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Conservation of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands in North America

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Conservation of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands in North America Chapter 21 CONSERVATION OF TIDAL FRESHWATER WETLANDS IN NORTH AMERICA Dennis F. Whigham, Andrew H. Baldwin & Christopher W. Swarth This chapter was originally published in the book „Tidal Freshwater Wetlands“. The copy attached is provided by Margraf Publishers GmbH for the author‘s benefi t and for the benefi t of the author‘s institution, for non-commercial research, and educational use. All other uses, reproduction and distribution are prohibited. Tidal Freshwater Wetlands, edited by Aat Barendregt, Dennis Whigham & Andrew Baldwin 2009, viii + 320pp.; (incl. 16 colour plates), 21 x 29,7 cm, hardbound ISBN 978-3-8236-1551-4 © Copyright 2009, Margraf Publishers GmbH Backhuys Publishers, Leiden Margraf Publishers, Weikersheim, 2009 TABLE OF CONTENTS PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PART 4: CASE STUDIES USE 13. Northeastern North American case studies – New Jersey and New England 1. Tidal freshwater wetlands – an introduction to the Mary Allessio Leck & Caitlin M. Crain ecosystem Andrew H. Baldwin, Aat Barendregt & Dennis F. 14. Tidal freshwater wetlands of the mid-Atlantic and Whigham southeastern United States James E. Perry, Donna M. Bilkovic, Kirk J. Havens 2. Human activities in European tidal freshwater wet- & Carl H. Hershner lands Ies S. Zonneveld & Aat Barendregt 15. Tidal freshwater wetlands of the Mississippi River deltas 3. Human uses of tidal freshwater wetlands on the USA Charles E. Sasser, James G. Gosselink, Guerry O. east coast Holm Jr. & Jenneke M. Visser Erik Kiviat 16. Tidal freshwater wetlands of Alaska Jonathan V. Hall PART 2: ECOSYSTEM DESCRIPTION 17. Ecological consequences of a change in tidal ampli- tude in tidal freshwater wetlands 4. Hydrogeomorphology and sedimentation in tidal Aat Barendregt, Peter Glöer & Frank Saris freshwater wetlands Gregory B. Pasternack 18. Water and nutrient balances of the experimental site Mariapolder, The Netherlands 5. Plant communities of tidal freshwater wetlands of Wladimir Bleuten, Wiebe Borren, Esther Kleinveld, the continental USA and southeastern Canada Lieke B. Oomes & Tiemo Timmermann Mary Allessio Leck, Andrew H. Baldwin, V. Thomas Parker, Lisa Schile & Dennis F. Whigham 6. Plant communities of European tidal freshwater wet- PART 5: RESTORATION, CONSERVATION, lands AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Eric Struyf, Sander Jacobs, Patrick Meire, Kai Jensen & Aat Barendregt 19. Restoration of tidal freshwater wetlands in North America 7. Animal communities in North American tidal fresh- Andrew H. Baldwin water wetlands Christopher W. Swarth & Erik Kiviat 20. Restoration of European tidal freshwater wetlands Aat Barendregt 8. Animal communities in European tidal freshwater wetlands 21. Conservation of tidal freshwater wetlands in North Aat Barendregt, Tom Ysebaert & Wim J. Wolff America Dennis F. Whigham, Andrew H. Baldwin & Christo- 9. Invasive plants in tidal freshwater wetlands of the pher W. Swarth USA east coast 22. Conservation of tidal freshwater wetlands in Europe Erik Kiviat Ericia Van den Bergh, Annick Garniel, Roger K.A. Morris & Aat Barendregt PART 3: PROCESSES 23. Global change and tidal freshwater wetlands: sce- narios and impacts 10. Primary production in tidal freshwater wetlands Scott C. Neubauer & Christopher B. Craft Dennis F. Whigham 24. Synthesis and perspectives for the future 11. Characteristic aspects of the tidal freshwater zone Dennis F. Whigham, Aat Barendregt & Andrew H. that affect aquatic primary production Baldwin Stefan Van Damme, Eric Struyf, Tom Maris, Tom Cox & Patrick Meire REFERENCES 12. Carbon flows, nutrient cycling, and food webs in INDEX LATIN NAMES tidal freshwater wetlands Stuart E.G. Findlay, William C. Nieder & Serena INDEX KEYWORDS Ciparis © Copyright 2009 Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands Backhuys Publishers is a division of Margraf Publishers GmbH Scientific Books, Weikersheim, Germany. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means without prior written permission of the publisher. Margraf Publishers GmbH Scientific books, P.O. Box 1205, D-97985 Weikersheim, Germany. Chapter 21 CONSERVATION OF TIDAL FRESHWATER WETLANDS IN NORTH AMERICA Dennis F. Whigham *, Andrew H. Baldwin & Christopher W. Swarth * corresponding author - e-mail: [email protected] Abstract: In the USA, significant losses of tidal and non-tidal wetlands occurred until legislation at various levels of government began to slow the rate of losses. Primarily because of their location in the upper reaches of tides in estuaries, large areas of tidal freshwater wetlands were destroyed or degraded prior to the establishment of regulatory controls. Similar to other types of wetlands, a variety of public and private organizations have directly or indirectly had a positive influence on the conservation of the remaining tidal freshwater wetlands. National public (e.g., National Estuarine Research Reserves, National Wildlife Refuges) and private (e.g., The Nature Conservancy) funding efforts designed to conserve rare or threatened habitats or species have resulted in the conservation, and restoration, of tidal freshwater wetlands in many estuaries. In some instances, conservation efforts were directed toward specific tidal freshwater wetlands while in others, conservation resulted from efforts to protect larger areas that included tidal freshwater wetlands. While conservation of individual tidal freshwater wetlands is important, effective conservation requires a broader view. More recently, it has been recognized that protection of individual sites requires effective management, and often restoration, of watersheds that have historically been the sources of nutrients, sediments, and toxics that have had negative impacts on tidal freshwater wetlands. In this chapter we describe examples of public and private efforts that have resulted in successful conservation of tidal freshwater wetlands, with a focus on eastern North America. We also describe threats to the long-term sustainability of conserved tidal freshwater wetlands. Nomenclature for plants follows the U.S. Department of Agriculture Plant List (http://plants.usda.gov/) Keywords: conservation, invasive species, National Estuarine Research Reserves, North America, sea level rise INTRODUCTION Dahl 2000, 2006), primarily due to national, state, and local laws and regulations (Votteler & Muir 1996). A corollary to The aerial extent of tidal freshwater wetlands (hereafter the cessation of wetland losses has been concerted efforts to referred to as TFW) in North America that exist today is not conserve and restore large and small areas of TFW on both precisely known (Odum et al. 1984) but it is clear that, with coasts of North America (see: Chapter 19). the exception of Alaska (see: Chapter 16), the total extent of In this chapter we focus on examples of public and pri- TFW is only a fraction of the original area that they once oc- vate efforts to protect TFW for purposes of conserving bio- th th cupied. In the 18 and 19 centuries TFW were lost as a re- diversity and improving water quality as well as providing sult of dam construction on rivers and diking for purposes of opportunities for research and education. We begin with an converting wetlands to agricultural lands (Odum et al. 1984, example of a national program (National Estuarine Research Hackney & Yelverton 1990, Meador 1996, see: Chapter 13). Reserve System) that was not specifically intended to con- Many TFW were lost in urban areas as a result of filling or serve TFW but has resulted in the conservation of important the establishment of port facilities and navigation channels sites in several states. We then give examples of joint public (e.g., Philadelphia, Washington D.C., Richmond) (Baldwin and private programs that have resulted in the conservation 2004). Historically, there were originally fewer TFW on the of TFW on the east coast of North America. The third sec- west coast (e.g., Washington, Oregon, California), but many tion deals with a more recent approach that focuses on the that were present in the western USA were also diked and protection of wetlands, including TFW, through manage- converted into other land-uses (e.g., Atwater et al. 1979, ment of watersheds that historically have been the sources of Reed 2002, Tanner et al. 2002, Brown & Pasternack 2005). nutrients, sediments, and toxic materials that have degraded The rate of loss of all types of tidal wetlands has been re- TFW. We conclude with a discussion of the sustainability duced dramatically in North America (Dahl & Johnson 1991, of wetlands that have been conserved given the increasing Tidal Freshwater Wetlands, pp. 233-240 Edited by A. Barendregt, D.F. Whigham, A.H. Baldwin; © 2009 Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands 234 D.F. Whigham, A.H. Baldwin & C.W. Swarth potential of a variety of factors to threaten their long-term peake Bay, the largest estuary in North America, two of the integrity. Among the most important threats are the effects three NERRS sites in Maryland (Jug Bay, Otter Point Creek) of global climate change (e.g., sea level rise) and the sub- were established in areas dominated by TFW. In the Virginia sequent movement of brackish water further upstream and NERRS, the 353-ha Sweet Hall Marsh is the only one of into the fresh water portion of rivers. The threat of invasive the four reserve sites in which TFW is the dominant wetland species is also discussed. type.
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