups having distinct customs, traditions, marriage, kingship, property inheritance system and living largely in agricultural and pre-agricultural level of technology. Scheduled tribes are officially recognized by the Govt. of India, as socially and economically backward are in need of special protection from injustice and exploitation. They are food gathers, hunters, forest land cultivators, and minor forest product collectors. The growth rate of tribal population was reported 29.8 percent during 1991-2001. It is higher than the growth rate of total population of the state of Rajasthan 28.33 per cent. There are a number of tribals inhabited in the state where they constitute around twelve percent of the of the state’s total population. The women empowerment proxy indices such as education, economic participation in non-agricultural sectors, exposure to media and wealth are inadequate among tribals. Thus, they remain largely marginalized, poor and socially excluded, and their health outcomes are not optimal. Working with these imbalances is of further importance for the researchers, policymakers, programme managers and civil society groups. Tribal Population in India 71

India is the second most populous and the seventh largest (area wise) country in the world. The total geographical area of India is 32, 87,263 sq km, of which 6, 92,027 sq km is covered by forests, which constitutes 21.1percent of its total (forest Survey of India, 2011). The overall population density of India is 382 per sq km (Census of India, 2011). According to the 2011 Census there are 24, 94, 54,252 households, of which 2, 14, 67,179 households belong to ST population. Total population in the country is 1,21,05,69,573 out of these 10, 42, 81,034 are classified as ST with 5, 24, 09,823 males and 5, 18, 71,211 females. Age – sex distribution of tribal and non – tribal population is presented in the population pyramids. The population reveals that the sex composition among ST is nearly equal, whereas in non – tribals, it is male preponderance especially in the age – groups less than 25 years. However, age structure among tribals is in favour of younger population as compared to non – tribals. The decadal growth rate of the tribal population during 2001-2011 is 23.7per cent which is higher than Indi’s total decadal growth 17.6 per cent. The tribal population of India constitutes 8.6 percent of total population of the country and majority of them reside in the rural areas 90 per cent State wise percent distribution of tribal population is presented that the highest proportion of tribal population resides in north eastern states namely; Mizoram 94.4 percent, Nagaland 86.5per cent, Meghalaya 86.1per cent, Arunachal Pradesh 68.8 percent, Manipur 35.1 percent, Sikkim 33.8 percent and Tripura 31.8 percent. Apart from north eastern states tribal population in Lakshadweep islands comprises of 94.8 percent. Numerically, the highest tribal concentration is in Madhya Pradesh, which is 14.7 percent of the tribal population of India. Maharashtra 10.1 percent and Odisha 9.2per cent together add an additional 19.3 percent tribal population to the country. In contrast, lowest tribal concentration is in UT of Daman and Diu 0.01percent. No ST population is recorded in Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi & Pondicherry States/ UTs. In India, there are around 705 (Census of India, 2011) STs inhabiting in 26 states and 4 union territories. Among them 75 Sts are classified as particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG). State wise distribution of PVTGs in India is presented. As per census 2001, in each state the individual community wise distribution of tribal population is presented in Annexure. The Bhils are the most populous tribe in India (1,26,89,952) followed by the Gonds (1,08,59,422), Santhals (58,38,016), Minas (38,00,002), Naikdas (33,44,954), Oraons (31,42,145), Sugalis (20,77,947), Mundas (19,18,218), Nagas (18,20,965) and Khonds (13,97,384) respectively. In every five year plan period the impetus on tribal development has been gaining momentum. Different tribal groups in India are at different levels of development. The level of development depends upon a large number of variables, the most important of them being the level of contact with the outside world and the extent of change that has occurred in pertinent cultural elements. The level of socioeconomic development of tribals in the western and central regions is very different from that in eastern and southern India. In general, living a poor quality of life, endogamy and other cultural practices make tribals vulnerable to various diseases particularly of communicable diseases and genetic disorders. Recently, it has been reported that they are also affected by non – communicable diseases like hypertension, cardiovascular disease, etc., Tribal’s development, knowledge of their distribution pattern is essential in addition to their social, economic and demographic status. There are studies on population dynamics 72 carried out among urban and rural segments of the Indian population. However, there is a paucity of information on tribal population dynamics within the context of regional milieu. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the definition of health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The health status of any community is influenced by the interplay of health consciousness of the people, socio-cultural, demographic, economic, educational, and political factors. The common beliefs, traditional customs, myths, practices related to health and disease in turn influence the health seeking behavior of autochthonous people. Health is an essential component of the well-being of mankind and is a prerequisite for human development. If general health of an average non – tribal Indian is inferior to the Western and even many Asian counterparts, the health of an average Indian tribal is found to be much poorer compared to the non-tribal counterpart. The health status of tribal populations is very poor and worst of primitive tribes because of the isolation, remoteness and being largely unaffected by the developmental process going on in India. The United Nations (UN) members met in 2000 and set themselves eight goals to be achieved by 2015. Of these goals, reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, were included. The first goal ‘of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger’ also contains a nutritional element which is health related. In the developing world, death rates in children under five are dropping, but not fast enough. Eleven million children are still dying every year, from preventable or treatable causes. More than half a million women die each year during pregnancy or childbirth. AIDS has become the fourth largest killer worldwide, and in parts of Asia, HIV is spreading at an alarming rate. The blight of malaria and tuberculosis continues. Clearly, the challenges for India are multi – faceted. In rural areas, reducing child mortality and improving maternal health are major challenges. HIV is spreading fast in urban and slum areas. Health care in India has been neglected because of insufficient spending by the government. The Central Government has vowed to increase spending on health to 6 per cent of Gross Domestic product (GDP) by 2010 and has unveiled a National Rural Health Mission. If this dream comes true, villages would have 24 – hour health care services provided by an army of paramedics. Tribal communities in general and primitive tribal groups in particular are highly disease prone. Also they do not have required access to basic health facilities. They are most exploited, neglected, and highly vulnerable to diseases with high degree of malnutrition, morbidity and mortality. Their misery is compounded by poverty, illiteracy, ignorance of causes of diseases, hostile environment, poor sanitation, lack of safe drinking water and blind beliefs, etc. The chief causes of high maternal mortality rate are found to be poor nutritional status, low hemoglobin (anemia), unhygienic and primitive practices for parturition. Average calorie as well as protein consumption is found is below the recommended level for the pregnant as well as lactating women. Some of the preventable diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, gastroenteritis, filarial, measles, tetanus, whooping cough, skin diseases, etc. are also high among the tribals. Tribals’ health culture Tribal communities are mostly forest dwellers. Their health system and medical knowledge over ages known as ‘Traditional Health Care System’ depend both on the herbal and the psychosomatic lines of treatment. While plants, flowers, seeds, animals and other naturally available substances formed the major basis of treatment, this practice always had a touch of mysticism, supernatural and magic often resulting in specific magi co – religious rites. Faith 73 healing has always been a part of the traditional treatment in the Tribal Health Care System, which can be equated with rapport or confidence – building in the modern treatment procedure. Health Culture of tribal communities belonging to the poorest strata of society is highly desirable and essential to determine their access to different health services available in a social set up. Health Care Initiatives: Five year plans since independence have a major health component for the tribes with huge fund allocations for human resource and infrastructure development. Comprehensive measures have been initiated for sanitation, water purification, communication and education. Primary Health Centers are instituted for every 20,000 persons in tribal areas sub-centre’s are available for 3,000 populations. Both central and state governments have implemented programmes for preventive and curative health services. Tribal Health Problems The primitive tribes in India have distinct health problems, mainly governed by multidimensional factors such as habitat, difficult terrains, varied ecological niches, illiteracy, poverty, isolation superstitions and deforestation. The tribal people in India have their own life styles, food habits, beliefs, traditions and socio – cultural activities. The health and nutritional problems of the vast tribal populations are varied because of bewildering diversity in their socio – economic, cultural and ecological settings. However, data analysis in view of their ecological, ethnological, cultural and biological diversity is lacking in India.  Concept of health and disease is rather traditional which results in t heir not seeking treatment at an early stage of physical maladjustment and frequent refusal of preventive measures in rural areas and their idea of medical care is some treatment not easily accessible and available. Lack of motivation of people for availing medical care at the initial stage of the disease.  Limited Paying capacity or habit of getting treatment always free of cost.  Comparative inaccessibility of medical care services due to under-developed communication and transport facilities. Tribals are economically hand to mouth. There is no provision of free medicine and treatment excepting some diseases like malaria polio diarrhea, T.B. etc., The primary health care infrastructure provides the first level of contact between the population and health care providers and forms the common pathway for implementation of all the health and family welfare programs. It provides integrated primitive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative services to the population close to their hearth and home. A majority of the health care needs of the tribal population are taken care of either by the trained health personnel at the primary health care level or by their own traditional indigenous health practitioners at village level. Those requiring specialized car are referred to secondary and tertiary sector. The tribal population is not a homogeneous one. There are wide variations with regard to education and health status, access and utilization of health services among the tribal populations. The health problems of rural and tribal populations cannot automatically be overcome by establishing more primary health centre and sub centre and also imparting training to more health centre and sub centre and also imparting training to more health personnel or providing integrated health services by a single authority or by a number of agencies. An integrated health services would be operated on a teamwork basis by division of labour so that the greatest possible use o f professional skills could be made. While the physician is the central figure in 74 the health center complex, the efficiency and output health services would depend upon the supporting personnel consisting of nurses, various categories of paramedical and auxiliary staff. Communicable Diseases: The people in their daily life consciously or subconsciously modify the environment and ecological aspects of their habitat, which in turn increase the risk for communicable diseases. The communication of diseases is dependent either on the direct contact or on the indirect agents like breathing, sputum, stool, saliva, urine, etc., the venereal diseases are communicated through direct contact and tuberculosis is communicated through indirect contact such as breathing. Thus, the communicable diseases are those diseases, which pass from infected person to a healthy person by direct or indirect contacts through infectious agent. Sometimes, viral or bacterial infections cause death in a large numbers and threaten the survival of mankind. There are several communicable diseases prevalent among the tribals of Orissa. These are : Tuberculosis, Hepatitis, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), Malaria, Filarial, Diarrhea and Dysentery, Jaundice, Parasitic infestation, Viral and Fungal, infections, Conjunctivitis, Yaws, Scabies, Measles, Leprosy, Cough and Cold, HIV / AIDS, which is spreading like wild fire, etc. due to lack of sanitation and unhygienic living. They frequently become victims of repeated epidemics of the above mentioned contagious disease. Non – Communicable Diseases: Education, especially the female education, is generally considered a key factor to development. Female education is believed to have a great influence on the maternal and child health as it enhances the knowledge and skills of the mother concerning age at marriage, contraception, nutrition, prevention and treatment of diseases. This also means that the higher infant and child mortality rates among the poorly educated mothers are due to their poor hygienic practices. Moreover, maternal education is related to child because it reduces the cost of public health related to information on health technology. Silent Killer genetic diseases: Genetic disorders are gaining prominence and have profound health implications in morbidity status of tribals in states. Sickle cell anemia and glucose phosphate dehydrogenate enzyme deficiency are the two important genetically determined disorders, which play an important role in human health and disease. Reproductive health: After India’s independence, government institutions gradually opened in rural areas Inhabited by indigenous people. Male officers from the developed coastal plains were posted in these government offices temporarily, usually for a period of two to three years. Since the tribal areas were underdeveloped and lacked necessities of civilized lifestyle the officers who were posted in tribal areas did not bring their families with them. During their stay, some of them entered into bigamy by marrying innocent young tribal women. In tribal areas there is a lack of infrastructure particularly related to the supply of drinking water, electricity and educational and health services. The tribal territory is rich in mineral, forest and water resources, but the poorest of the poor live here. The area has also an abundance of rare flora – fauna and is rich in bio-diversity. Despite this, tribes have to migrate in search of their livelihood, have low access to health care and education and have higher morbidity and mortality. Thus, it is required that the development processes are speeded up in the tribal areas ensuring that the fruits of development must reach the tribal communities. The development process has displaced sizable number of tribal people from their natural habit and 75 from the sources of their livelihood in recent times. This has further kept them below poverty line. Ameliorative Challenges  A complete Mini Hospital or Health Unit (including a medically qualified Doctor, a Laboratory Technician, a Pharmacist and a staff Nurse with required medicines and basic laboratory testing set up etc.) in a Mobile Van should be set up which will cater to the health needs of the tribal community in a group of adjacent villages fixing a date at least weekly or preferably in the weekly tribal market to minimize the tribal sufferings.  A mass awareness and preventive programme about common prevalent diseases should be launched at weekly markets in tribal areas with increased interaction of Health Workers with the participation of local population.  Providing Genetic / Marriage Counselor to affected tribal communities and families for the prophylactic guidance and future reproductive decisions.  Providing social and economic incentives and support for combating the common prevalent communicable and non communicable diseases in the tribal community.  Local agricultural produce should be marketed by the tribal cooperative societies rather than individually for the better profit without involving the intermediary agents. Financial incentives should be given for the transport of agricultural produce and communication. Services of anthropologists are Indispensable for such monitoring.  To achieve operational efficiency in the health care delivery programs, efforts should be made to involve local tribals (preferably girls) with economical incentives, traditional dais, traditional healers in the health and family welfare delivery system after giving them proper training. Preventive approach like immunization, anti-infection measures and various other prophylactic aspects should be given more importance. Women Health Women health among tribals is a grossly neglected concept. Almost all tribal women follow unhygienic practices as far their maternal health is concerned. Nutritional anemia is a major problem for women in India and more so in the rural and tribal belt. Maternal malnutrition is quite common among the tribal women especially those who have many pregnancies too closely spaced. Child bearing imposes additional health needs and problems on women – physically, psychologically and socially.The prevalence HIV / AIDS is also observed among various tribal groups and is more alarming health concern. Lack of Awareness Lack of awareness is a major determinant of their poor health status. Poor literacy adds to this problem. Boys and girls are engaged in labour quite early in life while girls hare the added responsibility of care services at home in the absence of parents. Most of the girls are married after attaining puberty and beget children at a tender age. Inexperienced motherhood is a bane for the child and mother which is the main reason for higher rate of maternal and child mortality. Post natal care is worse as women after delivery do not get adequate rest which harms health of the mother as well as the child. An important neglected area is reproductive health. Married women do not have control over their reproductive health. They are not free to decide about safe sex and gap in child bearing. Women in most tribal groups in order to avoid pregnancy follow crude methods of abortion with affects their health sometimes leading to death. Expectant mothers are not inoculated against tetanus. As they walk barefoot in muddy roads the chances of tetanus is high. 76

Neither do they take vitamins, minerals and nutritious food. Deliveries are done at home even though primary health service providers explain them about danger involved in crude method of delivery. Complicated cases are referred to the nearby hospital but by that time the woman loses the chance to survive. Maternal mortality is also due to unhygienic and primitive practices of parturition. Level of Access to Health Care Interestingly, all the tribes had high level of access to health care. The household average of the overall access score of all the four tribes were greater than. It seems that the tribals are utilizing the different agencies for fulfillment of their health care needs and they were not left with untreated when they suffer from diseases. The various agencies at work have somehow successful in extending the health care to all the tribal households. The comparison of the four tribes according to their access scores to the specific institutions further reveals the variations in the access to health care. The greater access of the scheduled tribes to the health care institutions over the non – scheduled tribe the Bodega was mainly due to their access to health care by voluntary organizations. The former three tribes access the free health care services of NGOs and rely mainly on them while for the latter the main source was private health care for which they pay. In spite of the greater access, the quality of health care provide to the scheduled tribes has been perceived by the leaders as poor and the tribal leaders often complain the inadequacy of the medicine and medical staff in the public hospitals and primary health centre’s. Such criticisms were even leveled against the NGO sector, the adequacy of whose services in the recent decade (LPG) are doubtful in the perception of the tribal leaders. The State and Central Governments can accomplish this by providing adequate personnel and infrastructure for health care in the tribal areas. In this connection, it is also suggested that the NGOs with high degree of commitment, capacity, and professionalism need to be supported with adequate Government grants and funds for providing health care as well as engaging in sustainable income generation. The social workers, grass root organizations have to come forward towards mobilizing, organizing and advocating for the tribal right to quality health care and livelihood. Efforts for providing adequate training, financial support and conduct of scientific research can be made by Government agencies, academic institutions, and NGOs individually or in collaboration. The NGOs and social workers need to mobilize, organize, train and promote network among the practitioners of tribal medicine towards sustaining these systems. Health is a prerequisite for human development and is an essential component for the wellbeing of the mankind. The common beliefs, customs, practices, related to health and disease in turn influence the health of the human beings. Health can be regarded as a state of mental, social and economic well being and not the mere absence of dis-ease. Health is a function, not only of medical care, but also of the overall integrated development of society – cultural, economic, educational, social and political. Therefore to have sound health, the other depending factors are also to be looked into despite remarkable world – wide progress in the field of diagnostics and curative and preventive health, still there are people living in isolation in natural and unpolluted surroundings far away from civilization with their traditional values, customs, beliefs and myth intact. They are commonly known as “tribals”, it is fascinating that tribals in India constitute 104.28 million, as per 2011 census, which is about 8.61per cent of the total 77 population of India. There are some communities among tribals who have been designated as ‘primitive’ based on pre-agricultural level of technology, low level of literacy, stagnant or diminishing population size, relative seclusion from the main stream of population, economic and educational backwardness, extreme poverty, dwelling in remote inaccessible hilly terrains, maintenance of constant touch with the natural environment, and unaffected by the developmental process undergoing in India. Empowerment of Tribal Women for Health The empowerment of the tribal population has been a major concern. Past three decades have witnessed a steady increase in the awareness regarding need to empower women through increasing the social, economic and political equity, and broader accessibility to fundamental human rights along with improvements in nutrition, basic health and education. In the current article, and attempt has been made to evaluate the roles of educational attainment, economic participation, social capital, knowledge and wealth in women empowerment, and their links to health outcomes with special reference to tribal population in India. Tribal women health status was poor among the primitive tribal women due to their low proxy empowerment indices, i.e., illiteracy, low exposure to media and impoverished living. Consequently, female empowerment bears positive influence on the health outcomes. This information is vital for the researches, government and voluntary agencies, NGOs, social reformers and social activists to take appropriate measures to improve the health outcomes of the tribal population. Conclusion The women empowerment proxy indices such as education, economic participation in non-agricultural sectors, exposure to media and wealth are inadequate among tribals. Thus, they remain largely marginalized, poor and socially excluded, and their health outcomes are not optimal. Working with these imbalances is of further importance for the researchers, policymakers, programme managers and civil society groups. The former three tribes access the free health care services of NGOs and rely mainly on them while for the latter the main source was private health care for which they pay. In spite of the greater access, the quality of health care provide to the scheduled tribes has been perceived by the leaders as poor and the tribal leaders often complain the inadequacy of the medicine and medical staff in the public hospitals and primary health centres. Such criticisms were even leveled against the NOG sector, the adequacy of whose services in the recent decade (LPG) are doubtful in the perception of the tribal leaders. References: 1. Samiran Bisai, Kalyan B. Saha “An Overview of Tribal Population in India”, Tribal Health Bulleten Vol. No. 20. January 2014, PP 1 – 9. 2. Easwaran Kanagaraj: “Primitive Tribes Access to Health Care in Tamil Nadu: Social Exclusion Perspective”, Tribal Health Bulletin Vol. 14 (I & II), January & July 2008, PP 50 – 65. 3. M. Muniyandi, Neeru Singh: “Empowerment of Tribal Women for Health Development: An Indian Perspective”, Tribal Health Bulletin : Vol. 18 (1&2), January & July 2012, PP 43 – 52. ------* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, A.P.

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Anthropometrically determined nutritional status of schoolchildren aged 4-14 years – A case study of West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. Dr. N. Nagavardhanam, Abstract Any society future depends on the quality life of the children. Depending on genetics, rate of growth and many other factors nutritional needs change throughout life. Nutritional needs also vary from individual to individual. Besides poverty, there are other factors that directly or indirectly affect the nutritional status of children. In the present study, an attempt was made to understand and assess the nutritional status and common nutritional disorders in school going children of 4– 14 year age group by anthropometric assessment so that further measures can be taken for the improvement of their health status. Descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted in ‘Jingle Bells English Medium School, Sanivarapupeta, Eluru, West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh’ from 5th to 10th February 2015. A total of 200 students were selected from ‘Jingle Bells English Medium School’ and nutritional statuses of the children were assessed by anthropometric measurements. Height and weight of 200 children (119 boys and 81 girls), aged 4-14 years, and were measured. Anthropometric indices of ‘Weight for Height for age’ were used to estimate the children's nutritional status. A total of 200 children were studied. The proportion of male student and female students are 59.5% (119) and 40.5% (81) respectively. The overall prevalence of underweight was 21% (42), overweight was 46% (92), Dietary obesity 3.5% (7). Eye changes noted in the form of slight discoloration 5% (10) moderate browning in patches 14.5% (29) watery, excessive lacrimation 3% (6). Teeth changes were noted in the form of chalky teeth 5% (10) and enamel mottling in 30% (60). Tongue changes were noted in the form of pale and coated 17% (34), red O.5% (1), Fissured 6% (12), and Ulcer 2.5% (5). Apart from these observations bleeding of gums was noted in 5% (10) and angular Stomatitis in 15.5% (31). Maternal education status, socio-economic status, occupation and dietary knowledge are important determinants of nutritional status of school children. Nutritional status of the school children in the present study area was found to be abnormal especially with respect to overweight and underweight. Vitamin deficiencies such as riboflavin, niacin and Vitamin- C deficiencies were observed. Fluorosis was also observed in few children. Emphasis should be given towards nutrition education; health education apart from the regular educational activities which would possibly improves the health condition of children. Keywords: Health education, Nutritional status, School children, Anthropometry. *************** 79

Introduction: There is a growing concern over the child health all over the world with rapid economic growth and social changes. Nutritional status is the best indicator of the well-being of children. Good nutrition provides stronger immune system, better health and productivity. Various forms of malnutrition including both macro and micronutrient deficiencies affect a large segment of population in India. The primary cause of ill-health and poor growth in children indicates malnutrition due to poverty and ignorance. The term malnutrition refers to both under nutrition and over nutrition. Understanding the nutritional status of children promote the health of future generations. Besides poverty, there are other factors that directly or indirectly affect the nutritional status of children. The best global indicator of children’s wellbeing is growth. Assessment of growth is one of the measurement that best defines the nutritional and health status of children, and provides an indirect measurement of the quality of life. In the present study, an attempt was made to find the nutritional status among school children in 4–14 year age group in west Godavari district of Eluru, AP. This age group is on the threshold of adulthood on whom the progress and welfare of the nation depends. Anthropometry is one of the practical tool for evaluating the nutritional status of children. Hence, anthropometric index is used in the present study to evaluate the nutritional status among the school children aged 4-14 years of Jingle bells English medium school, Sanivarapupeta, Eluru, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. Such data are essentially important as they would provide reliable bases for instituting appropriate strategies to identify and combat factors associated with nutritional abnormalities in children. Despite the economic growth observed in developing countries, under nutrition is still highly prevalent. A growing prevalence of obesity and its related chronic diseases is also being observed in developing countries. Under nutrition is more widespread in rural areas of developing countries than in urban areas. However, a shift is occurring and children in the cities are at risk of both over-nutrition and under nutrition. Some studies are now highlighting the problem of micronutrient deficiencies in cities and among schoolchildren in particular. Schoolchildren are dramatically affected by anaemia, vitamin A deficiency with adverse impact on their nutritional status. Aims and Objectives: During the adolescent growth spurt body requires lot of nutrients. The nutrients are stored in the body during childhood. If the body is deficit with nutrients it result in adverse health consequences like growth retardation, weakness, nutrient deficiency diseases etc. Keeping this in view, the objective of present study was to assess the nutritional status of school going children of west Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. Method of Collection of Data: After obtaining authorized consent from the management, the school was visited and the data was collected using readymade proforma. All children between 4‑14 years of age were included in the study. The data was collected by interviewing and examining the children with the help of class teacher. The children were assessed for nutritional status by measuring height (cm), weight (kg) which was compared with the standards given by ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research). Weight was measured using a floor type weighing scale with due respect to the standardization of the equipment and procedure. The measurements are taken to the nearest 0.5 Kg. Height was measured using a measuring tape applied to the wall. The measurements are taken with children barefoot with their back of heels, buttocks and head touching the wall. Readings are taken to the nearest 0.5 cm the nutritional status was also measured by clinical 80 examination. The important signs looked for during clinical examination are Eye changes (pigmentation, discharge and night blindness) and mouth changes (lip condition, tongue colour, tongue surface, gums, teeth Fluorosis. Results & discussion: A total of 200 children were studied belonging to the age group 4 to 14 years. Out of the 200 students, 119 (59.5%) were boys and 81 (40.5%) were girls (Table 1). Table: 1 Sex wise distribution of children studied S. No Category Number Percentage 1 Boys 119 59.5 2 Girls 81 40.5 Total 200 100 Among the 200 children, 30 (15%) were belonging to 3‑4 years age group, 30 (15%) were belonging to 4-5 years age group, 30 (15%) were belonging to 5-6 years, 16 (8 %) were belonging to 6-7 years age group, 33 (16.5%)were belonging to 7-8 years age group, 22 (11%) were belonging to 8-9 years age group, 17 (8.5%)were belonging to 9-10 years age group, 11 (5.5%) were belonging to 10-11 years age group, 5 (2.5%) were belonging to 11-12 years age group, 4 (2%)were belonging to 12-13 years age group, 2 (1%)were belonging to 13‑14 years age group(Table 2). Table: 2 Age wise distribution of children studied S.No Age group Number of children Boys (%) Girls (%) (Years) (%) 1. 3-4 30 (15) 24 (12) 6 (3) 2. 4-5 30 (15) 11 (5.5) 19 (9.5) 3. 5-6 30 (15) 15 (7.5) 15 (7.5) 4. 6-7 16 (8) 11 (5.5) 5 (2.5) 5. 7-8 33 (16.5) 21 (10.5) 12 (6) 6. 8-9 22 (11) 13 (6.5) 9 (4.5) 7. 9-10 17 (8.5) 11 (5.5) 6 (3) 8. 10-11 11 (5.5) 8 (4) 3 (1.5) 9. 11-12 5 (2.5) 2 (1) 3 (1.5) 10. 12-13 4 (2) 1 (0.5) 3 (1.5) 11. 13-14 2 (1) 2 (1) 0 (0) Total 200 (100) 119 (59.5) 81 (40.5) Prevalence of Underweight and over weight: The overall prevalence of underweight in the studied school children was 21% (42) and overweight was 46% (92) the prevalence of underweight in boys was 12% (24) and in the girls, it was 9.5% (19). The prevalence of underweight was more among boys compared to girls (12% vs 9.5%). Among the boys underweight was seen more commonly in the age group 5-6 years (5.5%) and among girls also in the age group5-6 year (4%).The prevalence of overweight in boys was 29% (58) and in the girls, it was 18% (36). The prevalence of overweight was more among boys compared to girls (29% VS 18%). Among the boys overweight was seen more commonly in the age group 7-10 years (4.5-6%) and among girls also in age group7-10 year (3- 3.5%) (Table: 3) Table: 3 Prevalence of Normal, underweight and overweight of children studied S. No Age group (Years) Boys (%) Girls (%) Normal Under Over Normal Under Over weight weight weight weight 1. 3-4 16 (8) 3 (1.5) 5(2.5) 3(1.5) 2 (1) 1 (0.5) 81

2. 4-5 2 (1) 5 (2.5) 4(2) 9(4.5) 6 (3) 4 (2) 3. 5-6 3 (1.5) 11 (5.5) 1(0.5) 5(2.5) 8 (4) 2 (1) 4. 6-7 3 (1.5) 1 (0.5) 7(3.5) 3(1.5) 0 (0) 2 (1) 5. 7-8 8 (4) 1 (0.5) 12(6) 5(2.5) 1 (0.5) 6 (3) 6. 8-9 3 (1.5) 1 (0.5) 9(4.5) 2(1) 0 (0) 7 (3.5) 7. 9-10 1 (0.5) 0 (0) 10(5) 0(0) 0 (0) 6 (3) 8. 10-11 1 (0.5) 0 (0) 7(3.5) 1(0.5) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) 9. 11-12 0 (0) 2 (1) 0(0) 0(0) 1 (0.5) 2 (1) 10. 12-13 0 (0) 0 (0) 1(0.5) 0(0) 0 (0) 3 (1.5) 11 13-14 0 (0) 0 (0) 2(1) 0(0) 0 (0) 0 (0) Total 37 (18.5) 24 (12%) 58 (29) 28 (14) 19 (9.5) 34 (17)

Clinical Nutritional Survey of Children studied Table 4, shows the percentage distribution of the nutritional deficiency signs amongst the 200 respondents. The description of the children is as follows- General Appearance: 31% of respondents appeared good while 47% were fair, and 22% were classified as poor looking. Eyes: 80.5% of respondents had eyes with normal colour, 5% with slight discolouration, 14.55 with moderate browning in patches, 97% with no presence of discharge; only 3%are having watery eyes. 100% children doesn’t have night blindness. Lips: 84.5 per cent of the children were with normal lips, 15% of the children were observed to suffer mild Angular Stomatitis and 0.5 per cent had marked Angular Stomatitis. Tongue colour: 82.5% respondents had normal tongue colour, 17% with pale and coated tongue, 0.5% with red tongue colour. Tongue surface: 91.5% respondents had normal tongue surface, 6% had Fissured tongue, 2.5% had ulcered tongue. Gums: Normal gums were observed in 95 % of the respondents, while 5 % of them had bleeding gums confirming Vitamin C deficiency. Teeth: Fluorosis was absent in 65% of the respondents, 5% of the children had chalky teeth confirming the deficiency of Calcium, 30% had discolored teeth which could be a result of poor dental care. Table: 4 Clinical Nutritional Survey Chart of Children studied S.No Clinical Sign Category Number Percentage 1 General Appearance Good 62 31 Fair 94 47 Poor 44 22 Very poor 0 0 2 Eye pigmentation Normal colour 161 80.5 Slight discolouration 10 5 Moderate browning in patches 29 14.5 Severe earthly discolouration 0 0 3 Eye discharge Absent 194 97 Watery, excessive lacrymation 6 3 Mucopurulent 0 0 Purulent 0 0 4 Night blindness Absent 200 100 Present 0 0 5 Lip condition Normal 169 84.5 Angular Stomatitis, Mild 30 15 82

Angular Stomatitis, Marked 1 0.5 6 Tongue colour Normal 165 82.5 Pale and coated 34 17 Red 1 0.5 Red and raw 0 0 7 Tongue surface Normal 183 91.5 Fissured 12 6 Ulcered 5 2.5 Glazed 0 0 8 Gums Normal 190 95 Bleeding 10 5 9 Teeth fluorosis Absent 130 65 Chalky Teeth 10 5 Pitting of Teeth 0 0 Discoloured 60 30

Conclusion: Nutritional status of the present study reveals that, the school going children are suffering from different grades of malnutrition. Health condition was found to be abnormal with respect to overweight and underweight. Vitamin deficiencies such as riboflavin, niacin and Vitamin-C deficiencies were also observed. Fluorosis was also observed in few children. Mothers of these children should be educated about the importance of balanced diet. Consumption of foods like cereals, pulses, green leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, sugar and jaggery, fats and oil, milk and milk products, fruits etc., should be promoted. Government should introduce awareness programs through community participation, involvement of NGOs and other sectors regarding affordable but nutritious foods. Emphasis should be given to the children regarding nutrition education, health education apart from the regular educational activities which would possibly improves the health condition of children. Maternal education status, socio-economic status, occupation and dietary knowledge are important determinants of nutritional status of school children. ------References: 1. AWASTHI, N. 1996. Nutritional status of primary school children of Kumaun hills, M. Sc., G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar 2. Fazili A, Mir A, Pandit IM et al. Nutritional Status of School Age Children (5‑14 years) in a Rural Health Block of North India (Kashmir) Using WHO Z‑Score System. Online Journal of Health and Allied Sciences. 2012;11:1‑3. 3. ICMR. 1990. Nutrient requirement and RDA for Indians. Hyderabad, National Institute of Nutrition, P. 83. 4. Mishra VK, Retherford RD. Women’s Education Can Improve Child Nutrition in India. In Bulletin National Family Health Survey, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 2000:15. 16 5. Nigudgi SR, Boramma G, Shrinivasreddy B, Kapate R. Assessment of Nutritional Status of School Children in Gulbarga City. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences. 2012;21:1‑3.

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6. Shakya SR, Bhandary S, Pokharel PK. Nutritional status and morbidity pattern among governmental primary school children in the Eastern Nepal. Kathmandu University Medical Journal 2004; 2(8 suppl):307 – 14. 11 7. Smith L.C. and L. Haddad (2000). Explaining Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries a Cross- Country Analysis. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C. 8. WHO, Physical status: The use and interpretation of anthropometry, Report of WHO Tech.Ser.N.854, 1995;267-308. ------Head of Botany Department, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s (A) College for Women, Eluru.

Since new developments are the products of a creative mind, we must therefore stimulate and encourage that type of mind in every way possible. - George Washington Carver

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Food Security in India - A Few Issues Dr. P. Ratna Mary Abstract: Food security means availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times. Availability of Food means, there should be enough food for everyone irrespective of his or her income; no one should starve. It also includes the availability of food in government’s stock. Accessibility means, every person can have it. Or in other words, its price should not be so high. Affordability means, a person should have sufficient money to buy a balanced food for himself/herself and/or for his/her family. In this paper I would like to discuss various issues of food insecurity. How various methods introduced by the Government have failed in solving the problem of food insecurity? It also suggests few measures to be implemented to improve the conditions. Key Words: Availability, Accessibility, Affordability, Malnutrition, Stunted Individuals, the PDS ******** Introduction: Food security is a condition related to the supply of food, and individuals' access to it. Concerns over food security have existed throughout history. There is evidence of granaries being in use over 10,000 years ago, with central authorities in civilizations including ancient China and ancient Egypt being known to release food from storage in times of famine. At the 1974 World Food Conference the term "food security" was defined with an emphasis on supply. Food security, they said, is the "availability at all times of adequate world food supplies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and prices". Later definitions added demand and access issues to the definition. The final report of the 1996 World Food Summit states that food security "exists when all people, at all times, have 84 physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life". Household food security exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals, who are food secure, do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food security is ensured in a country only if Food is available to all people; All people have capacity to buy food of acceptable quality; There is no barrier on access to food. Many countries experience ongoing food shortages and distribution problems. These result in chronic and often widespread hunger amongst significant numbers of people. Human populations can respond to chronic hunger and malnutrition by decreasing body size, known in medical terms as stunting or stunted growth. This process starts in utero if the mother is malnourished and continues through approximately the third year of life. It leads to higher infant and child mortality, but at rates far lower than during famines. Once stunting has occurred, improved nutritional intake after the age of about two years is unable to reverse the damage. Stunting itself can be viewed as a coping mechanism, bringing body size into alignment with the calories available during adulthood in the location where the child is born. Limiting body size as a way of adapting to low levels of energy adversely affects health in three ways:

 Premature failure of vital organs during adulthood. For example, a 50-year-old individual might die of heart failure because his/her heart suffered structural defects during early development;  Stunted individuals suffer a higher rate of disease and illness than those who have not undergone stunting;  Severe malnutrition in early childhood often leads to defects in cognitive development. It therefore creates disparity among children who did not experience severe malnutrition and those who did. Need for food security: For the poor sections of the society during natural disasters or calamities like earth quake, draught, flood and tsunami etc. leads Wide spread crop failure due to drought. How drought affects food security:  Production of food grains go down  Shortage of food  Prices go up  Some people can’t afford to buy food which means food insecurity. If this calamity happens in a larger area and continues for longer period it may cause situation of starvation, A massive starvation may take a turn to famine. A famine is characterized by large scale deaths and epidemics. Twelve famines and four major scarcities occurred during the period of the rule of the East India Company in India (1765-1858).The frequency of famines increased after the transfer of power to the Crown. In 1943 famine occurred in Bengal and it was a tragedy of unprecedented magnitude. The death toll due to starvations and diseases was around 1.5 million persons. Bihar famine 1966-67: killed 3000 people. Starvation deaths are also reported in Kalahandi and Kasha pur, Baran district of Rajasthan, Palamur district of Jharkhand. The role of the government in providing food security involves: (i) Promoting domestic production to meet the demands of the growing population. (ii) Providing minimum support prices for procurement and storage of food grains. (iii) Operating a Public Distribution System, and 85

(iv) Maintaining buffer stocks to counteract any pushing up of prices of food grains during periods of shortages. Government has responsibility to Food insecure groups like Land less people, Traditional artisans, Traditional service providers, Petty self employed employees, Homeless beggars, Families employed in ill paid occupations, Casual labourers, SCs STs and some sections of BCs, Migrants and women and children. There are some states which are facing food insecurity like: UP, Bihar Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, MP and Maharashtra. India’s attempts to attain food security: Brought green revolution for food grain production which resulted in highest growth in states like: Punjab, Haryana, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh but couldn’t achieve the same in Maharashtra, MP, Bihar, Orissa and North Eastern states which had experienced the lowest growth. India’s food security system: Long Term Food Security Measures: Public Distribution System can at best be a Blood Transfusion exercise. It does not act as a permanent poverty alleviation measure. While it does provide some immediate relief, it fails to provide enduring food security to the poor. It would be more appropriate to focus on strategies that reduce poverty and stabilize prices of food grains. At one time we had 300 million people at various degrees of starvation while there were 64 million tons of food grains rotting in the go-downs of the Food Corporation of India. The rural poor did not have the purchasing power to buy food grains even at the PDS prices! Food grains were being transferred to private mills and traders through collusion on the part of corrupt civil supplies officers. Only the very inferior grains were supplied to the ration card holders. The minimum buffer stock now required in India has been fixed at around 16-17 million tons of food grains. At one extreme, economists advocate replacing the PDS in its entirety with cash transfers as also the supplementary nutrition component for children in the Integrated Child Development Scheme. Others have suggested the implementation of cash transfers without dismantling the PDS or moving to a system of food coupons. An alternative viewpoint emphasizes that the solution is to strengthen the PDS and make it more inclusive rather than undermining it, especially given the impressive improvements in its functioning in many parts of the country. Cash transfers are, in theory, cost-effective because they have lower transaction costs and avoid the problem of having to procure, store, transport and distribute commodities. They also offer beneficiaries the freedom to direct the cash to particular household needs. In the context of food, for instance, this could imply a more diverse diet or better quality grain. Cash is also deemed to have multiplier effects that could potentially support local market development. In the Indian context, most proponents of cash transfers as a replacement for the PDS see it as a cost-effective alternative that is less prone to leakage or corruption. However, how far can these expectations hold in reality and whether cash transfers can serve the central goal of food security is the question. The canvas of empirical evidence suggests that cash transfers might be appropriate for some goals, but not at all for others and their efficacy is highly context dependent. A survey of the PDS and people's perceptions of cash versus kind transfers, perhaps the only one available of its kind, provides useful insights into these issues. The survey found that in states where the PDS functions reasonably well, an overwhelming proportion of the respondents are in its favour and are averse to a cash transfer system. Overall, more than two 86 thirds preferred food and less than a fifth preferred cash, with the others either having a conditional preference for one or the other or no clear preference at all. The greatest support for cash transfers was in states where the PDS does not function well, with people suggesting that they would be happy with an equivalent amount of cash. In Bihar, for instance, only a fifth preferred food and over half preferred cash; only 18 per cent of all respondents in Bihar got their full entitlement from the PDS. Interestingly, where the PDS did work well, those who stated that they preferred cash often suggested that for those who were poorer, the PDS was essential. The political ramifications of implementing cash transfers are also important. There have been arguments made by economists in the popular press touting cash transfers as a political winner. In many contexts within India, nothing could be further than the truth. The portrayal of cheap food aid as mere vote bank politics is not wholly correct either. In states such as Tamil Nadu, the implementation of food-related schemes is an important issue and the demands made by voters on elected governments are often enlightened and sophisticated. For example, in the state of Tamil Nadu, when the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) lost the Parliamentary elections in 2004, the then newly elected Chief Minister (from the AIADMK) immediately reinstated eggs in mid-day meals and Integrated Child Development Services. One survey respondent in a village in Tamil Nadu said: ‘Vote pottumuttaivangittom’ (‘we got eggs back into the scheme with our votes’)! Similarly, when the Tamil Nadu state government tried to switch to a ‘targeted’ PDS in 1997, following Central Government directives, it was forced to backtrack in just 4 days. As an observer recently put it: ‘no elected government (in Tamil Nadu) will survive for even a day if they tamper with the PDS’, Indeed, there are indications that the political process is increasingly incorporative of public demands for food security in a number of states. Government schemes: PDS: Initial Public Distribution System RPS: Revamped Public distribution system TPDS: Targeted Public distribution system AAY: Antyodaya Anna Yogana APS: Annapurna scheme

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In recent years, despite the large increase in production, access to food continues to be a serious issue especially in the context of extraordinarily high-inflation rates in food commodities and limited access in large parts of the country to high-quality diets. The imperative that the challenge of food security derives also from recent evidence from India and elsewhere suggests that income growth might not always translate fully or quickly enough to improvements in the health nutritional status of children which imply that this issue needs attention. This weak link between income growth and nutritional outcomes implied that food security in the sense defined earlier would require special attention of policy-makers and cannot be presumed to follow as a consequence of growth. This is quite apart from a parallel discourse that argues for a rights-based approach to food security so that primary responsibility rests with the state. In general, there is broad agreement on the imperative of food security in India, but deep disagreements on how to achieve this. Conclusion: Indeed, there are indications that the political process is increasingly incorporative of public demands for food security in a number of states. Recent improvements in the functioning of the PDS in select states suggest the possibility of learning from and working towards replicating the ingredients of a well-functioning PDS in other states. Among states where the PDS functions effectively, a shared feature has been the use of IT-based transparency measures, starting with a simple computerized record-keeping system of the entire supply chain. Combined with Global Positioning System tracking of delivery trucks and Short Messaging Service (SMS)-based transmission of information to users, there are checks and balances that make diversion of food grains to the open market very difficult. The use of smart cards at PDS outlets in Andhra Pradesh and coupons in Rajasthan for PDS are known to have been effective in curtailing leakages in the ‘last mile’, although more rigorous research is required to understand the efficacy of these latter measures. Attempts to use technological solutions to curb leakages have been initiated both by the national government as well as by individual states. ------References and bibliography: Indian Economy-V.K.Puri and S.K. Misra Indian Economy-Telugu Academy http://www.slideshare.net/VirdaAzmi/food-security-in-india-15984625 http://www.slideshare.net/aminvalley/ppt-on-food-security-issues-and-challenges-beofe-india http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app5.62/full https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security www.yourarticlelibrary.com/foods/food-security-in-india-definition www.foodsecurityportal.org/india https://www.tutorialspoint.com/indian_economy/indian_economy_food_security.htm www.orfonline.org › Research › Climate, Food and Environment › Agriculture ------Lecturer in Economics, Ch. S. D. St Theresa’s (A) College for Women, Eluru Ph: 9885086133, Email:[email protected]

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“We should resolve now that the health of this nation is a national concern; that financial barriers in the way of attaining health shall be removed; that the health of all its citizens deserves the help of all the nation.” ― Harry S. Truman

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 The Economic Analysis of Turmeric Cultivation Badugu Prakash Babu, M.A., B.Ed Abstract The ancient and sacred spice of India known as ‘Indian Saffron’ is an important commercial spice crop grown in India. It is also known as the ‘Golden Spice of life” and is one of the most essential spices used as an important ingredient in culinary all over the world. is a tropical perennial plant, native to India and Indonesia and is cultivated throughout the tropics around the world. It is an important commercial spice grown in India. It is part of Indian Turmeric. Indian is considered best in the world. Growing to a height of about three feet, it bears pairs of lance shaped leaves of alternate sides of the stem. At the base of the stem there is a knobby rhizome somewhat resembling ginger. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. Commercial part is rhizome or underground stem. Indian vernacular names are pasupu hold some Asian countries. Key Words S: Indian saffron, Commercial, Ingredient, Perennial plant, Vernacular. ******* Introduction India has the lion share in production, consumption and export of in the world. It accounts for 78% of the world output and 60% of world exports. Indian is considered to be the best in the world market because of its high curcumin content. In India, it is cultivated in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of. It accounts for 80% of world output. Other major producers are China, Myanmar, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Srilanka, Taiwan, Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand and Central America etc. Global production is around 8 to 9 lakh tones. Indian industry contributes about 78% of world production and 60% of the exports of. Asian countries consume much of their own production nearly 90%. Table showing % Share of in global production Countries Percentage India 78% 89

China 8% Myanmar 4% Nigeria 3% Bangladesh 3% Others 4%

In India, major share in cultivation is taken by Andhra Pradesh followed by Tamilnadu, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam. Andhra Pradesh tops in production of in India. Area, Production and Productivity of Leading Growing States in India: . The main producing states in India are Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Karnataka, West Bengal, Gujarat and Kerala. Maximum area under cultivation is in Andhra Pradesh (69.9 thousand ha), where production is very high i.e., 518.5 thousand tones. Then comes Tamil Nadu followed by Orissa and West Bengal. Andhra Pradesh is called as ‘ bowl of India’ as it has highest share of 38% in total India’s area followed by Orissa, Tamilnadu, Assam and West Bengal each accounting for 15%, 14%, 7% and 8% respectively. With the highest area, Andhra Pradesh tops the list of major producing states in India case of production major share is taken by Andhra Pradesh accounted to 58% of total production in India, followed by Tamilnadu and Orissa. Among all states, productivity was highest in Tamilnadu. Cultivation in Andhra Pradesh has seen a tremendous growth in last 5-6 years due to rise in acreage following shift from other crops like Chilli. Remunerative process realized from during the previous years had attracted farmers to shift from chilli to cultivation. Higher yield levels coupled with prevalence of favorable climatic condition also supported for rise in production. Climate Requirements Is cultivated up to 1,220 meters above the sea level and it grows in irrigated and rain fed conditions, black, black clayey looms and red soils having Turmerical drainage. Crops cannot withstand water logging or alkalinity. Thrives in tropics and subtropics where it requires hot, moist climate, 1000-2000 mm rainfall and fairly light soil. Temperature Turmeric required varying from 20 to 30 degrees centigrade and has a greater impact on crop growth. Table showing the temperature Turmeric required at different stages of growth Temperature Turmeric required Stage of crop growth High temperature Turmeric 30 to 35 degrees centigrade Sprouting 25 to 30 degrees centigrade Tillering 20 to 25 degrees centigrade Rhizomes 18 to 20 degrees centigrade Enlargement Source: P J Commodity Venture Turmerics Pvt., Ltd., the Article. Golden Spice Adequate soil moisture Turmeric is most significant factor affecting Rhizome yield. Seasonality in India is a seasonal crop, which is available in the market, mainly in two seasons. First season from mid February to May and second season is from mid August to October. Crop duration is generally 7 to 9 months depending on variety. Table showing the seasonality of in India States Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

Andhra Karnataka Sowing Growth Stage Harvesting Market Arrival Maharashtra Source: Karvy Comtrade Ltd., - Seasonal Report on, PJ Commodity vent. 90

In major producing states of India sowing takes place in India in June and July. It will be in the growth stage from almost August to November. Harvesting commences mostly from October to February. March and April months are peak arrival periods in . So at that time price will be less by 8% to 10% than the normal price and stored product is available throughout the year. Varieties There are about 30 varieties grown in India. The important varieties grown in India are `Alleppey Finger’ (Kerala), `Erode and Salem’ (Tamilnadu), `Rajapore’ and `Sangli’ (Maharashtra) and `Nizamabad Bulb’ (Andhra Pradesh). Among them Alleppey and Madras (Perianadan) are of great commercial importance. Some of improved varieties are CO-11983, BSR 11986, Krishna, Roma, Suroma, Ranga, Rasmi, Megha -1, Suguna, Sudarshana, Suranjana, Duggirala, Kodur, Suvarnavarna, IISR Prabha, IISR Prathibha, Rajendra and Sonia. Table showing different groups of based on duration of the crop Nature Turmeric of Duration Period Variety Duration Long Duration 9 months Tekurpet, Duggirala, Armur and Mydukur Medium Duration 8 months Kothapet, Krishna, Kesar Short Duration 7 months Amalapuram, Dindigram Source: PJ Commodity VenTurmerics Pvt., Ltd., the Golden Spice. Uses of turmeric's is primary pigment and is used in diversified forms starting from antiquity as dye, condiment, as a principal ingredient in Indian culinary as curry powder, as flavouring agent and to colouring agent. The colour of curcuma extracted from is used as a colorant. The in- demand for nature Turmeric products as food additives makes an ideal produce as food colourant. Oleoresin is used in pickles, to some extent in mayonnaise, relish formulations, in non-alcoholic beverages, gelatins, butter and cheese etc. It is all due to its original usage as a spice. It is also used as a dye in textile industry, in cosmetics, preparation of medicinal oils, ointments and poultice. It is stomachic, carminative, tonic, blood purifier and antiseptic. The aqueous extracts have bio pesticide properties. It is part of Indian culture Turmeric which is used in many religious observances and it enters in the composition of many traditional remedies. It is used mainly as a preservative in pickles, chutneys, squashes and ketchups. It is also used in pharmaceuticals, ayurveda medicines and antiseptic creams. Recent medical research demonstrations in the anticancer, antiviral activities of increased its demand. It is reported that about 80% of produced in India is consumed for domestic kitchen use in food preparations, 8% at hotels and tourist complexes, 6% in manufacture Turmericing of pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products and ayurveda medicines and 6% being exported in various forms. Trading Centers Of In India * Major trading centers in India: Nizamabad Duggirala Sangli Coimbatore Salem Erode Dharmapuri Commercially grown varieties There are about 30 varieties grown in India. Among them Alleppey and Madras (Perianadan) are 91 of great commercial importance. Some of the improved varieties are: CO-11983, BSR-11986, Krishna, Roma, Suroma, Ranga, Rasmi, Megha -1, Suguna, Sudarshana, Suranjana, Duggirala, Kodur, Suvarna, Varna, IISR Prabha, ISSR Pratibha, Rajendra Sonia etc. Processing Operations Processing of farm products leads to enhanced form-utility. Processing helps in the marketing of farm products by making them more edible, palatable and attractive. In addition, it adds to convenience in use, storage and transit. It helps extend the availability of the product over a longer period of time. The government is encouraging the processing industry by providing tax exemptions on processed products, subsidies on packing costs, assured supply of power and by the creation of ‘Processing Parks’ where all infrastructure Turmeric requirements are provided by the government at a subsidized cost. After harvest, undergoes the following processing operations: Cleaning: Harvested rhizomes (75-80%) are cleaned by fresh water, under pressure for removal of soil and other foreign matter. Curing: Cleaned rhizomes are submerged in hot water in tins and boiled uniformly. Cured rhizomes are then poured to a bamboo basket to drain the water and dried in yards. This process gives attractive colour and characteristic aroma to. Boiling kill the growth of fresh rhizomes, eliminates the odour, reduces the time of drying, ensures even distribution of colour and gives better quality product by gelatinization of starch in rhizomes. Drying: Sun drying takes 12-15 days, till it becomes thoroughly hard and brittle, and can be broken with finger pressure with a metallic sound. The moisture Turmeric content of the dried is kept at 8%-10% for better storage. Artificial mechanical drying using cross flow heated air dryers at 65 degrees centigrade is also used and found to provide best products, particularly for sliced , giving a brighter coloured product than the sun dried material. Polishing: Polishing of rhizomes is done by rubbing with hand under several folds of gunny cloth or using a polishing drum. Colouring: To impart uniform bright yellow colour to the, the polished rhizomes are treated with an emulsion or mixture Turmeric of powder and alum under continuous shaking in a basket. Grading: Grading refers to the process of ‘sorting of products into different lots on the basis of similar quality’ states S.S. Chinna. is graded into bulbs and fingers in different fractions, based on their size. It is done either manually, which is time consuming or using a mechanical reciprocating type grader. Grading for both rhizomes and powder is performed as per India’s Agmark Standards. Milling: Usually, is milled on home scale in flour mills. Milling is done in two stages; namely breaking into small pieces and powdering them to the desired fineness. Packaging: Packaging is defined by Acharya and Agarwal as the ‘putting of content in the market in a size and pack which are convenient for the buyers’.3 Well cured is kept in double burlap new gunny bags which are properly fumigated prior to packaging. powder is packed in fibre board drums, multi wall bags and tin containers. Storage: Cured bags are stored in a pit made on a raised ground with sides and the bottom padded with a thick layer of paddy straw. Marketing: is marketed through terminal markets located in producing states and other major markets. Traded Products: Besides powder, cured is used for producing several useful products such as, oleoresin, volatile oils, and curcumin pigments with high commercial value. Powder: is grounded into fine powder up to 60 mesh fineness, which is commonly used in food 92 preparation and as food preservatives. Oleoresin: Highly viscous containing 30%-35% of curcumin and 15%-20% volatile oils, mostly used in spice emulsions, aqua-resin and encapsulated water or oil dispersible powders. Oleoresin finds application in meat and fish products, pickles, dairy, and bakery and confectionary products. Volatile Oil: Derived from steam distillation of rhizomes contains tumerones (58%) and zingiberene (25%). Volatile oil is mainly used in pharmaceuticals and therapeutic uses. Pigment: There is a growing interest in water soluble, bland and stabilized colorants made from. The pigment is used as an essential herbal colouring agent in different food products, cosmetics, antiseptics, medicinal preparations, creams, and food additives, colour, flavor and aromas Distribution of produce from primary to terminal market  Grown in southern states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh find major markets in states like Maharashtra, M.P, U.P, and further goes to Delhi, Punjab and Haryana.  Grown in Gujarat is distributed in nearby markets of Rajasthan.  From Orissa and West Bengal finds markets in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar etc.  From Sikkim is distributed in North Eastern states.

Exports Export of Agriculture Turmerical commodities has been a major source of foreign exchange earnings for India. Exports add to the demand for agriculture Turmerical products and provide an opportunity for the better utilisation of nature Turmerical resources and also help the farmer realize a higher price for his produce. Agriculture Turmerical and Processed Foods Export Development Authority (A.P.E.D.A) is the apex body coordinating all government efforts for promotion of agriculture Turmerical products in India. It is the autonomous body attached to the Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, formed with the main objective of building up ‘links between the Indian producers and the global markets’. Among spices, is ranked second in export earning in India. from India is mostly exported as fresh and dried whole root (rhizome), in powdered form, and processed form, such as oil and oleoresin, mainly to UK, USA, Japan, the Netherlands, Iran, UAE, Bangladesh, France and South Africa. India has monopoly in trade at world level. Although India is the largest producer of in the world (888,000 tons), the country exported only 6% of its total production in 2009-10. Total exports of from India in 2009-10 stood at Asia as a region is the leading export destination for Indian, followed by EU, America and Oceania. With respect to individual countries, in 2009-10, UAE was the leading export destination followed by Bangladesh, Iran Malaysia and USA. Good Agriculture Turmeric Practices (GAP) .Use of improved cultivators namely: Suvarna, Suguna, Sudharshana, Prabha and Pratibha.  For control of shoot border namely, application of insecticides and bio-pesticide need to be used.  Proper technologies for the storage of seed rhizomes, seen treatment with fungicides and insecticides and use of leaf mulches should be adopted. Agriculture Turmerical land and cropping pattern of Two third part (73%) of the agriculture Turmerical land was dry in nature Turmeric and depending totally on the on the rainfall. Farmers of all sizes cultivated Turmeric in their agriculture Turmerical land. 42% of the 93 total agriculture Turmerical land was under the cultivation of red gram. 20% of the respondents utilized their complete agriculture Turmerical land for the cultivation of Turmeric Red gram cultivation played a vital role in the agriculture Turmerical economy of this region and was an important source of earning for the farmers. Majority of the farmers cultivated red gram in the Kharif season. 93% of the respondents cultivated Turmeric in Kharif season Farmers cultivated other crops in the rabi season. The other important crops cultivated by the farmers were Jowar, bengalgram, groundnut, sunflower, maize and paddy etc. This cropping pattern was followed by the farmers due to the uncertainty of rainfall in Kharif season compared to the assured rainfall in rabi season. Different varieties of red gram were cultivated by farmers based on the suitability to the soil and other qualities like resistance to diseases, pest resistance and quantity of yield etc. The important varieties of red gram cultivated by farmers were: Maruti, Benur, BSMR, Gulellu and Kempugulellu. For analyzing production of Turmeric, it is important to know the area under the crop in which Turmeric is cultivated. Overall increase in the growth rates for major crops is the outcome of extended area under these crops. The hypothesis is suggested that there is a positive relationship between the area under crop and the production of Turmeric. The result supported the hypothesis. It was found that the production of Turmeric is positively related to the area under crop. It shows that the production of Turmeric can increase 0.823 quintal per acre of the are under the crop. The result showed that 33.8% of the variation on production be expanded by the area under the crop. The other factors which affect the production of the crop could be scanty rainfall, availability of irrigation facility, pest infestation etc Red gram suits very well to the climatic conditions of Gulbarga district and can be conveniently produced. As it is convenient to grow Red gram during Kharif season farmers are recommended to cultivate Turmeric in more part of their land during Kharif season. In rabi season farmers can take other crops which require water on regular basis, as there is comparatively assured rainfall during rabi season. Yield of cultivation A major part of the yield was contributed by small and medium farmers. The Turmeric cultivated in 1 to 10 acres of land was found to yield more quantity. The productivity of small farmers was observed to be the highest compare to medium and big farmers. Small farmers were having lesser area of agriculture Turmerical land under them but were able to produce more quantity of Turmeric compared to the medium and big farmers The hypothesis is tested to find out the influence of the area under crop on the variety of Turmeric production, though the area under the crop are different there is a significant influence of the area in producing variety of Turmeric like Benur, BSMR, Gulellu, Maruti and Kempu Gulellu. Farmers should realize that the best result of production necessarily differ according to the land under the crop. The area under the crop plays a major role in the production of yield. This has revealed that the major land holding of farmers are 1 to 10 acres. The hypothesis is tested to find out the influence of the area under crop on the proportion of yield. There is a significant influence of the area under the crop in the yield of the product. The implication of these findings is the dominance of farmers with 1 to 10 acre of land. As far as the categories of farmers are concerned, most of the farmers in the study area are small and medium sized farmers having 1 to 15 acres and 16 to 50 acres of land respectively,. The proportion of total yield is higher for medium farmers followed by the small farmers. The 94 hypothesis suggests that proportion of yield differs significantly due to the different categories of farmers. It was revealed that the significant influence of categories on the proportion of yield of Turmeric. It has been observed that the yield of Red gram is positively related to the area under cultivation. So the farmers can utilize more part of their agriculture Turmerical land for the cultivation of Turmeric to earn more profits. Cultivation and marketing costs: Cultivation costs of red gram consisted of the expenditure Turmeric's on land preparation, FYM, seeds and sowing, fertilizers, Plant Protection Chemicals and their application, weeding and hoeing, harvesting, threshing, winnowing and bagging. The money spent on purchase and application of seeds, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals constituted a major part of the cultivation costs followed by harvesting, threshing and winnowing and bagging operations The other costs like land revenue, purchase of different kinds of equipments for field operations etc. added to the costs of the production of red gram. Apart from cultivation costs, farmers spent money for marketing/sales of red gram. The marketing costs incurred by farmers consisted of the cost of transportation, loading/unloading, cleaning, weighment, gunny bags, commission of market intermediaries and personal expenses. Among these the costs of transportation and the commission of market intermediaries formed a major part. The commission of market intermediaries amounted to 46% of the marketing costs incurred by farmers. Farmers sold Turmeric at an average price of Rs3108 per quintal. The cultivation costs and marketing costs incurred were Rs1788 and Rs220 per quintal respectively, the gross return Turmeric's of the farmer was about Rs1100 per quintal. Constraints in the cultivation Farmers faced many problems in the cultivation and marketing of red gram. The major problems were plant diseases, pests, availability and cost of laborers and marketing of red gram. At different stages of its growth red gram crop is affected by various kinds of diseases and pests. For the control of plant diseases and pests farmers have to purchase plant protection chemicals and arrange laborers for the application of these. Farmers also need laborers for different field operations. All these arrangements have to be at proper time. So farmers have to arrange the required amount of money for the purchase of materials and payments of laborers. Farmers found it very difficult and put lots of efforts for making these arrangements. For the marketing of red gram farmers put lots of efforts for getting good price for their produce. They spend considerable amount of money and put personal efforts for selling their produce at profitable price. Most of the farmers complained about the low return Turmeric's. Market Intermediaries From the producer/farmer the Red gram reached the end user through different channels/stages. In this process the producer sold Red gram to intermediaries and the processing units purchased Red gram from market intermediaries. The processing units or Dal millers after processing operations made it available to the end users in the form of Dal. The market intermediaries acted between the producer/seller – farmers and purchaser – processing unit. The market intermediaries/middlemen purchased red gram from the farmers. They stored it with them for sales at appropriate time. During this period they provided different facilities to farmers like free storage space, gunny bags and credit. Credit facility was provided by all middlemen, but this facility was based on certain terms and conditions. Middlemen provided credit to farmers on the condition that they should bring / sell full quantity of Turmeric to them 95 only. The other terms were- the credit was provided for a maximum period of six months, the credit would be recovered after the sales of the quantity of Turmeric stored by farmers, and interest had to be paid till the credit amount was recovered. About 2% to 2.5% interest rate was charged on the credit amount In the activities of purchasing, storage and sales of red gram the market intermediaries earned profit in the form of commission. Apart from the commission they were getting money from the farmers if they made arrangements for transportation, loading / unloading, weighment and cleaning facilities of red gram for them. They were also getting the interest on the credit (facility) provided to farmers. The market intermediaries purchased red gram from farmers at Rs.3108 per quintal and sold it to processing units at Rs.3336 per quintal. The gross profit of the agents was Rs.228 per quintal. Suggestions Considering the entire research work and the conclusions drawn, the researcher would like to put forth the following suggestions. In order to generate appropriate, profitable, environmentally safe, sustainable and cost effective technology to reduce the damage of pests and also to augment productivity, eco-friendly methods of pest management on the basis of integrated pest management principles has to be assessed in farmers’ field. Farmers have to train on method of preparation of neem solution and spraying. As the cost of chemical insecticide is not affordable to all categories of farmers and they have to be motivated to collect the neem seeds, as neem plants are abundantly found in this area and have to be trained to prepare 5% Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) solution. Through this method they can get higher yield as well as protect the environment and ecology. 1.The use of the Nucleus Polio Hydel (NPV) virus for management of pests in pulse crops is a blessing for farmers as pests had developed resistance to conventional chemical pesticides. "Maruti" variety of Red Gram which was introduced in 1985 after successful laboratory and field trials is a successful variety. It continued to remain a popular variety among farmers as it was resilient to the problem of Wilt. However there is a problem of Sterile Mosaic Disease (SMD) in Red Gram noticed in the district in the past few years. There is a need to come out with an SMD- resistant variety. 2.Organizing both on campus and off campus training programmes by agricultural Turmeric department and Krishi Vignyan Kendra’s (KVK) for the practicing farmers, farm women and rural youth on skills like soil-conservation, improved production technology of various agricultural Turmerical crops, fertilizer management, plant protection. Processing units / Dal millers: Gulbarga district is the largest producer of red gram in the country. Red gram being the main raw material of Turmeric Dal processing units this district is attracting Dal millers to establish their processing units here. Many small and large scale processing units are situated in Gulbarga district. The processing units purchased red gram and added value to it by converting it into Dal through various processing operations. Establishment period and installed capacity of processing units Both small and large scale processing units were situated and majority of them were large scale units. The easy, regular and adequate availability of the red gram in the district was the factor behind the establishment of many large scale processing units. The rate of the number of newly establishing processing units showed an upward growth. The processing units are getting the required quantity of Red gram at fair prices from nearby market places with convenient 96 transportation facilities. So the business of Turmeric processing provides good prospects for the entrepreneurs to take up this business Employment of workers/laborers The red gram processing units provided employment to many people including men and women. Processing units employed both men and women. On an average each processing unit was providing employment to 11 people of which 8 were men and 3 were women. In the Red gram processing units some works are laborious and some are light and less laborious. The heavy and laborious works require more physical strength and can be performed conveniently by men. The light and less laborious works can be performed conveniently and more efficiently by women workers. Therefore both men and women workers were employed by the processing units. Procurement of red gram (costs and constraints) Processing units were procuring red gram through market intermediaries/middlemen. It was observed that none of the processing units procured red gram directly from the producers/farmers. It was difficult for Dal millers to go from place to place and farmer to farmer for procuring the required quantity of red gram. The market intermediaries provided the required quantity of red gram at one place. So the processing units purchased red gram through the market intermediaries. For this they incurred some extra cost. In the process of procurement of red gram the processing units incurred expenses on transportation, loading/unloading, gunny bags, market fees/charges and commission of the middlemen. Apart from the cost/price of red gram transportation charges and commission of middlemen constituted a major part of procurement cost. Processing units were able to procure adequate quantities of red gram on regular basis at fair prices from the nearby market places with adequate transportation facilities. Problems in procurement of Red gram Processing units faced various problems in the procurement of redgram. The major procurement problems were:  Availability of red gram  Availability of laborers in the market places  Transportation facilities  Market distance  Prices of red gram in the markets  Market fees / charges Processing units were facing one or more of the above problems. It is evident from the study that the major problems the processing units faced were finding the required number of laborers at the market places, transportation facilities and market fees/charges/commissions. Major part of the respondents opined that market fees/charges/commissions were high. Processing Return Turmeric's and Processing Constraints Processing units earn profits by adding value to red gram by performing different processing operations on red gram and converting it into Dal. The return Turmeric's of processing included the main product-Dal, byproducts-chunni and husk. All the products of processing were sold. A small portion of red gram was lost due to wastages in the processing operations (table 4.26). Constraints/problems in processing Red gram Due to the lack of recognition of the potential of this business processing units had not received the necessary scientific, technological and government support. There were no processing units in the district with completely modernized/automated facilities for 97 processing operations. They depended largely on the human labor to carry out processing operations. The processing units were facing the problems like the lack of necessary infrastructure Turmeric facilities and availability of resources. The processing units situated in the district were facing one or more of the following constraints / problems.  Power  Fuel  Storage  Laborers  Finance Marketing of Red gram Red gram reached the consumers/end users in the form of Dal, through the producer/farmer, market intermediaries/middleman and processing units/Dal mills. Following marketing channel was identified in the study area in marketing of Turmeric Dal. This channel was the important channel in sale of Turmeric for the farmers in the study area because majority of the produce was marketed through this channel. A recognized marketing channel was not found in the district for marketing of Red gram. Following marketing channel was found to be followed widely by the farmers, market intermediaries and processing units. The producers/farmers sold red gram to the wholesale agents through village merchants. The processing units purchase red gram from/through the wholesale agents/middlemen. After the harvesting operations farmers stored red gram with them for certain period of time as the sales or purchase activities did not take place directly on the field. They sold the stored red gram at appropriate time or at required time. For selling their produce farmers had to spend money and put efforts for getting good price. In the process of disposal of their produce farmers had to search for a proper market intermediary and then make arrangements for cleaning, packing, weighment, loading/unloading and transportation. Farmers spent money for all these activities and also put efforts for making the arrangements. The wholesale agents were storing the produce of Farmers with them and were making payments to them after sales and in the meantime they were providing free storage facility to farmers. During this period the agents provided credit facility to farmers. Credit and other facilities were provided by all agents. For the credit provided the agents were getting the interest in addition to that they put condition that in future Turmeric the farmers had to sell Turmeric to them only. At appropriate time the agents sold the stored quantities of red gram to the processing units. The processing units spent Rs.3676 per quintal to purchase red gram from agents. In the marketing process of red gram the market intermediaries extracted commission both from the producer-seller (farmers) and purchaser – Dal mills/processing units. Farmers sold their produce at the price of Rs.3108 and the approximate cost incurred by farmers for the cultivation and marketing of red gram was Rs.1788 and Rs.220 per quintal respectively. The gross return Turmeric's of the farmers was Rs.1100 per quintal of red gram. The agents purchased red gram from farmers at Rs.3108 per quintal and sold it to processing units at Rs.3336 per quintal. The gross return Turmeric's of the agents was Rs.228 per quintal. Processing units procured red gram at Rs.3676 per quintal and sold the processed red gram at Rs.4047 per quintal. The gross return Turmeric of processing units was Rs.365 per quintal of Red gram. For marketing of Red gram there is a need to find a convenient, cost effective and recognized 98 marketing channel which should facilitate the farmers to easily sell their produce of red gram at good prices and facilitate the processing units to purchase the required quantity of red gram at fair prices. An alternative to the existing channel was proposed/ recommended where the market intermediaries are replaced by the co-operative societies or Government agencies. The marketing efficiency of the existing channel was found to be 2.49 whereas the marketing efficiency of the proposed channel is 4.11 and the marketing margins would be less than to the existing channel which would result in better efficiency of marketing of Turmeric compared to the existing channel. Major problems and prospects in cultivation, Processing and marketing of Red gram Problems: 1.The increasing cultivation cost and fluctuation in prices of red gram, and the indifferent attitude of the Union and the State governments towards the problems of farmers have become a cause for concern. 2.The problems faced by red gram farmers in the region differ from year to year. The vagaries of weather and the dreaded "Helicoverpa" pest are common. The fall in prices of red gram at the time of harvest and new arrivals in the market have affected the farmers. 3.Although red gram growers constitute a sizeable chunk of the population of the region, lack of unity among them and favourable situation in other States where the crop is grown on a large scale have prevented them from launching a struggle for remunerative prices for the produce. Farmers in North India are happy with the current prices of red gram as the cultivation cost is low and the yield they get compared to their counterparts in the Gulbarga region is high. Moreover, there is no demand from red gram growers all over the country to increase the minimum support price (MSP) fixed by the Union Government. 4.A major portion of red gram production is confined to Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and other States in North India. They contribute nearly 60 per cent of the country's total production. The cultivation methods followed by farmers of the Gulbarga region and those in North India differ. The delay in the onset of monsoon in North India this season helped red gram growers there to take up sowing while their counterparts in the Gulbarga region began sowing in July and completed it by August. Usually, the "Helicoverpa" pest attacks the red gram crop in the flowering stage in October-November and the cloudy climate during these months helps the pest thrive on it. 5.Besides, red gram is being imported from Burma, Thailand, Tanzania, and Kenya, which is available at a cheaper rate. This also contributed to the fall in prices of the produce. Unless the Government increases the minimum support price for red gram and imposes heavy import duty, the fu Turmeric appears to be bleak for farmers in the Gulbarga region. 6.Distress sale: Due to financial crisis, farmers are forced to sell their produce just after harvesting. During this period, farmers get lower price due to glut in the market. The producers cannot withhold or store their produce for some period to get better price since the farmers have to meet urgent requirement of money. 7.Unstable price: Generally, the price of Red gram prevails low in the early post harvest period due to more arrivals in the market and later on prices go up. Due to this unstable price, the farmers get lesser price. 8.Lack of marketing information: Due to lack of information regarding arrivals and prices prevailing in other markets, producers market the Red gram in the village and nearby market at 99 lower price, which can be avoided. 9.Adoption of standards: Farmers usually do not grade their produce, as a result they do not get remunerative price in the market. 10. Inadequate storage facilities: Due to inadequate storage facilities in rural areas, farmers loose a substantial quantity of their produce by way of drayage, spoilage, rodents etc. Farmers are also forced to sell their produce just after harvest due to lack of storage facilities. Hence, rural godowns are must to avoid the sale immediately after the harvest. 11. Transportation facilities at producers’ level: Due to inadequate transportation facilities at village level, producers sell their Red gram to traders directly from their farm or in the village, which offer them lesser price than prevailing in the markets. 12. Training to producers: The training to producers regarding marketing of their produce is essential. It improves their skill for better marketing of their produce. 13. Infrastructure Turmeric facilities: Due to inadequate infrastructure Turmeric facilities with producers, traders and at market level, the marketing of Red gram is affected adversely. 14. Malpractices in markets: There are many malpractices prevailing in markets like excess weighment, delay in payment, large quantity of samples from the produce, different kinds of arbitrary deductions for religious and charitable purposes from producers, high commission charges, delay in weighing, loading, unloading and weighing charges from producers. Conclusions Production of red gram: Farmers South India is famous for the production of Red gram. It is the largest producer of red gram in the country. Red gram is the main and important pulse crop of this region. Production of Red gram plays a vital role in the agriculture Turmerical economy. Normally receives less annual rainfall and faces uncertainty of rainfall. The climatic conditions of this are relatively warm and dry. Red gram being a draught tolerant crop is best suited for cultivation. Most of the farmers of are cultivating as a main crop and is an important cash crop of the farmers of this region. Turmeric was found to be cultivated by farmers with all sizes of land holding irrespective of the type of agriculture Turmerical land -dry, irrigated, both dry and irrigated. References 1. Battese, Coelli (1995). A model for Technical Inefficiency effects in a Stochastic Frontier Production Function for panel data. Empirical Economics. 20: 325-352. 2. Chinappa B(1998). Resource use, Cost Structure and marketing of sugarcane: A case study of Karnataka, The Bihar journal of Agricultural Marketing, 6(1): 75-79. 3. Eswaran (1985). A Study on Marketing of Turmeric in Erode Block of Periyar District. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpublished), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. 4. Lokesh GB, Chandrakanth MG (2004). Economics of Production, Marketing and Processing of Turmeric in Karnataka. Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, 18(2):32-44. 5. Thakare AB, Pajankar VD, Pajankar S (2005). Resource productivity and Resource use efficiency of Turmeric. Rural India, 68(4):73-76. 6. Madan MS (2008).Changing Scenario of Turmeric Production and Marketing. Agricultural Situation in India, 65 (4), 193- 210. 7. "U.S. National Plant Germplasm System". Npgsweb.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-0. 8. Chan, E.W.C.; Lim, Y; Wong, S; Lim, K; Tan, S; Lianto, F; Yong, M (2009). "Effects of different drying methods on the antioxidant properties of leaves and tea of ginger species". Food Chemistry 113 (1): 166–172. Doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.07.090. 9. Awesome Health Benefits of Turmeric "Curry spice could alleviate cystic fibrosis". New Scientist,. Retrieved, 10 November 2015.

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Research scholar, Department of Economics and applied Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur-522101.A.P.

“In my food world, there is no fear or guilt, only joy and balance. So no ingredient is ever off- limits. Rather, all of the recipes here follow my Usually-Sometimes-Rarely philosophy. Notice there is no Never.” ― Ellie Krieger,

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Problems of Rural India and Government Programmes For Rural Development P. Bharathi Devi Introduction High economic growth in India has certainly reduced the number of rural poor from 50 per cent of the total rural population in 1993-94 to 25 per cent in 2015-16, yet it has not been able to reduce the gap between the rural and urban areas. More than 70 per cent of our people live in villages, 80 per cent of our poor also live in rural areas. The benefits of economic growth rate are not percolating to more than two of the poor. The growth pattern is not uniform in India, manufacturing, services and infrastructure has improved and community, and social services and in rural development and whole, our performance is not appreciable. Without the development rural people, the country can never claim to be developed. The Rural Society of India very much backward. Its backwardness is very much due to the several problems that hunt the rural society. The process of change is very slow and so the problems are more or less age old in recent years. The major problems of the rural people are… The problems concerning agriculture The problems of cottage industries The problem of rural health and education The problem of the status of women The problem of child marriages The problem of unemployment The Problem of Rural indebtedness The Problem of housing and sanitation  Problems of Rural Agriculture: The agricultural sector is and will remain central to India’s economic security in the foreseeable future. As the largest private enterprise in India, 101

contributes 18 per cent of the national GDP and engaged 50 per cent of the workforce. India is predominant by small farm agriculture. According to Agriculture census, the total number of operational holding in India numbered 138.35 million with an average size of 1.15 hectare of the total holdings 85 per cent are in marginal and small farm categories of less than 3 hectors (Agriculture census, Govt. of India, 2014). The Agriculturalists in rural areas have been facing so many problems like irrigation problems, seed problems, sustainability problems, over dependence on traditional crops like rice and wheat, supply channel bottlenecks and lack of market understanding, credit problems etc.,  Problems of Rural Cottage industries : Many Cottage Industries in rural areas face the problems of raw material, inadequate finance, labour problems, power, input marketing, technology, poor perfect implementation, competition from other industries, government policies etc., hit the industrialists.  Problems of Rural Health: Rural health care is one the biggest challenge facing us today. The low level of the population living in rural areas the rural health failures are increasing mortality rates due to diseases. According to the Rural Health Statistics 2014-15, there is a shortage of almost 7000 sub-centre, 1267 PHCs and 309 Community Health Centres (CHC). Rural Health care system facing the problems of lack of access to public health care shortage of good doctors, absenteeism, lack of medical supplies.  Problems of Education: Three quarter of India’s people reside in the rural areas and 30 per cent are below the age of 15 years in their peak formative years of schooling. Nearly a third of rural India is still illiterate. The major problems of education in rural areas are like lack of trained teachers, poor attitude and beliefs, insufficient funds, poor infrastructure, shortage of equipment, inaccessibility of equipment, lack of technical support, resource related issues and internet etc.,  Problems of Rural Women: Women in India make the major workforce in the agricultural sector. If your take the whole of India more than 71 per cent of women work as agricultural labourers which becomes 82 per cent. When it is confined to rural India only. That means women are doing most of the works that include sowing, weeding, harvesting, carrying etc., Rural women face the problems of lack of access to education, right to land, crop, cash and property, authority to make decisions, nutrition, sanitation and health care, social evils such as child marriage, dowry, early pregnancy, lack of resource such as banking, transport and infrastructure, entrepreneur, opportunities and support, wage disparities etc.,  Child Marriages: A serious and common problem that the Rural India face is the existence of Child Marriages, Nearly, 12 million Indian children were married before the age of 10 years, of them 84 per cent Hindus, 11 per cent Muslims, (reveals India Spend analysis of recently released census data) As many of 65 per cent married children were female eight in ten illiterate children who were married were also girls. The data revealed that 72 per cent of Hindu girls married before 10 wer4e in rural areas, 58 per cent Muslims. In India, girls with less access to quality education are more likely to marry early.  Rural indebtedness has been a persistent problem o f India’s rural economy. NSSO identifies that about 52% of rural households in India are indebted. A.P. is identified as the highest with about 92% of its rural population is indebted followed by Telangana 89% indebted rural household and Tamil Nadu with 82.5%. The report identified that about 60% of such loan was from institutional sources and 26% from money lender. Primary reason for this is linked to

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inherent crisis of Indian agriculture and small size of landholding, malpractices followed by money lenders etc.,  Problem of Rural Unemployment: At all levels of education, unemployment rates were higher in rural than in urban areas. Unemployment in rural India is open, conceded or disguised unemployment. It is mostly prevailed among marginal and small farmers.  Problem of Rural Sanitation: As per a report published in 2015, 59.43 per cent of the world population defecating in the open live in India and 42.85 per cent of rural population defecate in open as on November 21.2016. Poverty and lack of infrastructure are some of the major reasons behind poor sanitation. Sanitation is primarily a behavioural issue. It involves mindset among poor people to step open defecation and to adopt safe sanitation practice. Government Programs for Rural Development: The present Government of India has introduced so many programs for the rural people and rural development. They are.. I. For Poor : i) Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (World’s, Largest Financial Inclusive Programe) ii) Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Sramev Jayate Karyakram to create ease business iii) Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Antyodaya Yojana iv) Mission Husing for all v) Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Bank (MUDRA) started on 8th April 2015. vi) Pradhana Mantri Ujjawala Yojana II. For Youth: i) My Government Online Platform ii) Digital India iii) Make India iv) Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameena Kausal Yojana (enable poor and marginalized to access benefit) v) National Policy for Sill Development and entrepreneurship vi) National Sports Talent Search Scheme vii) Swachh Vidyalaya Abhiyan viii) Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat ix) Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission on Teachers and Teacher Training x) Rastriaya Avishkar Abhiyan xi) Udan scheme xii) Stand Up India – 5th April 2016 to promote entrepreneurship among SC & STs and women III. For Farmers: i) Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyothi Yojana (25th Jkuly 2015 for all villages & households electrification) ii) Soil Health Card Scheme iii) Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana iv) Jan Suraksha Scheme (PMJJBY, PMBSY, APY ) v) Rastrita Gokul Mission vi) Krishi andari Bima Yojana for impetus to dying agriculture practice vii) Pradhan Mantri Gram Sinchi Yojana – to accelerate irrigation benefit program viii) Kisan Vikas Patra 103

ix) Paramparagat Krish Vikas Yojana x) Strenghthening of Krishi Vigyan Kendras xi) National Gokul Mission for housing the urban cattle xii) Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana for crop insurance IV. For Women: i) Beti Bacho, Beti Padho Abhiyan (22nd January, 2015 to generate wareness of welfare schemes) ii) Sukanya Samdruddhi Account (22nd January 2015) iii) Himmat App iv) PAHAL- Direct Benefits (Transfer for LPG (DBTL) Consumer Scheme v) Swachh Bharat Mission (2nd Oct. 2014 to clean India) vi) Gold Monetisation Scheme V. For Senior Citizen: i) Pradhan Mantri Surakhsha Bhima Yojana in 2015 ii) Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyothi Bima Yojana iii) Atal Pension Yojana (9th May 2015 for unorganized workers) iv) Mahatma Gandhi Pravasi Surkshan Yojana – savings for retirement VI. For Development: i) The NITI Aayog ii) Make In India (25th Sep. 2014 for manufacturing sector) iii) Digital India – 1st July 2015 for transforming Indian economy digital infrastructure) iv) Smart City Programme – 29th April 2015 v) Deen Dayal Updhyaya Gram Jyothi Yojana vi) Pragati Platform vii) Mission Housing for All viii) Pradhana Mantri Ujjawala Yojana for free LPG connection to women from BPL households ix) Skill India – 15th July, 2015, to create jobs for youth x) Swadesh Darshan – based on Buddhist tourism xi) Bal Swachta Mission – 14th Nov. 2014 for awareness about the cleanliness of the children. xii) Pradhan Mantri Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana to develop model villages (called Adarsh Gram) xiii) Shyama Prasad Mukerji Rurbana Mission aims at development of rural cluster smart villages xiv) Gram Uday Se Bharat Abhiyan on Apri 14the 2016 to improve livelihood of rural development and Panchayats Raj

References: 1. Agriculture situation in India –Vol. LXXII, march, 2016, no.12 2. Ministry of Rural Development website 3. Problems with rural health by Yatima Diman 4. Dr.Shradha A.Budhedro – Issues and challenges of Education to rural India.

------Lecturer, Department of Economics, JKC College, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh.

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“We should resolve now that the health of this nation is a national concern; that financial barriers in the way of attaining health shall be removed; that the health of all its citizens deserves the help of the entire nation.” ― Harry S. Truman

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Food Security (Public Distribution in Andhra Pradesh) K. Kishorekumar Abstract: Food security is a condition related to the supply of food and individuals' access to it. Concerns over food security have existed throughout history. At the 1974 World Food Conference the term "food security" was defined with an emphasis on supply. Food security, they said, is the “availability at all times of adequate world food supplies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and prices”. Later definitions added demand and access issues to the definition. The final report of the 1996 World Food Summit states that food security "exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Household food security exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. The 1996 World Summit on Food Security declared that "food should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure". According to the international Centre for Trade and Sustainable development, failed agriculture market regulation and the lack of anti-dumping mechanisms engenders much of the world's food scarcity and malnutrition. According to the United States Development of Agriculture (USDA), food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. In the years 2011-2013, an estimated 842 million people were suffering from chronic hunger. The FAO identified the four pillars of food security as availability, access, utilization, and stability. The United Nations (UN) recognized the Right to food in the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and has since noted that it is vital for the enjoyment of all other rights. Keywords: Food Security, World Food Conference, Fluctuations, United Nations, Human Rights, Economic Instability. ***************** Introduction: In spite of the significant progress that our country has made in food production and sufficiency over the last 50 years, most of the rural population communications had to deal with uncertainties of food security on a daily basis year after year most often generation after 105 generation. According to planning commission around 22% people lives below poverty line in India which means every 3rd poor person lives in India. In aggregate, over one fifth of India’s population suffers from chronic hunger. Tracking the incidence of hunger over three reference periods, 1978-81, 1990-92, and 1998-2000, the United Nations plots the number of undernourished 261.5 million, 215.6 million and 233.3million respectively. The National Development Council (NDC) in its 53rd meeting held on 29thMay, 2007 adopted a resolution to launch a Food Security Mission comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase the production of rice by 10 million tons, wheat by 8 million tons and pulses by 2 million tons by the end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12).Accordingly, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, 'National Food Security Mission' (NFSM), was launched in October 2007. The Mission is being continued during 12thFive Year Plan with new targets of additional production of food grains of 25 million tons of food grains comprising of 10 million tons rice, 8 million tons of wheat, 4 million tons of pulses and 3 million tons of coarse cereals by the end of 12thFive Year Plan. Objectives:  There is a need to amend law to ban controls and restrictions on trade between States.  There should be free movement of all kinds of commodities including agricultural produce while it would be expedient to continue with support price for agricultural produce like wheat, paddy, cotton, etc., the need to abolish or phase out levy or monopoly purchase should be considered.  Levy acts as a tax on the processors which is then passed on to the producers.  Government should buy rice for its Public Distribution System through an open tender system.  Remove licensing controls on Roller Flour Mills and other food processing industry. De- reserve food processing units, especially rapeseed and groundnut processing units, from Small Scale Industry (SSI) list.  Impose tariff on import of wheat and encourage roller flour mills to buy from the farmers.  Providing food grains and other essential items to vulnerable sections of the society at reasonable or subsidized prices.  To attempt socialization in the matter of distribution of essential commodities.  PDS should provide all essential items to needful persons (BPL) only. For this they can use biometric system to eliminate malpractices in PDS system. Food Demand: The food demand will be driven by income and population growth, urbanization, food prices and income distribution. Food demand projections have been made using the piece-wise linear expenditure system (LES) model developed at Centre for Economic and Social Studies(CESS), Hyderabad. The total production of food grains increased from 51 million tonnes in 1951 to about 260 million in 2011-12 in India, during the same period population increased from 361 million to more than 1210 million. Consequently, the per capita domestic availability of food grains increased from 395 grams to 463 grams signifying a very small increase in per capita availability. The projections given below assume real expenditure growth of 5 per cent per annum between 2000 and 2020, increase of population to 1.343 billion in 2020, rate of urbanization and rural urban disparity consistent with the historical trends and the inequality in the income distribution and relative prices same as in 1998. Under these assumptions, the demand is 106 projected to grow at 2.2 percent for cereals during 2000-10 and 2.0 per cent during 2010-20, 3-4 per cent for edible oils and pulses, and 4-5 per cent for milk and milk products, meat, fish, eggs, fruits, vegetables, and sugar . At the current cereal intake of 143 kgs./per capital/annum, cereal requirement for household consumption will be around 192 million tons in 2020. Public Distribution System (PDS) in India: Evolution of Public Distribution of grains in India had its origin in the ‘rationing’ system introduced by the British during the World War II. In view of the fact that the rationing system and its successor, the PDS has played an important role in attaining higher levels of the household food security and completely eliminating the threats of famines from the face of the country. India has a large programme of public food distribution through fair price shops, accounting for a significant part of the government’s budgetary subsidies.

PDS FAIR PRICE FARMER CENTRE (FCI) STATE GOVT. BENEFICIARY PROCESS SHOPS

Before 1960’s, distribution through PDS was generally dependent on import of food grains.The PDS in its present form a producer Price-support-cum-consumer subsidies program me have evolved in the wake of food grain shortages of the 1960’s. It was then mainly confined to urban and food deficit areas with its emphasis primarily on price stabilization till the late 1970’s.The welfare dimension of the PDS has gained importance since the early eighties and its coverage has been extended to rural areas in some states as well as to areas with a high incidence of poverty. The food subsidy of the Central Government, at Rs.17, 612crores, accounted for 0.89 per cent of GDP in 2001-02. In the wake of economic reforms, the PDS is perceived to be the main safety net to protect the poor from potential short-run price-induced adverse effects of economic reforms.PDS supplies have increased rapidly since the mid-sixties: the annual average supply increased from 6.5 million tonnes during1961-65 to 18.4 million tonnes during 1990-92, declined to 12.86million tonnes in 1994-95andthenincreased to 18.69 million tonnes in 1998-99. Subsequently, in 1997 the government launched the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) with a focus on the poor. TPDS aims to provide subsidized food and fuel to the poor through a network of ration shops. In September 2013, parliament enacted the National Food Security Act, 2013. The Act relies largely on the existing TPDS to deliver food grains as legal entitlements to poor households. This marks a shift by making the right to food a justifiable right. Public Distribution System in Andhra Pradesh: In Andhra Pradesh farmers are not allowed to do direct sales outside the State, permissions are required for such sales. In Hyderabad, a permit from Managing Director of the Civil Supplies Corporation is required while in other cases in A.P, the District Collector or Civil Supplies Officer of the district issues the permit. In the State Government imposes restriction on movement of paddy out of the district. Maharashtra similarly controls movement of cotton. Such inter-state movement restrictions tend to depress prices and are seen as anti-farmer,’ especially when Government and agencies like Food Corporation of India do not have adequate storage capacity available. Free movement will benefit consumers in deficit regions such as Kerala, besides securing a good price to farmers in producing States without burdening the exchequer via subsidy route. Problems associated with the schemes are:

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The public distribution system of India is not without its defects. With a coverage of around 400 million below-poverty-line (BPL) families, a review of the PDS has discovered the following structural shortcomings and disturbance.  The poor do not have cash to buy 20 kg at a time, and often they are not permitted to buy in installments.  Low quality of food grains – A World Bank report (June 2000) states that half of FCI’s grain stocks is at least two years’ old, 30% between 2 to 4 years old, and some grain as old as 16 years.  Weak monitoring, lack of transparency and inadequate accountability of Officials implementing the scheme.  Growing instances of the consumers receiving inferior quality food grains in ration shops.  Deceitful dealers replace good supplies received from the F.C.I (Food Corporation of India) with inferior stock and sell FCI stock in the black market.  Illicit fair price shop owners have been found to create large number of bogus cards to sell food grains in the open market.  Many FPS dealers resort to malpractice, illegal diversions of commodities, holding and black marketing due to the minimum salary received by them.  Identification of households to be denoted status and distribution to granted PDS services has been highly irregular and diverse in various states. The recent development of Aadhar UIDAI cards has taken up the challenge of solving the problem of identification and distribution of PDs services along with Direct Cash Transfers.  Regional allocation and coverage of FPS are unsatisfactory and the core objective of price stabilization of essential commodities has not met.  There are no set criteria as to which family is BPL and which is APL .This non ambiguity gives massive scope for corruption and fallouts in PDS systems because those who are actually meant to be benefitted are not able to taste the fruits of PDS. One major reform needed in the agriculture sector relates to reduction in subsidies and increase in investments. Agricultural subsidies are fiscally unsustainable and encourage misuse of resources, leading to environmentally malignant developments. There exists a trade-off between subsidies and investments. Public investment declined from 3.4 per cent of agricultural GDP in the early 1980s to 1.9 per cent in 2001-03. At the same time subsidies increased from 2.9 per cent to 7.4 per cent of agricultural GDP (GOI, 2007). Increase in public and private investment is crucial for enhancing agricultural growth 3/4 Price charged exceeds the official price by 10% to 14%. Recommendations for Streamlining TPDS: Analyses of TPDS have revealed several gaps in implementation. To make implementation of TPDS more effective, following suggestions have been made: 1. Items other than rice and wheat need to be excluded from the purview of TPDS.Attempts to include more commodities under food subsidy cover should be resisted. 2. Sugar supply through PDS draws well-to-do families to the system. 3. Coarse grains are basic commodities purchased by the poor. These grains in any case are available to the poor at low prices. There seems no additional need to supply them through PDS and bring them under the cover of food subsidy 4. Kerosene oil is also a commodity supplied through PDS and is intended for the poor. But there occurs large scale illicit diversion of this item and benefitsmeant for the poor 108

is cornered by others. Subsidized kerosene is used for adulteration with diesel. Subsidy on kerosene should be gradually phased out and alternate avenues of marketing it needs to be explored. 5. The coverage of TPDS and food subsidy should be restricted to the population below poverty line. For others who have the purchasing power, it would do merely to ensure availability of grains at stable price in the market - no need for food subsidy to this population. 6. Ration cards have tended to be used as ID cards to establish people’s identity. Many get ration cards issued only for this purpose. 7. Expert studies have shown that PDS suffers from nearly 61% error of exclusion and 25% inclusion of beneficiaries, i.e. the misclassification of the poor as non-poor and vice-versa. 8. Need to strengthen the leakage of food grains during transportation to the ration shop and from the ration shop itself into the market. 9. Delivery of Stocks to FPSs should be on actual and not on sample weighment. 10. FPS doorstep delivery of PDS commodities instead of delivery to FPS owners at FCI go downs. Concluding Observations While Andhra Pradesh achieved success in combating transient food insecurity caused by droughts or floods, it miserably failed to make much dent in chronic food insecurity as reflected in the low energy intake and high incidences of malnutrition. The overall improvement in nutritional status has also been very slow. There is chronic under-nourishment in about half of the population, particularly among the vulnerable groups of children, women and elderly from the lower half of the expenditure class. Curiously, the proportion of consumption expenditure spent on food is slowly going down even in the Households with chronic undernourishment. The targeted public distribution system (TPDS) and the mid-day meal scheme (approximately 120 million children are signed up) are two large government food distribution schemes in Andhra Pradesh. Problems of misappropriation of resources and mismanagement of these programmes continue and the government is unable to achieve its goals. As a result of the inefficiencies of operations and entrepreneurial abilities of implementers to siphon funds, majority of beneficiaries of the resources invested by the government are not the target population. in some states where surveys had been conducted, BPL families have been missed out; performance of TPDS is considered to be poor in states with high number of BPL families; also lack of co-ordination between national and village level further impede its performance. Implementation of TPDS across states is also wrought with misappropriation; Tamil Nadu had issued BPL cards to the entire population of the state by considering everyone to be below poverty line; the number of BPL cards issued in Andhra Pradesh exceeded the numbers registered below poverty in this state (Outlook Business 2009, Tritah 2003) Empowering people through information and communication, providing a minimum wage, and creating greater awareness about corruption could help reduce malpractices. Strong political will and administrative commitment for efficient implementation, greater monitoring and evaluation and regular reform, can help keep ahead of schemes to offend and improve performance of the public distribution systems. Ensuring efficient implementation of TPDS is essential to enable the fundamental right to food. Other alternatives to TPDS include cash transfers and food coupons. Beneficiaries would directly be given either cash or coupons which can be exchanged for food grains. But, there are 109

several arguments both in favour and against the effectiveness of such measures. Efforts have been made to introduce cash transfers for various schemes with the Unique Identification Number as a way to improve identification and prevent leakage of subsidy. Since 2014, Andhra Pradesh introduced AePDS (Aadhar enabled Public Distribution System) to provide essential items to BPL families in a better manner. References: 1. Sujaychakravarty economics area Indian institute of management, Sejala.dand area networking and development initiatives Vastrapur, Ahmedabad, “Food insecurity in India causes and dismensions”. 2. Ahmed Touseef, Rashida Amir, Francisco Espejo and AuloGelli, UteMeir2007. Food for education improves Girls education: the Pakistan Girls Education programme. World Food Programme report, 3rd September 2007.Attre, Neha 2009. UP looks up to Tamil Nadu to improve Midday Meal scheme.Indian Express, 9th March 2009, 3. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/up-looks-up-totamil. 4. Nadu-to-improve-midday/432646/, accessed on 15th September 2010. 5. Food Security and Nutrition: Vision 2020, R. Radhakrishna and K. Venkata Reddy. 6. Food Security in India performance, challenges and policies S. Mahendradev, Alakhn.shrma. 7. Functioning of the PDS, An analytical Report by SakshiBalani, December 2013. 8. Public Distribution System in India-evolution, efficacy and need for reforms. 9. Public distribution system From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ------Research Scholar, Acharya Nagarajuna University, Dept .of Economics, Guntur.

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 The Economic Analysis of Chilli Cultivation L Kodandaram Introduction of Chilli Cultivation The chilli is a fruit of plants belongs to the family of “Solanaceae” and genus of “Capsicum”. The chilli is also being termed as “Chili Pepper” in many parts of world. Chilli is one of the most important and the largest produced spice crop in Asia. The fruit is actually called “chilli” and is used as a spice in a variety of cuisines all over the world in different forms as green chillies, dried red chillies as a whole or in the form of powder. Basically, chillies contain capsaicin, which gives a strong burning tangy sensation when eaten and the red colour is because of the presence of pigment capsanthin. Generally, chillies are valued based on their high pungency and colour. Production of chilli is very high in Asian countries due to high consumption. Commercial cultivation of chilli is very much successful and one can expect decent profits in chilli farming due to its market value in local areas and international markets (export market). Most of the people think that chilli is native to India but it is originated from ‘South America” and these were brought to Asia by Portuguese at the end of 15th century. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of chilli. Chillies can be grown in open fields, greenhouses, polyhouses, under shade nets, pots, containers, even in back yards. The quality and production would be high if they are grown in controlled environment such as greenhouses. Chillies can also be grown successfully in hydroponic system. Major Chilli Production Countries Major chilli growing countries are India, China, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Mexico, Peru, Vietnam, Pakistan, Ghana, and Bangladesh. India tops among all of these in exporting chillies. Health Benefits of Chillies The following are some of the health benefits of chillies Chillies are good source of iron and B-complex group. 110

Chillies protect against cancer. Chillies are good for prostate health. Chillies help in boosting immune power. Chillies help in reducing risk of lung cancer. Chillies keep bacterial infections at bay. Chillies are zero calorie food so aid in weight management. Chillies help in helps in reducing blood sugar levels. Chillies are good for skin health due Vitamin ‘E’ presence. Chillies help digest food faster Chilli Cultivars (Varieties) Green Cayenna, Yellow Cayenne, Red Cayenne, Green Ball, Red Ball, Jalapeno, Birdseye, Habanero are different types chillies cultivated. However, in these types, there are many improved hybrid varieties of chillies are available specific to each area. Find out the suitable cultivar for your region. You can get this information from your local horticulture department. Main Types of Chillies Famous commercial chilli hybrid varieties of India are: MI-1, MI-2, KA-2, Arunalu, MI-Hot, K 1, K 2, CO 2, CO 4, PKM 1, PMK 1,PLR1, KKM, NS 1701,NS 1101 F1,NS 1072,NS 230,NS 238, Pusa Jwala,Manjari,F1 Hybrid, VNR-21-7 ,Hybrid Chilli Trishul, Hybrid Chilli Sachin, Hybrid Chilli Red Devil, Hybrid Chilli Huero, Hybrid Chilli Amba, Hybrid Chilli Agni, Sanke- shwar, Agnirekha, Kankan Kirti, Musahvadi, Phule Mukta, Surkta, Pbiile Sai, Phule Jyoti, Suryamukhi, Jayanti, Parbhani Tejas Byadagi Kaddi, Byadagi Dabbi, G-3, G-4, G-5, Kiran, Musalwadi, Kashmiri double chilli,G-5, Byadagi Dabbi, Sindhur, LCA-206, Co.2, Kashmiri double palti, KDCH-2,Jwala, Aparsna, KDCH-2,LCA-206,S – 1182 of Punjab, Kadaralli of Karnataka, X- 235, Jwala, NP-46A, KDCH-1, Jawahar 218 of Madhya Pradesh Local Names of Chilli in India Chilli is called with different names in different languages in India. Mirch, (Hindi, Punjab and Urdu), Morich (Bengali), Marcha (Gujarati), Menessina kayi (Kannada), Marstu,Waungum (Kashmir), Mulaku (Malayalam), Mirchi (Marathi), Lauka (Oriya), Miagai (Tamil), Mirapakayi (Telugu), Mirchan (Punjabi), Jeevisaang (Konkani), Jolokiya (Assamese), Morok (Manipuri), Gaarhaa Mirch (Sindhi), Marach wangun (Kashmiri). Climate Required For Chilli Cultivation Basically chilli is a crop of tropical and sub-tropical region. It thrives best in warm/hot and humid climatic conditions. The ideal temperature for its growth is 20 to 30°C. Temperatures below 15°C will result in reduced crop yield. Constant moisture in soil during blossom development and fruit formation is very important for good yield. This crop requires an annual rainfall of 25 to 30 inches. Excessive rainfall or flooding will damage the crop. Land Preparation for Chilli Cultivation Land should be prepared by giving 3 or 4 deep ploughings and followed by harrowing to bring the soil fine tilth stage. Make sure to crush any clods after each ploughing. After bringing the soil to fine tilth stage, level the land with the help of tractor blade. Making raised beds would be useful for rainy season to drain out the water and also helps good aeration. During the land preparation, it is recommended to supplement the soil with well decomposed farm yard like cow- dung of 25 tonnes/ha or any other equivalent compost. Application of manure should be done at least 2 weeks before of sowing. In order to protect the chilli crop from ants and soil borne pests, Heftaf @ 10-15 kg per acre should be applied in last ploughing. Form ridges and furrows at a 111 spacing of 60 cm. Apply 2 kg/ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg / ha of Phosphobacteria by mixing with 20 kg of farmyard manure (FYM). Irrigate the furrows and transplant 40 days old seedlings, with the ball of earth on the ridges. Season of Sowing In Chilli Cultivation Well, chilli can be grown all around the year provided enough irrigation facility is available. In some Asian countries, sowing will take place in January – February, June – July and September – October. Irrigation in Chilli Cultivation Generally, chilli crop is grown as rain fed and irrigated crop. If the crop is grown as rain fed one, a well distributed annual rain fall of 80 to 100 cm is required for better growth and yield. Chilli plants are shallow rooted and cannot tolerate drought and flooding but need uniform and constant moisture in the soil. In water scarcity areas, drip irrigation method is advised. However, furrow method can also be adopted when enough water is present. Overhead irrigation should be avoided as this will promote diseases in chilli cultivation. In case of heavy rains, make sure to drain out the soil quickly. If the plants grown on raised beds, there is a good chance of draining of water quickly. First Irrigation should be carried out after transplanting seedlings from nursery to main field. Subsequent watering should be provided once in 5 to 6 days in summer and once in 10 to 12 days in winter. Again, irrigation depends on soil type and climatic conditions. Flower and fruit drop occurs in chilli cultivation, if the uniform moisture level is not maintained. Manures and Fertilizers in Chilli Cultivation Chilli crop responds very well to manures and fertilizers. If the crop is grown on large scale, make sure to conduct soil test to find out the N:P:K values. Based on the results of test, any nutrient gap should be filled. During the land preparation, supplement the field with 20 to 25 tonnes of well decomposed farmyard manure (FMY)/ha. In case of rainfed crop, 25 kg of “P” in full dose, 50 kg “N” in 1/2 dose should be applied at the time transplanting seedlings in the field. Remaining 1/2 dose of ‘N’ should be applied 1 month after transplanting the seedlings. In case of irrigated crop, N:P:K should be applied in the ratio of 100 kg:50 kg: 50 kg/ha. Fertilizers should be applied in 4 equal doses. First applied at the time transplanting remaining doses are applied at fourth, eleventh, and thirteenth week after transplanting the seedlings.Regular and proper intercultural operation in chilli cultivation results in higher yields. Weed control is a very crucial task for getting higher yields in chilli cultivation. As the chilli is a shallow root plant, 2 to 3 shallow hoeing should be given to kill the weeds without damaging the plant roots. Mulching the plants with rice straw will control the weeds and protect the plants from moisture loss. Weedicides also can be applied to control the weeds. Lasso @ 1.5 liter/ha with one hand weeding is an effective way controlling weeds. For higher yields in chilli cultivation one should carry out staking operation. Stake the chilli plants to prevent lodging especially when the plants have good load of fruits. Each plant should be staked before flowering starts. Objectives The specific objectives of the present study are, 1. To study on chilly cultivation practices and socio-economic conditions of chilly cultivators. 2. To analyse trend, growth of area, production and productivity of chilly cultivations. 3. To estimate the cost-benefit structures in production of chilly cultivation and obstacles faced by the chilly cultivators.

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4. To identify the determinants of yield of chilly and to analyse the structural differences between varieties of chilly. 5. To offer suitable suggestions and recommendations on the basis of findings of the study. State wise Area and Production of Chillies (Area in Hectares, Production in Tonnes)

State 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 Area Productio Area Productio Area Productio Area Productio n n n n Andhra 195471 638298 248264 804204 204000 761000 13131 601993 Pradesh 6 Telangana 79835 279777 Karnataka 113849 128806 100076 107037 100729 107000 89556 117547 West Bengal 63618 96216 64018 96300 63600 100000 63600 100000 Madhya 54414 127438 58120 95310 54410 93570 54410 93570 Pradesh Orissa 76010 70390 77130 74030 75600 70000 75000 70000 Gujarat 38970 48051 42435 68534 43395 68534 43395 68534 Tamilnadu 53626 21690 56442 24141 50672 23056 50672 23056 Punjab 10555 17912 10562 17979 10600 17700 10600 17700 Total 716428 1299191 793921 1448215 787530 1378400 791930 1376400 Crop Report – Andhra Pradesh

In most areas of A.P, there is a reduction in area of chilly to an extent of 5 to 10%. However, the Yields have been very good. The crop has been delayed by a month. Problems Pests and Diseases in Chilli Cultivation The following are common pests and diseases found in chilli cultivation. The following are the common pests found in chilli cultivation:  Aphids:- Symptoms: Aphids are small, succulent, pear shaped insects. Aphids attack the crop in winter months and at the later stages of the crop. Due to this effect, the quality of pods will be deteriorated. Control Measures: Spraying dimethoate at 0.05% is effective for controlling these insect pests.  Thrips:- Symptoms: This insect pest causes curling of leaves and fall down of flowers pre-maturely. This pest will be sever at flowering stage though it can affect the crop its entire life cycle.

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Control Measures: Crop rotation and weed control can reduce this pest. However, Treatment of seeds with imidacloprid 70% WS @ 12 grams /kg of seed will also control these pests. Applying carbofuran 3% G @ 33 kg /ha (or) phorate 10 % G @ 10 kg/ha will check these.  Fruit borer:- Symptoms: The caterpillar eats leaves and later on bores the pod, which results in the deterioration of quality of the fruit. Control Measures: Collect and destroy the damaged fruits and grown up caterpillars. Spraying Bacillus thuringiensis @ 2 grams/liter of water will check this.  Broad Mites:- Symptoms: These mites suck the plant juice near the mid vein on the underside of the leaf causing the chilli plant leaves to curl downwards. This causes to develop corky tissues on the fruits. Control Measures: How can we control these?, First and foremost, selecting pest resistant cultivars (varieties) and weed control in the field, crop rotation help reducing the infestation. However, spraying dimethoate @ 0.05% will also check this insect pest.  Mealy bug:- Symptoms: These bugs suck sap from the chilli leaves, tender shoots and the fruits. This pest causes the leaves to become curly and ultimately fruit drops. Control Measures: Spraying the crop with dichlorvos (0.02%) or quinalphos (0.025%) with fish oil rosin soap effectively control these bugs.  Root knot nematode:- Symptoms: This insect pest damages the root system by forming the small galls on the roots of the plant. The effected plants become yellow and wilt. Warm weather and light sandy soils are source of these pests. Control Measures: Selecting resistant cultivars, crop rotation and flooded rice field help in reducing nematodes. The following are the common diseases found in chilli cultivation  Damping off Disease in Chilli Cultivation:- Symptoms: This is a serious disease of chilli seedlings and mainly occurs in nursery bed. The disease infected seedlings become rot at ground level and then the plants fall over ground. Control Measures: Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride 4 grams/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10 grams/kg 24 hours before sowing in the bed. Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens as soil application @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of farm yard manure (FYM). Water logging should be avoided and drench with Copper oxychloride at 2.5 grams/liter of water at 4 liter/sq. meter. The chilli seedlings in the nursery should be sprayed with any fungicides at a regular interval.  Leaf Spot Disease in Chilli Cultivation:- Symptoms: Generally infected plant leaves will have small dark, greasy spots and water soaked spots appear on green fruits. Leaf drop off happens in case of severely affected plants. Control Measures: Spraying Agrimycin – 100 k at 200 ppm plus copper oxychloride 0.3 % checks the disease effectively  Anthracnose Disease in Chilli Cultivation:- Symptoms: Usually, dark sunken spots are formed on the fruits and pink or dark coloured dots appear in the centre of the sunken spots. Due to this spots, the fruits rot and start falling. Moist climatic conditions, shade and heavy dew contribute to the occurrence of Anthracnose disease in Chilli cultivation.

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Control Measures: Use disease free seeds. Remove and burn the attacked plants or branches. Spraying the disease affected crops with Mancozeb (Dithane M-45) @ 2.5 grams/liter of water will control this disease.  Powdery mildew in Chilli Cultivation:- This can be controlled by spraying wet sulphur 3 grams/liter of water or Carbendazim 1 gram/liter of water. Total of 3 sprays are required at 15 days interval from the first appearance of symptom.  Leaf Curl Disease in Chilli Cultivation:- Symptoms: This disease causes leaves to become small in size with downward curling. In severely affected plants, the leaves start fall off. This disease usually spreads through insect pests like thrips and aphids. Control Measures: Control Aphids and Thrips as mentioned in pest control measures to check this disease. Suggestions and Conclusion Agriculture has continuously been playing a predominant role in the economic development of all developed and developing countries. Ever since India’s independence, agriculture in India has taken major strides owing to the varieties and agronomic inventions of agricultural research and the resourcefulness of the farming community. Chilly is considered as one of the commercial spice crops. It is the most widely used universal spice named as wonder spice. It is called as red pepper or hot pepper whereas, the sweet pepper commonly known as ‘Kudamilagai’ is another botanical variety of Capsicum annum in which the fruits are very big in size with less biting taste and pungency. In the hot pepper or hot chili, the pungent principle present is called ‘Capsicum’ which is mainly present in the central placenta of the fruit as well as seed and too some extent in the ovary wall. Generally, the content of capsaicin varies from 0.2-0.4 Per cent. Chilly is used as spice, salad, complementary dish, medicine, industrial product, or as decoration. It is consumed in various forms such as fresh, dry, powder, paste and sauce. It enhances food palatability, inducing the consumption of other foods. It is a rich source of vitamin A, C, E and B. When chilly is taken with food, it stimulates our taste buds and thereby increase the flow of saliva which contains the enzyme amylase which in turn helps in the digestion of starchy or cereal foods etc., into the easily assemble sugar namely glucose. Suggestions Some useful and highly significant suggestions, which can be helped to improve cultivation process and increase profitability, are discussed below in detail. i. The major factors affecting chilly cultivation as revealed by the study are severity of diseases ad pest attacks. It has been observed from the investigation that small, medium and large farmers were not aware of the quantity of pesticides to be use in nature and intensity of the diseases. The quantity of pesticides applied by the farmers generally was higher than the recommended quantity. Hence, it suggested that the farmers should be educated to use the pesticides at the prescribed level and this may be done through only Agricultural Development offices attached to Panchayats unions. Moreover, there is a need for extension of farm management’s services to the farmers, in the study area, to create awareness of the importance of soil tests, and the use of optimum fertilizers and hybrid seeds. ii. Agricultural Extension agencies at the centre as well as the in the State should discriminate information regarding incentives, support prices and authority of chilly cultivation in improving soil health. It may be one through organizing training camps at regular intervals in each village to educate the farmers about improved technology of chilly cultivation to attain high yield. 115 iii. The state department of agriculture may provide adequate quantity of certified seeds along with chilly to the interested farmers well before the time of showing. iv. Adequate storage facilities should be provided at village and market levels. Credit linked storage must be adopted to help the chilly cultivators to meet his immediate requirements. v. The various Government departments and institutions like spices Board, Department of Horticulture,, Department of Agriculture, Department Cooperation, National Horticulture Research and Department of Foundation, Regulated markets and Storage Centers which were stored with the laudable objective of promoting the interest of chilly cultivators are not functioning properly for want of sufficient staff, funds and lake of cooperation and coordination; among them. Hence, government should take steps to have a single department with sufficient staff and with necessary financial and technical assistance, which will pave the way for making cultivation a success. vi. The scientific methods of cultivators must be made known to the cultivation of chilly very often by the Government organizations and extension agencies, using all popular media of communication. vii. Insurance for chilly cultivation may be introduced to make good the loss incurred by the cultivators , when the cultivation become a victim to natural calamities like drought, flood and monsoon failure. viii. Cooperative farming may be taken up by enclosing large areas for cultivation. In such a case, integrated pest management, effective labour management and coordinated functioning in all aspects of cultivation are possible. ix. Irrigation needs vary according to the climatic conditions, cultural operations in practice and their interactions with the other inputs in the soil under water management, different systems are suggested due to the non availability of required rainfall in the region. xi. In study area more than 65 percent of the sample growers are not regular in applying manures and fertilizers to coconut palms. The capacity of the palms to absorb the nutrients from the manure applied in the soil depends upon the type of manure, the soil and the available moisture. The manure applied to the soil undergoes various chemical changes and a major portion of it is made available to roots and certain portion of it is rot in different forms. It is therefore suggested to split the full dose and apply it at various intervals. xii. For reduction in cost of cultivation of chilly Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Integrated Water Management (IWM) are to be followed in chilly cultivation. Research and development should be strengthened for location –based chilly production technologies and it must be a cost saving one. xiii. Transfer of technologies and dissemination of market information may strengthen extension efforts. Infrastructure facilities like storage, transport and processing facilities should be developed especially for chilly cultivation. This process may be linked with the village level primary co-operative credit societies and regulated markets. Grading and standardization facilities should be provided and compulsory adoption of these practices may increase the returns especially for cultivators. Conclusion Thus, the present study brings to the limelight the enormous prospects of chilly cultivation in Guntur district. This district continues to occupy one of the top places among the chilly producing districts of Andhra Pradesh. In spite of various constraints - such as fragmentation of land holding over exploitation of irrigation sources, deterioration of soil health due to continuous 116 intensive cropping and shrinking trend of gross cropped area. The cost-benefit analysis also indicated the existence of opportunities for increasing yield. It is high time that the opportunities for increasing yield are tapped to increase the farm income and the production of other food crops of the people of Andhra Pradesh. Better and cost minimizing devices can be still included in the cultivation programs to make the entire chilly cultivation highly commercial and economical. The policy implications suggested, if chilly cultivation is properly implemented, it may result in increased revenue for the nation and the cultivators concerned. ------Research Scholar, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh.

To keep the body in good health is a duty; otherwise we shall not be able to keep our mind strong and clear. ― Buddha

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Adoption of Improved Production Technology in Tomato by Tribal Farmers for Higher Yields *Dr. E. Karuna Sree, Senior Scientist & Head, KVK **DR. R.V.S.K. Reddy, Director of Extension, Abstract: Adoption is essentially a decision making process to make full use of an individual innovation as the best source of action available. Agricultural technology is a complex blend of materials, processes and knowledge. This can be the material based technology such as products like improved seed, tools, equipment and knowledge based technology such as improved cultivation practices, nutrient management, pest management etc. Tomato is cultivated in upland mandals of west Godavari under irrigated conditions by the tribal farmers as supplementary income source apart from regular agriculture and allied activities. The productivity was found to be low when compared with district yield parameters due to poor management practices and lack of awareness on improved management practices in tomato cultivation. To address this need twenty six farmers in Pandugudem, lankalapalli and Kamaiahkunta villages of Buttaigudem mandal were trained in various improved management practices of tomato like use of high yielding varieties, raising seedlings under protected conditions, use of bio fertilizers and trellising method of cultivation of which twenty farmers adopted the technology and the yield improvement achieved was about 65.58 % over the traditional practice. This has helped the tribal farmers to get additional income of Rs. 1,52,948/- per acre. Introduction Tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum) is one of the most important vegetable crops of India. It is used as a vegetable, soup, salad, pickle, ketchup, puree, sauce and in many other ways. It is a good source of vitamin A, B and C. Tomato has acquired the status of world’s most popular vegetable crop due to its wider adaptability to various agro climatic conditions. At 117 present, tomatoes rank second, next to potato. The optimum day temperature for its better growth is between 25oC to 40oC and that of night is over 22oC. Due to the acceptance in any kind of Indian and continental recipes, it is the major vegetable crop cultivated in some of the district of Andhra Pradesh, In West Godavari district tomato is being cultivated in tribal areas in small pockets by the tribal farmers to get seasonal income for their families. The yield per hectare is very low in agency areas as compared to other parts of the district. Low yield per unit area can be attributed to the number of yield affecting factors such as low fertility of land, lack of knowledge on integrated nutrient management in tomato and low adoption of improved production technologies. To address the issue demonstrations were conducted in tribal villages i.e. Pandugudem, Lankalapalli and Kamaiahkunta of Buttaigudem mandal to make aware of the tomato growers about its scientific cultivation right from raising of good quality seedlings to harvesting to overcome the low productivity. Selecting appropriate hybrids or varieties based on location specific requirements and agro-climatic conditions are one of the simple and yet more efficient way to improve productivity of targeted crop (Singh et al., 2008). In the present study on performance of improved cultivation practices in tomato with hybrid Arka Samrat which is a triple resistant to diseases viz: bacterial wilt, early blight and leaf curl, fruits are oblate to high round, large (90-110g), Deep red and firm suitable for fresh market, with a yield potential of 80-85 t/ha. in 140 days was evaluated through On Farm Trial (OFT) conducted in farmer’s fields during rabi season 2015 and 2016. The study was carried out by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dr YSR Horticultural University, West Godavari. Total 20 trials were conducted on the selected farmer’s field of three villages covering an area of 4.0 ha. Transplantation was done during 2nd fortnight of October. The seed was obtained from IIHR, Bangalore and seedlings were raised in complete protected environment and 30 days old seedlings were distributed to the farmers after treatment with rhizobium culture before transplanting. The timely management of weed, application of recommended dose of fertilizers i.e.60 Kg N, 24 Kg P and 24 Kg P were applied as complete dose of P and K along with 20 tonnes of FYM per hectare as basal dose and three split doses of N at 30, 45 and 60 days after transplanting were done. The OFT was conducted to study the gaps between potential yield and demonstration yield and extension gap. In the present study, the data on output of tomato cultivation were recorded from trial plots, besides the data on local variety adopted by the farmers of this region were also collected. The demonstration farmers were facilitated by KVK scientists in performing field operations i.e. transplanting, trellising, weeding, harvesting, grading etc. during the course of training and visits. The technologies demonstrated are maintained and compared with local variety. The technology gap, extension gap and technological index (Samui et al., 2000) were calculated by using following formula as given below equations.

Demonstration yield - farmers yield Percent increase yield = ------x 100 Farmers yield

Technology gap = Potential yield -- Demonstrated yield

Extension gap = Demonstrated yield – Yield under existing practice

Potential yield - Demonstrated yield Technology index = ------x 100 Potential yield 118

Results of 20 OFTs conducted during rabi 2015 and 2016 in 8.0 ha area on farmers field of three villages of West Godavari district indicated that the cultivation practices under FLDs viz. demonstration of high yielding hybrid (Arka Samrat), recommended spacing (60 cm x 30 cm), fertilizer application, timely inter culture operations like weeding, staking, foliar application of neem and pongamia formulations 5% NSKE, micro nutrients and need based application of pesticides at economic threshold level. The average OFT yield was recorded as 194.50 q/ha. and 215.55 q/ha during 2015 and 2016 respectively, which were found 24.17 and 32.68 per cent consequently increased over local check. Data further shows that the yield of tomato in the year 2016 was increased successively which clearly speaks of the positive impact of OFT over farmer practice (Table 1). Application of organic manures would have helped in enhancing the metabolic activity through the supply of such important micronutrients in the early growth phase which in turn must have encouraged the overall growth. Dubey et al. (2012). This confirms the significance of conjunctive use of chemical and organic fertilizers than the individual one which might be due to the solubilization effect of plant nutrients by the addition of FYM and Vermicompost leading to increased uptake of NPK. The results indicated that OFT has given a good impact over tribal farming communities of West Godavari district as they were motivated by improved production technology in rabi tomato. Moreover, from first year onwards, farmers cooperated enthusiastically in carrying out trials which led to encouraging results in the second year.

The technology gap observed may be attributed to variability in the knowledge of the trained farmers over the other farmers. The extension gap which ranged from 48.34 to 103.58 q/ha during the period of study emphasized the need to educate the farmers through various means for the adoption of improved agricultural technologies to fill this wide extension gap. More adoption of recent production technologies will subsequently change this alarming trend galloping the extension gap. The technology index shows the feasibility of the evolved technology at the farmer’s field. The lowest value of technology index which indicate the more feasibility of the technology. The technology demonstrated in present OFT is completely new with regard to the cultivation of high yielding hybrid. Which require more external inputs? Those external inputs were provided by the KVK under technical programme. As such, less decreased technology index from 70.675 to 67.74 per cent indicated that the demonstrated technology was feasible if proper orientation is done for use of right inputs in right time (Table 1). The benefit cost ratio of the OFT fields (Table 2) revealed that B:C ratio from recommended practice were subsequently higher than the local check i.e. farmers practices during both the years of the demonstration. Average net return per hectare from the demonstration was Rs. 2, 91,280 and Rs. 3, 82,370, while from the local check Rs. 1, 74,262 and Rs. 1, 78,400 during the 2015 and 2016, respectively. The benefit cost ratio of demonstration and local check were observed 4.80 and 5.90 in trials where as 3.53 and 3.39 in farmers practice during the demonstration year 2015 and 2016, respectively. The present study has a significant positive result and gives researchers an opportunity to demonstrate the productivity potential and profitability of the recently developed technology under real farming situation, which they are advocating for long time. The results of the OFT convincingly brought out that the yield of tomato could be increased from 25.95 per cent to 61.15 per cent with the intervention of improved production technologies in tomato. From the above findings it can also be concluded that conducting the OFT in farmers field has reduced the extension and technology gap to a great extent. This could sustainably increase the adoption of improved production technology 119

there by getting higher yields and the income which could definitely improved the livelihood of tribal farmers in the district. Table 1: Productivity, Technology Gap, Technology Index, and Extension Gap of tomato as grown under OFT and farmers practice Year Area No. Demonstration Yield (q/ha) Yield of Potential Increased Extension Technology Technology

of Highest Lowest Average Farmer yield (q/ Yield (%) gap (q/ha) gap (q/ha) Index (%) FLDs practice ha) (q/ha)

2015 4.0 20 265.55 216.35 234.60 186.26 800.00 25.95 48.34 565.40 70.675

2016 4.0 20 328.25 235.25 296.08 192.50 800.00 61.15 103.58 501.92 67.74

Table 2: Economic Impact of Tomato as yield under OFT and farmers practice (traditional package of practices)

Year Cost of Cultivation (Rs./ha) Gross Return(Rs./ha) Net Return (Rs./ha) BC Ratio Demo. Local check Demo. Local check Demo. Local check Demo. Local check 201 5 60,620 49250 3,51,900 2,23,512 2,91,280 1,74,262 4.80:1 3.53:1 2016 64,750 52,600 4,47,120 2,31,000 3,82,370 1,78,400 5.90:1 3.39:1 References

1. Bahadur, A., Singh, J. and Singh, K.P. (2004).Response of cabbage to organic manures and biofertilizers. Indian J. Hort., 61(3):278-279. 2. Dubey, D.K., Singh, S.S., Verma, R.S. and Singh,P.K. (2012). Integrated nutrient management in garden pea (Pisum sativum var. hortense).HortFlora Res. Spectrum, 1(3) : 208-214. 3. Karlen D L and Stott 1994 A frame work for evaluating physical and chemical indicators of soil quality. In : Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment (J W Doran D C Coleman D F Bezdicek and B A Stewart Eds.). pp: 53-72. SSSA Special Publicaiton No.35, Soil Science Society of America, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. 4. Kumar, A., Sharma, S. and Mishra, S. (2009). Application of farmyard manure and vermicompost on vegetative and generative characteristics of Jatropha curcas. J. Phytopathol., 1(4): 206-222. 5. Kumar, N., Kumar, V. and Singh, M.C. (2012).Response of bio-organic nutrition on growth, yield and quality of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera Dunal.). HortFlora Res. Spectrum, 1(3) : 208-214. 6. Samui SK, Mitra S, Roy DK, Mandal AK and Saha D. 2000.Evaluation of front line demonstration on groundnut. 7. Sharma OP. 2003. Moth Bean yield improvement through Front Line Demonstration. Agricultural Extension Review. 15 (5): 11-3. 8. Singh AK, Manibhushan, Chandra N and Bharati RC. 2008.Suitable crop varieties for limited irrigated conditions in different agro climatic zones of India. Int. J. Trop. Agri. 26 (3-4): 491-6. 9. Singh D, Patel AK, Baghel SK, Singh MS, Singh A and Singh AK.2014. Impact of Front Line Demonstration on the Yield and Economics of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in Sidhi District of Madhya Pradesh.

------* Senior scientist and Head (Extension Education), **Director of Extension, Dr YSR Horticultural University, KVK, Venkataramannagudem

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Humanity, in the course of time, had to endure from the hands of science two great outrages against its naive self-love. The first was when humanity discovered that our earth was not the center of the universe…. The second occurred when biological research robbed man of his apparent superiority under special creation, and rebuked him with his descent from the animal kingdom, and his ineradicable animal nature. — Sigmund Freud

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in India *Dr. S. Pratima Kumari, & M. Rama Satyavathi; **. Kusuma Kumari, & K. Sushma,; ***Girish Dasgupta & Kanishkan Dasgupta Abstract The advancement of science, technology and economic development since industrial revolution has improved peoples materialistically. However environmental pollution and resource consumption have threatened living organisms and the destiny of the earth environment. Environmental problems and the solutions of mankind, the concept of sustainable development and the efforts for implementing sustainable development as a strategy in India have been discussed in this paper as well. Suggestions have been made for accepting the challenges of environmental pollution and resource conservation. Protection and sustainable development is very essential for overall growth of the nation. It is the poor the disadvantage the women and the children which will suffer if we do not follow the protocol. So the government should emphasize more on the harmonic balanced development. Science law and the government has major role to play for the above purpose. Key words: Environmental protection, Sustainable development, Environmental pollution ********* Introduction: Sustainable development is a process for meeting human development goals while sustaining the ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depends. While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived most strongly from the 1987, Brundtland report, it is rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and 20th century environmental concerns. As the concept developed, it has shifted to focus more on economic 121 development, social development and environmental protection. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in resource consumption. Edward Barbier published the study The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development, where he recognized that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and can be reinforcing each other. Sustainable development is the organizing principle for sustaining finite resources necessary to provide for the needs of future generations of life on the planet. It is a process that envisions a desirable future state for human societies in which living conditions and resource- use continue to meet human needs without undermining the "integrity, stability and beauty" of natural biotic systems. Sustainability can be defined as the practice of maintaining processes of productivity indefinitely natural or human made by replacing resources used with resources of equal or greater value without degrading or endangering natural biotic systems. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political, and economic challenges faced by humanity. Sustainability in science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development and environmental science. There is an additional focus on the present generations' responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generation. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) On September 2015, the United Nations General Assembly formally adopted the "universal, integrated and transformative" 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The goals are to be implemented and achieved in every country from the year 2016 to 2030. Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs while preserving the life support systems of the planet. This, for example, entails using water sustainably, utilizing renewable energy, and sustainable material supplies (e.g. harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the biomass and biodiversity. Inherently the concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain human life. If the degradation continues beyond a certain tipping point or critical threshold it would lead to eventual extinction for humanity. Environmental problems and the solutions: 1. Agriculture Sustainable agriculture consists of environmentally-friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. Elements of sustainable agriculture include perm culture, agro forestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation. 2. Ecological economics: It has been suggested that because of rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital. 3. Environmental economics The total environment includes not just the biosphere of earth, air, and water, but also human interactions, with nature, and what humans have created as their surroundings. As countries around the world continue to advance economically, they put a strain on the ability of the natural environment to absorb the high level of pollutants that are created as a part of economic growth. Therefore, solutions need to be found so that the economies of the world can continue 122

to grow, but not at the expense of the public good. In the world of economics the amount of environmental quality must be considered as limited in supply and therefore is treated as a scarce resource. This is a resource to be protected and the only real efficient way to do it in a market economy is to look at the overall situation of pollution from a benefit-cost perspective. It then becomes essentially an allocation of resources, based on an evaluation of the expected course of action and the consequences of this action, when compared to an alternative course of action that might allocate the limited resources in a different way. 4. Energy Sustainable energy is clean and can be used over a long period of time. Unlike fossil fuels that most countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution. The most common types of renewable energy in US are hydroelectric, solar and wind energy. Solar energy is commonly used on public parking meters, street lights and the roof of buildings. Fossil fuels create lot of toxicants. These toxicants are major contributors to health problems in the communities. As renewable energy becomes more common, fossil fuel infrastructures are replaced by renewable, providing better social equity to communities. 5. Manufacturing Technology One of the core concepts in sustainable development is that technology can be used to assist people meet their developmental needs. Technology to meet these sustainable development needs is often referred to as appropriate technology, which is an ideological movement. Open source appropriate technology OSAT has been proposed as a new model of enabling innovation for sustainable development. 6. Transport Transportation is a large contributor to green house gas emissions. It is said that one-third of all gasses produced are due to transportation. Motorized transport also releases exhaust fumes that contain particulate matter which is hazardous to human health and a contributor to climate change. Sustainable transport has many social and economic benefits that can accelerate local sustainable development. The federal government has to come up with some plans to reduce the total number of vehicle trips in order to lower greenhouse gases emission. Steps to be taken Such as:  Improve public transit through the provision of larger coverage area in order to provide more mobility and accessibility, new technology to provide a more reliable and responsive public transportation network.  Encourage walking and biking through the provision of wider pedestrian pathway, bike share station in commercial downtown, locate parking lot far from the shopping centre, limit on street parking, and slower traffic lane in downtown area. Increase the cost of car ownership and gas taxes through increased parking fees and tolls, encouraging people to drive more fuel efficient vehicles. They can produce social equity problem, since lower people usually drive older vehicles with lower fuel efficiency. Government can use the extra revenue collected from taxes and tolls to improve the public transportation and benefit the poor community 7. Architecture In sustainable architecture the recent movements of New Classical and New Urbanism architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design. This in contrast 123

to modernist and International style architecture, mainly seen in solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl, with long commuting distances and large ecological footprints. Both trends started in the 1980s. (It should be noted that sustainable architecture is predominantly relevant to the economics domain while architectural landscaping pertains more to the ecological domain. 8. Politics A study concluded that social indicators and, therefore, sustainable development indicators, are scientific constructs whose principal objective is to inform public policy-making. The International Institute for Sustainable Development has similarly developed a political policy framework, linked to a sustainability index for establishing measurable entities and metrics. The framework consists of six core areas: 1. International trade and investment, 2. Economic policy 3. Climate change 4. Energy measurement and assessment 5. Natural resource management and 6. Role of communication technologies in sustainable development. United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme have listed seven sub domains of the domain of politics 1. Organization and governance 2. Law and justice 3. Communication and critique 4. Representation and negotiation 5. Security and accord 6. Dialogue and reconciliation 7. Ethics and accountability These accords with the Brundtland Commission emphasizes on development that is guided by human rights principles. Progress The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD; also known as Rio 2012) was the third international conference on sustainable development, which aimed at reconciling the economic and environmental goals of the global community. An outcome of this conference was the development of the Sustainable Development Goals that aim to promote sustainable progress and eliminate inequalities around the world. However, few nations met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development criteria established in 2006. Although some nations are more developed than others, all nations are constantly developing because each nation struggles with perpetuating disparities, inequalities and unequal access to fundamental rights and freedoms. ------References 1. Lynn R. Kahle, EdaGurel-Atay, Eds (2014). Communicating Sustainability for the Green Economy. New York: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-3680-5. 2. Finn (2009), pp. 3–8 124

3. Ulrich Grober: Deep roots — A conceptual history of "sustainable development" (Nachhaltigkeit), Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin fürSozialforschung, 2007 4. Blewitt (2015), pp. 6–16 5. Blewitt (2015), p. 7 6. . The Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership. 7. "LEDS in Practice: Create jobs". The Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership. 8. "LEDS in Practice: Make roads safe". The Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership. 9. LEDS in Practice: Save money and time". The Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership. 10. Barbour, Elissa and Elizabeth A. Deakin. 2012. "Smart Growth Planning for Climate Protection" 11. Murthy, A.S. Narasimha, Mohle, Henry. Transportation Engineering Basics (2nd Edition). (American Society of Cilil Engineers 2001).

------*Lecturers in Zoology, **Lecturers in Botany, ***Young Scholars. Ch. S. D. St. Theresas College for Women, Eluru. Ph: 9704348555, [email protected],

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1 No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Millets for health & nutritional security for rural/tribal house holds E.Karunasree* and R.V.S.K. Reddy** Abstract: Krishi Vigyan Kendra,Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari is working in 25 up land mandals of West Godavari with rural and tribal farm families as their main clientele. As a part of mandated activities KVK has been conducting trainings, demonstrations an entrepreneurship development programmes to rural and tribal women to popularize the best utilization practices of millets which are considered as rich sources of essential nutrients for the human health and to prevent life style diseases. Standardization of recipes by utilizing the processed millets and preparation of value added products was taken up at KVK level and later the selected rural/ tribal women were trained in these aspects. Successful women trainees were encouraged to take up entrepreneurship activity by registering the brand name through Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) to enable them enter into commercial markets for supplementary income and self employment. Tribal farmers are being encouraged the cultivation of millet crops to enable the availability of raw material to the processing units with quality and affordable prices which can further strengthen the activity by linkage of seed to table value chain to combat the causes and remedies for hidden hunger in rural/ tribal population. Introduction: Small millets may be defined as millets cultivated for their small grains which are borne on short, slender grassy plants. Small millets as a group include several grain crops viz., finger millet (Ragi), Kodi Millet (Kodo), Foxtail millet (Kangni), Barnyard millet (Sawan), Proso millet (Cheema) and little millet (Kutki) in present days they are popular as nutri-cereals, owing to their high calcium, Iron, fiber and other quality aspects.  Millets are small grained cereals, the smallest of them include finger, Kodo, Foxtail, Proso, Little and Barnyard millets. 125

 They are the staple food of the millions in habituated the arid and semiarid tropics of the world.  They are distributed in most of the Asian and African countries and parts of Europe.  The grains of small millets, being nutritionally superior to rice and wheat, provide economic sources of proteins, minerals and vitamins to poorest of the poor.  Indefinite storage life.  Nutritional superiority makes the small millets as potential future food crops particularly in the more difficult rain fed areas.  Suitable crop in the areas of famine. Six Reasons to Eat Millets  They are desi grains  Rich in Dietary Fiber and Protein  Low glycemic load  Anti oxidants and cholesterol lowering properties.  Slow releasing Carbohydrates.  Helps nutrition & increases metabolism. Crop improvement work on small millets in India under the co-ordinate programme started in 1964, the launching of a separate coordinated millet improvement project in 1969 helped in giving greater attention to these crops. All India Co-ordinate Small Millets Improvement Project has been launched in the Seventh Plan in 1986. Its objectives are:  Diversification of the varietal base by evolving high yielding, disease resistant and widely adaptable genotypes in various small millets.  Development of efficient production technologies using low monetary inputs.  Identification of ideal crop mixtures and evolving production systems involving pulses and oilseeds as component crops.  Intensification of research on plant health and evolution of cheap and efficient plant protection methods.  To identify alternate uses for grain in poultry, dairy and in agro-based industries to enhance their economic value. Due to the efforts made to popularize the cultivation and utilization aspects of various millets, there is a considerable increase in the use of these nutritionally important small grains in the daily food. These traditional food grains can be used for preparation of various modern bakery foods like biscuits, cake, breakfast foods etc., apart from traditional food recopies. Methodology: Important underutilized minor millets that can be cultivated in the country under rain fed conditions, which are having nutritive values and can be utilized for processing and preparation of value added foods. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Venkataramannagudem has conducted series of trainings on nutrition and health care of rural and tribal women as a part of their regular mandate. The target group was motivated to use the following grain cereals in their regular diet by demonstrating both traditional and modern recipes of preparation of foods. Foxtail millet (Sateria Italica):

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Crop is domesticated in Eastern Asia and known to the Chinese as early as 2,700 BC (Purseglove, 1985). It is essentially a crop of the sub-tropical and temperate zones, The main production areas in Japan, China, India and Eastern Europe). Common name: Kangani, Navane, Tenai, Korra and Rala Distribution: Karnataka, Tamailnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and North Eastern states. Season: June to September (Kharif). Variety: Krishnadevaraya, Godavari, TNAU-186, TNAU-196, TNAU-43,Srilakshmi. Duration: 85 - 96 days. Yield: 20 – 22 q/ha. Recepies with Korra: Korra Rice : Ingredients : Korra - 1 Cup : Water- 2 Cups Like Rice, dehulled Korra grain should be washed thoroughly and cook till it is done and can be served with any Dhal or Curry. Korra Pulihora : Ingredients : Korra - 1 Cup Water - 2 Cups Lime Juice - 2 Spoons Seasonings - Korra Rice is cooked and kept aside. Heat oil and add all seasonings one by one and finally mix it with Korra rice and lime juice. Korra Upma : Ingredients : Korra Ravva : 1Cup Water : 2 ½ Cups Mix Vegetable: 1Cup Seasonings : Heat oil and add all seasonings, add chopped vegetables(Carrot, beans, Capsicum, Pear etc.) and allow it on low flame to done. Add Korra ravva and mix thoroughly Boil water separately and slowly add to the mixture of vegetable and Korra Ravva. Cook on low flame till it is to the consistency; add little ghee on top if needed. Little Millet (Panicum Sumatranse) : Little millet is grown to a limited extent in India, up to altitudes of 2,100m. It occurs wild in northern India and southern Asia. Cultivation confined to India only. Cultivated Area is about 0.5 m ha Common name: Kutki, Samai, Samalu etc. Distribution: Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa and Gujarat. Season: June to October Variety: OLM-20, OLM-203, TNAU-63, Payur-2, OLM-36, Birsa Gundly Duration : 60-90 days Yield : 8-12q/ha Recepies with Sama: 127

Sama Rice : Ingredients: Sama - 1 Cup Water- 2 Cups Like Rice, Dehulled Sama grain should be washed thoroughly and cook till it is done and can be served with any Dhal or Curry. Sama Idli: Sama - 3 Cups Blackgram - 1 Cup Fenugreek- 1 Spoon Salt- As per the taste Soak Sama and Black gram separately for 8 – 10 hours / overnight. Fenugreek can be added to soaking Black gram. Grind Black gram to smooth paste and Sama to Coarse paste and mix thoroughly. Allow it for fermentation for 8 -10 hours. Take in Idli mold & steam for 10 minutes. Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum): It was well known to the Romans, and became the common millet. This is essentially a crop of the temperate regions, but is also grown in the sub-tropics and on high ground in tropical winters. Highly drought tolerant crop Common Name: Cheena, Panivaragu, Vasiga, Baragu Distribution: Tamilnadu, Parts of Hmalayan regions Season: June to October Variety: GPUP-8, GPUP-21, CO-4, K-1, Sagar, Nagarjun. Duration: 60-70 days. Yield: 9-18q/ha Recepies with Proso Millet: Variga Coconut Rice: Ingredients: Variga - 1Cup Water - 2Cups Desicated Fresh Coconut - 1Cup Carrot - 1 Variga Rice cooked and add fresh Coconut and mix thoroughly. Variga Mango Rice: Ingredients: Variga - 1Cup Water - 2Cups Grated Mango(raw) - 4 Spoons Salt & seasonings Cook variga rice and keep aside. Fry all seasonings and add mango grate and finally mix with rice. Kodo Millet (Pasphalum scrobiculatum): Kodo millet is grown as a cereal in India only, although the wild grass is a wide spread tropical weed. The crop has been grown for at least 3,000 years, yet de Wet et al. wild, weed, and cultivated types merged in all the characters studied. Cultivated from more than 3,000 years. Total area of Cultivation is about 0.7 m ha. Common name: Kodo, Varahu, Haraka, Haraka Srikalu Distribution: Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamilnadu. 128

Season: June to end of July(Hills) Variety: GPUK-3, RBK-155, JK-76, JK-62 Yield: 18-20 q/ha Finger millet ( Eleusine Coracana(L.) Gaertn.) : Finger millet is originally native to the Ethiopian highlands and was introduced into India approximately 4,000 years ago. It is highly adaptable to higher elevations and is grown in the Himalayas up to an altitude of 2,300 m.It is the most important small millet in the tropics (12% of global millet area) and is cultivated in more than 25 countries in Africa(eastern and southern) and Asia. The major producers are Uganda, India, Nepal and China. Finger millet has high yield potential (> 10 t/ha under optimum irrigated conditions) and grain stores very well.In India, it is cultivated on 1.8 million ha, with average yields of 1.3 t/ha; The major finger millet growing states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. Nutritive values of some important underutilized minor millets Crop Protein Fat Ash Fiber CHO Energy Calcium Iron Thiamine Riboflavin (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (Kal.) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) Foxtail millet 7.2 4.0 3.3 6.7 63.2 351 31 2.8 0.59 0.11 Panicum sumatranse 9.7 5.2 5.4 7.6 60.9 329 17 9.3 0.3 0.09 Panicum miliaceum 12.5 3.1 4.5 7.2 70.4 285 28 1.9 0.4 - Pasphalum scrobiculatum 8.3 1.4 - 9.0 65.9 - 2.6 (Minerals) 0.33 -

Eleusine coracana L. 7.7 1.5 2.6 3.6 72.6 338 350 3.9 0.42 0.19 Potential for Small Millet Improvement in India  The small millets are often grown in difficult conditions, and it is scarcely surprising that they involve high production risk.  Crops for situation where there is a risk of famine, as well as offering a low hut more reliable harvest relative to other crops in low rainfall areas.  Have good potential for livestock feed in the dryzones.  Good grain producers with modest water needs and also as producers of forage  They can make good use of any irrigation water available after the main crops have been harvested  Small millets are fitted into more production cropping patterns.  Wide adaptation  Withstand a certain degree of soil acidity and alkalinity stress due to moisture and temperature and variation soils from heavy to sandy infertile soils.  Small millets grown from the extreme southern tip of India at sea level to the temperature.  Northern Himalayan areas up to an altitude of 3,000 mt with consequent variation in photoperiod from short to long days. Processing and Value Addition to Millets Dehulling of Grains  Manual dehulling of coarse grains for use as boiled product is a traditional but tedious process.  Mechanical dehulling equipment is drudgery reducing and most feasible technology for value addition to coarse grains.  The dehulling machine is a very compact unit which can dehull about 6 kg of grain per batch.  The Dehulling time required ranges between 5 to 7 minutes for various grains. 129

 The Dehulled grain can be converted into fine coarse semolina or into fine, smooth flour.  The process removes the coarse outer husk, reducing tannin and fibre levels and thereby improved digestibility and availability of nutrients.  Greater potentiality for value addition and establishment of small scale enterprise.  Unit cost consisting of dehulling and milling machinery and accessories Rs.1,00,000/- Baking Units  Conventional baking units.  Modern electrical ovens.  Small scale LPG based ovens. Extruders Commercial extruders are readily available to develop various extruded products with maize, sorghum, with an investment cost of about Rs.15 lakhs. Ingredients: Maize grits, Carrot pieces, Curry leaf (500) powder, spices, Red palm oil, Pepper & Salt Procedure:  Wash and shade dry the Carrot pieces / curry leaves and powder to pass through 250um screen.  Moisten the maize grits with water @ 10 ml/kg.  Feed the mix into extruder maintained at a temperature of 1200C and 20 – 30 atmosphere pressure.  Allow the mix to pass through a small aperture of size 4mm into puffy product at the rate of 1,700 pieces / 30 minutes.  Season the Puffs Heat the product for 5 minutes in an oven maintained at 40 – 450C to crispy and pack in HDPE bags. Impact of Vocational Training on Millet processing and Value addition taken up by KVK, Venkataramannagudem in tribal villages of West Godavari District. Vocational training being the one of the important mandate of KVK, One year back 30 tribal self help group women were underwent the vocational training programme (4 days) on processing and value addition in millets from 5.12.2015 to 8.12.2015 was arranged to them at Krishi Vigyan Kendra,Venkataramannagudem,West Godavari. During the training period they acquired the knowledge related to the nutritional importance of millets, methods of millet processing, millet based product preparation and use of machinery in millet processing. After completion of the training 30 SHG women were motivated to form two common interest groups and they were named “Girivanitha” and “Giriposhana”. KVK Venkataramannagudem has played a vital role in imparting knowledge and skill on millet processing and value addition and also provided machinery and equipment i.e multiple pulverizer and LPG based oven to these two groups under Tribal sub plan activity for the year 2015-16. The Girivanitha group is lead by smt.P.Bullemma from Bandarlagudem village and Giriposhana group is working under the leadership of Smt.M.Lakshmi Devi from Rajanagaram village. The ITDA has provided an amount of Rs.30,000/- as resolving fund to each group and KVK facilitated to procure all required material and equipment to take up the activity. Registration of brand name in the of SRI FOODS was completed under food safety and standards authority of India during the month of January, 2016 and two groups started preparation of millet based malt and biscuits at the centers. 130

Nutritional analysis report of standardized multi grain mix Prepared by KVK trainees S.No. Nutrient Units Value 1. Carbohydrates g/100g 69.60 2. Protein g/100g 14.64 3. Fat g/100g 5.18 4. Crude Fiber g/100g 2.58 5. Moisture g/100g 8.79 6. Calcium as Ca g/100g 0.13 7. Iron as Fe mg/100g 5.37 8. Sodium as Na Mg/100g 2.04 9. Zinc as Zn Mg/100g 2.76 10 Energy K.cal/100g 384 11. B complex vitamins Mg/100g 0.50

The multipurpose mix prepared in a combination of cereal, Pulse and oil seed with 60:30:10 ratio with above nutrient values is being utilized for preparation of biscuits and also marketed as multi grain atta for using for preparation of various breakfast and snack items like biscuits, cakes, dosa, pulka and porridge to cater the various health and nutritional needs of the family members. Girivanitha and Giriposhana groups were supplying their products in 26 tribal welfare schools. Every week approximately both the groups supply about 800kg (400 kg each) of product to schools. Every month each group is getting an amount of Rs 2,00,000 under supplementary nutrition programme of the tribal welfare schools. After deducting their expenses, remaining amount is shared among the group members by the way of working wages @ Rs.150/- per day and remaining amount is being utilized as share capital to prepare the products for further marketing. The outside marketing is also being taken by the group members to nearby super markets in Eluru, Koyyalagudem, Rajahmundry and local shandies in the villages. The groups exhibit their products in all the exhibitions and meetings through Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Venkataramannagudem which gives an advertisement to their products freely. Seeing the success, the activity was also spread to the tribal villages of East Godavari district by training 90 tribal women and establishing two units where the other KVK is functioning under the administrative control of the same university and supported by ITDA, Rampachodavaram, East Godavari District. ------References: 1. Chavan U. D., Yewale K. V. and Dayakar Rao B. 2016. Preparation of bread and cookies from sorghum flour. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research. Vol. 7(5): 11145-53 2. Dayakar Rao B, Mohamed Anis, Kalpana K, Sunooj KV, Patil J V and Ganesh T. 2016. Influence of milling methods and particle size on hydration properties of sorghum flour and quality of sorghum biscuits. LWT - Food Science and Technology. Vol. 67: 8-13. 3. Dayakar Rao B, Bhargavi G, Kalpana K, Vishala A D, Ganapathy K N and Patil J V. 2015. Development and standardization of sorghum pasta using extrusion technology. Journal of Food Science and Technology. Vol. 52(10): 6828-6833. 4. Dayakar Rao B, Saikat M and Mukesh P. 2015. Entrepreneurship development in millets. Indian Farming Special issue. Vol. 65(4):66-68 5. Hariprasanna K and Dayakar Rao B. 2016. Small Millets in India-current scenario and way forward. Indian Farming Special issue. Vol. 65(12):8-13 131

6. Shankaran, S., 1994, Prospects for coarse grains in India. Agricultural Situation in India,49(5) : 319-323. 7. Stanly P.., Joseph Michaelraj A. Shanmugam. A Study on millets based cultivation and consumption in India. International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services & Management research. ISSN 2277-3622 Vol.2, No. 4, April (2013) ------* Senior scientist and Head (Extension Education), **Director of Extension, Dr YSR Horticultural University, KVK, Venkataramannagudem

My plant-based diet plus fish is to credit for my low blood pressure, high energy, and robust immunity. David H. Murdock Juices of fruits and vegetables are pure gifts from Mother Nature and the most natural way to heal your body and make yourself whole again.

Farnoosh Brock

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Breaking Silences and Shaping Destinies - Resonant Voices of Post Modern Indian English Women Poets. Dr. R. Madhavi, If a poem works, it is so because it is just that a poem. It is a poem not due, but in spite of the poet's ethnicity, his/ her ideology. Perhaps the classical assumption of "apaururusheya" approximates to this. The death of the author perhaps, is a necessary precondition for a poem to move in its autonomy. Adrienne Rich said, “language is a map of our failures" and so poems are successes to the extent of inviolate individuals, cultures and languages. Roland Barthes opined “the text you write must prove to me that it desires Me." the proof exists: it is writing which is the science of the various blisses of languages and its Kama Sutra" (Selected Writings p.405). This lead just to the premise that situated between languages and cultures a poem’s job is not to mediate but to dramatize. The construct of the poem is experiential and its immediate and ultimate concerns. Poetry written by modern Indian English poets is an attempt to map the interior and exterior landscapes of personality is caught in the universal as well as particular human experiences with regard to gender, race, region and nationality. " I write for myself and for my friends, I write to ease the passing of time". This opinion of Jorge Luis Borges applies to the contemporary Indian English poetry see in which is so prolific in reflection indigenous teams, life and variegated facets of a modern nation. Indian poetry by women marginalised literary 132 discipline has today been incorporated into the Canon as a definitive index for the study of the variegated life of a nation. Indian English poetry by women has formed a rich ingredient of world women's literature which has come to the fore as a literary and linguistic documentation of feminism, postmodernism and post colonialism and a sociological document for registering people’s advancements or regressions. Its special progression towards realism, transparency and radicalism for breaking out of the prescribed zones or norms of patriarchy has given at the importance of a socio cultural and national record of the new age. The varied literature of the exploited peripheral races, communities and of subjugated women struggling to have their voices heard, are being included in mainstream literature as a welcome sign of comprehensive development. Women’s poetry hence becomes a window to both her creative and feminist selves operating at a subtle, literary epistemological and activist level. “What I was as a poet is a result of what I am in all aspects of my aspects of my life… Woman’s experience and socialization on the whole is different… The battle is to validate the material… the stuff of woman’s lives, woman’s experience, not to “transcend being a woman”. Other than the feminine and the feministic themes, women’s poetry affords a wide area of examination of multicultural and pluralistic motifs. It also leads us to view the newly evolving non-traditional roles and situations of women in a fast-developing society, the consequent problems and gender issues and the post- modernist poetic devices and approaches. Thus, the understanding and interpretation of women’s poetry and literature becomes a prerequisite for the evaluation of the national progress and its vital linkages with international growth. In the post- modern age, Indian English poetry by women has broken out of the starched, plagiaristic romantic mould of yester years and has embraced a more open, experimental, elliptical and fluid style and diction to accommodate the authentic fall and rise of women’s experience and feelings. The poetry has graduated from being a vehicle for the expression of a repressed creativity to an assured and cognitive recording of primary human experiences. The English poetic idiom and form developed and used by these poets is convincingly and deliberately close to everyday, real life speech rhythms. The use of alternative language structures to accentuate the movement against marginalization is attempted by these women. This exercise has made Virginia Woolf’s specification that “the women writer must make her own sentence, altering and adapting the current sentence until she writes one that the natural shape of thought” come true. Thus the esoteric and elitist have given a way to populist, accessible and feministic colloquial idiom. Gauri Deshpande’s lines reflect this style of today’s poets. Sometimes you wish to talk About love and despair And the ungratefulness of children With regard to the new trends and techniques in women’s poetry there is a remarkable movement connecting the public and domestic spheres. Increased metropolitan activities, sophisticated lifestyles, and globalization café’ cultures, influence of pop, disco culture along with the assimilation of pan-Indian elements have made their poetry a formidable art of study and research. Other than this, poets use the semiotic, symbolical and metaphorical properties of languages to emphasize the feminist strategies of interrogation. The problems of gender in equities, marginalization and sub-humanization of women, of their social and artistic exclusion and of a dominant need for inclusion and democratization all contributes towards the distinctive character of this poetry. They adopt a holistic approach with an all compassing intellect and 133 imagination which focus on minute details of people, locale, events, background and fore ground, making the poems thickly structured and dense. There is a disarming way in which the structure of the poems integrates with the themes merging “woman, image and text”. A most important trend since the 1960’s has been the all-pervading confessional element that was pioneered by Kamala Das’s fiery entry into the realm. It is this element of fierce independence and transcendence of categorization that set the stage for women’s poetry to becoming a meaningful canon worth reckoning. New modes of artistic expression, over- riding sexual connotations and anguished human concerns are reflected in most of the post- modern poets like Eunice de Souza, Sujatha Bhatt, Meena Alexander, Tejdeep Kaur, Sunithi Namjoshi and others. The full complexity of life comes alive in the personal voice of the woman poet, which goes beyond restrictive techniques. Dismantling of structure for the creation of alternatives, use of new experimental forms have made women’s poetry reveal an emotional and evocative substructure supporting the main cerebral rhythms and patterns. Clitorises? Tongues? Hair? Noses? Uteri? Breasts? Words, silences, Structures we uphold: I implore you Should a woman Dare to speak out aloud About how she has been Mauled by love or hate Suffer her to speak Do not shut her up These lines from Ketaki Dyson’s poem ‘After Reading the Hidden Face of Eve’, throw light on the emerging themes and dimensions of modern Indian poetry. On the other hand diasporic experiences, displacement of woman, angst of immigrant experience, has also become an important component of post-colonial Feminist poetry interrogating patriarchal constructs that subjugate women. Indian women’s poetry in English has traversed a long way from Sarojini Naiduto Suniti Namjoshi, from Toru Dutt to Sujatha Bhatt in the past few decades absorbing a variety of influences, dealing with a range of themes and generating diverse strategies of poetic expression. Each one of them has tried to speak a distinctly personal voice; yet they form a part of the chorus, a collective voice asserting the autonomy of women. A quick analysis of the collective aspects reveals crisscross patterns of female bonding etched out in these texts. A poet who has rejected patriarchal territoriality and who tried to retrieve a lost heritage of women is Suniti Namjoshi. The persona in the poem “From baby F with much love” asks her mother “We loved those kindly gentleman, I mean Your own father and your daughter’s father But in our long ancestry, where are the women? I know I should feel proud but I feel Like a beggar” She directly addresses the need to legitimize lesbianism and condemns the oppression a woman faces under patriarchal assumptions. The resultant schizophrenic life a woman is subjected to includes isolation, hatred and intra women violence. Namjoshi’s poetry is a 134 powerful weapon revealing her unfortunate and rueful state filled with cynicism and disgust. Rationale brings out her spit and venom at the whole creation of god. Her collection of poems Jackass and the Lady and Blue Donkey Fables celebrate lesbian criticism. In the Arbitrary Order she questions the logic of asserting the intimacy of heterosexuality as the only acceptable sexual order. Namjoshi finds an apt metaphor for lesbianism in the ritual of Maenads who enable women to leave their homes and mingle with their sisters asserting their joys, desires and ecstasies. In recreating the violent Maenad ritual, Namjoshi points out that women’s collective resistance to patriarchy is neither new nor shocking. Poems like I Give her the Rose celebrate eroticism in telling images from nature. As a voice of lesbianism, Suniti Namjoshi strikes a different note from contemporary poets. Her restlessness and persistent quest to find solutions to loneliness, insecurity ,crisis of identity and inner conflict finds an outlet through her poetry. Boldly lesbian in stance she attacks gender exploitation and rejects stereotyping of women. For her “Compulsory heterosexuality is a repressive social structure that systematically subordinates women.” Boldness and audacity in expressing sexual desires along with schizophrenic existence is explicit in most of her poems such as Well then let Slip the Masks and other Poems. Another poet who writes about the woman question is Eunice de Souza. Her poetry substantiates Simone de Beauvoir’s statement “One is not born a Woman, one becomes one” when she writes of how she was “a burly little girl/ who knocked her sissy cousins down” (Visit) Yet as she grows up she was forced into developing “feminine skills” forcing her into a phallocratic society leaving her confused and anchorless. The poet confesses “I am still learning / to cross the road” (The Road) Built upon her memories of Goan Catholic life in Poona De Souza’s verse represents the community’s repression, prejudices and ignorance and expresses her private fears, anxieties, anger guilt, desires and hopes. Strict economy of expression, abrupt endings and easy direction lend to her poetry spontaneity and charm that is distinctive. Though articulated comment is not her style, a close examination of her language is suggestive of de Souza’s rebellious resentment of the suppression of the female and gender discrimination. Like Kamala Das, de Souza repudiates the refined lady – like idiom of earlier women writers to register their rejection of the norms of patriarchy. To protest against their marginalized status and the social and sexual inequalities suffered by women in patriarchal society, “they resort to the rejection of the language of those in power created for the politics of patriarchy.” Different aspects of male domination and oppression of women with by de Souza, the poew “Catholic Mother “is an ironic denouncement of the traditional role assigned to women as wife and mother excluding her form a public or an independent identity. The woman is labelled “Pillar of the Church” by the Parish Priest. “The pillar’s wife says nothing” yet “She’s had seven children in seven years.” Thus in her silence de Souza’s denigration against exploitation, degradation and suffering can be sensed. The poem “Miss Luise” satires notions of romantic love, marriage promoted by patriarchy, on the other hand “Marriages are Made” is an ironic poew drawing attention to the reality of the women’s plight. “Forgive Me, Mother” focuses on the mother – daughter relationship with the mother as the inculcator of patriarchal codes of sexual repression in her daughters. The lines: It was a kill or die And you got me anyway 135

The blood congeals at lover’s touch The guts dissolve in shit Suggest that the mother herself is instrumental in socializing children into traditional gender roles and acceptance of a value system that serves male interests. The resentment aroused by such sexual prudery is voiced in the lines. In dreams/ I hate you Women are themselves responsible for their own victimization and perpetuation of the injustices meted out to them. Preferences for the male child in the Indian milieu is represented in “de Souza Prabhu”. Such poems remind of the willingness of women to collude with man, arising perhaps from self-contempt and scorn for other members of her own sex, a tendency Adrienne Rich terms “horizontal hostility”. As Simone de Beauvoir opined that men compel women to assume the “status of other”, all women experience a sense of alienation and loneliness The stare of perpetual surprise In those great green eyes Will teach you To die alone The marginalized, trivialized woman can only hope for a full membership in the human race, through revolt and defiance of the politics of patriarchy. De Souza’s poetry suggests a need to “transcend self” despite a world crumbling around, despite the ridicule and humiliation the creative, independent woman is subjected to. Women must forge a sisterhood based on the commonality of women’s experience. The poem “For S, who wonders If I get much joy out of life” suggests the need for women to subvert traditionally held values and structures advantageous to male. The struggle for self-realization and freedom is carried further in “ I choose not to Marry you, love” There is a poison in my tongue I maul, I calcify, I am a rib again The underlying message of de Souza’s poetry is evident; the non-conformist assertive modern woman can surely hope to ‘love happily ever after’ Students, friends, mothers, aunts Not always there But on call often enough. A poet who writes of the anguish of immigrants when they start to lose the language they are born into is Sujatha Bhatt. Using Asia, Europe and North America as her poetic landscapes she has brought out three volumes of poems using free verse with delicacy, poise and effect. The unique feature of her oeuvre is the use of bi-lingual poetry to explore the anguish of self-divided between different cultures. In the poem Udaylee she explores with haunting sentiment the state of menstruating women who are deemed untouchable during that period according to the beliefs and practices in the Guajarati community of her childhood1991) Only paper and wood is safe From a menstruating women’s touch So they built this room For us, next to the cowshed Bhatt’s Gujarthi mother tongue figures prominently in her poems in all her books. In her second volume Monkey Shadows(1991) the protagonist in the poem Devibhen Pathak says at different 136 points of the poem ‘Chaal Chaal, Sapat payhri lay, Let’s go put on your slippers‘. Bhatt uses the actual Devanagari script to create a fusion of linguistic scales and registers, thereby providing an interesting east-west encounter. It is in her volume The Stinking Rose (1995) that she deals with the aspect of belonging and un- belonging, rootless and transience, physical and mental, travel and diasporic dislocation all explored with power and poignancy. The world of art and literature feature vibrantly in this volume. On the other hand, her volume Point to Point contains aspects of her multi-cultural views of her growing up in America, of her Indian family and her German marriage. With three collections of poetry to her credit- Between Births, Lost Love, and Beyond the Slaughter House, Gauri Deshpande stands as a conspicuous figure in Indian Women’s poetry in English. Her preoccupations lie with the sensibility characteristic of the feminine world and inner quest or self-search in order to overcome the experience of loneliness, loss, and the pain consequent to it. Her pre-occupation with Death results in her attempts to overcome feelings of alienation. Her collection of poems, Between Births opens seriously with reflections on death as the poet awaits” impatiently / As I would a tardy lover” because the “journey is the deathward slope of life’. Further reiteration of her willingness to meet death is laconically worded in the haiku Farewell Death has stuck a note Clear and blue on the piano And I go. Her other predominant concern in this volume is loneliness and loss. Loneliness has many faces and the metaphor of separation is home-spun with a touch of characteristic feminine sensibility. No more is the busy thread of my life Linked though the eye of the needle. Sometimes it is like a journey, or a ‘dry static brook’ or a night that fails to mask the lover’s absence. Memories intensify the pain of alienation. In the poem ‘Re- Memories’ a number of visual images increase the pain of alienation. Nothingness makes life a mere hollow task as futile as “hoping to grow a seed in sand and on rock.” But then if living is inevitable, why not struggle to live meaningfully? Meaning is added according to Deshpande If we kiss with lips laced with lies And learn somehow our shames not to despise Then we may live, not wishing to die (We Hadn’t the Guts) Like memories, a dialogue with the self is a satisfactory form of communication to help cope with alienation. Nature helps to connect the loose ends of memories to an otherwise “empty, and bereft” existence. In the collection Lost Love, the dominant mood is one of heaviness, uncertainty, despair and nostalgia. Yet, the use of the luxuriant abundance of nature imagery speaks of the shifting moods and the sensitive responses to the changes around. The third collection is diffused with the dusk and despair, memories, alienation and lost identities. The hustle and bustle of life, the facelessness, the absence of meaningful interpersonal communication and other external realities suggest a movement towards the outside world. ‘Their eyes are vacant, and they don’t push/Even to get off the train’ (Workday Women) These lines reflect the mechanical life of cosmopolitan women. Deshpande’s entire poetic journey is “along long wind some streets” of memories and moments actually lived thus

137 becoming an experiential one through shadows of despondency, dullness and fatigue. Her encounter with life is multi-pronged, subtle, restrained, mature and impressive;. Tejdeep Kaur is another poet who is aware of the discrimination of the female gender in society. Women who are marginalized are alienated beings who are subjugated by a patriarchal society. Her volumes Caught in a stampede, Five Feet Six and a Half Inches and Minnaminni reveal her as a poet able to visualize other dimensions of experience different from the available ones. Self-importance is one the issues the poet’s persona begins to perceive with ironic self- knowledge. The relative insignificance of politically incorrect assumptions of power- position and prestige are dealt with wry humour. Glimpses of conflict in situations of life are dealt with altering the existing levels of consciousness “Why does the law overtake Mother hood and bail Is always conventional” (Five Feet) Here the conflict is between convention and situational conditioning. The ever-present flux of experience reveals further and hither-to unchartered depths which clash with the accepted or the expected. Teejdeep challenges sexually repressive conventions and challenges the traditional conventions of women. While avoiding the crassly confessional exhibitionism, her poetry displays immensely fertile imagery and intimate candour challenging the subjugation and suppression of women. Alienisation and marginalization of women are portrayed in all aspects in her volumes as the inevitable fate of women. ‘It is always the male solistice/If they could the sun/Would be spelled son’(Five Feet). This is also revealed in the lines ‘that hard earned post graduate forgotten /On the husband’s name plate.’ (Five Feet) The superior status accorded to the male sex and the subordination of the female sex is displayed in the line ’Holding her bruised soul in six yards of nylon’. The poetry of Tejdeep Kaur provides the necessary healing and therapy and strives towards the process of self -actualization and recognition of the inherent self. ‘No I don’t want my poems to remain on the printed page. I want them to walk through the lives of people and talk about common experiences; traumas and suffering that bind human beings’. ------References 1. Kaur, Tej Deep, Five Feet and Six and a Half Inches, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1997 2. Rich, Adrienne, On Lies, Secrets, and Silence: Selected Prose, 1966-1978 (1979), Oxford University Press. 3. Wong, Mitali Pati,The English Language Poetry of South Asians: A critical Study https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=0786436220, 2013. ------Assoc. Prof. English, Ch. S. D. St. Theresa’s College for Women, Eluru

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“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 A Study on Dalit Women - Human Rights P. Raja Ramesh Abstract World is passing through the new Century but one of issue of 20th Century which still poses challenge to entire human community is relating to empowerment of Women. The constitution of India guarantees equality of opportunity and status to men to women. Women play a crucial role in the socio- economic development of a country. But both in the industrially developed and less developed countries, women are burden with cumulative meguahalites as a result of discriminatory socio-economic practices in India. The situation is much worse particularly in the case of rural women in India. The disadvantages of caste, class, gender and the exclusionary mechanism, entrenched hierarchical and social relations have had differential outcomes for Dalit women in our society. The constitution of India is enriched with several provisions for schedule caste to safeguard and promote their cultural, social, educational, and economic status in order to bring them in the mainstream of the nation. The scheduled caste and scheduled Tribes women are disadvantaged by their caste and gender and as such they are subject to exploitation and discrimination by their family members, by caste people and by forward caste. The female feticide, illiteracy, gender, inequality, different types of violence, dowry, child marriage, etc are few of the problems faced by scheduled caste and scheduled tribe. Women in present society according to some studies relate to extremely low literacy and education levels, heavy 139 dependence on wage labor, discrimination in employment and wages, heavy concentration in unskilled, low-paid and hazardous manual jobs, violence and sexual exploitation, being the victims of various forms of superstitions. Therefore, there was a need of number of special safeguard policies. The objective of the reservation policy is to eradicate the social and economic disparities which existed in the society. In this backdrop, there is a need to make an attempt to study the status of dalit women. Key Words: Discriminatory, Exclusionary Mechanism, Entrenched Hierarchical and Social Relations, hazardous, exploitation, superstitions. ****************** Introduction In Indian society, the Dalits woman is not treated as a human being. Both economically and socially, these women are marginalized. They are helpless beings and their life is cheap and unimportant in this caste society. They are the victims of caste, class and sex. For the majority of women in India, the greatest problem is that of survival. Poverty, dowry murders, widow burning, female infanticide have assumed new dimensions with modernization and technological advancement. The rural Dalit women face more atrocities from the upper caste men and women. In this society they have no safety and security. Any time the upper caste men can use them the way they like. Untouchability is forgotten here, if an upper caste man wants, he can to rape a poor, pale, weak, unhealthy, dark, voiceless Dalit woman. Caste sometimes it is so humiliatingly pointless you can scarcely believe it - Dalits denied the right to wear shoes, walk in certain public areas or use the same tumblers as others in a teashop. Sometimes it is so brutally ugly you can hardly believe that too - Dalits attacked or even killed for some real or perceived slight, or for daring to challenge the established order. Women Oppressed, dominated, maltreated, exploited, vulnerable, insecure. All these words could describe the position of women in village India are Brave, feisty, determined, assertive, bold, confident. These words too are true of such women. “My final words of advice to you are educate, agitate and organize; have faith in yourself. With justice on our side I do not see how we can lose our battle. The battle to me is a matter of joy. The battle is in the fullest sense spiritual. There is nothing material or social in it. For ours is a battle not for wealth or for power. It is battle for freedom. It is the battle of reclamation of human personality. It is in the fullest sense spiritual. There is nothing material or social in it. For ours is a battle not for wealth or for power. It is a battle for freedom. It is a battle for the reclamation of human personality." Dalit Women: Interface of caste and gender “I am conscious of the fact that if women are can’t sensitized The untouchable community will progress. I believe that Women should organize and this will play a major role;In bringing an end to social evils …… the progress of the Dalit community should be measured in term of the Progress made by its womenfolk. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, speech to the Dalit Mahila Federation in 1942 (Smith, 2008) Dalit women have less power within the Dalit movement itself. Although they are active in large numbers, most leadership positions in the organizations, local bodies and associations have until now been held by men. Paul Divakar, one of the founders of the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR), expressed the need to fight for the human rights of Dalit women: “The 500,000 villages in our country are pregnant with the pain and power of Dalit women. Their stories break the shroud of the in human violence in our society. While confronting us, they also have the power to challenge us to transform the caste and gender stereotypes, prejudice and violence that we perpetrate. In partnering their liberation we liberate ourselves”. (The Hague Conference Report, 2006).Despite the origination of caste as a system of social order and hierarchy, it also serves the dual purpose of serving as an economic system. Untouchability endures as a cover for exploitative economic relationships and the caste system promotes an unequal economic order. There is no end in India for the sexual violence against Dalit women. In Madhya Pradesh it is quite common for land lords to rape Dalit women. In Andhra Pradesh, the violence against Dalits in Karamchedu, Neerukonda and Chundur has not yet gone out of our memory. In Orissa in 1995, within 8 months, 330 rape cases against Dalit women were registered. Near Chennai, 18 women of the Dalit 140 community who belong to Pacheti village were raped by Forest Officers. In each and every state we have this kind of incidents frequently. This is the status of Dalit women in our society. She is looked down upon in our society because she is a woman. She is looked down upon because she belongs to lower caste and she is also looked down upon because she belongs to an economically lower class. Thus the Dalit woman is 'thrice alienated'. In our society she does all kinds of labour. Even in the occupational sphere she is decimated. All Fourth class are assigned to her. She is paid very low wages. And so she is very backward and marginalized at all levels in our society. Need for the study: “Women’s Rights Are Human Rights” On 8th March 1996, on the occasion of International women’s day the parliament passed resolution to set up a standing committee for the Improvement of the status of women. in India and the committee on Empowerment of women was constituted in April 1997. National Commission for Women (NCW) a statuary body set up in 1992, safeguards the rights and interests of women. It continues to pursue its mandated role and activities viz; safeguarding women’s right through investigations into the individual complaints of atrocities, sexual harassment of women at work place, conducting parivarik/ Mahila lok Adalats, legal awareness programs/ camps, Review of both women specific and women related legislations, investigates into individual complaints, atrocities, harassment, denial of rights etc. Objectives:  To examine the Scio-economic status of dalit women.  To analyze the factors influencing poverty among dalit women  To study the problems associated with dalit women in Andhra Pradesh. To gauge the extent of marginalization (economic and social) of Dalit women in terms of denial of their basic rights Statement of the problem: Dalit women are a deprived section and at the lowest of economic and educational structures. They are poor, illiterate, sexually harassed, faced state, caste violence and exploited. Dalit women a face al lot of struggles in daily bases otherwise just being over she with those surges of discrimination up to them. Without being struggling, Dalit women would be just left in despair. Indian society has been bound by culture and tradition since ancient times. Sons are regarded as a means of social security. Throughout life, a woman remains under male domination; subject to the confines of her home. The gender discrimination and violence against women have a profound effect on the sex ratio in India. It is an unpleasant truth that harassment of India working women at the place of working is very common. There are about 10 million women who have entered into all fields of an Indian economy from medicine to politics but most of them face the same problem of sexual harassment at the work place. Methodology: This study is mainly based on secondary data. The secondary data will be collected from the official records of the village Panchayats, mandal revenue offices, Chief planning office at district head quarters as well as from related books, reputed journals and articles. International Conference on Dalit Women: Over the years Dalit women’s organizations and movements have increasingly voiced their specific concerns and asserted their separate identity, calling for solidarity from the international community. The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 saw for the first time international recognition given to the discrimination faced by Dalit women. Dalit women also played a crucial role in the World Conference against Racism in South Africa in 2001, where Dalit issues were brought to the fore of the international attention. Following the National Conference on Violence against Dalit Women in Delhi on 7 and 8 March 2006, Justifies at Pax Netherlands, Cordaid, and CMC as members of the Dalit Network Netherlands (DNN), in collaboration with the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR, India), the National Federation of Dalit Women (India), the ALL India Dalit Women's Rights Forum (India), Feminist Dalit Organization (FEDO, Nepal), the International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN) and other Dalit and Women’s rights organizations, responded to the request of Dalit women and organized the International Conference on the Human Rights of Dalit Women on 20 and 21 November 2006 in The Hague. Dalit Women’s Rights: Caste, class and gender discrimination prevents Dalit women from enjoying their basic human rights, particularly to dignity, equality and development. Atrocities and violence 141

against Dalit women are both a means of sustaining systemic discrimination, as well as a reaction when particularly untouchability practices and caste norms are challenged or not adhered to. Impunity for this discrimination and violence is then used as a means to preserve the existing caste and gender disparities. Before Dalit women can enjoy their human rights, and before the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, discrimination, violence and impunity must stop. Therefore we, the participants of The Hague Conference on Dalit Women’s Rights, call upon the respective governments in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to take seriously the voices of Dalit women as they explain their specific situation, to support them in asserting their rights and to ensure Dalit women and girls are brought on par with the general population in terms of overall development (e.g. poverty reduction) within a period of five years. We call upon the international community to undertake and support every possible measure to fight the widespread discrimination, violence and impunity committed against Dalit women. This convention sets out the following charter to ensure a better life for the crores of dalits in our country and it calls upon them to join the common movement of all toiling, oppressed and exploited sections of our country to win these demands and also to effect a radical social, economic and political transformation of our country. 1. Land Reforms: The central and state governments must immediately set in motion a process of land reforms whereby land will be redistributed to the landless agricultural labourers and poor peasants gratis. All loopholes in the present laws must be plugged. All schemes to reverse land reform legislation and give away land to multinational corporations and big business houses should be scrapped forthwith. 2. Reservations: All the backlogs in reserved seats and posts and in promotions for SCs, STs and OBCs must be filled forth with special recruitment drives. The three Constitutional amendments made to correct the three OMs issued in 1997 diluting reservations for SCs and STs should be implemented. The pre-1997 vacancies based roster should be restored. A comprehensive legislation covering all aspects of reservation for SCs/STs in employment and education both public and private institutions should be enacted. 3. Special Component Plan: Special Component Plan should be properly implemented in all the states with proper allotment of funds according to the population of dalits. A National Commission should be set up to assess the real position of dalits including reservation. The state level commissions should be set up to oversee the implementation of all schemes connected with the SCs including reservation. 4. Infrastructure Development: Infrastructure development in the scheduled caste areas like road, water, health, culture and other needs has to be given proper importance. When allotting fund for infrastructure development, a separate allotment for scheduled caste areas should be provided. A comprehensive National Programme of Minor Irrigation for all irrigable but un irrigated lands of SCs and STs through wells, community wells, bore-wells, community bore-wells and tube-wells, bandheras, check-dams, lift, etc., should be immediately undertaken and implemented. 5. Rooting Out Untouchability: All forms of untouchability must be rooted out of the country by strengthening the relevant laws, ensuring their strict implementation and most importantly, by launching a mass movement of the people. 6. Protection From Atrocities: The Central Government should amend and strengthen the SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989, providing for special courts with judges, investigating officers and public prosecutors unburdened by any other work. Social and economic boycott and blackmail should be included as substantive crimes. Full economic rehabilitation of victims and their survivors must be ensured. 7. Employment: The privatization drive should be stopped as it leads to loot of national assets, greater unemployment, a curtailment of reservations and also a spurt in corruption. The Central Government should enact a bill to provide reservations in the private sector, which has been a long-standing demand of SCs and STs. Special schemes to provide self-employment to SC youth should be started. The Right to Work should be incorporated as a fundamental right in the Constitution. 8. Education: The commercialization of education should be stopped since the massive fee and donation structure of private educational managements is something that socially and economically backward 142

students cannot afford. For this, the central government must increase its own outlay on education to 6 % of the GDP. SC/ST students should be given special scholarships to pursue their studies. The stipends in Social Welfare hostels should be raised and the quality of these hostels improved. Steps should be taken to universalize primary education and expand secondary education. Special measures to curb the drop-out rate among SCs should be undertaken. 9. Agricultural Workers: The Minimum Wages Act for agricultural workers must be stringently implemented throughout the country. A comprehensive bill for agricultural workers is another long- standing demand and it must be enacted without delay. Homestead land must be provided for SCs, STs and agricultural workers. 10. Rural Employment Guarantees Scheme: The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act must be strictly implemented all over the country by involving the people, their mass organizations and the panchayati raj institutions. It should be extended to all districts and also to urban areas of the country. 11. Public Distribution System: The public distribution system must be universalized to ensure food to all. Until this is done, BPL ration cards must be issued to all poor families, many of whom are from SCs and STs. The grain under the BPL scheme should be made available at Antyodaya prices. 12. Credit: Agricultural credit to peasants and agricultural workers must be made available at 4 % rate of interest. For SCs and STs in both rural and urban areas, credit facilities should be expanded and the credit given at concessional interest rates. 13. Bonded Labour and Child Labour: The total liberation and full rehabilitation of bonded labourers must be ensured. The pernicious practice of child labour must be abolished and children properly rehabilitated and educated. Similarly, total liberation and full rehabilitation must be ensured for Safaqi Karmacharis who are engaged in scavenging. 14. Scavengers: Ensure total liberation and full rehabilitation for scavengers (safai karamcharis), ban engagement of contract labour in safai services and other services where SC and ST numerically predominate and instead introduce necessary improvements by involving such Karamcharis; and reactivate the Central Monitoring Committee for Liberation and Rehabilitation of Safai Karamcharis and State, Municipal and District Level communities. 15. Intercaste Marriages: Inter caste marriages should be encouraged by giving special subsidized housing and other facilities to married couples immediately after their marriage. We should consciously try to uphold such inter-caste marriages and make them an event of big social participation and sanction. Conclusion Women constitute the family which leads the society and nation. The socio-economic development of women is necessary for overall economic development of any society of the country. All most in every socio-economic indicator shows that the position of Dalits women families is awful. In many cases, their plight is getting worst day by day. Let us have a look at some of the major indicators. The 19th and 20th centuries saw great social reformers like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Sri Narayan Guru, Jyothiba Phule, Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy Naickar and others. These social reform movements have undergone many struggles against the caste system, caste oppression and untouchability in many ways. The independence of India has given many safeguards for dalits. In Indian caste system create many problems in the name of caste discrimination. In the case of dalit women who are facing many hardships in day to day life. Dalit women status is not getting improved in Indian society. The government should provide all the facilities like Education, Economic, Employment, Health etc. The government implemented properly the SC, ST sub-plan in various states in India as well as Government of Andhra Pradesh. To conclude, in have attained greatness Vivekananda in ‘MY INDIA: THE INDIAN ETERNAL’. “All nations have attained greatness by paying proper respect to women. That country and that nation which do not respect women have never become great, nor will ever be in future….” ------References: 1. Agarwal, S., Genocide of women in Hinduism, Sudrastan Books. Jabalpur. India, 1999 143

2. Aloysius Irudayam s.j., Jayshree P. Mangubhai, Joel G. Lee, Dalit Women Speak Out: Violence against Dalit Women in India, Overview Report of Study in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu/Pondicherry and Uttar Pradesh, 2006 3. Amartya Sen, Social Exclusion: Concept, Application, and Scrutiny, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines, 2000 4. Ambedkar, B.R., Writings and Speeches. Volume 3 (Bombay: Government of Maharashtra), 1987 5. Anand Teltumbde, Gobalization and the Dalits, pg 16, 2005 6. Bina Agarwal, Gender and Land Rights revisited: Exploring New Prospects via the State, Family and Market, Journal of Agrarian Change, Vol 3 Nos 1 and 2, January and April 2003, pr 184 – 224 7. Bandhu, Dalit Women’s cry for Liberation: My Rights Are Rising like the Sun, will you deny this sunrise”, edited in Rao (2003) Caste and Gender, Kali For Women, New Delhi, 2003 8. Borooah, Vani K. & Sriya Iyer, “Vidya, Veda, and Varna: The Influence of Religion and Caste on Education in Rural India.” Journal of Development Studies. Vol 41, No. 8. 1369-1404, 2005 9. Chakravati, V (2003). Reconceptualising Gender; Phule, Brahmanisam, and Brahminial Patriarchy, edited in Rao (2003) Caste and Gender, Kali for women, New Delhi. 10. Christine Moliner, Between Invisibility and Dignity: India’s ‘Dalit’ and Globalization, openDemocracy, 25 March 2004 11. Dalit Women Talk Differently, Gopal Guru, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 30, No. 41/42, pp. 2548-2550, Oct. 14-21, 1995. ------Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna Univesity, Guntur. E mail: [email protected] phone: 9642546630

"We need women at all levels, including the top, to change the dynamic, reshape the conversation, to make sure women's voices are heard and heeded, not overlooked and ignored." —Sheryl Sandberg

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Child labour in Informal sector V. Ranjith Kumar Abstract: Child labour is self-explanatory it simply means employing child (not mature in the eyes of law in any kind of labour. Every child is a gift of God-a gift must be nurtured with care and affection, within the family and society. But unfortunately this seems to be true only in writing and reading; people nowadays are so avaricious that they always look for the opportunities of profiteering. The code of child centeredness was replaced by neglect, abuse, and deprivation this is how our society has grown. The child working in an informal/ unorganized sector is not a matter of choice it is a sum total of helplessness and impecuniousness of a family. This child labour is the global round problem especially severe problem for the third world countries including India. However, some countries pulled up their socks for tackling down this problem but some still remain ignorant despite of having rules, act and policies. This is really unfortunate for India, that despite of having such a strong jurisdiction and legislation we still are categorized in the subordinate list of protecting child rights and one of top most countries in resorting child labour. Child labour is a work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. In simple terms, child labor harms children and keeps them away from attending school and the basic nourishment which they need in infancy. Child labour in India is a serious concern, which is growing day by day instead reducing it as other nations are doing. The government of India shows that child labor in India is 144 declining (a little less than 5% of children) but the reality is something else. The child labour is actually a violation of basic fundamental right it denies the right to an education and a normal childhood to the infant. However experts believe that the child labour is the payback of poverty, lack of orphan homes, lack of proper schooling, lack of vocational education, feeble jurisdiction, caste and creed system, and lack of social security and says these are the main reasons of persisting child labour in India. Key words: Self-Explanatory, Avaricious, Deprivation, Impecuniousness. *************** Introduction Child labour is a global phenomenon. It is a socio-economic problem, which needs sustained efforts over a long period of time across the world. It has constantly agitated the minds of jurists, legislators, social thinkers, politicians, economists, philanthropists, researchers including academicians today than ever before. Children are the most vulnerable group in any population and are the need of the greatest social case. On account of their vulnerability and dependence, they are being exploited, ill-treated and directed into undesirable channels by anti social elements in the community. Laws exist in all continents of the world to prevent the exploitation of the child. Various seminars are held, resolutions passed and plans of action are drawn on the protection of children, yet not much could have been done about child protection and the problem grows out of the proportion day-by-day1. The employment of children is a curse not only for the child but also for the society as a while. Moreover, socio economic reasons such as poverty, backwardness, illiteracy etc. force children into the work force. The child who goes to work forfeit not only his childhood but also fair chance to leave behind his gloomy past. He loses his chance to receive education and rise his status in life. It is known fact that child is the seed of future national growth. Hence, there is a dire 1 need to protect them and nurture their potential skills for their own sake and for overall development of the world. Child labour in India is a multi dimensional problem. It exists across the sub continent, to a lesser or a greater degree, visible or invisible forms and admittedly or otherwise. According to the Census 2011, there were 4.3 million economically active children in the age-group of 5-14 years. The number was 12.7 million during 2001 (Population Census) thus showing a decrease in the number of child labourers. Workers in general re classified into main and marginal workers by the population census. Census data shows that there is a decline in the absolute number as well the percentage of children (5-14) to total population. Child and child labour: The concept and definition A child is a person who is under the age of 14 years. He can also be defined as someone who needs adult protection for physical, psychological and intellectual development until he is able to become independently integrated into the adult world. The essential condition is that he cannot survive without help. On the other hand, child labour can be defined as one who is in the age group between 6 to 14 years. It is presumed here that no child below 6 years can successfully participate in painful economic activity. Different legislations, organizations and commissions have perceived and defined child labour in different ways. A few of such definitions are presented as under. As per the children (pledging and labour) Act 1933, child means a person who is under the age of 15 years. It forbids pledging of children by their parents and guardians. Article 24 of the Constitution of India states that, “No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or engaged in any other hazardous employment”. Thus, one may broadly say that a child means a person who has not completed his fourteen years of age. 145

According to Sri V.V. Giri, the former President of India, the term child labour has two basic components such as i) employing the children in gainful occupations with a view to adding to the labour income of their families; and ii) purposeful oppression and exploitation of working children leading to deprivation of their legitimate opportunities for growth. Employment of Children Act, 1938: This Act was enacted to regulate the employment of children in certain industrial employment and prohibit employment of children in certain occupations. The factories Act, 1948 defines child as a person who has not completed his fifteenth year. It further states that “no child who has not completed his 14 years shall be required or allowed to work in any factory. This is applicable to all the factories as defined under the Factories Act, 1948. Mines Act, 1952, Prohibits employment of children below 18 years and further prescribe that “no child shall be employed in any mine, nor shall any child be allowed to present in any part of the mine which is below the ground or in any open cast working in which mining operation is being carried out. The U.S. National Child Labour Committee viewed “Child Labour” as any work by children that interferes with their full physical development, their opportunities for a desirable minimum education or the needed recreation. However Folks, Chairman of United States National Child Labour Committee, defines child labour as “any work by children that interfere with their full physical development, their opportunities for a desirable minimum of education or their needed recreation. Working children are those children who are engaged in an economic activities but are less than 14 years of age have been taken as the working children. International Labour Organization (ILO) defines, Child Labour that includes children prematurely leading adult lives working long hours for low wages under conditions damaging their health and their physical and mental development, sometimes separated from their families, frequently deprived of 4 meaningful educational and training opportunities that could open up for them a better future. Based on the definitions given by different individuals and agencies, the characteristics of child labour can be summed up as under. (a) Employing children of tender age children who have not completed the age of 14 years. (b) Exploitation of children adversely affecting their physical mental, emotional and social development. (c) Deprivation of the right of the children to health, education and a happy childhood. (d) Work by children in the family would be considered ‘child labour’ if family labour interferes with the child’s education, recreation and has physical, mental or oral health’. Nature and extent of child labour and child work The Department of Statistics, Government of India, organized a pilot time use survey in six states of India between July, 1998, and June, 1999. This study was conducted in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Meghalaya. The time use survey shows that boys and girls spend 21.46 hours a week on SNA activities, which is about 47 per cent of the time spent by an adult on SNA activities, Girls (6-14) participate in extended SNA activities much more than participant men of all ages. Thus, while girls spend 13.01 hours on household management, 10.64 hours on community services and 11.17 hours on care 5 activities, the corresponding data on time spent by men are 6.76 hours, 7.99 hours and 6.12 hours respectively. More significantly, analyzing the date Indira Hirway states that “more than 32 per cent ‘nowhere’ children, who do not go to school, are largely engaged in economic or in extended economic activities. In the case of girls, their low attendance in school is not only due to their participation 146 in economic activities but also due to the responsibilities borne by them in extended SNA activities. Magnitude of Child Labour across States There is across the board decline in the incidence of child labour in the Southern d Western Indian States and UTs between 1991 and 2001. However, there has been an increasing trend in the Eastern and North Indian States and UTs. While the Kerala and Tamil Nadu stories are well known, it is heartening to see that the state of Andhra Pradesh, that has a dubious distinction of having the largest child labour force in the country, shows very remarkable reduction in work- force participation, along with a dramatic increase in the enrollment of children in school. There are five states which are India's biggest child labour employers - Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Over half of India's total child labour population works here. India's biggest hub of child labour is Uttar Pradesh and it accounts for almost 20% of India's child labourers. According to a Campaign Against Child Labour (CAC) study, India has 1, 26,66,377 child labourers of which UP has 19,27,997 child labourers. In 2014, there were even more optimistic signs - the number of child labourers decreased by 65% - from 1.26 crore to 82.2 lakh between Census 2001 to and Census 2011. This was part of an answer to a Rajya Sabha question about child labour, which also revealed that India's capital had seen over 1500 child labour rescues between 2013 and 2014. A National Policy on Child Labour was announced in 1987 which emphasized the need for strict enforcement measures in areas of high child labour concentration. In order to translate the above policy into action, the Government of India initiated the National Child Labour Project Scheme in 1988 to rehabilitate the working children starting with 12 child labour endemic districts of the country. Under the Scheme, working children are identified through child labour survey, withdrawn from work and put into the special schools, so as to provide them with 6 enabling environment to join mainstream education system. In these Special Schools, besides formal education, they are provided stipend at Rs.100/- per month, nutrition, vocational training and regular health checkups. In addition, efforts are also made to target the families of these children so as to cover them under various developmental and income/employment generation programmes of the Government. The scheme also envisages awareness generation campaigns against the evils of child labour and enforcement of child labour laws. Child Labour: The Underutilized Human Resource In spite of the recognition that expansion of educational facilities and schooling can have influences that go much beyond the immediate personal effects, these aspects of human resource development and management are neglected due to various reasons. The non- enrolment of children in schools automatically leads to the poverty of life and also capability deprivation. The child looses the range of options it has in deciding what kind of life to lead and becomes inefficient to utilize the fruits of reforms. The non-enrolment of children propels them to be engaged in different exploitative and un remunerative activities or converts them as “Nowhere Children” and these disadvantaged children in urban areas become “Street Children” who represent the segment of sub-optimally utilized human capital. The conditions in which these little roses are working, conflict with their physical, mental and personality growth and are prone to the fatal health disorders, This wastage of resources further perpetuates the vicious circle of poverty. The World Development Report - 2001 also admitted the existence of this dimension of poverty. The Human Development Report - 2002 observed that 113 millions school age children around the world are not in schools 7 and 97% of them are in developing 147 countries. Country level observations reveal that there is a direct correlation between child labour and the level of regional poverty (Lei ten (2002) and Admission et ah, (1997). According to the recent ILO estimates, 351.7 million children in the age group of 5-17 work around the world (23% of the total child population) In India: According to the Labour Commission report 2001, the number of working children is more than 100 million. These children are deprived children, who are out of the productive economic stream and represent underutilized human recourse and their number is growing in spite of increased enrolment in schools. The magnitude of child labour and its trends during 1960-2001 are presented in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Progress of Education and Child Labour in India 1960-2001 Year Primary enrolment Ratio (%) Secondary enrolment Ratio (%) Child Labor(in millions) Male Female Male Female Male Female Total 1960 NA NA NA NA 6.14 8.2 14.35 1970 90 36 37 15 7.32 9.08 14.35 1980 98 67 39 22 8.09 9.09 17.18 1990 112 84 54 32 6.9 8.29 15.19 1995 115 93 60 37 6.73 8.08 14.8 2001 104.1 85.2 67.2 49.7 13.22 11.33 24.55 Source: Calculated from R. Caste Le et. A1 (2002) Child Labour in South Asia: Domestic and International Initiatives including ILO and WTO. The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, vol. 45,No.3 pp. 510-511. GOI (2002) Economic Survey-2001-02 . The data on sex-wise child labour and its growth indicates that female children are higher in proportion constituting 8.2% to8.08 during 1960 to 1995. 11.33 million (46%) girls are found laboring according to the estimates during 2001. At look at the date makes us to infer that child labour is growing steadily during the past forty years, according to the estimations there were 14.35 million 9 child labourers in 1960, who have increased to 2.55 millions in 2001 in spite of the increase both in primary and secondary enrolment in schools. In the census 2011 of india the age groups 5-9 and 10-14 years are taken determining the child labour population. All India child labour population according to 2011 census Age Group Main workers Marginal workers(3 -6 months) Total Total 5-9 1108808 1066910 2175718 Total 10-14 3244439 2808324 6052763 As per National commission for protection of child rights 2014, uttarpradesh ranks 1st,Bihar 2nd,Maharastra, Rajastan, Madya Pradesh and West Bengal occupies remaining ranks Respectively .The incidence of child labour is high in these states. Andhra Pradesh ranks 9th in child labour The 2011 National census of India found the total number of child labour, 5-14, to be at 4.35 million, and the total child population to be 259.64 million in that age group. In 2001, an estimated 1% of child workers, or about 120,000 in India were in a Hazardous job. Causes of Child Labour There are many socio-economic factors responsible for the increase of child labour in India written increase in rate of industrialization and modernization, the incidence of child labour in all the developing countries has been growing alarmingly. When India is poised to enter the

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21st century in a big way with an era of total modernization of industry and agriculture, the problem of child labour is growth both extensively and intensively. On reviewing the factors resulting in the prevalence of child labour, we find that castiesm, poverty, family size, income level, education etc., are some of the major factors that have intensified the problem of child labour in India. Primary causes 1. Inadequate income of the family. 2. Absence of scheme for family allowance as in other countries. 3. Large sized families. 4. Child labour is a cheap commodity. 5. Absence of strict implementation of compulsory education. 6. Ignorance of the parents. Secondary causes 1. Inadequate income for adult workers. 2. Low standard of living. 3. Lapse in the implementation of protective legislation. 4. Educational drop outs. Ancillary causes 1. Un-employment of adult workers. 2. Under employment of adult workers. 3. Seasonal employment of adult workers. 4. Inadequate inspecting machinery. 5. Poor educational performance. 6. Expensive education. 7. Juvenile delinquency.

Consequences of child labour Child Labourers in India lack basic facilities which exert a direct negative effect on the physical and mental development of children, In the case of direct wage employment in manufacturing units producing brassware, matchsticks, diamond and precious stone jewelleries, carpet and locks and other such products, 16 children are exposed to harmful chemicals, products and they are proned to harmful chemicals, handling dangerous machines and other similar hazards. Occupations Disease spread/Disabilities Match Difficulty in breathing burns of serious types, strain in lifting heavy objects or disability Sticks/Crackers of muscles. Stone mines/Slate industry Silicosis, death for inability to breath, suffocation. Carpet industry Poisoning by Colors/dyes, serious ailments lungs by dust and fibers. cottage industry Fibrosis and Biogenesis Nasal problems, headache, sleepiness, fatigue of muscles, poisoning by nicotine, eye Beedi industry problems and poor eyesight. Glass Industry Silicosis, decrease in longevity due to temperature and dust in environment Lock industry/Brass industry Asthma, severe headache, acute difficulty in breathing burns by acids, Tuberculosis. 149

Dhaba Servants Fatigue due to excessive workload, chances of becoming accustomed to drugs etc. Ballon industry Pneumonia, difficulty in breathing, heart ailments and/or heart attack. The child laborers have neither rights nor an independent status but are vulnerable to all forms of physical and economic explosion including abuse. Child Labour: Occupational Health Hazards In one of its judgments, the Supreme Court has observed that “if there be no proper growth of children of today, the future of the country will be dark. It is the obligation of every generation to bring up children who will be the citizen of tomorrow in a proper way. Today’s children will be leaders of tomorrow who will hold the country’s banner high and maintain the prestige of the nation. According to the Guru Padaswamy Committee Report (1979) “Child labour assumes the character of a social problem in as much as it hinders, or 17 arrests the natural growth processes and prevents the child from attaining his/her full-flown manhood”. The international non-government organization like Human Rights Watch (HRW) in its Report September 1996 urged India’s international donors to “suspend funding for any project that are known to employ bonded child labour unless, the project includes specific programmes for their elimination, education and rehabilitation of the affected children”. Further, the report felt that “the Indian Government has not addressed bonded child labour directly”. The national Sample Survey (1987) observed that there were 17.02 million children, some under six years of age, who work as bonded labour. The Report of the National Seminar on Education for Working Children states that “the working child is an exploited child, committed by circumstances to a work which does not assist in his/her growth as a human being. Objectives of the study: 1. To examine the human rights of child labour 2. To provide an in depth study of child labor. 3. To study the child at work keeping in view their Socio - Economic conditions. 4. To identify the factors this compels them to accept employment or work from an early age 5. To observe the working conditions in which they work and the Extent of exploitation by the employment, 6. To provide a brief review of International and National legal Provisions in relation to child labour. 7. To assess the role of the Apex Court and the High Court in the Prohibition and Regulation of child labour. 8. To reflect on the possible role of NHRC, NGOS and IGOS. Conclusion: Children are the greatest gift to humanity and the same gift is being misused for personal gains as child labour. Child labour, consisting of children below 14 years of age that deprives them of their childhood and their dignity which hampers their access to education and acquisition of skills and which is performed under the conditions harmful to their health and their holistic development. India accounts for the second highest number while, the Africa accounts for the highest number of children employed and exploited. Child labour in India constitutes 36 per cent of India’s population but a majority of them are in the age group of 5-14 years continue to remain distress and turmoil. While experts blame the system, poverty, illiteracy, adult unemployment, yet the fact is ‘that the entire’ nation is responsible for every crime against a child. Whatever the cause it may 150

be, fact is that across the length and breadth of the nation, children are in a pathetic conditions especially in unorganized sectors. Though a plethora of laws and Acts are available, still the problem over the years has been increasing especially in unorganized sectors even in the urban areas. Hence, there is a dire need to have an in depth and micro level study. References: 1. Kulshreshta J.C., Child Labour in India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978, pp.14-17. 2. Upendra Kumar, “Child Labour: Causes and Remedy”, Southern Economist, Vol.30, No.20, Feb. 15, 1992, p.7. 3. Laqmanual Haq, “Child Labour and the Law in India”, Southern Economist, Vol.22, No.4, Jan., 15, 1983, p.14. 28 4. Articles published in various News papers. ------Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna Univesity, Guntur. E - mail: veliselaranjithkumar123@ gmail.com

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 Socio – Economic Conditions of Fishermen in Andhra Pradesh

M. Luke Steeven Babu M.A., M.Ed. Abstract: Socioeconomic conditions of the fishers in India are very low. Fishers generally have pursued less education and live under improper housing conditions. With a very low income from fishing, fishers supported a large member of family which compels the fisher’s to burrow credits to fulfill their basic needs. The income of the fishers was very low and remains circulated inside the vicious circle of poverty. India is a country with diversity in culture and this cultural diversity were reflected in their fishing activities too. Training programmes and scientific orientations are avail at heterogeneous manner in most of the places in India. Therefore proper fishery management policies, effective input supply, technical and social support may improve the livelihood of the fishers which will ultimately increase the overall fisheries productivity of India. Key Words: Fishermen, Socio - Economic Condition, Sustainability, Exodus, Income and Education. *********** 151

Introduction Fishing is an age old practice carried out since time immemorial. Healthy oceans are invaluable to human development. Human activities in the marine Environment, and on the landmasses that drain to it, have damaged ocean ecosystems, the services they provide and the economic values they generate. The undivided state of Andhra Pradesh is situated between latitudes 1 3°40’N and 1 9°N and longitudes 80°E and 85°E. It is bordered by the Bay of Bengal in the east, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh in the north, Maharashtra in the northwest and Karnataka in the west and south-west, and Tamil Nadu in the south. The divided state of Andhra Pradesh has a long coastal belt of 974 Kms spanning nine districts and is one of the important maritime states in the east coast of India. The state has a continental shelf area of 33227 Sq. Kms Fishing is an important economic activity in the state. The coastal region of A.P. State has been dividing into nine districts: Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Vishakapatnam, Krishna, Guntur, Prakasam, Nellore, East Godavari and west Godavari. On the east of the state the seacoast extends from Srikakulam in the North to Nellore in the south. One of the major threats to the coastal zone is from intensive aquaculture being practiced along the coast. With the state government spelling out its priority to set up the AP maritime Board, the investor community is exuding confidence that the move will give a fillip to investment opportunities in long coastline. The board is expected to change the landscape of the coast by offering a slew of incentives and hassle-free regulations for integrated development of coastline infrastructure. Fisher folk The fisher folk are almost at the bottom of the social ladder. Majority of the fishermen communities in A.P. State belongs to the following castes -Agnikulakshatriya, Vadabalaji, Jallari and pattapa. Fishermen have a low caste status. They are classified a “backward class” and belong to the socially and economically weaker section of the population. The fishing villages are to a large extent geographically isolated: adequate infrastructure facilities, proper road communication and sufficient fresh water supplies are lacking. The standard of housing is usually very low, a fact aggravated by frequent fires and cyclones. In view of the increased demand for fish and the scope offered by the resource potential for increasing catch, the government envisages expansion of the fishing fleet as well as increase of its operational range — by means of fleet improvements and diversification, provision of improved landing facilities, better marketing and transport infrastructure. The government is also focusing its attention on the development of potential brackish water areas for fish and shrimp farming. Besides increasing production, the government aims at securing reasonable prices for fish producers and at improving the socio-economic status of fisher folk. The usefulness of integrating indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) have the potential benefit of generating new insights about socio-ecological processes and enhancing local acceptance and understanding of conservation projects. Traditional and Technical Fishing Knowledge and learning are the most fundamental long-term sources of institutional change (North 1994)9. Information (knowledge) is passed by organizations (individuals) and through institutions across time and spatial scales. There is not one single knowledge system. Different societies may have a different understanding of social and ecological processes and phenomena. The most known, and perhaps accepted, system is that of scientific knowledge (also known as western knowledge). Other systems of knowledge can also play an important 152 role in natural resources and environmental management. Such systems may include traditional and local ecological knowledge systems. Berkes (1999, p.8)2 defines traditional ecological knowledge as “a cumulative body of knowledge, practice, and belief evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment”. Local ecological knowledge may be defined as “the knowledge generated through observations of the local environment and held by a specific group of people” (Berkes et al. 2002)3. Both traditional and local ecological knowledge should be seen as a complement to rather than a substitute for scientific knowledge in natural resource and environmental management. It is important to note that social systems, as here defined, encompass the social, economic, and cultural aspect of human societies, including their ethics (values) and worldviews. Hence, the term social system is sometimes interchangeable with socio-economic system in this study. Fishing at Global Level FISHING plays a Important role in supporting livelihood worldwide and also forms an important source of diet for over one billion people. In Cambodia, about 60% of total human consumption of animal protein is obtained from Tonal sap fishery alone. Similarly in Africa, Inland fisheries in Malawi provide about 70-75 % of total animal protein Consumption of both Urban and rural low-Income families (FAO 1996) WITH 40 % of fish catch being sold internationally. Fish has become the most heavily traded commodity in international market with net value of $ 18 billion a year nearly 75 % of goes to developing countries in Asia. Especially Inland fisheries are of particular Importance to the rural poor and has accounted for at least 15 % of total global employment in capture fisheries and aquaculture producing 8 million tones of fish in 1998. The distribution pattern of world population Indicates that 84% fishers and aqua culturists in 1990 were in Asia, the majority of them in china. Fishing in India Fisheries sector plays an important role in Indian economy by contributing to the national income, employment and foreign exchange It has a vast potential for fish resources both from Inland and marine environment. India has about 1.6 million hectares of fresh water lakes, ponds and swamps; and nearly 64,000 KM of river and streams. The economic Liberalization policy initiate in 1991 opened up new opportunity for the growth of this sector. The Indian fisheries sector production has Increased from 0.6 million tones, of fish five decades ago to nearly 6.0 million tones, out of which Inland Fisheries contributed 45.4 % total fish production. Inland production including farming is catching up with the production from Marine sector and is expected to overtake marine fishing in the coming millennium. The Implementation of two programs I.e. establishing “ fish Farmers development agencies “ and the “ National programme of fish seed Development “ had led to encouragingly increased production. In India, Bengal occupies the top most position in contribution to inland fish production and for this purpose the state has been offered the national productivity award for inland fishery, several fisheries co-operative/ groups are beset with on towards socio- cultural and economic features. In many cases these formed of illiterate/semi literate, indigent fishermen who lack the knowledge of latest fishery technology and proper attitude to fishery development. This vicious circle is further strengthened by lack of institutional support and finance that hinder their

153 smooth performance role not only for the development of fishery but also for the amelioration of the status of fishing community. Fishing in Andhra Pradesh In India Andhra Pradesh is one of the major centers of fish farming in the country, surpassing traditional states in fish production and ranks “second in inland fisheries “in the country. Andhra Pradesh with 80931 lakh Fishermen population contributes 2.30 % to Gross state Domestic product and quantity of fish producing during 2005-06 was 8.91 lakh tones. Valued at 6,287 crores It earned exports 2,500 crores (India’s exports) Fishery sector provide employment to 14 lakh people. The State has prepared a master plan for a period of three year s during 2006-2009 with an outlay of INR 400 corers for fisheries development. Among the major achievements of the fisheries sector includes 7,334 Machanised and Motorised boats benefited under exemption of sales tax on HSD Oil. The coverage under group accident insurance scheme increased from 1.30 Lakh to 2.00 Lakh fishermen. Construction of 15 Fish landing centers was taken up at a cost of INR 12.15 crores. As many as 42 mechanized and 1,400 motorized boats return to shore, Fishermen from the 10 coastal mandals of Prakasam district pressed for an attractive compensation package as the authorities announced a closed season for fishing in the Bay of Bengal till May end by non- traditional vessels. As many as 42 mechanised and 1,400 motorised boats on the coast, which is over 100 km long, were brought to the shore by fishermen complying with the ban on using mechanised boats for fishing till May 31 in the coastal mandals of Ongole, Kothapatnam, Chirala, Vetapalem, Chinnaganjam, Nagulapapadu, Tangutur, Singarayakonda, Ulavapadu, and Gudluru. “However, over 2,500 traditional boats in the district are allowed to go for fishing as usual,” Fisheries In-charge Additional Director V.V.R.Babu told The Hindu. Giving a stern warning to any erring fishermen in the 72 coastal villages in the district, Mr. Babu said the State government had come out with a G.O. in keeping with the Centre’s direction to prevent mass fishing during the breading season and help the brood fish to thrive so that fish stock improved. “We have constituted five special teams to enforce the ban who will maintain a round-the- clock vigil,” he added. “Now is the time for overhauling the engines and carrying out other repairing and painting works,” said a group of fishermen led by Kothapatnam Palepalem former sarpanch Naidu Prabhu Prakash. The department plans to improve productivity, income level and infrastructure and employment generation with a total outlay of INR 400 crores. 10 lakh metric tons per annum of fish production is expected and employment generation for at least 15 lakh people and foreign exchange earnings for worth INR 3000 crore. The department of Andhra Pradesh is planning to set up aqua shops at single window suppliers of aqua culture inputs, fish seed rearing until in all districts would be established with private participation. Objectives  Ensure Sustainable socio economic development of people involved in fisheries  Safeguard the rights of small fishermen, encourage increased participation of women in this sector and implement schemes for welfare of fishermen  Creating an excellent environment to attract private sector investments in the fisheries 154

sector through legislative and policy support.  Put in place appropriate mechanisms to ensure sustainable fisheries and aquaculture to ensure ecological integrity and biodiversity.  Promote high value fishery resources and their processing for value addition.  Modernize the fisheries sector by importing new technologies.  Promote innovation and encourage technology upgradation through Research and Development. Suggestions  Increased production and productivity by 20-30% increasing the GSDP contribution of Fisheries Sector.  Prevention of post harvest losses to a tune of 10-20 %  Better infrastructure and logistics facilities in the sector ensuing the availability of fish products in all the days.  Increased marine exports and domestic trade thereby increase in foreign exchange earnings.- Target is to double the value of marine exports in next five areas Better infrastructure facilities in the sector  Enhanced capacity building to manage the resources sustainably and rationally will lead to enhanced capacity building to 4.30 lakhs fishers and fish farmers Conclusion The differing location specific features some broad aspects can still be identified in almost all the sample ponds, which need to be highlighted. For instance the fishermen associated with FCS/FPG are in general rather poor, semi literate/ illiterate and hardly have any other alternative job opportunity to switch over. The little amount that they could possibly save get drained away for buying medicine of for servicing of the nets which for most part of the year remain idle. For fuel and water, the two important ingredients of household maintenance, most of them have still to depend on outdoor collection. The aforesaid conditions are manifest mostly in rural areas compared to urban sector. The various studies on the assessment of socio-economic status have described the living conditions, literacy level, income level and level of indebtedness of fishermen families on different maritime states and those will provide a vital background information. In addition to this, studies explaining the reasons for the existing conditions i.e., analytical socio-economic studies may be conducted in future. Periodical monitoring of the socio-economic conditions of the marine fishermen at macro level in different maritime states may be undertaken which will help greatly in estimating the success and feasibility of and development programme/ scheme drafted for them. ------References: 1. Berkes, F. 1999. Sacred ecology: traditional ecological knowledge and resource management. Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia . 2. Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2001) Linking Social-Ecological Systems.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Berkes, F. 2002. Cross-scale institutional linkages: perspectives from the bottom up. Pages 293– 321 in E.Ostrom, T.Dietz, N.Dolsak, P. C.Stern, S.Stonich, and E. U.Weber, editors. The drama of the commons. National Academy Press, Washington , D.C. 4. Bhardwaj, Surinder M. (1983). Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography. University of California Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-520-049512. 155

5. Cumming, G.S. (2011), Spatial Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems, Springer,London. 6. Dubey, K. and M.P. Kohli. 2001. An overview on the contribution of women in Asianfisheries.Proc.Int.Conf.WomenFish.4:2-5. 7. Glaser, M., Krause, G., Ratter, B., and Welp, M. (2008) Human-Nature-Interaction in the Anthropocene. Potential of Social – Ecological Systems Analysis. [Website] , Available from: http://www.dghumanoekologie.de/pdf/DGHMitteilungen/ GAIA20080177_80.pdf [Assessed: 7 May 2011] 8. J N. Levitt, (2002) the internet as conservation activist, Sustainability at the speed of light, opportunities and challenges for tomorrow’s society, (Ed. By. Pamlin), pp 52-61, 9. North, D.C. 1994. Economic performance to time. American Economic Review.84: 359-369. 10. Pikitch E.K. and Santora. C, Babcock E. A. et al., “Ecosystem-based fishery management,” Science, vol. 305, no. 5682, pp. 346–347, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar·

11. Redman, C., Grove, M. J. and Kuby, L. (2004). Integrating Social Science into the Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network: Social Dimensions of Ecological Change and Ecological Dimensions of Social Change. Ecosystems Vol.7 (2), pp. 161-171. ------Full time Research scholar, Department of Economics and applied Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur-522101.A.P.

The study of fish in the sea may be the most necessary of all our oceanographic researches because we shall increasingly be made to turn to the sea as a vast food producer by the increase in the population of the world. – T.F. Gaskell

“STC Scholars Vision” Annual Journal ISSN NO: 2321 – 6425. Vol. 1, Issue No: 6, Jan - Dec. 2017. Impact Factor: 3.62 The Role of Aquaculture in Rural Development in India (Food Security, Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation) Yadala Surya Sowjanya Abstract: Fish is the cheapest and most easily digestible animal protein and was obtained from sources from time immemorial for consumption by human beings. However, due to over exploitation and pollution, the availability of fish in natural waters has declined considerably forcing scientists to adopt various methods to increase its production. Fish farming in controlled or under artificial conditions has become the easier way of increasing the fish production and its availability for consumption. Farmers can easily take up fish culture in village ponds, tanks or any new water body and can improve their financial position substantially. It also creates gainful employment for skilled and unskilled youths. The technology developed for fish culture in which more than one type of compatible fishes is cultured simultaneous is the most advanced and popular in the country. This technology is known as Composite 156

Fish Culture. This technology enables to get maximum fish production from a pond or a tank through utilization of available fish food organisms in all the natural niches, supplemented by artificial feeding. Any perennial fresh water pond/tank retaining water depth of 2 metres can be used for fish culture purpose. However, the minimum level should not fall below one metre. Even seasonal ponds can also be utilised for short duration fish culture Fish through aquaculture in the world. India is home to more than 10 percent of the global fish diversity. Rural development, the process of sustained growth of the rural economy and improvement of well-being of rural men, women and children, has various dimensions, but it is particularly the development of the agricultural sector, which is widely believed to provide the main impetus not only for reducing poverty and hunger but also for ensuring food security for all. Only if more rapid agricultural growth takes place in countries with impoverished rural populations, can rural farm and non-farm incomes rise sufficiently to enable the rural poor to become more food secure. Various types of aquaculture form an important component within agricultural and farming systems development. These can contribute to the alleviation of food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty through the provision of food of high nutritional value, income and employment generation, decreased risk of monoculture production failure, improved access to water, enhanced aquatic resource management and increased farm sustainability. Keywords: Fish Production, Economic Growth, Stainable Development, Freshwater Aquaculture, Rural Development, Poverty and Hunger, Sustainability. ------Introduction: Fisheries and aquaculture are an important source for food and livelihoods for people along the world’s seashores and waterways and influence the livelihoods for more than one billion people. Both industries exploit renewable natural resources with a substantial potential for environmental degradation if the industries’ production practices are not sustainable, a feature that are not uncommon. The industries are also important users of energy with a significant carbon footprint. the world’s fishing fleets are using 1.2% of the global oil consumption, primarily as fuel, and by a rough estimate this number will increase to 2% if aquaculture is included. Green growth policies in relation to fisheries, aquaculture production and trade will, depending Green growth policies in relation to fisheries, aquaculture production and trade will, depending on the conditions of production, have to address different challenges and opportunities, although there are also a number of common threads. Food security, rural development, and poverty alleviation are closely linked. The FAO State of Food Insecurity Report 2000 estimates that 792 million people in 98 developing nations are not getting enough food to lead normal, healthy and active lives. Even in industrialized nations and countries in transition (those in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union), the number of undernourished remains significant at 34 million children, women and men (FAO 2000b). Food demand will continue to rise significantly. Expanding populations and changing eating habits will make a doubling of food output imperative within the next thirty years. The problem in the modern world is not the lack of a sufficient quantity of food but rather the disparities in global food availability and growing inequalities within and between regions. The recent report on the right to food by the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights points out that the “remarkable developments in agriculture and nutrition science over the last twenty years have clearly so far failed to reduce malnourishment and malnutrition for the poorest populations”, and that “a different model of development is needed, one that is focused on local-

157 level food security” (Ziegler2001). There are several fundamental reasons why local food demand should be met by local food production to the greatest extent possible. These are: That agriculture is the foundation of rural development and the most important provider of gainful employment in rural areas.  that local food production is the basis for sustaining and caring about landscapes and the environment,  that food demand has not and cannot be met logistically from surpluses elsewhere, and  that the availability of foreign exchange is expected to remain a major problem for most Poor countries. Rural development: Rural development and, in particular, a prosperous smallholder agricultural economy, is widely regarded as the cornerstone in a multi-pronged strategy aimed at reducing poverty and hunger and ensuring food security for all. Objectives of the Study: 1. The main objective of the study is to highlight the unbounded prospects of development of the aquaculture sector of rural areas. 2. It also aims to show that there is huge potentiality of employment generation for fisher men, farmers and their family members in the aquaculture. And reduce poverty alleviation programme. Research Methodology: This is an exploratory study which seeks to explore the potentials of aquaculture in India for fishermen or fish farmers. The secondary data are used for this study. The data are collected from the Handbook Fisheries Statistics 2014 which is published by Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India and also from different books and journals and published data by the government of India. For the analysis of data, percentage method has been used. Aquaculture development followed a similar pattern. Starting in the 70’s there was substantial assistance for developing the sub-sector in Latin America, Asia and Africa. The tendency of these development initiatives was to focus overly on large infrastructure development, technical packages and technical training, without paying sufficient attention to the role of these, often new, production systems in the livelihood or farming system of the intended beneficiaries. All too often, the result was lack of adoption by one of the intended target groups – the rural poor. As a result of the apparent inability to impact the rural poor, donor support for aquaculture development has declined in the past 10 years. Paradoxically, the progress made in Asian aquaculture during this time saw a tremendous boom in commercial scale aquaculture by households with better resource bases, hand in hand with the economic expansion of the region, opening markets and increasing the flow of cash economies to rural areas. Poverty is a complex phenomenon, which cannot be understood in purely sect oral terms. A series of consultations on small-scale rural aquaculture concluded that aquaculture should not be viewed as an isolated technology but be considered as one aspect of rural development and form part of a holistic approach to development. Interdisciplinary approaches were seen as an essential prerequisite. More recently, there has been a re-evaluation of the role of small-scale aquaculture in rural livelihoods and its importance in poverty alleviation and household food security, 158

particularly the mechanisms by which the rural poor can access and benefit from aquaculture. It is also increasingly realised that rural people do not depend for their livelihood on the agricultural sector alone, but rather on a range of livelihood options, which together offer their families food security and reduce vulnerability to conditions over which they have no control. Such options may be found in the diversification of activities in the agricultural sector, through the use of open access or common property resources in the natural environment and off-farm employment, whether close to home or far away in the cities. Different members of the family may be involved in each of these options, to varying degrees and at different times of the year. Rural poor people in resource poor environments tend to have a broader range of livelihood strategies, precisely because their situation is one of insecurity. The shift to a broader goal of improved livelihoods and greater household food security has led to the emergence of the concept of sustainable (rural) livelihoods as a framework for analysis of poverty, and possible interventions for its alleviation (Carney 1998). This framework sees the position of rural households depending on the availability of various capital assets, including natural, physical, human, financial, and social capital. These basic assets may be threatened by two sets of factors: 1) Vulnerability to sudden shocks in the physical environment (drought, flood, or typhoons, or longer term trends in the economic environment or resource stocks, both of which can reduce the assets normally available to the household; and 2) The structures and processes in the institutional environment, which encompasses both public and private institutions. These include laws and policies which can work positively or negatively to affect access to capital and maintenance of it. Small - Scale Aquaculture and Poverty: The past two decades has seen a significant transformation in the definition of the concept of poverty. From an essentially economic definition of poverty, focused on defining a minimum level of income as a “poverty line” and identifying those who fall below that line as “the poor”, research into development processes has progressively widened our understanding of the concept of poverty. Five key dimensions to the “traps” that determine poverty have been identified (CPRC, 2008): a. Insecurity – being subject to shocks and stresses that tend to mean that livelihood strategies are focused on short-term survival rather than longer- term positive change; b. Limited citizenship – incapacity to participate in or influence political and decision-making processes; c. Spatial disadvantage – living in remote, isolated areas where services are poor, political exclusion is the norm and the resource base is limited or degraded; d. Social discrimination – being trapped in social relationships of power, patronage or competition that are exploitative and limit access to goods and services. e. Poor work opportunities – living in areas where growth is limited and the Opportunities to find regular employment that would enable investment in the Future through education or asset accumulation. (CPRC, 2008). While these specific features are related to the concept of “chronic” poverty – or poverty which is acute, prolonged, multi-dimensional and often transmitted across generations – it is important to recognize how any one of these elements can become a key determinant of poverty for different groups at different times. Often they will be manifested only temporarily, as a result of changes in local climactic, economic or social conditions, but understanding the 159 dynamics of poverty and how they affect different groups of people is increasingly recognized as key in addressing poverty. Small-Scale Aquaculture and Food Security FAO’s current estimate of the number of undernourished people in the world for2010 is 1.02 billion (FAO, 2009), the highest number estimated over the past three to four decades. While technological advances in agriculture and improvements in markets and distribution have reduced the percentage of the world’s population who are hungry since the 1970s, the recent financial and food crises have highlighted how vulnerable this progress remains. Since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, which included the right to adequate food as fundamental human right, concepts of food security have evolved significantly. The initial focus, reflecting the global concerns of 1974, was on the volume and stability of food supplies. Food security was defined in the 1974 World Food Summit as: “Availability at all times of adequate world food supplies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and prices”. In the 1980s, influenced at least in part by on-going analyses of poverty, the importance of secure access to food, as opposed to food availability, began to be recognised as of equal importance in securing food security for the poor and vulnerable(FAO, 1983).In the mid-1980s, the temporal dynamics of food insecurity also began to get more emphasis with a distinction being made between chronic food insecurity, associated with problems of continuing or structural poverty and low incomes, and transitory food insecurity, which involved periods of intensified pressure caused by natural disasters, economic collapse or conflict (World Bank, 1986). The 1990s saw a gradual expansion of the areas of concern included in the concept of food security to incorporate “sufficient” food, indicating continuing concern with protein- energy malnutrition and also food safety and nutritional balance, reflecting concerns about food composition and minor nutrient requirements for an active and healthy life. Food preferences, socially or culturally determined, also became a Consideration. This has led to a steadily more complex definition of food security reflecting current analysis of food security which incorporates an increasing realization of the difficulties inherent in identifying simple, generic indicators of food insecurity. Initially Accepted indicators of food availability, food production and “apparent” consumption as proxy measures for food security have been increasingly called into question as they fail to take proper account of key issues of food access and stability. It has also been increasingly recognised that the lines between overall food security, chronic food security from “sub-nutrition”, transitory food insecurity and vulnerability to food insecurity are often very difficult to define (FAO, 2003a). Localised factors, often at the intra-national level, often play a key role in determining these phenomena. According to the Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems (FIVIMS) of the FAO (2006), food security is increasingly widely recognised as a multi- dimensional phenomenon in which a broad set of important concepts interact: Food availability: The availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality, supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid). Food access: Access by individuals to adequate resources (entitlements) for acquiring appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Entitlements are defined as the set of all commodity bundles over which a person can establish command given the legal, political, economic and social arrangements of the community in which they live (including traditional rights such as access to common resources). 160

Utilization: Utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and health care to reach a state of nutritional well-being where all physiological needs are met. This brings out the importance of non-food inputs in food security. Stability: To be food secure, a population, household or individual must have access to adequate food at all times. They should not risk losing access to food as a consequence of sudden shocks (e.g. an economic or climatic crisis) or cyclical events (e.g. seasonal food insecurity). The concept of stability can therefore refer to both the availability and access dimensions of food security. Benefits of aquaculture in rural development: The benefits of aquaculture in rural development relate to health and nutrition, employment, Income, reduction of vulnerability and farm sustainability. 1. Provides high quality animal protein and essential nutrients, especially for nutritionally vulnerable groups, such as pregnant and lactating women, infants and pre-school children. 2. It also provides this protein at prices generally affordable to the poorer segments of the community. It creates ‘own enterprise’ employment, including jobs for women and children, and provides income through sale of what can be relatively high value products. 3. Employment income opportunities. are possible on larger farms, in seed supply networks, market chains and manufacture/repair supporting services. Indirect benefits include increased availability of fish in local rural and urban markets and possible increase in household income through sales of other income generating farm products, which will become available through increased local consumption of fish. 4. Aquaculture can also benefit the landless from utilization of common resources, such as finfish cage culture, culture of molluscs and seaweeds, and fisheries enhancement in communal water bodies. Strategies for an Increased Contribution by Aquaculture to Rural Development: Human resource development and institutional strengthening are widely held to be the principal requirements for improving integration at the level of individual farms and communities, in river basin and coastal area management, and at the level of sect oral and macroeconomic policies. At the farm level, attention needs to focus first on resource use efficiency and the economic or livelihood incentives that influence farmers’ decisions on cropping patterns, the use of water, feeds, fertilizer, chemical treatments and other inputs. Next, the emphasis should be on farmers’ knowledge of available production and pest management options, as well as on their ability to apply these. Agriculture and aquaculture offer a large variety of cropping patterns under different climatic and soil conditions. If they have the right skills, together with access to the necessary inputs, farmers will adopt the farming or aquaculture system that is most suitable to their specific situation. Since farmer’s management strategies are not based solely on economic criteria, but also include minimization of risk, cropping flexibility, cultural preference for species, time and labour requirements, extension and training. Farmer participation in these processes are crucial for informed decision-making. The presence of an enabling infrastructure, such as availability of inputs, markets and financial or credit facilities, are indispensable for optimal development and integration of farming and aquaculture systems. There is a need to assess the impacts of aquaculture on sustainable livelihoods and for advocating products and benefits. Advocacy issues include:  Raising awareness amongst policy makers of the role of small-scale rural aquaculture and aquatic resource management in rural livelihoods, including actual contributions and 161

unfulfilled potential of aquatic resource management, including aquaculture, to sustainable rural development;  Documenting indigenous aquaculture systems and farmer-proven examples of aquaculture; developing indicators for monitoring aquatic resource management and aquaculture impacts on food security and poverty alleviation ;  Encouraging and promoting consumption of aquaculture and inland fishery products; and publicising and promoting benefits of sustainable aquaculture enterprises, aquatic resource management and their products. Governments should address the design and implementation of policy, ensuring feedback mechanisms to allow the poor to influence development. This may be done through thee establishment of a multi-sect oral co-ordinating process both at sect oral policy formulation level and at the extension service level. Aquaculture development should complement or substitute wild fisheries, as needed. Negative impacts of aquaculture projects on the food supplies of the poor should be avoided. Other recommendations aimed at improved planning and policies include: Establishing national aquaculture development and inland fisheries management plans and policies in consultation with stakeholders; and Integrating aquaculture planning into water resource management planning for inland areas and into coastal management planning in coastal areas, as well as into other economic and food security interventions for rural areas. Generic technologies for sound aquaculture production exist. Some of the indigenous systems require further study and more detailed documentation. More emphasis is needed to: a. Favour systems which use readily available species and local materials; b. Decentralized seed production and seed nursing and trading networks; c. Improving culture systems for aquatic species feeding low in the food chain and that are Preferred for local consumption; and adapt and improve these systems through farmer based learning, and promoting the results through participatory approaches. Conclusion: Governments should aim to providing services and facilitate access to inputs. The rural poor need to be provided, at least initially, with public sector support, while commercial aquaculture requires less intervention. In the longer term, aquaculture has to function on a self- financing basis within the private sector. Necessary actions include:  Focussing limited public resources on strategic government infrastructure and flexible and efficient extension services that meet producers’ needs: 1. Promoting and facilitating the private sector production of feed and seed; 2. Encouraging credit for medium- and large-scale producers; 3. Facilitating the formation of farmers’ associations and encourage community production; and encouraging investment in building the institutional capacity and knowledge base concerning sustainable aquaculture practices to manage the sector.  Positive examples and case studies of traditional and other aquaculture systems that have proven to be sustainable should be promoted and disseminated. In doing so: 1. Promote collaboration, co-ordination and information exchange between national and regional aquaculture institutions and agencies; and Develop strategies for an effective transfer of aquaculture know-how into areas and regions where it has no tradition. ------References: 162

1. Matthias Halwart, Simon Funge-Smith2. and 3.John Moehl (2001): “The Role of Aquaculture in Rural Development” 1Fishery Resources Officer (Aquaculture) FAO Fisheries Department Rome, Italy 2Regional Aquaculture Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand 3Regional Aquaculture Officer FAO Regional Office for Africa Accra, Ghana. 2. APFIC (Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission). (2000): Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts in Rural Aquaculture. Bangkok, Thailand, 20-22 October 1999, FAO Fish. Ref. No. 610, pp 22. 3. Carney, D. (1998): Sustainable rural livelihoods. Department for International Development, London, United Kingdom. 4. Demaine, H. 2001. The role of small-scale aquaculture in rural development, In Utilizing Different Aquatic Resources for Livelihoods in Asia: a Resource Book. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, International Development Research Centre, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, pp. 3-10. 5. DFID/FAO/NACA/GoB. 2000. Primary aquatic animal health care in rural, small-scale aquaculture development. Report of an Asia Regional Scoping Workshop held in Dhaka, Bangladesh, from 27 to 30 September 1999. Department for International Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, 36 pp. 6. Hanoi, Viet Nam Melba G. Bondad–Reantaso, Rohana P. Subasinghe.“Enhancing the contribution of small-scale aquaculture to food security, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development.” ISBN 978-92-5-107407-7 (print) E-ISBN 978-92-5-107961-1 (PDF)food and agriculture organization of the United Nations Rome, 2013 21–24 April 2010Aquaculture Officer Aquaculture Branch FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Rome, Italy And Senior Aquaculture Officer Aquaculture Branch FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. 7. ADB. (2005): An Evaluation of Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture Development for Poverty Reduction. Asian Development Bank, Manila. 8. Ahmed, M. (2004): Outlook for Fish to 2020: A Win-Win-Win for Oceans, Fisheries and the Poor? In A.G. Brown, ed. Fish, Aquaculture and Food Security: Sustaining Fish as a Food Supply. Records of a conference conducted by the ATSE Crawford Fund. Parliament House, Canberra. (also available at http://static.sdu.dk/mediafiles// /Om_SDU/Institutter/Miljo/fame/workshop/jun05/readings/ahmed.pdf). 9. Bondad-Reantaso, M.G. & Prein, M. (2009): Measuring the contribution of small-scale aquaculture: an assessment. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 534. FAO, Rome. 10. Carney, D. (ed). (1998):. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contribution Can We Make? Papers presented at the DFID Natural Resources Advisors’ Conference, DFID. 11. CPRC. (2008): The Chronic Poverty Report 2008 – 2009: Escaping Poverty Traps. Chronic Poverty Research Centre, University of Manchester.

------* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur. Email.id [email protected].

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