Film Theory and Contemporary Hollywood Movies

Home , Apocalypto, Colonial cinema, David Weddle, Nick Swardson, Olivier Assayas, Robert Shaye

Film theory no longer gets top billing or plays a starring role in fi lm studies today, as critics proclaim that theory is dead and we are living in a post- theory moment. While theory may be out of the limelight, it remains an essential key to understanding the full complexity of cinema, one that should not be so easily discounted or discarded. In this volume, contributors explore recent popular movies through the lens of fi lm theory, beginning with industrial-economic analysis before moving into a predominately aesthetic and interpretive framework. The Hollywood fi lms discussed cover a wide range from 300 to Fifty First Dates, from Brokeback Mountain to Lord of the Rings, from Spider-Man 3 to Fahrenheit 9/11, from Saw to Memento and Kill Bill. Individual essays consider such topics as the rules that govern new blockbuster franchises, the “posthumanist realism” of digital cinema, video game adaptations, increasingly restricted stylistic norms, the spatial stories of social networks like YouTube, the mainstreaming of queer culture, and the cognitive paradox behind enjoyable viewing of traumatic events onscreen. With its cast of international fi lm scholars, Film Theory and Contemporary Hollywood Movies demonstrates the remarkable contributions theory can offer to fi lm studies and moviegoers alike. Warren Buckland is Reader in Film Studies at Oxford Brookes University. His authored and edited books include Puzzle Films, Directed by Steven Spielberg, Studying Contemporary American Film (with Thomas Elsaesser), and The Cognitive Semiotics of Film. He also edits the New Review of Film and Television Studies.

9780415962612-FM.indd i 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM Previously published in the AFI Film Readers series Edited by Edward Branigan and Charles Wolfe Landscape and Film Martin Lefebvre East European Cinemas Anikó Imre New Media Anna Everett and John T. Caldwell Authorship and Film David A. Gerstner and Janet Staiger Westerns Janet Walker Masculinity Peter Lehman Violence and American Cinema J. David Slocum The Persistence of History Vivian Sobchack Home, Exile, Homeland Hamid Naﬁ cy Black Women Film and Video Artists Jacqueline Bobo The Revolution Wasn’t Televised Lynn Spigel and Michael Curtin Classical Hollywood Comedy Henry Jenkins and Kristine Brunovska Karnick Disney Discourse Eric Smoodin Black American Cinema Manthia Diawara Film Theory Goes to the Movies Jim Collins, Ava Preacher Collins, and Hilary Radner Theorizing Documentary Michael Renov Sound Theory/Sound Practice Rick Altman Fabrications Jane M. Gaines and Charlotte Herzog Psychoanalysis and Cinema E. Ann Kaplan European Film Theory Temenuga Trifonova

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EDITED BY WARREN BUCKLAND

9780415962612-FM.indd iii 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM First published 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2009 Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiﬁ cation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Film theory & contemporary Hollywood movies / edited by Warren Buckland. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Motion pictures—Philosophy. 2. Motion pictures—United States. I. Buckland, Warren. II. Title: Film theory and contemporary Hollywood movies. PN1995.F4667 2009 791.430973—dc22 2008043558

ISBN 0-203-03076-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 10: 0-415-96261-7 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0-415-96262-5 (pbk) ISBN 10: 0-203-03076-1 (ebk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-96261-2 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-96262-9 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-203-03076-9 (ebk) contents

illustrations vii acknowledgments ix introduction 1 warren buckland

part one: new practices, new aesthetics 17 1. new hollywood, new millennium 19 thomas schatz 2. the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 47 sean cubitt 3. man without a movie camera—movies without men: towards a posthumanist cinema? 66 william brown 4. movie-games and game-movies: towards an aesthetics of transmediality 86 douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 5. saw heard: musical sound design in contemporary cinema 103 k.j. donnelly 6. the shape of 1999: the stylistics of american movies at the end of the century 124 barry salt 7. tales of epiphany and entropy: paranarrative worlds on youtube 150 thomas elsaesser

part two: feminism, philosophy, and queer theory 173 8. reformulating the symbolic universe: kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 175 saša vojkovic´

9780415962612-FM.indd v 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM 9. (broke) back to the mainstream: queer theory and queer cinemas today 192 harry m. benshoff 10. demystifying deleuze: french philosophy meets contemporary u.s. cinema 214 david martin-jones

part three: rethinking affects, narration, fantasy, and realism 235 11. trauma, pleasure, and emotion in the

contents viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 237 carl plantinga 12. mementos of contemporary american cinema: identifying and responding to the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 257 volker ferenz 13. fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 286 martin barker 14. “what is there really in the world?” forms of theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11: a philosophical and intuitionist realist approach 310 ian aitken contributors 331 index 335

9780415962612-FM.indd vi 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM illustrations

ﬁ gures

6.1 Historical survey of Average Shot Length (ASL) in American commercial cinema 1940–1999 130 6.2 The proportions of shots of different scale (or closeness) 135 6.3 Average Shot Length of American ﬁ lms released between 1982 and 1987 147

tables

1.1 2006 net U.S. media revenue 22 6.1 Average Shot Lengths, percentage of Reverse Angle cuts, percentage of POV shots, and percentage of Insert shots for the twenty-ﬁ lm sample from 1999 132 6.2 Camera movements for the twenty-ﬁ lm sample from 1999 139 13.1 Relations of kind of world choices with levels of enjoyment and importance 300

9780415962612-FM.indd vii 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM

9780415962612-FM.indd viii 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM acknowledgments

I wish to thank Edward Branigan and Charles Wolfe for commissioning me to edit this volume. They also offered advice on this project from its beginnings through to the end, and presented me with valuable comments on my introduction. All the contributors have provided me with in-depth papers that reﬂ ect their current research interests. They have been patient with my queries and requests for revisions and modiﬁ cations. In addition, Thomas Elsaesser, Eleftheria Thanouli, and Yannis Tzioumakis offered feedback on my introduction. My colleagues at Oxford Brookes (Alberto Mira, Yoko Ono, Paolo Russo, and Daniela Treveri-Gennari) have created a working environment congenial to carrying out research. Finally, I would like to thank Eun Young Kim for her moral and emotional support during the completion of this volume.

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9780415962612-FM.indd x 4/1/2009 10:48:44 AM introduction

warren buckland

Theory has not vanished: it is in disguise. It plays hide and seek. (Francesco Casetti, 44)

ﬁ lm theory

Debates on the status of theory—especially in the humanities—over the last few decades were largely dominated by ecological and evolutionary metaphors of theory’s “life cycle.” Theory was presented as a natural, organic body—but one in “decline” or being kept artiﬁ cially alive in the university, like a zombie (Boyd), or is an abject ghost (Cohen). Or the body called “theory” was simply dead and we are attending its wake (Bové). Theory’s demise was also expressed using mechanistic metaphors: theory had run out of steam (Latour) or, like a large and inefﬁ cient corporation, had been downsized (Stow), was in chaos (Kirby) or is on the scrap heap (Losee). We are therefore in an age of post-theory (Bordwell and Carroll), or after theory (Cunningham; Eagleton). David Rodowick has written an elegy for Film Theory—the most visible and privileged of all humanities theories. But Rodowick wants to liberate theory from the scientism of cognitive and

9780415962612-Intro.indd 1 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM analytic approaches to fi lm, and renew the need for a philosophy of the humanities.1 Francesco Casetti entertains three reasons for fi lm theory’s apparent demise: “there is no more theory because there is no more cinema” (35); cinema “has never existed as such” (37); and “the third reason for the weakening of fi lm theory may be found in the weakening of the social need for ‘explanation’” (39)—that is, postmodernism has weakened theory by rejecting master narratives and rationality itself. The result, however, is not theory’s disappearance; instead, theory is (in Casetti’s words) merely in disguise, playing hide and seek. In Shakespeare After Theory David Scott Kastan is more positive about theory’s invisibility: “The great age of theory is over,” he writes, “but not because theory has been discredited; on the contrary, it is precisely because its claims have proven so compelling and productive” (31). Kastan’s is a

warren buckland measured voice amongst the gloom. Theory, he argues, is a success story. It has been absorbed into the fabric of the humanities to such an extent that it has apparently disappeared. But what has happened is that scholars no longer feel the need (for the most part) to wear their theories on their sleeves (making them less vulnerable to postmodern critiques). Theory’s realm has expanded to such an extent that it constitutes the horizon line, has become part of the ordinary background assumptions informing all manner of humanities scholarship. In literary studies Kastan, for example, readily admits his hard core historical studies of Shakespeare are infl ected with theory. In fi lm studies, theory has become part of the routine activity of studying the cinema. Gill Branston notes that “theory, always historically positioned, is inescapable in any considered practice” (30). Let’s briefl y remind ourselves of some of the points of contention that have surrounded fi lm theory (this list is not meant to be exhaustive). Theorists: • use abstract, reductive concepts that are too general (and organize those concepts into binary oppositions: mind/body, intellect/emotions, spirit/fl esh, universal/particular, language/image, telling/showing); • are uncritical, complacent and dogmatic in their reliance on theoretical doctrines (when they should be relying on data); • live under the misguided assumption that fi lm theory can be explicitly political; • cannot distinguish between theory and interpretation; 2 • maintain theory under a cloak of political correctness; • make excessive claims; • use arcane, diffi cult terminology; • over-intellectualize their material (to the detriment of experiencing actual fi lms and real emotions); and • make unrealistic claims. We shall consider just a few of these criticisms.

9780415962612-Intro.indd 2 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM To criticize fi lm theory for its abstract, reductive concepts is to ignore its historical positioning. The initial stage of any theoretical activity involves a narrowing of focus—the simplifi cation (abstraction and idealization) of what is being studied. Simplifying is the necessary fi rst step in constructing a theory. The early stages of theory-building are governed by attempts to obtain the maximum amount of simplicity by studying only the essential or major or proximate or likely determinants of a particular domain. But

as research progresses, those determinants deemed inessential and irrele- introduction vant at the early stages take on a greater importance, and make the research domain complex, in the negative sense that the theory cannot successfully subsume important factors within its framework. For research to progress, this “negative complexity” must be translated into “positive complexity”— the theory must expand to take into account these additional factors. In the 1960s, semiotic fi lm theory (a branch of what has variously been called “contemporary fi lm theory,” “modern fi lm theory,” or “Screen theory”)2 by design is narrowly focused: it followed the simplicity principle and attempted to reduce, by as much as possible, the negative complexity of fi lm, by limiting itself only to the study of those characteristics thought to be specifi c to fi lm—a system of underlying codes (that is, absent structures and causes that confer intelligibility upon individual fi lms). This process of simplifying eventually and inevitably led to a crisis, as the so-called inessential phenomena left out of the initial study take on importance. In the 1970s Screen theory embraced positive complexity by incorporating within its semiotic framework Marxism and psychoanalysis. These theories studied additional absent structures and causes, such as ideology, society, and the unconscious, resulting in its theory of “subject positioning.” In its turn, this theory exhausted itself, writes Casetti, because it fell “victim to its own rigidity and repetition.” That is, “during the 1990s, it became clear that this paradigm gave rigid responses to diverse and fl uctuating situations. It was not able, in other words, to provide responses to the questions which began to be posed” (34–5). The theory of subject positioning could not handle the new level of negative complexity—areas of research excluded from initial formulations of subject positioning theory (such as ethnicity, class, nationality, positive roles for female spectators, the active spectator), which scholars identifi ed as important in the late 1980s and in the 1990s. Research progresses, therefore, by addressing the incompleteness of a theory. Research also progresses through the identifi cation of theo- 3 retical contradictions and inconsistencies. In regards to overcoming these faults, there are three possible responses: the theory can be (1) corrected (assuming the contradictions, etc., arose from errors or mistakes); (2) sup- plemented (preserving what is correct while eliminating what was contradictory by introducing new concepts, sometimes from other disciplines); or (3) discarded in favor of another theory or new, non-theoretical paradigm.

9780415962612-Intro.indd 3 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM Film scholars overuse option 3. From the perspectives of analytic philosophy and cognitivism, David Bordwell and Noël Carroll argue that localized, middle-level (or piecemeal) theories, based on scientifi c thinking (study of the unknown in nature using causal, falsifi able models), should replace what they regard as the monolith of humanities-focused Screen Theory (with a capital T), and envisage an open dialog among theorists with the hope that theory will advance through dialectical exchange. In its turn, Rodowick’s “Elegy for Theory” offers a fundamental response and challenge to Bordwell and Carroll’s scientifi c attitude to fi lm theory. This attitude, Rodowick argues, downplays ethical evaluation, plus the study of sense, meaning, and internal investigation. “What we need after theory,” he writes, “is not science, but a renewed dialogue between philosophy and the humanities” (100).

warren buckland Bordwell and Carroll’s scientifi c approach and Rodowick’s call for a philosophy of the humanities, offer powerful alternatives to Screen Theory. But option 3 has been misused as well. Attempts to discard previous theories are suffused with “present mindedness,” a failure to understand concepts historically. Sam Wineburg writes that: We discard or just ignore the vast regions of the past that either contradict our current needs or fail to align easily with them . . . . We are not called upon to stretch our understanding to learn from the past. Instead, we contort the past to fi t the predetermined meaning we have already assigned to it. (6) Tomas Kemper manifests this lack of historical understanding of Christian Metz’s fi lm semiotics in a book review article. He writes: Clearly reading the writing on the wall in the semiotic soiree of contemporary French intellectual life, Metz translated his cinephilia into the lingua franca of the times, namely, the theory and jargon of semiotics, fully immersing his study in a thorough reading of the now notorious linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and his linguistic pedi- gree—the work of Chomsky, Barthes, Eco, and a veritable alphabet soup of theoretical terms and propositions. (143)

4 Here we merely need to note Kemper’s shallow understanding of ﬁ lm semiotics. If he wants to attack structuralism or semiotics, why not examine its neo-Kantian assumptions, for example.3 That is, why not present some penetrating insights backed up with historical research, rather than merely offer the reader a weak critique whose force is based on a few super- ﬁ cial words such as “jargon,” “notorious,” and “alphabet soup.”4 Kemper is unable to offer penetrating insights or historical research because he suffers from “present-mindedness.” He does not engage with

9780415962612-Intro.indd 4 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM the historical contexts from which Metz’s theories emerged, or understand the problems to which his research was a response. He does not stretch his understanding to learn from the past; instead, he contorts the past. He wears his ignorance on his sleeves. To understand any theory, a critic needs to comprehend it from the inside, in its own historical context, understand the questions to which the theory is an answer, rather than judge theories only in terms of whether they meet present needs, or conform to current 5

values and norms. introduction Let’s look at another example. The concept of “suture,” developed (by Jean-Pierre Oudart, Stephen Heath, and Daniel Dayan) during the early phases of Lacanian-inspired psychoanalytic fi lm theory, was key to subject positioning theory, but was quickly tossed aside before it had time to develop. In its initial theorization, Oudart, Heath, and Dayan presented suture in reductive, abstract, idealized terms. To continue using that initial formulation of the theory today would be unproductive. But Branigan’s recent discussion of the concept considerably refi nes and extends it: “The theory of suture,” he writes, “attempts to explain how a separation between various framed parts in a fi lm is overcome in order to articulate a coherent, unifi ed fi lmic expression” (Projecting, 133–4). He identifi es what he takes to be the nine successive stages of suture (previous formulations only identify two), each stage representing the spectator’s changing awareness—his/her alternating attention between absorption in the Imaginary and awareness of the Symbolic. Branigan confi nes his exhaustive description to Oudart’s analysis of one shot in The General (Keaton, 1926). After presenting these nine successive stages (135–6), Branigan redescribes them entirely in terms of framing: the spectator’s awareness moves from the nonframed, to the unframed, framed, deframed, and then the reframed (in the subsequent shot) (136). Here we witness Branigan updat- ing, reformulating, and supplementing an incomplete concept, making it less abstract and reductive and more germane and relevant. Another criticism leveled at theory is its proliferation of abstract terminology. Film theorists certainly weren’t the fi rst to commit this sin. There’s a precedent in the hermeneutic style of writing, in which Anglo-Saxon writers (such as Frithegod, Lantfred, and Wulfstan) enriched their mono- syllabic vocabulary with polysyllabic Latin and Greek words (especially after the Norman invasion of Britain in 1066). That some humanities scholars did not constrain their use of abstract terminology (due to another Norman invasion, this time of the USA in 19666) does not in itself invalidate 5 fi lm theory; it merely means that a number of apprentice scholars in both the UK and USA were seduced by the theoretical paradigm. (A little knowledge is still a dangerous thing.) Jean-Michel Rabaté notes that theory can be seductive. With theory, he argues, one can make “grandiose pronounce- ments” with an apparent “lack of rigor” (quoted in Stow, 195), or can invent terms without due consideration for precision or accuracy. But such a misuse of theory is no different than driving your BMW at 80 miles an hour

9780415962612-Intro.indd 5 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM in a 30 mile an hour speed zone. We cannot blame the car for such behaviour, but we can penalize individual drivers. (In fi lm theory there are, admittedly, a large number of drivers who go over the speed limit.)7 In general terms, fi lm theory (like all theory) is a form of speculative thought that aims to make visible the underlying structures and absent causes that confer order and intelligibility upon fi lms. These structures and causes, while not observable in themselves, are made visible by theory. The ultimate objective of fi lm theory is to construct models of fi lm’s non- observable underlying structures in an attempt to explain the nature of fi lm (the “system of codes” of fi lm semiotics; the “Absent One” of suture theory, and so on). The absence of causes in their effects is the precondition for the theoretical activity of modeling. Film theorists from different fi elds model different sectors of fi lm’s non-observable underlying structures, depending

warren buckland on the absent causes they examine: unconscious, ideological, economic, cognitive, neurobiological, and so on. Academic fi lm studies has created a specialized theoretical vocabulary around the cinema in order to talk about the structures underlying fi lms. This vocabulary represents the fi lm theorist’s unique way of seeing and thinking, which exceeds the immediate, common sense view of fi lms (their consumption as harmless entertainment) and begins to ask a set of questions that common sense has no need for. Film theorists are experts who ask seemingly strange and diffi cult questions about fi lms. And theory itself is diffi cult because the invisible structures are unknown (although not unknowable), and the terminology used to describe and explain them does not have readily apparent referents. (The problem with fi lm theory terminology is primarily a problem with the indeterminacy of reference, as well as the inappropriate mapping onto fi lm of metaphors from domains outside fi lm theory.) One response to the diffi culty of theory is to argue that, because fi lm is a popular medium, it should be discussed only on a popular level. One only needs to read David Weddle’s misguided attack on fi lm theory in the Los Angeles Times (2003) to witness this retreat to a populist position of anti- intellectual nostalgia. Film theory, then, is a system of interrelated hypotheses, or tentative assumptions, about the unobservable nature of reality (a reality assumed to be a regular, economical, cohesive structure underlying chaotic, heterogeneous observable phenomena). It unveils the scope and limits of human 6 reasoning and, done well, can encourage us to question our collectively held values.

contemporary hollywood movies

So far I have simply argued that theory (in all its various, heterogeneous guises) is still prevalent in ﬁ lm studies, even though it no longer has a starring role, or top billing, and may have changed its identity through an

9780415962612-Intro.indd 6 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM alignment with science or philosophy. I’ll now turn to the way theory has informed and continues to shape one of the dominant areas of ﬁ lm studies research since the 1990s—classical and contemporary Hollywood movies. Serious study of Hollywood has galvanized around three trends: (1) the aesthetic; (2) the interpretive; and (3) the industrial-economic (or media industry studies). The aesthetic approach was initiated by the auteurism of Cahiers du cinéma (Hillier, ed.), Andrew Sarris, Movie magazine (Cameron;

Perkins) and Monogram. The aesthetic became marginalized in the late 1960s as introduction Cahiers turned to interpretive analysis, which in turn infl uenced Screen theory in the 1970s. In The Classical Hollywood Cinema, Bordwell, Staiger, and Thompson rejected interpretive analysis and instead combined in depth industrial- economic analysis with astute aesthetic analysis. Although the authors defi ned classical Hollywood fi lmmaking as covering the period 1917–1960, in chapter 30 (367–77) Bordwell argued that, through the assimilation of innovations, the classical style continues to dominate contemporary Hollywood fi lmmaking (which makes, as he says, 1960 a fairly arbitrary cut-off point).8 Since then, an intense debate has centred around the periodization of contemporary Hollywood as a classical or new/post-classical practice (see Smith, Theses; Kramer; Elsaesser and Buckland, 26–79, for overviews). Thomas Schatz and Sean Cubitt continue the debate in this volume. Aesthetic and especially interpretive analyses continue to dominate the study of contemporary Hollywood (e.g., Wood; Ryan and Kellner; Collins, Radner, Collins; Willis; Elsaesser and Buckland). Other studies stick to industrial and economic paradigms (Schatz; Balio, ed., part IV; Prince; Wasko; McDonald and Wasko, eds.); while others offer a mix of industrial and aesthetic (Hillier; Wyatt; Neale and Smith, ed.; Lewis, ed.; King; Stringer, ed.; Miller et al.; Buckland, Spielberg). The present volume begins with an industrial-economic analysis before moving into a predominately aesthetic and interpretive framework, centred on three areas: “New Practices, New Aesthetics”; “Feminism, Philosophy, and Queer Theory”; and “Rethinking Affects, Narration, Fantasy, and Realism.” New Practices, New Aesthetics. The volume opens with seven papers that examine new fi lmic practices and technologies, and the new aesthetics they have generated. Thomas Schatz uses media industry studies to continue his penetrating examination of contemporary Hollywood cinema (see, for example, “New Hollywood” and “Conglomerate Hollywood”). In the present volume he 7 investigates “the combined impact of conglomeration, globalization, and digitization” on contemporary Hollywood and American independent fi lmmaking. He delineates the “rules” that govern new blockbuster franchises, and presents a case study of the Spider-Man franchise, and a coda devoted to the wrangles behind the production of The Hobbit. Sean Cubitt returns to the question that (as I pointed out above) has dominated the study of contemporary Hollywood cinema—periodization,

9780415962612-Intro.indd 7 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM of how different contemporary Hollywood is from classical Hollywood. Cubitt notes that “the question of periodisation is. . . not about a paradigm- shift but rather about a resurgent tendency in Hollywood and its alloyed entertainment trades” (such as theme park rides, computer games, comic books, TV shows, fan sites, toys) to represent the baroque. Cubitt argues that the classical and the baroque (or neo-baroque) are not binary oppo- sites, for “both are cultural dynamics whose histories are braided together.” Films such as Van Helsing (2004) and 300 (2006), he argues, braid together neo-baroque and classical elements. William Brown argues that contemporary cinema is posthumanist not only on the level of content (with its themes of human extinction), but also on the levels of form and production. The digital is posthumanist, Brown argues, to the extent that it (especially in the form of invisible

warren buckland digital special effects) “presents the impossible to us as if it were possible.” Moreover, this sense of posthumanism does not involve the loss of something uniquely human, but makes humanity’s reinvention possible by overcoming its limitations through technology. Brown uses his discussion of the digital to develop a theory of “posthumanist realism” in contemporary cinema, a theory that explains those moments where the “camera” (no longer a physical object, but, in Edward Branigan’s term [2006], a projected hypothesis) performs an “impossible” and continuous shot. Brown analyzes examples from War of the Worlds (2005), Panic Room (2002), and Fight Club (1999). Douglas Brown and Tanya Krzywinska use the concepts of transmediality, convergence, and adaptation to examine the increasingly important synergy that has developed over the last decade between the fi lm and digital games industries. The authors argue that “games and movies have both shared and divergent features. A heightened awareness of these and their implications become apparent when addressing adaptations of games to fi lms and fi lms to games.” They offer an informative survey of this synergy (from one of the earliest movie tie-ins, Raiders of the Lost Ark, to the latest, such as Spider-Man 3 and Pirates of the Caribbean: at World’s End), focusing on how games and fi lms have been adapted to each other’s media specifi city. K.J. Donnelly investigates the fusing of sound effects, ambient sound, and music in contemporary cinema, focusing on the “collapse of the space between diegetic sound and non-diegetic music” in Saw (2004). He sees 8 this collapse as refl ecting a breakdown between the fi lm’s “conscious” and its “unconscious,” a collapse, he argues, which can be found beyond his favored genre, the contemporary horror fi lm. Barry Salt employs the scientifi c-based methods of statistical style analysis, which he has been developing for over 30 years, to determine the stylistic norms governing contemporary American fi lms. He selects 20 fi lms from the year 1999 and collects data on their stylistic parameters, including average shot length, shot scale, camera movement, reverse angles, and

9780415962612-Intro.indd 8 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM point of view shots. One conclusion he reaches is that contemporary American ﬁ lms are now being made according to increasingly restricted stylistic norms. Calling to mind Michel de Certeau’s distinction between a map and an itinerary (or the notion that narrative involves the transformation of general, abstract place into a particular, realized space), Thomas Elsaesser goes beyond the cinema to investigate one of the dominant sites of the

Web 2.0 social networks—YouTube. He asks what “spatial stories” do these introduction social networks tell, “once a user decides to engage with their dynamic architecture, [and] lets him/herself be taken to different sites, spaces and places, not by the logic of an individual character’s aims, obstacles, helpers and opponents... but by the workings of contiguity, combinatory and chance.” The individual fl âneur’s route through these electronic social networks is marked by “key-words or tags, tag-clouds or clusters of such key- words, embedded links, user’s comments, and of course, one’s own ‘free’ associations.” Elsaesser offers one such journey through YouTube, starting with a Honda car ad and ending on domino toppling contests via Rube Goldberg conventions and the Pythagoras Switch. Feminism, philosophy, and queer theory. Philosophy, feminism and queer theories have continued to gain critical authority in the humanities in the last decade. One important issue they have grappled with is how to conceptu- alize the body’s materiality. The New Lacanians (most notably Slavoj Žižek and Joan Copjec) focus on the Imaginary and the Real instead of concen- trating on the Imaginary and the Symbolic in their analysis of sexual difference. In contrast, rather than appeal to the Real, which risks locating sexual difference at the pre-discursive level (biological essentialism), philosopher Judith Butler has continued to remain on the level of the Symbolic to defi ne the performativity of gender. In her contribution to this volume, Saša Vojkovic´ draws upon Butler’s Bodies that Matter to examine Tarantino’s transcultural universe in Kill Bill: Vol. 1 (2003) and Vol. 2 (2004)—a universe marked by cultural exchange and infl uence between Asian and Western cinemas. Vojkovic´ argues that Kill Bill represents a fi ctional world where the Lacanian “Law-of-the-Father” does not hold. “If psychoanalysis is to be brought into a productive relation with the emerging changes on the cultural screen,” she argues, “we need to explore the possibility of reworking the symbolic universe.” Harry M. Benshoff begins his chapter to this volume by noting that an 9 unprecedented number of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered characters have appeared in movies beginning in the 1990s. He asks: “what does all this signify about our current understanding of (homo)sexuality and the American fi lm industry? Does the mainstreaming of gay and lesbian culture and concerns necessarily mean its commodifi cation and depoliticization?” After reviewing queer fi lm theory and queer fi lms from the last 20 years, he brings these questions to bear on Ang Lee’s Brokeback Mountain (2005).

9780415962612-Intro.indd 9 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM He argues that the fi lm “uses the tools and methods of queer theory to critique the dominant institutions and subject positions created within white, Western, heteronormative discourses.” Film scholars not persuaded by psychoanalytic or Marxist fi lm theory but equally dissatisfi ed with the scientism of cognitive fi lm theory and analytic philosophy have in recent years turned to the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze and his two cinema books (The Movement Image and The Time Image). Deleuze is not a fi lm theorist in the commonly accepted sense, for he theorizes with rather than about the cinema. What seems to have drawn him to the cinema is the relation of bodies, matter, and perception, seen as a traditional philosophical problem, and in the twentieth century most vigorously explored by phenomenology. David Martin-Jones presents a lucid and accessible outline of Deleuze’s theory of the Movement-Image,

warren buckland the Time-Image, and of minor cinema. Martin-Jones challenges the assumption that Deleuze is primarily applicable only to classical Hollywood and European art cinema, by analyzing a contemporary mainstream American fi lm (Fifty First Dates [2004]) and an independent fi lm (The Doom Generation [1995]). He argues that Fifty First Dates, especially in the way it represents time and memory, falls between the movement-image and the time-image. He views The Doom Generation through the concept of minor cinema, highlighting the fi lm’s subversive sexual politics. Rethinking Affects, Narration, Fantasy, and Realism. Cognitive fi lm theory shares with Screen theory a focus on the interface between fi lm and spectator. But whereas the Screen theorists examined the way a fi lm addresses unconscious desires and fantasies, the cognitivists analyze “normative behavior such as perception, narrative comprehension, social cognition, and the experience of garden-variety emotions such as fear and pity” (Plantinga, 20). Carl Plantinga argues that cognitive fi lm theory should not be identifi ed exclusively as a sub-branch of cognitive science. Instead, one might say that cognitive fi lm theorists tend to be committed to the study of human psychology using the methods of contemporary psychology and analytic philosophy. This can be an amalgam of cognitive, evolutionary, empirical, and/or ecological psychology, with perhaps a bit of neuroscience and dynamical systems theory thrown in the mix. (21–2). 10 Plantinga notes that the study of the way fi lm elicits emotions has been one of the key areas of research in cognitive fi lm theory (see, for example, Smith, Engaging Characters; Tan; Plantinga and Smith [eds.]; Smith, Film Structure). In his chapter for this volume, Plantinga continues this research through a study of Titanic (1997). He aims to “show that cognitive fi lm theory can help identify the affective appeals that Titanic offers and relate those to the audience pleasures in its viewing.” That viewing experience

9780415962612-Intro.indd 10 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM offers a paradox, in that the ﬁ lm represents traumatic events, so how can it be popular and enjoyable? He uses cognitive theories of emotion to address this paradox. Like Plantinga, Volker Ferenz also draws upon cognitive and affective theory (especially that of Edward Branigan and Murray Smith), but he uses it to add some much needed clarity and precision to the topic of unreliable narration in the cinema. He examines the conditions under

which spectators resort to inferring an unreliable narrator, and offers an introduction informative study of unreliable character-narrators in The Usual Suspects (1995), Fight Club (1999), and Memento (2000). Using The Lord of the Rings fi lms as his case study, Martin Barker transforms the academic study of fantasy in the cinema, previously limited to psychoanalytic fi lm theory (see Cowie, chapter 4), into an empirical research project. He asks: “how do people go about being audiences for a fi lm that they regard as ‘fantasy’?” He explores several ways of thinking about fi ctional fantasy, and asks how each “embed within its concepts and theories defi nite ways of conceiving ‘the audience’, and through these conceptions the cultural roles they variously attribute to fantasy.” He outlines different types of empirical research into fantasy audiences before detailing his extensive Lord of the Rings project. “At the heart of the project,” Barker writes, were three questions: (a) what does fi lm fantasy mean and how does it matter to different audiences across the world?, (b) how was the fi lm’s reception in different contexts shaped by its origins as a very English story, celebrating its fi lming in New Zealand with money and backing from a Hollywood studio?, and (c) how was the fi lm prefi gured in different country contexts, and how did this play into the fi lm’s overall reception? His Lord of the Rings project provides detailed answers to these questions, some of which are summarized in his chapter for this volume. In the fi nal chapter, Ian Aitken uses contemporary philosophical realist concepts to develop an intuitionist realist approach to Michael Moore’s Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004). The intuitionist realist approach, separate from a cognitive or rational model, “conceives of aesthetic objects such as documentary fi lms as consisting of a network of theoretical categories which provide both descriptions of the subject as problematic and provisional accounts of cau- 11 sality.” Aitken provocatively argues that Moore frequently undercuts his own political intentions in Fahrenheit 9/11 through qualifying and confounding his claims, through equivocation, and by creating confl icting orientations. For example, in his analysis of the fi lm’s prologue, Aitken writes that: “the sheer assortment and quantity of empirical visual portrayals succeeds both in undercutting the commentary and authorial intentionality of Fahrenheit 9/11, and qualifying the underlying theoretical imperatives of the fi lm.”

9780415962612-Intro.indd 11 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM The contributors to this volume not only demonstrate theory’s continued explanatory relevance to the study of contemporary cinema; they also begin to reveal that theory has reached a point where it begins to open up hybrid spaces—spaces between binary oppositions: the classical/post classical cinema; the human/posthuman; diegetic sound/non-diegetic music; the analogue of aesthetics/its digital quantiﬁ cation; map/itinerary (based on contiguity, combinatory and chance, with tag-clouds as one’s only guide); signiﬁ cation (the Symbolic)/the material body; the pairings homosexual-marginal/heterosexual-central; a productive space between the movement-image/the time-image; the apparent rationality of cognition/apparent irrationality of emotion; together with a new vocabulary that emphasizes porous boundaries—such as the transcultural and transmedial. Perhaps these hybrid spaces, as Homi Bhabha argues, “emerge in

warren buckland moments of historical transformation” (2) and represent “in-between” states (29) of impure unstable identities and shifting boundaries. The contributors to this volume demonstrate that, although theory has become established, constitutes the horizon line, it has not become stagnant. Its objects of study continue to expand and proliferate.

notes 1. Rodowick refers specifi cally to the cognitive-analytic scientism of Bordwell and Carroll (eds.) and Allen and Smith (eds.). Malcolm Turvey responds to Rodowick’s paper. Rodowick looks to Stanley Cavell as a model for a philosophy of the humanities: “In my view, Cavell’s work is exemplary of a philosophy of and for the humanities, particularly in his original attempt to balance the concerns of epistemology and ethics” (106). 2. For a rational reconstruction of fi lm semiotics, see Buckland (“Film Semiotics”). For a brief summary of “Screen theory”, see Buckland (“Screen Theory”) and Rosen. For detailed fi rst-hand accounts of Screen theory, see Willemen; MacCabe; Nash. 3. See also Eagleton, who takes cultural theory to task for failing to address several fundamental questions: Most of the objections to theory are either false or fairly trifl ing. A far more devastating criticism of it can be launched. Cultural theory as we have it promises to grap- ple with some fundamental problems, but on the whole fails to deliver. It has been shamefaced about morality and 12 metaphysics, embarrassed about love, biology, religion and revolution, largely silent about evil, reticent about death and suffering, dogmatic about essences, universals and foundations, and superfi cial about truth, objectivity and disinterestedness. This, on any estimate, is rather a large slice of human existence to fall down on. It is also, as we have suggested before, rather an awkward moment in

9780415962612-Intro.indd 12 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM history to ﬁ nd oneself with little or nothing to say about such fundamental questions. (101–2) 4. For a detailed account of the historical, cultural, and institutional conditions of humanities theory, including structural linguistics, structuralism, and semiotics, see Niilo Kauppi, and Ian Hunter, “History of Theory” and “Time of Theory.” 5. Developing a balanced view of any discourse from the past involves seeking

to achieve the confl icting dual states: . . . steering a course introduction between the arch sin of judgements reached through a state of present-mindedness, and legitimately employing the interpretive advantages of an aerial view of conceptual developments. (Keith Smith, 6). 6. This is the date of the “The Language of Criticism and the Sciences of Man” conference held at Johns Hopkins University, generally regarded to be the “originary” moment of French structuralism’s arrival in the USA. The papers of the conference (by Derrida, Barthes, Lacan, etc.) were collected in Richard Macksey and Eugenio Donato (eds.). 7. Eagleton defends the abstractness of theoretical terminology in chapter 4 of After Theory (especially 75–80). “You can be diffi cult without being obscure,” he writes. “Not all wisdom is simple and spontaneous” (77). 8. Bordwell has maintained that the classical style has “intensifi ed”—but not fundamentally changed—since the 1960s (“Intensifi ed Continuity;” The Way). Similarly, Thompson argues that classical storytelling techniques persist in contemporary Hollywood.

works cited Allen, Richard, and Murray Smith, eds. Film Theory and Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Balio, Tino, ed. The American Film Industry, revised edition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. Bordwell, David. “Intensiﬁ ed Continuity: Visual Style in Contemporary American Film.” Film Quarterly 55.3 (2002): 16–28. ——. The Way Hollywood Tells It: Story and Style in Modern Movies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Bordwell, David, and Noël Carroll, eds. Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996. Bordwell, David, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson. The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960. New York: Routledge, 1985. 13 Bové, Paul. In the Wake of Theory. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 1992. Boyd, Brian. “Theory Is Dead—Like a Zombie.” Philosophy and Literature 30.1 (2006): 289-98. Branigan, Edward. Narrative Comprehension and Film. New York: Routledge, 1992. ——. Projecting a Camera: Language-Games in Film Theory. New York: Routledge, 2006. Branston, Gill. “Why Theory?” Re-Inventing Film Studies. Ed. Christine Gledhill and Linda Williams. London: Arnold, 2000. 18–33. Buckland, Warren. “Film Semiotics.” A Companion to Film Theory. Eds. Toby Miller and Robert Stam. Oxford: Blackwell, 1999. 84–104.

9780415962612-Intro.indd 13 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM ——. “Screen Theory.” The Critical Dictionary of Film and Television Theory. Eds. Roberta Pearson and Philip Simpson. London: Routledge, 2001. 392–3. ——. Directed by Steven Spielberg: Poetics of the Contemporary Hollywood Blockbuster. New York: Continuum, 2006. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex.” New York: Routledge, 1993. Cameron, Ian, ed. The Movie Reader. New York: Praeger, 1972. Casetti, Francesco. “Theory, Post-Theory, Neo-Theories: Changes in Discourses, Changes in Objects.” Cinémas 17.2–3 (2007): 33–45. Cohen, Tom. “Along the Watchtower: Cultural Studies and the Ghost of Theory.”MLN 112.3 (1997): 400–30. Collins, Jim, Hilary Radner, and Ava Preacher Collins, eds. Film Theory Goes to the Movies. London: Routledge, 1993. Cowie, Elizabeth. Representing the Woman: Cinema and Psychoanalysis. London: Macmillan, 1997.

warren buckland Cunningham, Valentine. Reading After Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. De Certeau, M. The Practice of Everyday Life. Trans. Steven Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement Image, trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986. ——. Cinema 2: The Time Image, trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 1989. Eagleton, Terry. After Theory. London: Allen Lane, 2003. Elsaesser, Thomas, and Warren Buckland. Studying Contemporary American Film: A Guide to Movie Analysis. London: Arnold, 2002. Hillier, Jim, ed. Cahiers du cinéma: 1950s: Neo-Realism, Hollywood, New Wave. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1986. Hillier, Jim. The New Hollywood. London: Studio Vista, 1992. Hunter, Ian. “The History of Theory.” Critical Inquiry 33 (2006): 78–112. ——. “The Time of Theory.” Postcolonial Studies 10.1 (2007): 5–22. Kastan, David Scott. Shakespeare After Theory. London: Routledge, 1999. Kauppi, Niilo. The Making of an Avant-Garde: Tel Quel. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. ——. French Intellectual Nobility: Institutional and Symbolic Transformations in the Post- Sartrian Era. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996. Kemper, Tomas. Review of Edward Branigan, Projecting a Camera. International Journal of Communication, 1 (2007): 143–8, at http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/ article/viewFile/182/93 (accessed April 15 2008). King, Geoff. Spectacular Narratives: Hollywood in the Age of the Blockbuster. London: I.B. Tauris, 2000. ——. New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction. London: I.B. Tauris, 2002. Kirby, David. “Theory in Chaos.” The Christian Science Monitor. January 27 (2004): http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0127/p11s01-legn.html (accessed April 15 2008) 14 Kramer, Peter. “Post Classical Hollywood.” Oxford Guide to Film Studies. Eds. John Hill and Pamela Church Gibson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. 289–309. Latour, Bruno. “Why Has Critique Run out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern.” Critical Inquiry 30.2 (2004): 225–48. Lewis, Jon, ed. The New American Cinema. Durham: Duke University Press, 1998. Losee, John. Theories on the Scrap Heap. Scientists and Philosophers on the Falsiﬁ cation, Rejection, and Replacement of Theories. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005.

9780415962612-Intro.indd 14 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM MacCabe, Colin. “Class of “68: Elements of an Intellectual Autobiography, 1967–81.” Theoretical Essays: Film, Linguistics, Literature. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985. 1–32. McDonald, Paul, and Janet Wasko, eds. The Contemporary Hollywood Film Industry. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007. Macksey, Richard, and Eugenio Donato, ed. The Structuralist Controversy: the Language of Criticism and the Sciences of Man. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970. Miller, Toby, Nitin Govil, John McMurria, and Richard Maxwell. Global Hollywood 2. London: BFI, 2004. introduction Nash, Mark. “The Moment of Screen.” Screen Theory Culture. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. 1–27. Neale, Steve, and Murray Smith, ed. Contemporary Hollywood Cinema. London: Routledge, 1998. Perkins, V.F. Film as Film. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972. Plantinga, Carl. “Cognitive Film Theory: An Insider’s Appraisal.” Cinémas, 12.2 (2002): 15–37. Plantinga, Carl, and Greg Smith, eds. Passionate Views: Film, Cognition, and Emotion. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Prince, Stephen. A New Pot of Gold, 1980–90. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1999. Rabaté, Jean-Michel. Future of Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. Rodowick, D.N. “An Elegy for Theory.” October 122 (2007): 91–109. Rosen, Philip. “Screen and the Marxist Project in Film Criticism.” Quarterly Review of Film Studies 2.3 (Aug. 1977): 273–87. Ryan, Michael, and Douglas Kellner. Camera Politica: The Politics and Ideology of Contemporary Hollywood Film. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988. Sarris, Andrew. The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929–1968. New York: Dutton, 1968. Schatz, Thomas. “The New Hollywood.” Film Theory Goes to the Movies. Jim Collins, Hilary Radner and Ava Preacher Collins, eds. London: Routledge, 1993. 8–36. ——. “The Studio System and Conglomerate Hollywood.” The Contemporary Hollywood Film Industry. Paul McDonald and Janet Wasko, eds. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007. 13–42. Smith, Greg M. Film Structure and the Emotion System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Smith, Keith. Lawyers, Legislators and Theorists: Developments in English Criminal Jurisprudence 1800–1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Smith, Murray. Engaging Characters: Fiction, Emotion, and the Cinema. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. ——. “Theses on the Philosophy of Hollywood History.” Steve Neale and Murray Smith, eds. Contemporary Hollywood Cinema. London: Routledge, 1998: 3–20. Stow, Simon. “Theoretical Downsizing and the Lost Art of Listening.”Philosophy 15 and Literature 28.1 (2004): 192–201. Stringer, Julian, ed. Movie Blockbusters. London: Routledge, 2003. Tan, Ed. Emotion and the Structure of Narrative Film: Film as an Emotion Machine. Trans. Barbara Fasting. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996. Thompson, Kristin. Storytelling in the New Hollywood: Understanding Classical Narrative Technique. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1999. Turvey, Malcolm. “Theory, Philosophy, and Film Studies: A Response to D.N. Rodowick’s ‘An Elegy for Theory’.” October 122 (2007): 110–20.

9780415962612-Intro.indd 15 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM Wasko, Janet. How Hollywood Works. London: Sage, 2003. Weddle, David. “Lights, Camera, Action: Marxism, Semiotics, Narratology.” The Los Angeles Times Magazine. 13 July 2003. Willemen, Paul. “Remarks on Screen.” Southern Review 16 (1983): 292–311. Willis, Sharon. High Contrast: Race and Gender in Contemporary Hollywood Film. London: Duke University Press, 1997. Wineburg, Sam. Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001. Wood, Robin. Hollywood From Vietnam to Reagan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Wyatt, Justin. High Concept: Movies and Marketing in Hollywood. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. warren buckland

9780415962612-Intro.indd 16 4/1/2009 10:49:13 AM new practices, new aesthetics

part one

9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 17 4/1/2009 10:43:26 AM 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 18 4/1/2009 10:43:26 AM new hollywood, new millennium

one

thomas schatz

This essay is a sequel of sorts to “The New Hollywood,” which fi rst appeared in Film Theory Goes to the Movies, a lively collection published in 1993 that was intended, as the title exhorts, to bring fi lm scholarship within shouting distance of contemporary Hollywood fi lms and fi lmmaking. That volume was well received and helped fuel the growing interest in media industry studies, which gauges the complex interplay between media production (and media products) and the myriad forces that both shape and, in rare cases, are shaped by that production. My own work has continued along these lines, focusing mainly on the fi lm industry in the late 1980s and 1990s as the New Hollywood steadily morphed into Conglomerate Hollywood. The focus here is on the fi lm industry in the early 2000s, a period that in my view has proved to be quite distinctive, due particularly to the combined impact of conglomeration, globalization, and digitization—a veritable tri- umvirate of macro-industrial forces whose effects seem to intensify with each passing year. It remains to be seen whether the early 2000s qualify as a distinct historical period—“millennial Hollywood,” if you will—but even without

9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 19 4/1/2009 10:43:26 AM the benefi t of greater historical distance we can distinguish signifi cant changes in the contours and overall confi guration of the industry. Consider this brief inventory of industry developments during the past decade that mark either key advances over or distinct departures from the New Hollywood of the 1990s: • the culmination of an epochal merger-and-acquisition wave and the consolidation of U.S. media industry control in the hands of a half- dozen global media superpowers; • the related integration of the U.S. fi lm,TV, and home entertainment industries into a far more coherent system than had ever existed before; • the enormous success of DVD, both as a source of revenues for the

thomas schatz thomas studios (and their parent conglomerates) and also as a transformative technology for the home entertainment industry generally; • the surging global fi lm and TV markets, which have proved to be as susceptible to Hollywood-produced entertainment as the domestic media markets; • the emergence of a new breed of blockbuster-driven franchises specifi cally geared to the global, digital, conglomerate-controlled marketplace, which spawn billion-dollar fi lm series installments while also serving the interests of the parent conglomerate’s other media-and- entertainment divisions; • the annexation of the “indie fi lm movement” by the media conglomerates, providing a safe haven for a privileged cadre of fi lmmakers while leaving the truly independent fi lm business in increasingly desperate fi nancial straits; • the rapid development of three distinct fi lm industry sectors dominated by three different classes of producers—the traditional major studios, the conglomerate-owned indie divisions, and the genuine independents— which generate three very different classes of movie product. The transformative effects of these and other industry forces have grown steadily more acute, reaching an apparent culmination in 2007—or so it seems from the vantage point of this writing in mid 2008. Here again, only time and a broader perspective will tell us whether the past year was indeed a pinnacle of sorts, perhaps even a watershed, or simply another step in the industry’s inexorable post-millennial transformation. In any 20 event, Hollywood saw a remarkable number of singular developments and defi nitive events in 2007. These included record box-offi ce revenues in both the U.S. and the worldwide marketplace, propelled by a run of franchise blockbusters like Spider-Man 3, Shrek the Third, and Transformers that cleared a billion dollars within a year of release, setting a new benchmark for the major studios commercially.1 Their affi liated “indie divisions” garnered all the critical praise with hits like No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood,

9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 20 4/1/2009 10:43:26 AM new hollywood, new millennium 21 4/1/2009 10:43:26 AM4/1/2009 10:43:26 AM Century Fox and Fox and Century th Century Fox, Columbia Fox, Columbia Century th genuinely independent producer- independent genuinely modern conglomerate era crystallized modern conglomerate ’s annual report on the 100 leading media companies report on annual ’s Advertising Age Key to the conglomerates’ hegemony and their fi nancial welfare in the nancial their fi and hegemony Key to the conglomerates’ conglomerate hollywood in the new millennium in hollywood conglomerate has been the Hollywood in contemporary development most salient The hege- their and Six media conglomerates of the so-called Big formation (Epstein; Schatz, TV) industry lm (and over the American fi mony This Hollywood”). “Conglomerate 20 News Corp purchased in the mid-1980s when resulting in an unprecedented drubbing of the majors in the post-season post-season in the the majors drubbing of unprecedented in an resulting of the scores Meanwhile ceremony. Oscar distributors, which released well over half of all theatrical fi in the U.S., lms fi over half of all theatrical released well which distributors, as the critically, and both commercially worst year ever suffered their was positively 2007 Thus implode. threatened to sector independent the underscoring polarity, best-of-times/worst-of-times in its Dickensian that and two industries, is a tale of story of modern Hollywood fact that the pros- the deciding factor in a studio’s ownership has become conglomerate has been conglomeration while Indeed, success. alone pect for survival, let for the past two decades, of the movie industry the structural imperative consequences enormous 2000s did it fully coalesce—with the early until not at large. media industry for the U.S. Hollywood but only not in 2006. early 2000s has been the strategic integration of their fi lm and TV opera- lm and of their fi integration 2000s has been the strategic early media market, most robust and richest by far the world’s in the U.S., tions of the global movie marketplace. as well as their collective domination 1.1 Table gures in the fi consider TV holdings, lm and fi In terms of their U.S. from (Sony), and Paramount (Viacom)—and in fact the term Big Six is used in in fact the term Big (Viacom)—and Paramount and (Sony), compa- their parent studios and the trade press to refer to both the major lmed entertain- “fi the conglomerates’ within studios are situated The nies. TV for both the movie and content produce which divisions, ment” entertain- with the “home cooperation operate in close and industries, the fortunes due to lm industry in fi role a vital play which divisions, ment” industry. home-video the on impact of DVD launched Fox-TV, and it culminated with the 2003 buyout of Universal it culminated with the 2003 buyout and Fox-TV, launched of NBC creation subsequent Pictures by General Electric (GE) and Warner, global media giants—Time a cartel of Universal. At that point GE—owned all six of the major and Viacom, News Corp, Sony, Disney, the vast major- and TV networks, broadcast of the U.S. lm studios, all four fi enter- other media and with myriad along ity of the top cable networks, computer games, publishing, music, print including holdings tainment of control resorts. Conglomerate and theme parks, electronics, consumer major primarily via ownership of the traditional Hollywood is exercised Universal, 20 Disney, Bros., studios—i.e., Warner 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 219780415962612-Ch-01.indd 21 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 22

thomas schatz 22 DVD surpassing VHS forthefi rst timeeverand sell-through surpassing studios. In2002,home-video revenues reached arecord $20.3billion, with strategy thatreturnedafargreaterportion ofhome-video revenues to the era rental modelin favor ofaconglomerate-controlled “sell-through” and consumer electronics; and second, thedecision toabandon the VHS- Hollywood film industry and twoadjacent industries, personal computers digital formatwere,fi rst, theunprecedented alliance betweenthe technology (Taylor; Sebok). The mainreasons forthesuccessofthisnew 1997 and enjoyed themostrapid“diffusion of innovation” inthehistoryof the impactofDVD, which was introduced asamovie-delivery systemin grossing $9billion to$10billion peryear. 45 percent ofthedomesticmarket and 41.2percent ofthemarket worldwide, share worldwide. Duringthesameperiod,top25box-offi ce hitscaptured astounding 25.6percent market sharedomesticallyand a25.5percent market blockbusters. From 2002to2007,Hollywood’s toptenreleasesaveraged an are fundamentally hit-driven,and aredrivenbythesamestudio-produced has beengreatlyfacilitatedbythefactthatbothU.S. and overseasmarkets studios’ coordination ofdomesticand international release—aneffortthat continue duetotheeconomic development offoreignmarkets aswellthe steadily climbed from $9billion to$18billion. That growth isexpected to billion to$10billion peryear(roughly twicethe1990total),foreignboxoffi ce domestic box-offi ce revenues remained fairly steadyfrom 2002to2007at$9 growth oftheforeignand home-video markets intheearly 2000s.While nifi cance ofoverseasmarkets forHollywoodfi lms, as wellastheexplosive Picture Association) was$42.6billion (Hollinger). This indicates wellthesig- dios’ worldwide movie-relatedincome in2006(according totheMotion conglomerates’ overallU.S. mediaincome, it’s important tonote thatthestu- opn [totalrevs] Company Table 1.1 5 4 3 2 1 oy[15 .2––.74.09 .87 – 17.05 16.04 13.45 – 12.86 2.21 1.22 1.53 13.20 1.65 6.60 3.22 6.76 2.92 3.85 6.46 2.92 5.39 5.12 [71.5] 6.53 6.97 1.98 2.67 2.95 .4 1.76 [25.8] Sony 2.91 [34.3] [28.6] [16.2] Viacom-CBS NBC-Universal News Corp [44.2] Disney Time Warner Sony figures applytofi lmed content production only. According toSony ofAmerica’s “Corpo- Includes TV seriesproduction, distribution, licensingand syndication. Network and TV station income. Includes theatrical and home video/DVD revenues. Worldwide parent company revenues. for the2006–07fiscal yearwere$18.9billion. rate FactSheet”(online athttp://www.sony.com/SCA/corporate.shtml) thecompany’s USsales Meanwhile thehome-video sectorgrewatanevenfasterpacedueto While movie-relatedrevenues represent arelativelymodestportion ofthe 2006 NetU.S. mediarevenue (allfigures in$billions) 1 movies 2 TV 3 al other cable 4 TOTAL 5 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 23 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM petition, competition, , huge 300, huge and Transformers that Hairspray Superbad, and Knocked Up, Knocked (1967), along with new direct-to-DVD fi its lms extending fi with new direct-to-DVD (1967), along Jungle Book The The substantial returns from their TV and DVD pipelines have induced induced pipelines have DVD TV and their returns from substantial The Most of the studios’ DVD income is generated by current releases, by current is generated income DVD Most of the studios’ the studios to treat theatrical release as a “loss leader” in the commercial a “loss leader” in the commercial the studios to treat theatrical release as major producer- Hollywood’s life span of their movies. In other words, movies whereby strategy nancing cit-fi a defi developed have distributors release, ultimately recov- are expected to operate at a loss during theatrical t in the sub- turning a profi costs and marketing and ering their production company’s via the parent markets—and home-video TV and sequent to videogames and records and books as well, from other media divisions alto- are strategy nancing cit-fi for this defi reasons The rides. theme park massive ad campaign and theatrical release First, a movie’s gether obvious. TV licensing and Second, in all other media markets. establish its value costs— marketing and table because the production are far more profi DVD lm (more dollars per fi to a quarter-billion $75 million ranged from which completely absorbed via theatrical revenues. if not this below)—are largely on a more abstract level, this strategy discourages on Third, classic Cinderella franchise and its recently launched High School Musical High School launched its recently and franchise Cinderella classic on both the Disney Channel and hit on has been a huge which franchise, totaled $312 Disney releases alone for these four revenues DVD The DVD. million. although another crucial (and largely unanticipated) revenue source source revenue unanticipated) largely crucial (and another although the studios to TV series, compelling popular lms and fi classic involved VHS era, During the earlier DVD. on libraries available make their entire shelf-life of its classic studio to exploit the extended Disney was the only to industry struggling mini-major from climb Disney’s Indeed, lms. fi of its repackaging the savvy on power in the 1980s was based primarily in the DVD other studios followed suit The sale. library for home-video entertain- in the home of the pack Disney remains far ahead era, although revamped “straight-to-video” strat- its including generally, market ment (1954) Pan of Peter reissues included releases In 2007, the top 100 DVD egy. and rental (Hettrick). The surging home-video industry reached $24 billion in in billion $24 reached industry home-video surging The (Hettrick). rental the with range, billion the $23–24 off in has leveled then since and 2004 share of that the lion’s capturing consistently major studio-distributors the studios’ $42.6 of In 2006, fully 45 percent DVDs. in sell-through market video, home from above came mentioned revenues in worldwide billion than in in DVD more revenue generating were routinely even top hits and pro- was most This (Hollinger). markets or foreign theatrical the domestic like with CG effects-laden blockbusters nounced the than in either DVD on even greater returns saw ce hits that box-offi involves trend interesting Another theatrical market. domestic or foreign Hogs, like Wild idiomatic hit comedies extremely well did ce but in terms of foreign box offi well” “travel do not on DVD. 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 239780415962612-Ch-01.indd 23 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 24

thomas schatz 24 into acloser rapportwiththeothermedia conglomerates. will helpoffsetitslack of TV pipelines and willbring thisperennialoutlier technology—and thelicensefees itcollectsforalldiscsand players sold— current system.Ifand when thatoccurs,Sony’s control of home video prevailed, although itremainstobeseenwhether hi-defDVD displacesthe introduction inthelate1970s—awarthatSony lost.Sony seemstohave the kind of format war(witharch-rival Toshiba) thatplagued the VCR’s cooperative spiritofDVD’s initiallaunch in1997,Sony waswillingtorisk for the“nextgeneration” home videosystem(Hall; Fritz).Inbucking the owns and controls, and thatithopes toestablishastheworldwide standard introduction ofBlu-ray, ahigh-definition (HD)DVD technology thatSony the pursuitofhardware-software synergies, bestevidenced byits2007 top hitsin2006,CasinoRoyale . ButSony’s overridingstrategy continues tobe dormant franchises—including JamesBond, resultinginone ofColumbia’s well), while augmenting itsfi lm libraryand providing accesstoseveral top U.S. cable TV company (and aleadingInternet serviceprovider as ship withComcasttoacquire MGM/UA (Sorkin). This alliedSony withthe sued pipelineopportunitiesinrecent years,mostnotably ina2004partner- the development ofentertainment franchises. Sony hastentatively pur- Entertainment, Sony Electronics, and Sony ComputerEntertainment—in game consoles, and itinvolves itsthreemajordivisions—Sony Pictures media conglomerates inthemanufacture and saleofinteractive gamesand puter entertainment” division aswell.Sony islightyearsaheadoftheother filmed entertainment and consumer electronics divisions, but inits“com- and Columbia Pictures. Sony haspursuedthisstrategy not only inits electronics operation withU.S.-based content supplierslikeCBSRecords ware-software synergy—i.e., on thecoordination ofitsmassiveconsumer developed averydifferent strategy ofmediaintegration focusingon hard- Sony haslagged behind. glomerates in TV seriesproduction and distribution, another areainwhich the leadingpay-cable network. TW hasalsokeptpacewiththeothercon- weeks ofDisney’s purchase ofABC),and alsoitsdevelopment ofHBOinto Broadcasting division (whose acquisition wasannounced in1995within lack ofaU.S. broadcast TV network isoffsetbyitsmassive Turner similar profiles withinthefi lm-TV sector—including Time Warner, whose TV arenadiffersignifi cantly. Buttheotherfi ve conglomerates dohave conglomerate’s media-and-entertainment holdings outside thefi lm and This isnot tosay thattheotherfive arestructurallyalike,and infacteach been anoutlier among theBigSixinitslack ofsignifi cant TV holdings. broadcast and cable TV “pipelines”—forallbut Sony, thatis,which has leverage and ensuredaccessto themarketplace enjoyedbythestudios. since fi lm producers outside theconglomerate realmlack thefi nancial While theotherconglomerates wereacquiring mediaoutlets, Sony has This defi cit-fi nancing strategy wasfacilitatedbytheconglomerates’ 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 25 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM Century Fox, Universal, and Fox, Universal, and Century th lmmaking in the new millennium the new in lmmaking that produce more modestly budgeted fi lms in the $30 million to lms in the $30 million more modestly budgeted fi that produce To get a sense of the impact of these indie subsidiaries on contemporary contemporary subsidiaries on get a sense of the impact of these indie To Consequently Hollywood fi 2000s was increasingly lmmaking by the early fi Hollywood Consequently independent American fi lm, consider the transformation—and funda- the transformation—and lm, consider American fi independent sector over the past decade (as that industry segregation—of mental Services). Nash Information and by the MPA data provided gleaned from Columbia—whose fi lmmaking operations are closely tied to (and deter- (and tied to are closely lmmaking operations fi Columbia—whose The conglomerate. of the parent strategies mined by) the structure and of franchise-spawning prime objective of these studios is the production at range that are targeted million in the $100–$250 budgeted blockbusters are designed to operate synergis- and marketplace the global entertainment divisions. other entertainment-related company’s tically with the parent lm subsidiaries—the indie fi the conglomerate-owned next tier includes The Pictures Sony Focus Features, and like Fox Searchlight, specialty divisions and Classics The discriminating audiences. range for more specialized and $50 million literally producer-distributors, the truly independent bottom tier includes of companies that supply over half of all theatrical releases, usually hundreds that (often far less), and range to $10 million in the $5 million budgeted due picture marketplace, compete for a pitifully small share of the motion lm subsidiaries. fi of the conglomerate-owned to the proliferation largely geared to three distinct industry sectors wherein three different classes of classes three different sectors wherein industry geared to three distinct top The of product. classes three very different were creating lm producer fi studios— major six traditional speak, comprises Hollywood’s so to tier, 20 Paramount, Disney, Bros., Warner hollywood fi fi hollywood opera- Sony’s strategy, singular integration and status outlier Despite its with consistent been quite have lmmaking realm fi within the feature tions in the new millennium development a key the Big Six. Indeed, the rest of lmmaking fi the conglomerates’ uniformity of the increasing has been block- ed studios’ intensifi terms of the major in particularly operations, by the lm sector fi independent of the the annexation efforts and buster more ways many former is in The divisions. so-called indie conglomerate’s global success of the movie-driven the sheer commercial due to important the the late 1990s passing year since With each franchises. entertainment become has blockbusters pursuit of franchise-spawning studios’ compulsive has become at large lm industry more successful—as the fi more acute—and focused intently more a global scale, and on hit-driven more blatantly home-entertainment and of the domestic, foreign, the coordination on inde- to the surging powers responded the industry Meanwhile, markets. their own expanding of the 1990s by strategically lm movement fi pendent successful inde- in that arena, either by acquiring lmmaking operations fi other lms, imports, and subsidiaries geared to art fi or launching pendents “specialty” productions. 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 259780415962612-Ch-01.indd 25 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 26

thomas schatz 26 one-half oftheirdomesticbox-office revenues. The number-one releasein three releasesforallsixmajor studios(and NewLine)returnedroughly thus prop uptheentire studio operation. Remarkably enough, thetop two orthreerunaway hitsthatgeneratemostofastudio’s revenues and little inasectorthatreliessoheavily on “tentpole” hits—i.e.,thetop the sixmajorstudioswas$52.5million, although averages meanrelatively be discussedbelow). The average domesticbox-offi cegross perrelease for major NewLinereleased14(priortoitsdemiseinearly 2008,which will exception ofWarner Bros., which released33,while Time Warner mini- “Foreign”). Allofthemajorsreleased20–25films in2007 withthenotable was anall-timerecord forfour ofthem(McClintock, “Six”;McNary, $1 billion indomesticbox-offi ce revenues forthefi rst timeever—which Business forthemajorstudioswasparticularly strong, asallsixsurpassed home videoand TV provided thelion’s shareoftheir fi lm-relatedprofi ts. theatrical markets ($9.63billion and $26.7billion, respectively),while companies enjoyingrecord revenues inboththedomesticand worldwide that wasthemovieindustry’s bestyearever, withtheconglomerate-owned Hollywood becameremarkably acuteby2007.Insheereconomic terms thus withmeager prospects aftertheatricalrelease. year, conversely, werereleasedwithlittleorno marketing leverage and subsequent markets aswell.Mostofthe300–400independent fi lms per and anattendant marketing campaign,and theyareassuredofaccessto conglomerate-owned studiosare assuredofdomestictheatricalrelease disparity isevenmoresevereinancillary markets. Filmsproduced bythe offi ce in2005thanallofthe300-plus independent fi lms combined. This Hollywood, thetoptwostudioblockbusters alone generatedmorebox 7 percent ofthemarket. Inotherwords, asistypicalofmillennial films alone—the latestStarWars and HarryPotterinstallments—captured That yearthedomesticboxoffi ce totaled$8.84billion and thetoptwo later, nearly halfofwhich (64of138companies)releasedonly asinglefilm. tributors grewfrom afewdozenin1995towelloverhundred adecade 300 (and over400inboth2006and 2007). The number ofindependent dis- independent releases grewfrom some240peryearinthe1990stowellover tured over95percent ofthetheatricalmarket. Meanwhile, thenumber of while their14indie subsidiariesreleased126fi lms, and togethertheycap- that with2005,when thesixconglomerate-owned majorsreleased133fi lms subsidiary output was79fi lms, ro Classics and NewLine’s art-fi lm subsidiaryFine Line,and thetotalindie omy. The only otheractivesubsidiariesatthetimewereSony Pictures two recent acquisitions stilloperatingwithcontractually assured auton- cent, mostofitgoingtoDisney’s Miramaxand Time Warner’s NewLine, market and theconglomerate-owned subsidiariescapturedanother 11per- In 1995,thesixmajorstudioscaptured80percent oftheU.S. theatrical The deepeningclass divisions and class structureofcontemporary ughly halfthatofthemajors.Contrast 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 27 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM ), an Daddy’s Little Daddy’s , Todd Sweeney , but their in-house produc- their in-house , but Apocalypto Disney’s , and Clayton Michael The most successful independent in 2007 was Lionsgate, which enjoyed which in 2007 was Lionsgate, most successful independent The While the major Hollywood powers enjoyed unprecedented prosperity prosperity the major Hollywood powers enjoyed unprecedented While its best year ever in terms of domestic box offi 22 releases) on ce ($372 million offi its best year ever in terms of domestic box a vanishing breed of the last of Currently share (3.9 percent). market and by itself in contemporary is in a class Lionsgate “mini-major,” independent and a par with the majors in terms of output studio is on The Hollywood. is realm; and the mega-budget to eschew astute enough but reach, market viable than the nancially fi and eclectic, at the same time more productive, of to the top climbed It has steadily divisions. indie conglomerate-owned was Gate) its total gross (as Lions 2000, when heap since the independent like indies behind share 0.4 percent—well its market and just $30 million or that were later absorbed by the conglomerates Artisan USA Films and domesti- over $20 million lms grossed In 2007, 17 of its fi fell by the wayside. IV, lms (Saw fi horror franchise release slate included its diverse and cally, , I Get Married Did Why II), African-American comedies ( Hostel each case was a franchise blockbuster that generated roughly one-fi fth one-fi roughly generated that blockbuster a franchise case was each in the dabbled majors all The revenues. domestic total studio’s of the talent deals with top or special via pickups markets indie and mid-range as with Paramount’s producers, leading independent and Warner’s of all releases for some 60 percent responsible in 2007, the true independents compe- intense and year ever due to over-production suffered their worst Out of some 130 inde- divisions. indie the conglomerate-owned from tition the Weinstein MGM, four—Lionsgate, only in 2007, distributors pendent with ce, real success at the box offi any Goldwyn—enjoyed and Company, The least $1 million. at grossing of their releases (45 of 71) two-thirds nearly ThinkFilm, Freestyle, including independents, eight other prominent far less successful; in fact three- were Roadside Attractions, and Magnolia, at the of 108) failed to return even $250,000 of their releases (80 quarters relatively operated successfully in small but ce. A few independents box offi Raj, which Yash and as well as Eros for instance, secure markets—IMAX, the other 115 or so companies failed lms in the U.S.—while fi release Indian at all. business cant signifi to generate any lm (War ), a martial arts fi (Sicko Moore documentary Girls), a Michael ), Chuck ), a teen comedy (Good Luck Yuma (3:10 to Western star-laden ambitious a lm based on fi a live-action N’Ever After ), and (Happily lm a CG animated fi prow- of its distribution indication videogame (Bratz). In a clear toy line and $150 million nearly domestically, $330 million lms grossed ess, these ten fi lm” “art fi one released only Lionsgate DVD. on $250 million overseas, and hit, earning a commercial was a critical if not Her, which from in 2007, Away writer-director and performance Christie’s for Julie Oscar nominations screenplay. Sarah Polley’s tion efforts focused primarily on high-cost, high-stakes franchise block- franchise high-cost, high-stakes on efforts focused primarily tion busters. 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 279780415962612-Ch-01.indd 27 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 28

thomas schatz 28 Award nominations inDecember thatfurtherenhanced their market other indie-division hitsreceivedanunprecedented number ofAcademy upcoming awards. The strategy paidoff handsomely in2007,astheseand to gearthereleaseofquality indie films toboththeholiday season and the Atonement. This late-yearsurge wasscarcely surprising,giventhetendency season hits,notably NoCountryfor OldMen, indie divisions reversedadecidedlysubparyear withasuccession ofholiday as therevenues. for theprestigeand criticalcache theyprovide theparent company, aswell to theirownbrand oftensions betweenartand commerce, and arevalued discerning audiences. Thus theconglomerates’ indie divisions aresubject ment) aslong astheycontrol costsand satisfytheirardent but highly tively ensuresthesefilmmakers creativefreedom(and continued employ- Steven Soderbergh, and a conglomerate-era industrial machine thateffec- indie-division executivesand independent producers likeScottRudinand on theirowntermsthanksto owndistinctive talents, thesupportof renaissance ofthe1970s,theseindie auteurshave managed tomakefi lms dating back totheinternational artcinemaofthe1960sand theHollywood Russell, Gus Van Sant, and Todd Haynes. Sustainingafilmmaking lineage Pedro Almodóvar, Alexander Payne, AngLee,Wes Anderson, David O. privileged class thatincludes Joeland Ethan Coen, Paul Thomas Anderson, writer-directors who arefi rmlyensconced intheindie-division sector—a haven forHollywood’s indie auteurs,and particularly forestablished creative freedomoftopfilmmaking talent. the interests and autonomy oftheirproduction operations and ensurethe at Focusand Tom Bernard and Michael Barker atSony Classicsistoprotect these constraints. Moreover, therole oftopexecutiveslikeJamesSchamus terms ofproduction funding and marketing muscle apparently outweighs as “theDependents”—although theupsideofconglomerate ownershipin entertainment divisions—thus theoff-hand reference tothesecompanies ing theirrelativeautonomy withintheconglomerates’ fi lmed ment armforDVD release. This complicatesmattersconsiderably regard- international distribution and on theirparent company’s home entertain- bution themselveswhile relyingon theirmajorstudiocounterpart for tic box-office returns.Asarule,thesecompanieshandled domesticdistri- released 83films and averaged justunder $10million perreleaseindomes- Independent, and another TW subsidiary, Picturehouse—which together Paramount Vantage, Sony PicturesClassics,Sony ScreenGems,Warner indie division), Miramax(post-Weinstein, stillaDisneycompany), subsidiaries in2007—FoxSearchlight, FocusFeatures(NBCUniversal’s These tensions werenevermorepronounced thanin2007,when the In thissensetheconglomerate-owned subsidiarieshave provided asafe The conglomerate-owned indie-fi lm sectorwasdominatedbyeight There Will BeBlood, Juno, and 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 29 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM Michael Michael Michael Clayton (Frankel). Michael (with seven nominations and one win), one and (with seven nominations Michael Clayton Michael marked the directorial debut of writer Tony Tony of writer debut the directorial Clayton marked Michael was later picked up for distribution by Warner by Warner up for distribution Clayton was later picked Michael critic David Ansen aptly observed in a preview of the in a preview Ansen aptly observed critic David Newsweek The only 2007 studio release to receive signifi cant Oscar attention was Oscar attention cant to receive signifi 2007 studio release only The The “Oscar snub” of the major studios’ 2007 fi lms was big news both of the major studios’ 2007 fi “Oscar snub” The although it was scarcely a major studio fi lm. Independently fi nanced and and nanced fi lm. Independently a major studio fi it was scarcely although produced, Warner Bros.’ Bros.’ Warner colm’s with the fi relationship long-standing due in part to the studio’s Steven also starred) and (who Clooney George executive producers Soderbergh. value. Prospects improved even more on Oscar night in late February, February, in late Oscar night more on even improved Prospects value. bias a pronounced displayed Academy of the members the voting when indies. of the conglomerate-owned in favor studios and the major against a bigger on Awards Spirit the Independent become have Oscars “The budget,” of the predicted all eight (he correctly As Ansen anticipated (Ansen). event major studio their trounced subsidiaries thoroughly indie the top awards), pic- le top categories—best In the high-profi the board. across counterparts and actress, original actor and actress, supporting actor, ture, director, four seven of eight awards, lms won fi adapted screenplay—indie-division to the craft extended trend The to No Country For Old Men. went of which major studios’ the etc.), where editing, sound, (cinematography, categories values superior production translate into invariably vastly higher budgets 46 major dominated, with 28 of lms. But here too the indies better fi if not six of ten Oscar wins. and craft nominations and series for Universal, Bourne scripted the Jason previously who Gilroy, estimate by Gilroy’s which at a relatively modest $21 million, it was budgeted nal cost a major studio. “I also got fi have it would of what was one-fourth a studio picture.” gotten that on have . “I wouldn’t he told Variety cut,” a big-budget on a writer-director assignment Gilroy success won Clayton’s he will nal cut, nor get fi he certainly will not thriller at Universal—where he had on of creative control enjoy the degree inside and outside the industry, especially in light of the blockbuster hits blockbuster especially in light of the the industry, outside inside and argue One could ce year ever. Hollywood to its best box-offi that propelled denial were collectively in that the voting members of the Academy the fact is that although the industry, realities of the economic regarding of the Spider- ce behemoths, topped by new installments box-offi the year’s with Pirates of the Caribbean series along and Man, Shrek, Harry Potter, recog- warranted , scarcely Transformers blockbuster, franchise” the “instant merits, for that matter, for their artistry—or even their technical nition the Indeed, rebooting of their CG effects menus. the routine considering the view that the seemed to share with the critical community Academy than their indie- business major studios were in an altogether different to indifferent that seems increasingly one and subsidiary counterparts, standards. Hollywood lmmaking by traditional fi quality 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 299780415962612-Ch-01.indd 29 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 30

thomas schatz 30 franchise blockbusters: therules ofthegame purchase ofPixarin2006for$7.4billion (Britt).Butdespitealltheturmoil, in 2005,hissuccessorBobIger renegotiated the deal,resultinginDisney’s ties betweenJobsand DisneyCEOMichael Eisner. AfterEisner’s departure also toaclash ofculturesbetweenthecompanies and aclash ofpersonali- to dealtermsthat,inPixar’s view, unreasonably favored Disney, and due as Hollywood’s topanimation studio. portions, Pixarsupplanted Disney(which financed and distributed itsfi lms) operations on allofitsfilms. Thus inaparadigmshiftoftrulyhistoricpro- Pixar’s resident visionary JohnLasseter, who thereaftersupervised creative A Bug’s Life (1998)and Toy Story2(1999),which like Toy Storyweredirectedby mation division thenbegan arapiddecline while Pixarhititsstridewith create DreamWorks withStevenSpielberg and David Geffen.Disney’s ani- Story, becameamajorhitin1995,one yearafterKatzenberg leftDisneyto generated 3-Dformat.Allthatchanged when Pixar’s debut feature,Toy based animation, and putlittlestock inPixar’s efforts todevelopacomputer- Jeffrey Katzenberg, astrong proponent oftraditional hand-drawn, cel- (1993), and The LionKing (1994).Disney’s animation division wasrunby dominance viahuge animatedhitslikeBeautyandtheBeast(1991), Aladdin deal withDisneyintheearly 1990swhen thestudiowassurging toindustry Steve Jobsin1986foramere$10million (Price).Jobsstruck athree-picture 1980s, and afterstrugglingtosurvivewasbought byAppleco-founder as thecomputerimaging division ofLucasfilm beforebreakingaway inthe conglomerate-controlled, franchise-obsessed, CG-drivenera.Pixarbegan Disney, wellindicate thechanging stakesofblockbuster filmmaking inthe animated hits,along withitscomplex, highlyconflicted relationship with Incredibles, 2004;Cars, 2006;Ratatouille2007).InfactPixar’s remarkable runof Pixar’s computer-animatedfi lms (Monsters Inc., 2001;FindingNemo , 2003;The chises, plus another dozenorsosingle-fi lm franchises—most notably Hollywood fashions itstopfilms foraworldwide marketplace. mal-aesthetic protocols, and duealsototheeffectsofglobalization as convergence, which have significantly impactedbothproduction and for- register altogetherduetothecombinedeffectsofdigitization and media the conglomerate era,and inthenewmillenniumithasgone into another wed toablockbuster ethos. The franchise mentality hasintensified during from day one, ofcourse, and since thepostwareraithasbeenincreasingly and-entertainment divisions. Hollywoodhasbeenahit-drivenindustry products, allofwhich benefi t theparent conglomerates’ various media- line ofsimilarfilms and anever-expanding array ofrelatedentertainment blockbuster hits—i.e.,calculatedmegafilms designedtosustainaproduct The business ofthemajorstudiosismakingand sellingfranchise-sustaining In theearly 2000s, thePixar-Disneyalliance wasinserious turmoildue Millennial Hollywoodisdominatedbysometwo-dozenactivefran- 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 31 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM $2.2 billion $2.5 billion worldwide box-offi ce revenues worldwide box-offi Spider-Man (2002, 2004, 2007) Pirates of the Caribbean (2003, 2006, 2007) $2.7 billion Franchise Franchise 2005) redux (1999, 2002, Star Wars Harry Potter (2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2007) of the Rings (2001, 2002, 2003) Lord $4.5 billion Shrek (2001, 2004, 2007) $2.4 billion $2.9 billion What Pixar has had to recognize is that in today’s Hollywood a block- Pixar has had to recognize is that in today’s What One reason for the studios’ record box-offi ce in 2007 was the fact that box-offi for the studios’ record One reason , with a plot devised specifi cally for the international marketplace marketplace cally for the international specifi 2, with a plot devised Cars buster series is the consummate renewable resource—a product line that product resource—a renewable series is the consummate buster its yield. increase actually to sustain and regenerated can be strategically movie 1990s, when the 1980s and from change an important marks This returns. nancial fi steadily diminishing meant series invariably and sequels their predecessors, a trend outperform routinely Now series installments the and global marketplace with the expanding ed along that has intensifi pro- increasingly has been trend The returns. of DVD crucial added value the rejuve- and Matrix success of The the enormous 1999 and since nounced then, six franchises series (after a 16-year hiatus). Since nated Star Wars box- all-time worldwide of the top 50 come to comprise fully one-half have in each and revenues, in cumulative up billions racking ce hits while offi with the larger of the series itself along development case the strategic created entertain- et al.) have digitization, (globalization, forces industry sub-industries veritable into steadily expanded systems that have ment elite Hollywood’s alone, ce revenues themselves. In terms of box-offi unto returns as of 2007: generated the following have half-dozen franchises the alliance fl ourished for two main reasons: fi rst, Disney had decades of had decades rst, Disney fi reasons: two main for ourished fl the alliance ani- family-targeted G-rated, of the kind precisely handling experience singularly Disney was second, and that Pixar produced; mated features into transforming them but lms fi Pixar’s marketing at only adept not have Pixar could what beyond far franchises entertainment multi-purpose released in , a solid hit of Cars the franchising own. Consider its on done over $700 of revenues DVD and combined theatrical 2006 with June in the sale $5 billion generated an astonishing in two years which million, a include franchise the plans to expand Current of related retail products. global in Disney’s attractions theme-park ice-skating tour, nationwide the 2012 release perhaps most importantly, and resorts, and of parks chain of sequels, against Pixar prohibition reverses a long-standing This (Barnes). sur- as no But it comes sore spot with Disney. ongoing had been an which in the computer-animation competition growing prise in light of the production. logic of series economic indisputable realm as well as the four of these top franchises released new installments, all of which sur- all of which released new installments, of these top franchises four within a year of release. revenues DVD in theatrical and passed $1 billion 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 319780415962612-Ch-01.indd 31 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 32

thomas schatz 32 • • • • • • • • motion pictures.” These rulesinclude thefollowing: set ofrulesgoverningthecreation and marketing ofHollywood’s “major technological, and industrial conventions have coalescedinto averitable tally wedtoanewbreedofblockbusters whose narrative,stylistic, try’s development intheearly twenty-fi rst century hasbeen fundamen- blockbusters, theyarescarcely theonly rulesthatapply. The fi lm indus- qua non ofblockbuster hitfilms. their spectacularCGeffectsand action sequences, which arenow thesine quated qualities ascharacter development and human drama—aswellas Bourne, Bond, and DieHard films weresingledout bycriticsforsuch anti- Impossible and reactivatedSupermanand Batmancycles in2006,the than thetopperformers,interestingly enough. And liketheMission: were targeted toward somewhat morediscerningand matureaudiences Most ofthesesecond-tier franchise fi lms featuredadultprotagonists and new installments oftheJamesBond, Jason Bourne, and DieHard series. half-billion dollarsincombinedbox-offi ce and DVD revenues, including billion-dollar mark aswellin2007,while another sevenfi lms cleared a the weakesttodateintermsofcriticalresponse. franchises intermsofworldwide theatricaland DVD returns,despitebeing ments—were thestrongest commercial hitstodatefortheirrespective Moreover, threeofthesefilms—the Shrek,Spider-Man,and Piratesinstall- credentials) should developfrom arelatively weak,ineffectual, or The protagonist inthecourse ofeach film (and regardless ofhisheroic heroic) socialfunction. but one who isalsoforced bycircumstances toperformsome(preferably The protagonist should bealoner, eitherbychoice orbycircumstances, child. The maleprotagonist should beanadolescent oranutterly naïveman- The protagonist should bemale. protagonist. The long-term storylineshould focuson anindividual central character(s) ratherthansomeexternalplot. fi lm storylineemployingserialqualities thatcenter on itsprincipal The storyshould beamenabletocontinuation, withthefi lm-to- company). copyright canbeownedorcontrolled bythestudio(oritsparent only astoryproperty but alsoapieceofintellectual property whose Regardless ofitsoriginalform,thenarrativesource should provide not TV series,evenathemepark rideoratoyline. children’s story, atraditional fairytale,acomicbook orgraphic novel, a franchise, which mightexistinitiallyinany number offorms—aclassic The fi lm should exploitorexpand anestablishedentertainment While computereffectsand action areessential to conglomerate-era Transformers surpassedthe 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 33 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM compromised character into one who seizes the initiative and (re)asserts (re)asserts and initiative seizes the who one into character compromised role. his heroic good dark, and universe of light inhabit a Manichean should hero The or more in one of evil embodied the pervasive forces evil, with and powerful antagonists. via an the antagonist(s)—perhaps mirror in some way should hero The both confront should he thus assumed identity—and or an alter-ego his struggle against also an internal evil and against an external struggle side.” own “darker effects-driven and dazzling computer graphics provide story should The in terms that are carefully calculated intervals scenes at regular action digital media adaptability to other and intensity, of their frequency, platforms. the but even deadly clashes, violent, include scenes should action The cial to ensure a PG or artifi stylized and ciently be suffi should violence PG-13 rating. ending” a “happy and confrontation to a climactic build lm should fi The that eliminates the to a degree not prevails—but the hero in which sequels. for prospect one plot line, but a secondary a “love story” as include lm also should fi The end. lm’s fully resolved at fi that is not one and that is strictly non-carnal, but coherent that is internally world take place in a story should The is by design too expansive to be contained that highly complex, and in subsequent solicits further elaboration thus lm—and within a single fi in other media forms as well. lms and fi pertains to story materials as well, of further elaboration principle This be designed for use in other should effects, which software and including media iterations. have should characters secondary various and antagonist monstrous The via digital effects and that can be enhanced qualities fantastic bizarre and in other media. (licensed) incarnations readily exploited in subsequent character(s), its principal for might secure stardom A successful franchise to control in order roles be cast in continuing not top stars should but long-term encourage and costs, minimize creative interference, participation. directors talent—particularly lmmaking applies to fi same principle This the stature might be used to market whose credentials lm with indie-fi lm. fi are important characterization engaging plotting and Coherent in “one-off” far less so than lms, but fi franchise aspects of individual lmmaking, the primary fi lms. In franchise fi non-series) (self-standing, its of the core narrative and the integrity are, paradoxically, concerns transmedia system. an intertextual, into viability for expansion • • • • • • • • • • • • 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 339780415962612-Ch-01.indd 33 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 34

thomas schatz 34 ongoing successand currency ofthefranchise. of thestory(computergames,print or TV series,etc.)arecrucialtothe the marketing ofthefilm and itsintegration withthekeyancillary versions improved CGeffectson theother. Along withthese“production values,” enhancing thatexperience viaentertaining, hyper-destructive villainsand tions byreproducing the“original”experience on theone hand, and each seriesinstallment tends toinvolve thesatisfaction ofviewerexpecta- predictable and formulaic, ofcourse, and thus theprimaryselling point of of thesuperhero—who alsohashisdark sidetodealwith. This isallquite and therestoration oforder canonly beattainedthrough theintervention ably theresultofhuman volition, ofevil-doerswho abuse ormisusepower, binaries oflightand dark, goodand evil.Disorder intheseworlds isinvari- and toseeboththeworld and itsinhabitants insimple(ifnot simplistic) ticated audiences tend toportray societygenerallyinamorepositivelight tional and politicalmachinery thatcreatedhim. own moralcodewhose fi ercest challenges oftencomefrom theinstitu- the authorities (including hissuperiors),theaccomplishedkillerwith has celebratedtheheroic loner atoddswithboththeoutlaw element and franchises, among others.From SamSpadetoJason Bourne, Hollywood cop traditions intheBourne, Bond, Mission: Impossible,and DieHard also note theobvious tiestoHollywood’s hardboiled detectiveand rogue- individualism, technical ingenuity, and masculinesuperiority. We might well, although theyinvariably defaulttoareductivecelebration ofrugged in mind. The films areoftenmorecomplexthematicallyand politicallyas will—and lesslikelytobedesignedwithavideogameorthemepark ride more internally coherent and character driven—moreclassical, ifyou ments but through theseriesatlarge. Thus theindividual films tend tobe ment and dramaticconfl ict—not only withinindividual seriesinstall- and commercial appealbyinvesting inmorecomplexcharacter develop- Batman series,thesecond-tier franchises clearly limittheiraudience reach the intended audience. From Jason Bourne totherejuvenatedBond and the age and relativesophistication oftheprotagonist—and byextension transmedia reiterations. Onekeydistinction, asindicated above,involves the primarymarket and target audience, and thenatureand rangeof a number ofimportant distinctions duetofactorssuch assource material, chises followmany (ifnot most)oftheserulesaswell,but weshould note to thepoint ofcomprisingaveritablegenreunto themselves.Otherfran- sions—home video, gaming,print and music publishing, licensingand The conglomerate’s majorstudiosand theirrelatedentertainment divi- the caseofspider-man The superhero and fantasy franchises gearedtoyounger and lesssophis- Hollywood’s topfranchises followtheseruleswithremarkable fidelity, 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 35 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM changed that, fi rmly establishing the Sony franchise franchise rmly establishing the Sony that, fi Spider-Man changed made stars of both Tobey Maguire and director Sam and Maguire Tobey Spider-Man made stars of both The series-spawning fi lm was a major breakthrough for Sony because, for Sony lm was a major breakthrough fi series-spawning The in the words of chairman John Calley prior to its release, “This company company “This John Calley prior to its release, of chairman in the words lm” fi a franchise being able to market not suffered from has always (Grover). merchandising, and so on—have refi ned this process to a remarkable a remarkable to process ned this refi on—have so and merchandising, media conglomerate-era a quintessential Spider-Man, Consider degree. Marvel licensing deal with an ongoing (via by Sony controlled franchise by the 2002 block- propelled was guration confi current Comics) whose Pictures, Columbia by Sony-owned Spider-Man , produced movie hit, buster a crucial compo- and movie series become a multi-billion-dollar has which both Sony while operations, media-and-technology global Sony’s of nent of media formats in an array the franchise expand to Marvel continue and itera- by countless pre-sold course was of lm cycle fi current The (Graser). of Spider-Man by to the origination media dating back in various tions a include did not versions myriad Those Lee in 1962. Marvel Comics’ Stan and Sony that meant which lm, however, Hollywood fi live-action tailoring it to current effectively re-originate the story, could Columbia that would process own interests—a to their and conditions industry evolved. acute as the franchise and become more focused in worldwide generating $822 million while in the “popular imagination” on was spent budget $140 million lm’s of the fi Much ce revenues. box-offi hun- realized by literally and effects, conceived special design and its visual The of John Dykstra. the supervision under technicians dreds of artists and in technique like the “bullet-time” CG effects were truly spectacular and, airborne and of action for CG rendering Matrix, set new standards The scenes. Raimi, whose prior work had been in the indie-fi lm realm—with Raimi’s lm realm—with Raimi’s had been in the indie-fi prior work Raimi, whose Matrix) of indie by The (also spurred trend the growing success reinforcing story itself is a straightfor- The franchises. blockbuster directors taking on Peter nerd high-school re-telling of the Spider-Man origin myth: ward powers, giving him super-human radio-active spider, is bitten by a Parker com- gure Ben (Cliff Robertson) father-fi and of his uncle the murder and in a crime-ridden modern superhero pels him to become a vigilante foe, the Green Goblin is a familiar comic-book antagonist The metropolis. Norman Osborn of entrepreneur alter-ego (Willem Dafoe), the villainous goes awry, project his military weapons when turns “mad scientist” who Harry (James best friend also happens to be the father of Peter’s who and Mary Jane (Kirsten Dunst), boys are smitten with classmate Both Franco). torn hopelessly for a superhero love interest the ongoing provides who of full assumption story culminates in Peter’s The duty. between love and battle with the Green Goblin, whose in a climactic his Spider-Man role in an epilogue Peter spurns Mary and Harry, death wins the enmity of son as modern role troublesome) (and due to his newfound affections Jane’s superhero. 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 359780415962612-Ch-01.indd 35 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 36

thomas schatz 36 dozens ofdifferent versions ofthestory/gameon Sony’s PS3,Microsoft’s was releasedon May 4,withmultiple gamedevelopers issuingliterally box-office takeinthefi rst threedays ofrelease. The an astounding $382million globally—thus realizing40percent ofitsentire records bothintheU.S. and worldwide initsopeningweekend, generating 1, and within aweekwasplaying in177territoriesworldwide. The fi lm set (Schilling). The film “went wide”on arecord 4,253screensintheU.S. on May debut inLondon and aU.S. starting inAprilwithaworld premierein Tokyo, followedbyaEuropean DVD player. The fi lm’s release involved aglobalmarketing campaign, the film withbothitsnewhigh-defi nition PS3gameconsole and itsBlu-ray take would have beenhigher, but Sony optedtobundle anHDversion of cal and home-video totalofoverone billion dollarsin2007alone. The DVD lion. DVD income quickly surpassed$100million, thus yieldingatheatri- the U.S. in2007,grossing $336million, withforeignrevenues of$554mil- critics, according toRotten Tomatoes.com). Itwasthetopbox-office hitin tively weakcriticalreception (only 44percent positivereviewsbytop keting and mediasynergy and asolidcommercial success,despiteitsrela- in 2005(Zaun). PlayStation2(PS2) system,helpingitbecomethebest-sellinggameconsole decision to“bundle” boththefi lm and thevideogamewithitsnew consumer-electronics and endeavors. Mostsignifi cant herewasSony’s it effectivelyusedthefi lms toexploititsowncomputer-entertainment ing potential ofthefranchise, particularly intermsofvideogames,and day on themarket. Sony alsowasmoreaggressive inexploitingthelicens- better business on DVD—including arecord 6million unitssoldinitsfirst the fi rst installment attheboxoffi ce ($784million worldwide) but did the seriesafterthissecond installment). Spider-Man2felljustshort of todate,which went toCGwizard JohnDykstra,aptlyenough (who left terms ofvisual effectsand earningtheseriesitsonly Academy Award range including marketing and distribution costs—uppingtheante in and spectacle, withtheincreased budget—reportedly inthe$250million actor, screenplay, etc.).Butthefi lm clearly deliveredintermsofaction an Oscarnomination inany ofthemajorcategories (bestpicture,director, terization, although likeitspredecessor, Spider-Man2failedtogarnereven was criticallywellreceiveddespiteitsby-the-numbers plottingand charac- also withhisaffections fortheequally long-suffering MaryJane. The film Peter continues tostrugglewithhisrole and identity asSpider-Man,and Molina), aquasi-sympathetic madscientist inthemoldofHarry’s father. New Goblin)and another familiarMarvelfoe,DoctorOctopus (Alfred which theangst-riddensuperhero battlesHarry(transformedinto the Sony intensified those effortswithSpider-Man3,anawesome featofmar- These open-ended storylinesprovided theimpetusfor premiere atthe New York FilmFestival Spider-Man 3videogame Spider-Man 2,in 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 37 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM Spider-Man 3’s The weakness of the story undoubtedly contributed to to contributed weakness of the story undoubtedly The was clearly a success, a success, 3 for Spider-Man was clearly campaign marketing Sony’s While fast fade at the box offi ce, although the fi lm did well enough to join the lm did well enough the fi ce, although fast fade at the box offi lms, fi franchise with two other lackluster 2007 along in club billion-dollar appear would This of the Caribbean installments. Pirates the new Shrek and as inferior Law, of Gresham’s version Hollywood’s to be Conglomerate predecessors in the studios’ inevitable their quality lms succeed fi franchise maximize revenues. risk, and minimize product, efforts to standardize risk in the high-stakes nancial eliminated fi all but the studios have Indeed, adept facility lmmaking thanks to their increasingly fi arena of blockbuster of companies’ collective control their parent formulation, for franchise of global their overall domination and marketplace the crucial U.S. appetite for insatiable worldwide an apparently as well, and markets Hollywood-engineered entertainment. the movie itself is a confounding, hyper-active muddle. Like its ensemble Like muddle. hyper-active itself is a confounding, the movie as both identity a dual 3 manifests Spider-Man characters, of split-personality unsat- the results are most and a big-screen videogame, lm and a feature fi This development. character and narrative coherence isfactory in terms of crit- of the in fact many and poor critical reception, lm’s the fi explain may other than to Spider-Man 3 treated it as something reacted favorably ics who gamers, geared to teens and CG spectacle as a playful a movie—primarily digital next-generation for Sony’s promo extravagant or as a purposefully Harry/New Goblin (who sets Peter/Spider-Man against story The wares. before his cli- friend to foe to foe to friend from veers in this installment Marko/Sandman with Flint Spider-Man), along mactic demise to save Grace). What’s (Topher Eddie Brock/Venom and Haden Church) (Thomas inexplicably to earth and more, an extraterrestrial “symbiote” crashes Spider- and side for both Parker creating a dark hero, itself to our attaches Spider- a black-suited of the story focuses on the middle portion Thus Man. moral code of the “real” Spider-Man, and and rejects the social Man who after John amusingly of Peter modeled quite version also an obnoxious that is likely (1977)—a reference in Saturday Night Fever character Travolta’s plot one lm careens wildly from fi The audience. target lm’s fi the lost on in a spectacular 13½ minute ultimately collide all of which line to another, recur like lm, which scene in the fi is the sixth CG-driven action This nale. fi of 16:15, 16:15, 16:30, 17:00, 19:00, at intervals literally, clockwork—quite running lm’s told, fully 33:00 of the fi lm. All of the fi 29:00 in the course and including sort or another, scenes of one time of 2:15:00 is devoted to action Venom. and the “birth scenes” of both Sandman Xbox 360, Nintendo’s Wii and DS systems among others (Mohr). The fi lm’s fi The others (Mohr). among DS systems and Wii 360, Nintendo’s Xbox Blu-ray concurrent terms of Sony’s in strategic equally was release DVD its underlining visibility and the franchise’s further enhancing campaign, tool (Ault). as a marketing value enormous 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 379780415962612-Ch-01.indd 37 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 38

thomas schatz 38 coda: timewarner, newline,and Oscars inearly 2004witharecord 11wins (Kristin Thompson). number-two all-timeglobalhitbehind lion, and $1.13billion, respectively, with thefinal installment reaching the the seriesreturnedglobalbox-office revenues of$868.6 million, $926.3mil- digital age. Released inconsecutive holiday seasons in2002,2003,and 2004, course, astheRingstrilogyemerged asamodel franchise fortheglobal, dent filmmaker working halfway around theworld. The gamble paidoff,of untried three-film franchise and thetalents ofarelativelyobscureindepen- accommodate theproject. Thus Shaye wasstakingNewLine’s futureon an their ownfacilitiesinNewZealand, which weresubstantially expanded to Jackson and hiskeycollaborator(and wife)FranWalsh produced out of the totalcostofJackson’s ambitious enterprise inthe$300million range. trilogy, like Tolkien’s novels, and toproduce themsimultaneously tokeep take on theentire production. It wasShaye’s ideatodotheRingsfilms asa an inveterate risk-takersince founding NewLineinthe1960s,decidedto and likeMiramax,NewLinewasstrugglingtokeeppace.In1998BobShaye, ingly ambitious and expensivefeaturestocompetewiththemajorstudios; owned, quasi-independent mini-major thathadbeenproducing increas- The prospects included NewLine,which likeMiramaxwasaconglomerate- increased, theWeinsteins began looking forapartnerorperhapsbuyer. Miramax inthemid-1990s,but asthesize,scope,and development costs screen versions. Jackson initiatedthecurrent cycle asanindividual fi lm at in the1940sand publishedinthe1950s)and extending through multiple history—in thiscasedatingback tothe Tolkien novels themselves(written connections betweenafilm franchise and itspurportedauteur. tions about corporateauthorship, intellectual property, and theimplicit with itsincessant legal proceedings, which raisedsomeprovocative ques- (Garrett). Butthose planswereon hold duetotheJackson–Shaye squabble tation ofThe Hobbit , J.R.R. Tolkien’s fi ctional precursortohisRingssaga New Line’s similarplantoextend theRingsfranchise viaatwo-film adap- J.K. Rowling’s seventh and fi nal Potternovel into twofi lms, inspiredby Warner Bros. planstoextend thePotterseries bysplittingitsadaptation of which alsofacedtheimpending conclusion ofitsHarryPotterfranchise. the Ringsfranchise—a matterofconsiderable concern to Time Warner, whose three-yearlegal wrangle hadeffectivelystalledthepotent Lord of itself involved fi lmmakerPeterJackson and NewLineCEORobertShaye, nating postscripttoour assessment ofmillennialHollywood. The dispute umes about thecurrent stateoftheindustry and thus provide anillumi- industry disputewasfinally resolved—withconsequences thatspeakvol- and theindie division hitsweretakingoff,along-running, high-stakes In December2007,asthemajorstudios’record revenues werebeingtallied Like mostmodernfranchises, The Lord oftheRingshasalong, complex the hobbit the Titanic (1997),and sweepingthe 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 39 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM No Country for Old Men No Country for , 2006), released fauno del El laberinto fi lms were green-lighted with Jackson and Fran Walsh Fran Walsh and with Jackson lms were green-lighted fi Hobbit The were reasserting the primacy of American indepen- Be Blood were reasserting the primacy of American Will There (1997). But del Toro had major studio experience had major studio experience Toro Mimic (1997). But del (1993) and Cronos The tenor of the director search changed, however, when Guillermo when however, changed, of the director search tenor The altogether, league in another Toro to put del promised lms Hobbit fi The In the wake of that third mega-hit, however, Shaye made the fatal mis- made the Shaye however, mega-hit, third wake of that In the del Toro emerged as a serious candidate. The news hit the national press in news hit the national The candidate. as a serious emerged Toro del as Awards, of the Academy 2008 within days February headline a Variety While opportunity. he readily seized the and of course, a was negotiating Toro del studio shackles,” gushed “Oscar directors shun years—although him to a studio for the next four shackle deal that would attached as Executive Producers for a $40 million fee (Fleming). Jackson fee (Fleming). Jackson for a $40 million Producers as Executive attached due to his collaboration enough, cantly to direct, signifi available was not in lm, digital-cinema project , a multi-fi Tintin on with Steven Spielberg Line thanks to New which in New Zealand, Digital plant WETA Jackson’s fore- ILM as the world’s had displaced LucasFilm and lms the Rings fi and other obligations Walsh’s and But despite Jackson most digital facilities. , their man- Hobbit The status on to executive producer their relegation and with the same level of qual- lms will be made that “the fi Variety assured ager preposterous That nger). directing” (Halbfi and ity as if they were writing auteur, franchise name-brand status as a Jackson’s underscored claim most recent of Jackson’s supported by the quality it was scarcely although by the fact that Sam Raimi was (2005), nor King Kong lm, the ponderous fi lms. as a possible director for the Hobbit fi being touted and were being her- Anderson Thomas Paul as the Coens and lm and fi dent himself had enjoyed similar Toro auteurs. Del alded as exemplary indie ( Labyrinth Pan’s when praise a year earlier, was lighting subsidiary Picturehouse, indie Warner Time by the in the U.S. Labyrinth Pan’s Toro, directed by del Written and circuit. up the independent political historical drama, and horror, amalgam of fantasy was a brilliant whose Oscars, and multiple and widespread acclaim that won morality play lm in fi made it the most successful Spanish language gross $37.6 million the on Toro lm also put the Mexican-born del fi The ce history. box-offi U.S. he had already Jackson like Raimi and although auteur, map as an indie lms realm with fi cult-horror made a name for himself in the independent like lms (2004 and fi as writer-director of the two Hellboy as well, most notably video into expansion the franchise’s behind as a creative force 2008) and TV series. animated games and take of feuding with Jackson over his profi derailing deal and t participation his profi over with Jackson feuding take of in to submit to an audit refused inexplicably Shaye When the franchise. Line sued New and Hobbit The on work abandoned 2005, Jackson early half a 2007 after two and Finally in December Crisis”). “Identity (Waxman, the exec- reached eventually which public acrimony, years of increasingly terms) (for undisclosed was settled the lawsuit Warner, Time ces at utive offi and 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 399780415962612-Ch-01.indd 39 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 40

thomas schatz 40 that extraordinary asset by replacingthevisionary director Tim Burton 1990s franchise, but forallthewrong reasons. Warner Bros. squandered buster fi lmmaking into another register. Batmanbecamethedefi nitive watershed—a tippingpoint thatsent bothconglomeration and block- concurrent releaseofthefranchise-spawning by itstwo-decaderunofBatmanfilms. The 1989 Time-Warner merger and breakthrough hitsand equally significant misses,bestexemplifi ed perhaps important tonote thatthishard-won industry statuscamebyway ofboth has handled ‘HarryPotter’.” Thirteen’—no studiohasmanaged afranchise betterthantheway Warner markets tentpole brands such as‘Batman,’ ‘Superman’and ‘Ocean’s the franchise arena:“Warner isHollywood’s version ofanadagency—it “totally clueless about theindependent fi lm business” but unmatched in the ers (Hayes and McNary, “Picturehouse”). Responding totherestructuring, sion gamerelativelylateand wasdoingsowellwithitsfranchise blockbust- bet—especially for Time Warner, which gotinto theindie-specialty divi- of innovative fi lms when franchise blockbusters hadbecomesuch asafe Dave McNary, suggestingthatitmadelittlesensetoriskitsheavy output sents asignifi cant moment infi lmdom,” wrote Variety’s DadeHayes and drawal of Time Warner from the increasingly diceyspecialtygame repre- scarcely surprisinginthelarger scheme ofthings.“The completewith- del Toro’s chief allyon Pan’s Labyrinth. only Shaye but alsoBobBerney, theheadofPicturehouse, who hadbeen leading asset,theRingsfranchise, and who jointly decidedtodismissnot and Warner Bros. president Alan Horn, who now control NewLineand its New Line,heultimatelywillbedealingwith Time Warner CEOJeffBewkes enjoyed under Shaye. And although del Toro willreporttoanexecutiveat controlled NewLineislikelytocutdel Toro farlessslack thanJackson 2012. Despitehisdistance from the“front offi ce,” however, theWarner- Jackson and Walsh on theHobbit fi lms, scheduled forreleasein2011and on hisrelocation toNewZealand, where heplannedtowork closely with Independent (Hayes and McNary, “NewLine,” “Picturehouse”). later TW announced thatitwasclosing downPicturehouse and Warner The del Toro–Hobbit dealclosed inlateApril,and thenjusttwoweeks would persistwhile mostofits 600employees,including Shaye, werefired. “merge” NewLinewithWarner Bros.—meaning theNewLinebrand with del Toro gotunderway, Time Warner announced itsdecision to Warner’s filmmaking operations. InFebruary 2008,asserious negotiations tiation oftheHobbitdealdirectlyparalleledamassiveoverhaul Time not toBobShaye atNewLine(Frankel).Inacurious irony, del Toro’s nego- Warner isindeed Hollywood’s premierfranchise factory, although it’s The Time Warner restructuringcaught theindustry off-guard but was Del Toro wascircumspect about thesedevelopments, focusinginstead Los Angeles Times’ Patrick GoldsteinaptlydescribedWarner Bros. as Batman marks atrue industry 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 41 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM The New Line episode also underscores the fact that under current current the fact that under New Line episode also underscores The Del Toro continues that trend, and in a sense advances it in that like it in that like in a sense advances and that trend, continues Toro Del industry conditions “major independent” is a contradiction in terms, and in terms, and is a contradiction “major independent” conditions industry the to compete with for an independent impossible all but that it is now costs, media consolida- global marketing and majors. Soaring production even the most successful require now control conglomerate and tion, six major studios, of the to either align themselves with one independents or to radi- Disney–Pixar alliances, and as in the Paramount–DreamWorks MGM, the Weinstein Lionsgate, cally lower their sights, as in the case of by Disney after the downsized latter, The Miramax. and Company, hits No Country for in 2007 with the indie left in 2005, hit its stride Weinsteins Vantage. with Paramount Be Blood, both co-produced Will There Old Men and as Miramax, follow the same route are that New Line will Indications of mid- to low-budget the kind subsidiary status and reverting to indie chal- in the 1990s before they began lms that both companies produced fi the same rela- put New Line in much also would That lenging the majors. Miramax and has with Paramount Vantage that Bros. with Warner tionship in terms autonomy enjoys reasonable the subsidiary whereby with Disney, Nolan he was hired as a hyphenate writer-director—a rare role for studio rare role writer-director—a as a hyphenate Nolan he was hired a greater degree Toro give del should which directors these years, franchise success of enormous The responsibility. authorial and of creative control series suggests that in the right cre- of the Batman regeneration Nolan’s an eminently represents franchise even a long-dormant ative hands, lm- fi of franchise Law this refutes Gresham’s Whether renewable resource. Batman series revival—or Nolan’s since question, making is an interesting the 1990s cycle. from term—is so distinct in an apt industry “rebooting,” ce hit of summer 2008 prior to the record- the top global box-offi Indeed, of installment was the plodding fourth Dark Night setting release of The which after a two-decade hiatus, saga Jones Indiana Spielberg’s Lucas and and dimension both the renewable-resource a vengeance with reinforced lmmaking. fi of franchise Law Gresham’s with the more “commercial” Joel Schumacher and opting for an audience- opting and Joel Schumacher the more “commercial” with derailed the which installments, fourth and in the third treatment friendly with the footing its franchise regained a decade. Warner series for nearly stylized and dark it was Jackson’s Potter series, although Harry Matrix and rmed the Burton–Schumacher that confi of the Rings trilogy treatment the Potter on Columbus to replace Chris the studio convinced and lesson Cuarón, (Alfonso directors innovative more individualistic, series with com- the style and to enhance Yates) David currently Mike Newell, and that brands” In fact all of the “tentpole franchise. plexity of its signature cre- indie-auteur assigned to directors with Goldstein lists are currently Singer on Batman, Brian Nolan on Christopher dentials—including clearly series—which the Ocean’s on Steven Soderbergh Superman, and their success. been crucial to have 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 419780415962612-Ch-01.indd 41 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 42

thomas schatz 42 who controlled hiscompany’s destiny. came totermswithNewLine’s corporatehome orwiththeexecutives fi lmmaking, Shaye neverabandoned hisindependent ethos and never to TW’s conglomerate cultureand totheradicallychanging arenaofstudio along withNewLineinthemid-1990s. While Hornclearly wasabletoadapt founder ofCastleRock, asuccessfulindependent acquired by Time Warner It’s alsoworthnoting thatWarner Bros. president AlanHornwasco- Jackson weremoreimportant to Time Warner thanNewLineand Shaye. tially since then,toapoint infactwhere theRingsfranchise and Peter dates back toLucasand StarWars, although thestakeshave risenexponen- as franchise auteurseffectivelybecomeproduction executivesaswell. This tretemps—but alsotopfilmmakers likePeterJackson and SamRaimi,who alliance, forinstance, orBewkesand Shaye intheWarner–New Linecon- This includes not only topexecutives—Igerand JobsintheDisney–Pixar plex play ofpersonalities oftenplays akeyrole inthefateofthesealliances. ness relationships involve human relationships as well,and thatthecom- its major-studiocounterpart intermsofmarketing and distribution. of project development and production, but isunder thesizablethumb of second isthatthe indie fi lmsectorissuffi ciently robust toberationalized more likelytoemerge from theindie realmthanthemajorstudios. The requires newtalent and newideas,which under current conditions arefar for twobasicreasons. The first isthatHollywoodlikeall cultural industries and shedding itsindie film division asaluxury itcannot afford. profits and minimizeriskbyconcentrating only on high-yieldblockbusters stockholders—might induce any one oftheconglomerates tomaximize tion ofapublicly heldcompany tooperateinthebestinterests ofits ciency, and thesamesenseoffiduciary responsibility—i.e., thebasicobliga- the resultofpressurefrom stockholders (and Wall Street)toincrease effi- of thestudios’franchise blockbusters. The Time Warner consolidation was the movieindustry, duemorethananything elsetotheenormous success Hollywood. This fundamental symbiosisisrapidlychanging throughout been thecorequality and inmany ways thesaving graceofmillennial production—the majorstudioand indie division operations—that has the vitaltension betweenthemovie industry’s twodominant modesof an obvious threattoNewLine’s autonomy and also,on adeeperlevel,to the consolidation ofmarketing and distribution under Warner Bros. poses to themovieindustry’s now-entrenched Hollywood–Indiewood split.But tion unitindicates theconglomerate’s ongoing ifweakeningcommitment Time Warner’s decision toretainNewLineasabrand and adistinct produc- conclusion One final lesson oftheHobbitepisodeisthatthesecorporateand busi- But theconglomerates areunlikelytoslough offtheirindie divisions 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 43 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM This is scarcely news to Hollywood, of course, which has been strug- which news to Hollywood, of course, is scarcely This gling for decades with the transition from old media to new. Predictably old media to new. from gling for decades with the transition Time subsequent collapse and 2007 market the independents’ enough, lm vet- indie-fi various restructuring led to a series of appeals from Warner Picturehouse Gill and Mark founder Independent Warner erans, notably with an eye to strategies their market to overhaul Bob Berney, president been remark- have But the independents Thompson). digital delivery (A. exacerbates their only which ably slow to exploit new media technologies, companies their parent as the major studios and problems—particularly digital delivery, realm of digital cinema, the uncharted into rush headlong leader here, thanks to the remains the clear Sony media convergence. and consumer and lm, computer entertainment, of its fi coordination strategic a case provides Spider-Man franchise (Siklos). Sony’s divisions electronics is this convergence but franchise, in terms of a movie-driven in point of MGS4, “Metal launch the recent Consider fronts. multiple occurring on in a blockbuster installment the seventh Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots,” linear nar- extended that is rife with “cinematics” and videogame franchise videogames in a very different melds movies and thus and rative sequences, for Sony’s rst in the series developed exclusively MGS4 was the fi context. lms was like the Spider-Man fi HD) platform, and 3 (Blue-ray, PlayStation sales of the console, enhanced That with the PS3 (Schiesel). “bundled” stature of Halo 3, the blockbuster reaching it kept the game from although the rst week on its fi during alone in the U.S. generated $300 million which hyper- another IV, Auto Theft Grand in September 2007, and market in its opening week in cinematic game that generated over $400 million on commercial as well as aesthetic grounds—at least for the conglomerate- least for grounds—at well as aesthetic as commercial on to the genuine pertains scarcely point second This divisions. indie owned to the conglomerates’ due face extinction which however, independents, their indie from competition the daunting and the marketplace of control corre- and production lm mode of fi the three-tiered Thus subsidiaries. the past decade are on coalesced over the sectors that industry sponding implodes sector truly independent as the reformulation, of radical verge sector is fur- indie of the conglomerate-controlled as the autonomy and is to reinvent independents for true recourse only The ther compromised. as digi- is at hand reinvention in fact that opportunity for themselves, and of the experience the delivery and only transform not tal technologies as well. of media content consumption and the production media but over half engage video sharing sites now sites and Online social network the movie industry’s a daily basis—including on market” “youth the U.S. are also driving the enormous males, who of young key demographic in 2007, up of $18 billion (with revenues of the videogame industry growth use by Internet Meanwhile “Videogame”). over 2006) (Fritz, 43 percent also types, who better educated, higher-income to favor adults tends lms. fi for indie comprise the key market 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 439780415962612-Ch-01.indd 43 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 44

thomas schatz 44 Britt, R.“Disney, Pixar Agreeto$7.4Billion Deal.” The Wall Street Journal/Market scholars. convergence, and conglomerate control, soalsomust fi lm and media to rethinktheirwork and theirindustry inthisage of globalmedia,digital needs tobeaddressed.Just asfilmmakers and distributors atalllevels need tainment machine isanother question altogether—and one thatsorely a distinct culturalcommodity, and thedrivingforce intheglobalenter- industry transformation. Whether “themovies”willsurviveas anartform, consummate content supplier, undoubtedly willsurviveyetanother ture isinforevenfurtherrealignment. Hollywood,stilltheworld’s try stillapplies,thenthecurrent media-and-entertainment powerstruc- Thus iftheoldsaw thatwhoever controls distribution controls theindus- transformation inthedeliveryand consumption offilmed entertainment. with Conglomerate Hollywoodaswell,theindustry facesawholesale Other newmediapowerslikeMicrosoft, Google,and Applearepartnering new VOD serviceincludes alibraryof40,000movieand TV seriestitles. demand), which haslong beentheholy grailofthedigitalera(Stone). HD TV setswithan“Internet videolink”tofacilitate VOD (videoon console todeliverInternet moviedownloads,and isequipping itsBravia April 2008(Fritz,“Halo”;“Blu-ray”).Meanwhile Sony isrevampingitsPS3 Barnes, B.“Disneyand Pixar: The Power ofthePrenup.” Ault, S.“‘Spider-Man3’spinsBlu-ray debut.” Variety, August 2(2007). Ansen, D. “Ansen ForecaststheOscars.” Newsweek.com, February 21(2008). Advertising Age.“100LeadingMediaCompanies”(2007edition). Available works cited The fi nancial datathroughout1 thisessay, unlessindicated otherwise,are note be themostconsistent, comprehensive,and reliable. Reporter, which have been consulted aswell.Butthesethreehave proven to annual box-offi ce and production reportsfrom Variety and The Hollywood scores ofothermovie-relateddataservicesand sources available, including requested online athttp://www.mpaa.org/researchStatistics.asp. There are on allphases ofthefi lm (and fi lmed entertainment) industry canbe com/; and theMotion PictureAssociation ofAmerica,whose annual reports bers.com/; BoxOffice Mojo,available online athttp://www.boxofficemojo. provided byNashInformation Servicesavailable athttp://www.the-num- culled from threeprincipal sources: The Numbers,anonline dataservice Watch, January 24(2004). June 1(2008). online athttp://adage.com/datacenter/article?article_id=106352. This latterinnovation involves apartnershipwithAmazon.com, whose The New York Times. 4/1/2009 10:43:27 AM new hollywood, new millennium 45 4/1/2009 10:43:28 AM4/1/2009 10:43:28 AM , February 28 , February Variety , Reporter Hollywood The , April 15 (2002). Business Week (2008). 10 (2003). http://www.videobusiness.com. January 15 (2007). Reporter, June Hollywood The Pics up 8% to $42.6 bil.” from Revenue 14 (2007). , May Variety Malden, MA: Blackwell J. Wasko. and McDonald . Eds. P. Film Industry Hollywood (2007). New Press (1997). The York: et al. New Media. Erik Barnouw, Random House (2005). House Random 7 (2008). January 12 (2008). , May Times (2007). (2007). (2008). , May 8 (2008). , May Variety shop.” WIP to close ——. “Picturehouse, Business, Video mark.” past $20 billion bounds S. “Home video industry Hettrick, All-Media Study: Brighter Picture for Movie Industry: H. “MPA Hollinger, 1 (2008). , January Variety studios top $1 billion.” “Six major P. McClintock, 5 (2008). , March Variety lms see rising costs.” Specialty fi ——. “MPAA: for ‘Tintin’.” Team Jackson A. “Spielberg, Thompson, and P. McClintock, 1 (2008). , January Variety levels.” ce hits record offi “Foreign box D. McNary, , April 24 (2008). Variety to Direct ‘Hobbit’.” Toro ——. “Guillermo del 4 (2007). , May Variety Sets Records.” I. “‘Spider-Man 3’ Mohr, (2008). Knopf York: Making of a Company. New The Touch: Pixar The Price, D.A. Contemporary The Hollywood.” Conglomerate System and Studio “The T. Schatz, Conglomerates and the of the Hollywood Studio System,” Return ——. “The . New York: York: . New in Hollywood Power and Logic of Money New The Big Picture: E.J. The Epstein, 18 (2007). , December Variety Bill.” Twin as Track on “‘Hobbit’ Back Fleming, M. 5 (2008). , February Variety Studio Shackles.” Directors Shun “Oscar Frankel, D. 26 (2007). , September Variety Day.” First on Nabs $170 Million Fritz, B. “‘Halo’ 17(2008). , January Variety Biz has Epic 2007.” Game ——. “Video 3 (2008). , March Variety Off.” Gamble Pays Blu-ray ——. “Sony’s , April 15 (2008). Variety Breaks Record.” Videogame ——. “‘Grand’ 26 (2008). , June Variety Hollywood for PS3.” Wooing ——. “Sony’s 12 (2008). , March Variety ‘Potter’ to be Split in Half.” ‘‘Last Garrett, D. ce Down But Not Out.” Boxoffi Goldstein, G. “Indie Angeles Los The Closed its Specialty Divisions.” Bros. Warner “Why Goldstein, P. , November 5 Variety High.” M. “Spider-Man Helps Marvel Climb Graser, Web,” Tangled Spider-Man’s R. “Unraveling Grover, , December 19 Variety ‘Hobbit’.” Tackle “Master of ‘Rings’ to D.M. nger, Halbfi 8 (2008). , January Week Business Breakthrough.” Blu-Ray Hall, K. “Sony’s 28 Forbes.com. February Operations.” to Merge Bros. Hau, L. “New Line, Warner Corner.” “New Line in Warner’s D. McNary, and D. Hayes, 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 459780415962612-Ch-01.indd 45 9780415962612-Ch-01.indd 46

thomas schatz 46 Stone, B.“Amazon PlansanOnlineStoreforMoviesand TV Shows.” Sorkin, A.R.“Sony-Led Group MakesaLateBidtoWrestMGMfrom Time Siklos, R.“MediaFrenzy:OneCrisisAfterAnother, but Sony SharesKeep Sebok, B.Convergent Hollywood, DVD, andthe Transformation oftheHomeEntertainment Schilling, M.“‘Spider-Man3’Debuts in Tokyo.” Variety , April16(2007). Scheisel, S.“MakingaGame That ActsLikeaFilm.” Zaun, T. “Sony’s Proﬁ t Surges on Strengthof‘Spider-Man2’.” Waxman, S.“ForNewLine,anIdentity Crisis.” The New York Times, February 19 Thompson, K.The Frodo Franchise: The LordoftheRingsandModernHollywood. Berkeley: Thompson, A.“Indie Sectoron Shaky Ground.” Variety, June 26(2008). McGraw-Hill (2004). ——. Everything You Ever Wanted toKnow AboutDVD. New York, NY: Taylor, J.DVD Demystiﬁ ed,2nd edn.New York: McGraw-Hill (2001). Warner.” The New York Times , September14(2004). Surging.” The New York Times, April29(2007). (2007). Industries. UnpublishedPhDdissertation. Austin: The Universityof Texas (2008). Times, October29(2004). (2007). University ofCalifornia(2007). York Times, July 17(2008). The New York Times, July 5 The New York The New 4/1/2009 10:43:28 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque

two hollywood

sean cubitt

A pallid sepia sky covers the battlefi eld of Thermopylae. The warriors are caught in poses of utter stillness, blood sprays over them, and detonations hurtle past their shields. Time spurts forward then curdles into slow motion. An execution scene: the blade falls and a general’s head rolls through the air, its last expression of grim pain etched on its face. As the camera follows it down, the executioner has vanished to give way to a whole new scene, an elephant in battle order. The visual language of Zack Snyder’s adaptation of Frank Miller’s graphic novel 300 (2006) owes a great deal to both the Hong Kong fi ght movie, with its struck poses and characteristic shifts from rapidity to stillness, and to the graphical style which Miller in turn seems to derive in part from the Japanese manga tradition, with its graphical matches, strong lines, typical use of blocks of black and white, and its asymmetric, frequently triangular compositions. Snyder’s fi lm springs to life in the battle sequences (the background drama taking place in Sparta is sluggish and unconvincing) which provide, to pun on Eisenstein, a montage of affects. A particularly startling example, which appeared in trailers and derives directly from the graphic novel, shows the

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sean cubitt 48 how different? ForDavid Bordwell, theanswerappearstobe,not very: stable systemsomehow different from the earlier period. The question is: of Lucasand Spielberg serve asmilestones fortheemergence ofanew, quite early 1920s,through tothe1960s.Inlate1970s,blockbuster successes as aquality ofHollywoodfrom Griffi th,oratleastthefeaturefi lmsofthe theme thequestion ofwhether anewformhasemerged. Classicismappears contemporary Hollywood’s dramaand action films. possible emotional response: revenge,amotifrunningthrough somany of Spartans aredoomed,thesatisfaction oftheimage restson thesimplest a sideline. Though perhapsnot everyviewerknows inadvance thatthe300 costumes and ofFrankFrazettamonsters aretheattraction: storytellingis teristics lacking from thestoryelements. The vocabulary ofpost-punkS&M battle scenes,where everyblowistreatedwithrespectand humour, charac- changed. The longueurs ofthenarrativesequences aresweptaway inthe and one feelsthathehasmerelyrevealedhistruenatureratherthan visual language ofthefilm, allvillainsaregrotesque insomeformorother, at allisthegrotesque rejectedbytheSpartanswho betrays them.Butinthe his wife,nor any ofthenumerous villains. The one character who changes of theSpartans,hasnothing tolearn,no character development. Nordoes the classical Aristotelianstoryarc, somethinghaschanged. Leonidas, king retain classical shot-reverse-shot editing,and while thenarrativerespects Sin City(2005).While many ofthedramatic scenessetback home inSparta restricted paletteofanother adaptation from Miller, RobertoRodriguez’ greys and whites—emphasizes thisgraphical look ratherliketheevenmore the placeofdyingand thedead. the rocks below. We realisethecameraispositioned inmidair. We arein camera tiltsupwards toshow theSpartansgazingattheirbeatenfoeson are looking downtheprecipitous cliffs watching theirfallinrealtime. The sunlight outlining theirfigures astheyfallinslowmotion. Acut,and we silhouettes oftheSpartansdrivingaPersianforce overacliff, ablastof industries: themepark rides,computergames,comic books, TV shows, Hollywood inthecontext ofitsproliferating subsidiaryoramalgamated Angela Ndalianis’(2004)infl uential book on thesubjectaddresses tals remaininplace.Forothers somethingmoredramatichasoccurred. These aremodulations oftheclassical system, ofcourse, but itsfundamen- Much discussion ofcontemporary Hollywoodcinema takesasitskey The restrictedpaletteofthefi lm—bronzes, sepiasand clarets, blacks, world. (Bordwell 259). dominant tendency ofpopularfi lmmaking around the fias lms introduced attheend ofthe1960sand canonised insuch focus typifi es mainstreamstyletoday. The eclecticism This .compromise betweendeepspaceand selective Jaws and The Godfather seemstohave becomethe 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 49 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM

relations relations neo-baroque of the characteristics ve central Omar Calabrese (1992) used the term “baroque” Omar Calabrese (1992) used the term “baroque” otherwise fi ts many of Ndalianis’ observations very closely. very closely. of Ndalianis’ observations ts many Gladiator otherwise fi The notion of the present moment as a neo-baroque emerged in English emerged as a neo-baroque moment of the present notion The during the 1990s, perhaps in reaction to the suggestion that the digital that to the suggestion during the 1990s, perhaps in reaction of science by a reunion characterized a “new Renaissance,” arts represented What Vinci. da of Leonardo the days apart since art, otherwise pulled and its critical demonstrated soon words, on play rst appeared as an amusing fi the Spanish historian José Antonio Franco, Writing under potential. be would which a reading of the Baroque (1986) had proposed Maravall of counter-reforma- Spain: a regime of Franco’s applicable to the conditions a culture and absolutism, State towards and of Church a collusion tion, populist to the spectacular and labyrinthine, intricate, characteristically (1993) read the similar John Beverley Latin Americanist of vulgarity. point as symptoms of a crisis of stylistic excesses of the Latin American Baroque rulers, a absolute of by the very ambition about brought a crisis power, in same theme appears The own period. of our crisis with deep echoes the (including heritage the Baroque “Today asserts: Norman Klein, who of the cloak power under transnational supports special effects world) (Klein 115). entertainment” in also appeared an analogy which for postmodernity, as a synonym depths of the opaque delved into (1994), who Christine Buci-Glucksmann (1977) to discover a strand the German baroque on work Benjamin’s Walter civilization, Western through working irrational and of the grotesque for Fountains, Trevi of the in the Baroque light of day the raw into emerging in the taste for the extreme in in Surrealism, and re-emerging example, and fan sites, toys. Ndalianis singles out fi out singles toys. Ndalianis fan sites, elaborate the (including serial form régime: entertainment as an media); across and remakes within copies or and between originals [97–115]); hypertextual of Klein’s (also an emphasis labyrinths intertextual immersion; and spectacle of narrative engagement; as a mode navigation she baroque, The sublime. of the technological role the transcendental and are cultural Rather both to classicism. a binary opposite is not argues, Benjamin (82) made Walter histories are braided together. dynamics whose of their resolution appears as a temporary Romanticism a similar point: the Klein (113) goes as far as to include Norman dialectical relationship. of periodization question The texts. of baroque in his compendium Odyssey in tendency a resurgent rather about but a paradigm-shift about is then not the characteristics trades towards its alloyed entertainment Hollywood and ones— unexpected quite some lms—and fi above. Certainly some outlined découpage classical camera and the locked-off in character: are deeply classical lmmaker a fi from is a prime example, Kingdom of Heaven of Ridley Scott’s whose can elements classical and seen in the case of 300, neo-baroque As we have Ndalianis’ obser- on to build follows I want share the same movie. In what in light of lms, and Hollywood feature fi a particular focus on with vations, she wrote. since become clearer that have some changes 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 499780415962612-Ch-02.indd 49 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 50

sean cubitt 50 contemporary culture. The ideahassometraction among designers century, that hierarchy hadceasedtobemanageable, and theharmony hierarchy, theproblem could berepressed.Butbytheseventeenth thought. Aslong asallegory could berestricted, asinDante, toarigourous which formillennia defined and perhapsstilldefi nes theabyssforWestern ings forany given emblem,tothepoint atwhich itriskedthatbadinfinity the sametimeopenedfloodgates fortheproliferation ofpossiblemean- mediaeval allegory constructed asystemicanchorage formeaning,yetat istic formalproperty ofculturalproduction. Eco(1986)observesthat where ittakesoverfrom thestructuralprinciple tobecomethecharacter- excess, byspectacle, and bytheelaboration ofdecoration tothepoint conjures upasitsdialecticalcounterpart: absolute disorder. mation toabsolute power, and theanxietywhich thatapproximation epoch, theneo-baroque’s central concern appearstobewiththeapproxi- are reunitedinanaccount ofthemadnessabsolute power. Liketheolder earlier sword-and-sandals epics.InScott’s movie,playfulness and cruelty honesty torevelintheviolent gamesitdepicts,avoiding thehypocrisy of Roman Empire—whence thesuccessofGladiator(2000),afilm thathasthe addicted togamesastheoldbaroque, and indeed asitsinspiration inthe immense (and immenselypleasurable)playfulness. The neo-baroque is as plays ofpowerand wealth,byanapparently insatiablecruelty, and byan limits ofthatpower”(Beverley, 64).Oureralikewiseisdominated bydis- power ofadominant class inaperiodofreaction and afi guration ofthe frauds: thebaroque was“likepostmodernismtoday, atonce atechnique of and Calderón,plays endlessly on theriskoffailure and theexposureof practical jokes, aneraofgreatcomedies. That comedy, inJonson, Molière the artificial and viceversa,theplay offountains and period: aplay ofliquid and fluid shapes,oftheirruption ofthenaturalinto goal ofmaintaining stability. The baroque wasalsoanimmenselyplayful was theage oftheInquisition, ofinstitutionalized torture justifi edbythe word derivesfrom theOffi ceforthePropagation oftheFaithinRome.It epoch ofpowerexpended inavastapparatusofpropaganda—the very the map,fi ling-cabinet and double-entry book-keeping. Itwasan South. Itwastheage thatperfectedthearchetypal mediaofmodernity: invented themodernityofmaritimeempires,overseascolonies, Northand spicuous waste,ofstaggering, awe-inspiring spectacle. Itwastheerathat The timeoftheCounter-Reformation witnessed anoutpouring ofcon- the baroque andneo-baroque to abriefcharacterization of the seventeenth-century baroque. prophecy. To understand what mightbeintended byit,weneedtopassfirst web artists, Stylistically, theneo-baroque likeitspredecessorischaracterized by 2 totheextent thattheconcept may bebecomingaself-fulfilling trompe-l’oeil, theplay of 1 and 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 51 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM , now “a rose is a “a rose , now rosa mystica rosa [2007]). Composition in [2007]). Composition Transformers The neo-baroque proliferation of signs drains the meaning out of any of any out of signs drains the meaning proliferation neo-baroque The draining challenge—the to this double responds cinema Neo-baroque depth, once the preserve of Bazinian realism, allowed fi lmmakers to stack the preserve of Bazinian realism, allowed fi depth, once digital and lm stocks faster fi through eld of vision the fi across interest single instance of symbolization. Where once the rose belonged to a hierar- belonged rose the once Where of symbolization. single instance to the the female genitals from stretching chy prolif- the consequent and image iconic individual the from of substance in the rapid rate of substitution its own It increases of connections. eration use of frequent in the increasingly and with Peckinpah, editing that begins instability of the con- the counteract and to emphasize matches graphical techniques it develops extraordinary of the frame. At the same time tent rise of steadicam The single sequences. into for combining substitutions uid navigation fl encourage crane technologies the perfecting of and enabled soundtracks . Multi-layered than découpage scenes rather through in compiling com- (essential reduction Dolby noise by digital recording, THX lm’s theatrical systems like Lucasfi effects) and sound plex layered Se7en [1995]) and (Fincher’s of sound both extreme separation encouraged effects (Bay’s the use of wall-of-sound and proportion governing levels of meaning began to fall apart. Proliferating Proliferating to fall apart. began of meaning levels governing proportion and conno- emblematizations, symbolizations, metamorphoses, resemblances, of an abyss stood at the brink allegory baroque reverberations, tations, critics of the crisis explored by The anything. signify could sign any where of is a crisis of the excess (1993) (1977) to Beverley Benjamin from baroque (like the baroque of symbolism, ation the hyper-infl by signs. Confronted in an attempt symbol upon pile symbol after them) would Victorians the ood of signs the fl again But ever and of meaning. the turbulence to control further set of a demand the desired effect, and around a route nd fi would of a the grounding Lacking of interpretations. layer symbols, another of at that mise-en-abyme arrived the baroque grammar, and shared lexicon avoided. had so assiduously meaning that the mediaevals of one are its depiction and a rose time, however, At the same is a rose.” rose “data” “representation,” “sign,” we prefer to label that kind whether kind, of signs, representa- interchangeability fundamental The or “commodity.” an image the attempt to ground commodities undermines data and tions, such Without its truth or its use-value. ed, its referent, its signifi in of a rose and swiftly substituted with another, is ephemeral, image each anchoring, accelerates Digitization unruly connectivity. and in a sprawling another, signifying between the adds a new interconnection and this substitution, isolated by structures. At once economic database and of semantic, chains ers, sym- of signifi nite networks to infi connected c objectivism and scientifi to connections proliferate them, but gather meaning around longer bols no intertextual ciality and superfi The data. streams of equivalent centrifugal greatest to the baroque’s responses wit of postmodernism are, in this sense, meaning. maintaining and of constructing the challenge challenge: 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 519780415962612-Ch-02.indd 51 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 52

sean cubitt 52 that spatializestheclues deployedinthenarrativeof liferation ofconnections, such solutions, forexampleinthenotice board neither thesingleimage nor thechain ofsubstitutions cancontain thepro- deferral ofaspatialconclusion, thesolvedpuzzle.Inanaestheticinwhich which, however, thegoalisaspatialone, sothattimeappearsonly asthe the process ofderivingorder from theassembledelements, inaprocess in the neo-baroque isafundamentally spatialaesthetic. Time presents itselfas tion, proprioception, pattern-basednarration and isolation—suggest that navigation, soundscaping, depthoffi eld and staging indepth,disorienta- (1999) arefarfrom unique. isolation, bordering on narcissism: theexamplesofGladiatorand The Matrix A recurrent motifintheconstruction ofcentral characters istheirdeep particularly apparent intheclosing scenesofThe UsualSuspects (1995). characterized bythemodularization and spatialization ofnarrative, lation ofsignifi er upon signifi er, resultinginapattern-makingaesthetic Narrative issupplemented withsemantic structuresbuilt on theaccumu- prioception populatenarrativesfrom Desperado(1995)toDaredevil (2003). characters giftedwithakind ofspatialomnivoyance orextended pro- entation previously reservedforthehorror genre. To control such chaos, visual spaceveerstowards theindecipherable, inducing thekind ofdisori- the contrary comesintheformalproperties ofprotagonists who, ina century audiences aretoosophisticated forwhite-hat morality, evidence to construction ofgood.While wemightsurmisethat early twenty-fi rst merely discoverswhat has always been thecase)isitsproblematic characteristic ofthisnarrativeinwhich nothing occurs(thecharacter is theOnetoFrodo’s resignation tohisfateinThe ReturnoftheKing(2003).A the future. Themes ofpredestination pr changes inthepresent—becomes theneo-baroque “cause”which liesin disregarding thementirely. The oldstructureofcausation—the pastcauses cause–effect structures,limitingthemtopattern-making functions, or from bathingintheapogeeofconsumerism, thelifestyle. baroque anallegory ofredemption; inthenew, ofasatisfaction thatcomes of immensetrompe l’oeilceilings. This immersion isitselfanallegory: intheold spectacle, much astheoldbaroque drewthefaithfulinto raptcontemplation neo-baroque spaceoffersitselffortheimmersion ofthespectatorin the only demonstrate thecontinuing absence ofaconcluding truth.Initsstead, extreme examples(such asthesurfaceofasteroid in from thecentral action formanewkind ofdialecticalimage. Insome ments inspaceand theircombination into symbolicchains fleeing outward from set-dressingtomultiple planesofaction. Heretheisolation ofele- DVD versions offi lms inorderto compositing, atechnique which encouraged viewerstopurchase high-quality These technical features—graphical composition and graphical matches, The allegory ofimmersion reducesthenarrative conviction offamiliar see everythinglayered into thevisuals, oliferate, from The UsualSuspects, Neo learningthathe Armageddon [1998]), can

4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 53 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM The The Mummy (1999), The in order to complete the story, in the case of the 1931 Mummy in the to complete the story, in order The Mummy (1931), The lms, including fi of horror cycle 1930s early Universal’s (2004) which run at between 120 and run at between 120 and (2004) which Helsing Van Mummy Returns (2001) and themselves leisurely dia- permit lms nonetheless 1930s fi The 129 minutes. tastes slug- to contemporary experts, and fatherly from logue reassurance by the action. has already been made apparent of what gish exposition of the narrative. with the conclusion coincides explanation rational Such to the recourse makes frequent the 1930s cycle At the same time, however, machina deus ex museum. of a statue in the Cairo in the person of Anubis the intervention previous that is by any unmotivated interventions—unmotivated Such (1932) are clearly classi- (1932) are clearly Dracula Man (1933), Frankenstein (1931) and Invisible The to plotting and the adherence symmetry of classicism, distinctive The cal. features such psychology: character on the concentration cutting regimes, evocation The studio system. of the classical distinguish them as products on talkies depended in these early violence unnatural of nameless and Boris Karloff’s the Universal cycle, In a typical example from shots. reaction before a cut to his is seen blinking awake Im-Ho-Tep reanimated mummy laughter is the only hysterical whose scholar, Oxford victim, the young left to it implies is the horror exit and mummy’s The violence. of real token the across dragging by a trailing bandage traced only the imagination, are 72 minutes) 68 and lms (running between brief fi distinctly These oor. fl compared with their cut at a relaxed pace when and staged nonetheless Barry Sommers’ cycle remakes, notably late-century surprising number of instances, are portrayed as innocents: hobbits, hobbits, innocents: as are portrayed of instances, number surprising innocence that somewhere notes Kant Potter. Harry Sparrow, Jack Captain is no Such to be misled. tends and keep well, doesn’t but thing, is a splendid exam- is a state that, for innocence where the belief of Hollywood, longer great deal of sin. a forgives Wolverine, (2000) gure of X-Men’s fi ple in the It is rather than achieved. sense merely given, is in a certain innocence Yet the centre its place in good, in fact, has abdicated The of good. a weak form an ethics upon. is too weak to build Innocence of Hollywood morality. ght in the fi is grounded universe of the neo-baroque Instead, the ethical universe, evil has a Manichaean evil. In a fundamentally absolute against Hollywood the good in contemporary than far more solid existence He-who-must-not-be- Sides, and Dark Lords, Dark (Bather): the satanic Die Hard (1988) to villains from depraved of snarling, nameds; the gallery expla- no backstory, evil needs no Hollywood, Xerxes. In neo-baroque 300’s it of the 1950s. It can be assumed: even the cod-Freudianism not nation, of character antagonists of evil deprives existence absolute The simply is. anxiety in US pop- a deep-seated also indicates It change. they cannot arcs: good is the only If innocence the nature of power. ular culture concerning ght the evil? Who is to fi who evil is absolute, victims”), and (as in “innocent of the trope central rst and the pit? Evil is the fi into is going to look indeed supernatural. neo-baroque’s 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 539780415962612-Ch-02.indd 53 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 54

sean cubitt 54 struction ofcharacters’ goals. of plotmechanisms and anevensimpler(and lessdevelopmental) con- more likelytodemand ofscriptwritersaneatintroduction and resolution classical narrative,but a‘superclassical’ narrative”:theneo-baroque iseven less classical. AsNdalianis(3)observes,“afilm like of evil.Inthissensethemorerecent variations on themotifsaremore,not to chance: thehero isfarmorelikelytorelyon permutations ofthelogic in spectaculartermsasdemonic. The neo-baroque monster hasrecourse the consolidation ofAmericanpowernow seestherandom asanarchy, and (Altman) have driftedfrom the sideofgoodtowards thesideofevil: the behestofgood. These melodramaticelements ofclassicism crucial moment. To thatextent, chance and eventheoccultwerealways at unopened drawer could always beopenedatrandom torevealagunatthe must always befi red, didnot hold oftheUniversalcycle: apreviously Man [2000]).Barthes’oldmemorandum, thatagunrevealedindrawer Stoker’s Dracula[1992]or Verhoeven’s reversioning ofThe Invisible ManasHollow era ofSommers’re-readingsgenreclassics (nor indeed inCoppola’s Bram scenes ordialogue—areno longer deployedintheostensiblypost-classical from close upon Gypsyprincess Anna Valerious (Kate Beckinsale) to the classical rulesoforientation. The action begins withasuddenfocuspull extensively incomputergraphics dominatestheconstruction, ratherthan space and buildings: suggestingthatthepolarcoordinate systemused cross and itsplinth nexttoawellas thecentre ofthesurrounding open the geometryofscene. The exception istheestablishment of thestone early dialogue iscutshot-reverse-shot, no trueestablishingshot lays out Helsing’s lineoffire atthefl ying brides. action sequence, asthecamera swirls in360-degree pansfollowing Van hero and placesthehero atitscentre. This centrality willthenpowerthe baroque hero, a360-degree perception thatsubordinates theworld tothe preternatural capacitytosensedangerwhich isacharacteristic oftheneo- menacing crowd thatisformingbehind them. This shot establishesthe the friarastheywalkinto thevillage, inashot wideenough toshow the A short dollyinand longer dollyback advance infront of Van Helsingand an openingshot follows Van Helsingand hisfriarinto thevillage on adolly. ing Van Helsing’s arrivalatthevillage and thebattlewithDracula’s brides, involving DrJekyl and MrHyde.Intheelevenminute sequence compris- Dracula and theWerewolf—into itscentral narrative,afteraprologue 70-minute programmer, thenewfi lm battersthreetales—Frankenstein, extravagant evenbythesestandards. Aftertakingtwofilms torestoreone Sommers’ follow-uptothesuccessfulMummyfi lms, Van Helsing , seems van helsing The village square isnever entirely established,however. Although an Jurassic Park isnot only a 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 55 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM The sequence combines location shoots, blue-screen, wire-work, wire-work, blue-screen, shoots, combines location sequence The in the neo-baroque: with the aid of wirework, Anna is snatched Anna is snatched with the aid of wirework, in the neo-baroque: découpage motion capture and digital effects (notably the skies which, during the the skies which, digital effects (notably and capture motion digital compositing, including and were obstinately sunny) shoot, location a digital brides, and as shadows for the superimposed attacking effects such The sequences. editing still occurs, even in these action But classical cow. circling pan shot degree 360 with another battle continues square village cut to a Helsing. We Van stopping with a cut to the fallen protagonists, our and eyeline match, Helsing’s Van to back reaction, reverse angle of Anna’s dramatizes the breakdown this last shot but to Anna in brisk fashion, back of the air—a into the close-up from away hurtles brides and of the by one the nor- its abrupt departure from arises from drama vertical exit whose starts to establish of reverse-shots sequence The mative codes of classicism. of Anna shot the second it, so that to interrupt a recognizable pattern only rst close of her fi match as a graphical but shot as a continuity occurs not sense of the in the comic book in the cinematic but only not up, graphical Helsing— Van of the trio—bride, Anna and term. After three shots falling to earth, Anna couple human we cut to the in mid-air, suspended to her reaction Helsing’s Van above shows from top. A reverse shot on mountains and rooftops revealed behind her as she ducks, and the three the three and ducks, her as she behind revealed rooftops and mountains camera in, the A few frames spectator. the towards diving down brides in, deformed also zooming the bride, the set element the face of zooms in on of the attack, aggression the speed and emphasize sh-eye lens to as in a fi Van angle on frame. A brief reverse lls the fi face lead bride’s the until to a Cablecam or so, cutting of 30 degrees angle at an upward Helsing pulls sports) eld of fi TV coverage in used extensively now (equipment shot axis as if its own on sways which the diving brides, a shot accompanying of the At the bottom ying monsters. the fl side to side with banking from over her lls the screen, the camera swirling fi again dive, the lead bride wings, then hurtling and of motion lost in a blur head, the background scrabbling of the villagers shot a panoramic to leave ahead of her upward of the edge of the well just off the centre still safe on Anna and for cover, the well eeing attackers, of the fl shot POV cut to a second the frame. We sev- cables extending on ies again camera fl The centre. upper right of now the into movements the air above the set. Such into feet eral hundred to bottom of the screen and the extensive use of the top screen space, and baroque’s that “The observation add new vistas, correlate with Ndalianis’ to respect the limits of systems lies in its refusal classical from difference of screen space organization The (25). the illusion” the frame that contains rule the 180 degree and rather than establishing shots navigation through so important; itself is not it suggests that orientation disorienting: is not a building ung into we rediscover a cow that has been fl so that when much mooing querulously, and oor balcony a second-fl on ght standing in the fi strikes us as a joke. composition the return to an orientational 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 559780415962612-Ch-02.indd 55 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 56

sean cubitt 56 refl ects teenth century. ReferringtothesplitbetweenCatholic and Protestant, he in Jameson’s terminology (17)—could scarcely beimagined. modernist paradigmsbecomingneo-baroque pastiche—a “blankparody” in severalinterchanges betweenAnnaand thebrides.Aclearer exampleof actors, and do sonot on thehorizontal but on theverticalaxis,ashappens when thereverseanglesshow relationships between CGIcharacters and longer servesitsclassical function oforientation and coherence, not least neo-baroque theyusher take may have perfection, losestherealityitsought tograsp.Deepfocusand thelong internal necessity, ofproducing illusion, and when pursuedforitsown which thatproduces: no technique isfree ofthetemptation, indeed the illusion integral tocinematicrealism,and thegenerativecontradiction which Bazin(26–7)hadalreadyexpectedwhen hearticulatedthenecessary ture ofdocumentary technique exhibitsaquality offormalinnovation attempts tosecurethose techniques forrealism.Inthesameway thiscap- have takencentre stage inacinemaofspectacle and illusion despiteBazin’s formation of Theoden inThe Two Towers (2003).Deepfocusand thelong take Lord oftheRings:only locked-off shot intheentire trilogycoversthetrans- have learnt from theincessantly mobilecamerawork ofAndrew Lesnieon movement isdictatedbytheactions ofitssubjects. as iffollowingthegenericcharacteristics ofdocumentary, where camera village sits.Buteveninthelull thatfollows,thecamerareframesconstantly, beam ofsunlight,fataltotheattacking brides,overthevalleywhere the locked-off shots occurringonly rarely, forexampleintwoshots showing a even anideologicalfunction, asinclassical battle-of-the-sexesfilms. shot itself,asiftherewereno way ofholding itsmeaningtoanarrativeor quality oftheneo-baroque thatsuch reference isincorporated into the both theUniversalseriesof1930sand theneo-baroque. Itisadistinctive sionism, which underlies noir, and islikewiseaconstant reference point for noir, agenreconstantly quoted intheneo-baroque, and inGermanexpres- Such encounters arenot unusual intheclassical cinema,especiallyinfilm swing, from periltosexual encounter, swingsinstantly back toaction. what isclearly acompetition forsexual dominance. The suddenmood rolls on topofher, theshot continuing assherolls back on topofhimin sexually-connoted position astridehisneck; wecuttoaside-on angleashe the supernatural This blanknessechoes alineofWalter Benjamin’s concerning theseven- Throughout thesequence, thecameraisinconstant movement, with Reformation prevailedinbothconfessions, religious For allthattheincreasing wordliness oftheCounter- ushered in,withneo-realism,anepochal realism:inthe in anintegral illusion. Inasimilarway, Van Helsing seemshereto découpage no 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 57 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM Since therefore neither rebellion nor submission was submission nor neither rebellion therefore Since was the age of terms, all the energy practicable in religious of of the content a complete revolution on concentrated forms were preserved. ecclesiastical orthodox life, while all be that men were denied could consequence only The (Benjamin 79) real means of direct expression. aspirations did not lose their importance: it was just that it was just importance: lose their did not aspirations demand- lment, fulfi a religious denied them this century a secular conclusion them, or imposing on ing of them, instead. (79) The place of the supernatural in contemporary society is a puzzle, as place of the supernatural in contemporary The indeed it appears to have been for the fi rst baroque. To judge from his ceil- judge from To rst baroque. been for the fi it appears to have indeed (he was the faith of his Order ing at the San Ignazio in Rome, Pozzo shared of the Ignatius, founder apotheosis of Saint a Jesuit) in the miraculous of the Counter-Reformation. vanguard form the would who Jesuit order Providence of Divine Allegory quadratura overwhelming artist of the equally The have must Barberini, Cortona, ceiling for the Palazzo and Barberini Power In that the papal family of the Barberini was mired in hypocrisy. known exist, a of a perspective that does not gives the illusion both, anamorphosis an otherwise l’oeil on a dome in trompe nity, to infi of air extending column strongest the through of divine truth is achieved revelation The at ceiling. fl in of realist techniques just as Bazin had noted of illusion: techniques of faith (or bad faith) are indistinguishable the lack cinema. Faith and the piling of allegory of wealth, display The illusion. on both depend when In the neo-baroque, the occult retains its allure, self-consciously regressive regressive self-consciously allure, the occult retains its In the neo-baroque, nar- also the slave see (but Helsing Van curses in to ancient as in the recourse in Poltergeist [1992], or the native American graveyard rative of Candyman cation Survey Identifi American Religious York’s City University of New The [1982]). ed of US citizens identifi that 76.5 percent in 2001 found (ARIS) conducted c themselves with a specifi identify of 81 percent a total as Christians, and do et. al. 2001). Supernatural motifs in the neo-baroque (Kosmin religion the cul- on they do draw it serves, but demographic ect the simply refl not for their popular cultural only not of the US audience, tural competences that fuel the quasi-beliefs for the raft of beliefs and skills, but intertextual imperative At the same time, an economic of the afterlife. imagination the global so Christian that they alienate not that features are demands of the Christ [2004] Passion The success of Gibson’s (the domestic marketplace The was less stellar). performance its international but was an exception of register in the subjunctive supernatural reappears as a hedged bet: a Freudian denegation. all the same . . .,” but “I know, Mannoni’s Religious doctrine was safe from heresy, the old hallmark of mediaeval of mediaeval hallmark the old heresy, safe from doctrine was Religious was secular, was one, if there rebellion, baroque’s because the rebellion, of expression. form a religious choose not would and 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 579780415962612-Ch-02.indd 57 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 58

sean cubitt 58 of databaselogicwhose extremeformis Moravec’s ideaofdownloading ideaoflifelogging (Bell),forexample,indicatesthe agrowing personalization strata inthecontemporary. Secularbeliefin posteritystilldominates;but cybernatural (Cubitt). These imaginings oftheotherworldly formdeep expressed it.Inthedigitalepoch, artifi ciallifeappearsasaneworder, the kind of“supernatural,” ananti-nature: “theartifi ce ofeternity”as Yeats trial revolution, thetechnological triumph overnaturepositeda new the memoryofgodsorpeoplewho once inhabitedthem.Intheindus- sist along withelements ofpaganism, the beliefthatplacesretainatleast become anemblemofthesupernatural. lateral panofhuman scaleand action, movement on theverticalaxishas sinister threatofrevealingaworld not bound totheearth’s surfaceand the the Upofheaven and theDownofhell,itsalternatelydevout desireforor cism, which grewupon theatre wings.Withitsheritage of as welltheverticaledgeswhich werefamiliartotheaudience forclassi- move intheneo-baroque: areadinesstousetopand bottomoftheframe lying ortracking out and consequent refocusing,hasbecomeasignature relatively rareinclassical Hollywood,especiallywhen combinedwithdol- are bynow familiarmarkers oftheentry ofthesupernatural. The tiltitself, neither familiartechnologies (camera,orchestra) nor familiarly human, guishes itselffrom themusical scoreand thevoice. These third elements, ments ofeithercinemaorhuman vision, justasthesuddensound distin- move and thesound areunnatural:theydonot fit withthenormal move- ener on thesoundtrack, asound likerainand distant thunder. The camera upward long shot ofhorse and rider, amovement accompaniedbyasweet- makes asuddendrop and adollyback, from eye-levelclose-up toan edge oftherider’s hatcomesinto thebottomrightofframe,camera a fullmoon pastmoonlit clouds toahorizon ofbuttes and mesas.Asthe hunter who outran theDevilhimself,cameratiltsand pansdownfrom worlds. Asthevoiceoverbegins thepre-credittaleofDevil’s bounty- cowboy whose narrativeopensGhostrider(2007)isanemissarybetween not exist. object ofawe. This technically mediatedbeyond atonce existsand does (if perpetually deferred)sublimethrough atechnology which isitselfan of all,asNdalianisnotes, theeveryday articulateswiththeimmanent was habitable;and ittouched on thequotidian ateveryturn.Perhapsmost an immanent realmjustbeyond thesublunary veiloftheeveryday. It The supernaturalinthebaroque wasnot amatter oftheafterlife, but of Las Vegas arcade whose ceilingislitby200hi-defi nition videoprojectors. these featuresreturnintheepoch oftheFremont Streetexperience, the separate semantic universewithitsownrulesofgravity and perspective: upon allegory, thedisappearance oftheactual, therevelation ofawholly In theneo-baroque supernatural,ancient beliefsinlifeafterdeathper- Just sothesupernaturaloftwenty-fi rst century. The demonic deus ex machina, of 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 59 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM The illusion of individuality is a critical ideological task of capital. On it of individuality illusion The The discretion surrounding this premise of the neo-baroque is perpetually is perpetually this premise of the neo-baroque surrounding discretion The Thus the characterization of the camera as a non-human player in the player as a non-human of the camera the characterization Thus depends the regime of property, already in crisis in the Open Source move- already in crisis in the Open Source of property, the regime depends of our the risk management which on the self-discipline of crowds ment; (2007), the rival Victorian stage stage Victorian (2007), the rival Prestige The Nolan’s In Christopher tenuous. have other for the last time. We each Robert confront Alfred and magicians surprising reveal, The Robert. just seen Alfred die, yet here he is, shooting if unusual is a rational expect: there we would as it is, is more or less what a list of ashbacks, of fl explains, in a swift montage which one explanation, Alfred cult trick. diffi a particularly strange details, most of all the success of life, demanded. his career and indeed and ces that the trick, asserts the sacrifi sci- He has used the maverick dying Robert reveals his own methods. The we now dressing. But as stage ostensibly Tesla, of Nicola c inventions entifi by their life, doubled has lived a double magician fact. Each learn a chilling has the characteris- Alfred’s art of magic. the illusion-making to devotion infernal. and tragic is at once however tics of explanatory logic; Robert’s that there is the realization lm arises from feeling of the fi distinctive The of things order different quite some other, a rift in reality where indeed a deeper mys- but an explanation not conceals trick stage arrives. Robert’s they make it merely techniques: not are of illusion techniques The tery. are the as Most of all, we are unclear, possible that everything is illusory. the “real” Robert. sense dies is in any the Robert who whether protagonists, meaning can his death the reality of the self, what that reality, Without him with? provide overlays the conquest of nature with the imagination of nature with the imagination the conquest Ghostrider overlays scene from of older well-springs on both draw while of a postnatural intelligence, like them but hunger, as sex and is as ancient fear of death The superstition. a but in the dark a brute fumble longer as sex is no Just it has its history. by ripping assuaged longer is no just as hunger and of social rituals; centre by age age teeth; so the fear of death is answered animals apart with bare commerce. and rituals fantasies, of fetishes and with new accumulations common from its meaning, perhaps most tellingly Death itself changes The being-towards-death. of Heidegger’s loneliness fate to the existential by is matched in the modern world individuality terrible weight placed on the when nal moments, to be faced in the fi the dreadful responsibility be upheld. meaning of a single life must consciousness into a machine (Moravec). This latest addition to the addition latest This (Moravec). a machine into consciousness beliefs older Christian on rests, however, orders of supernatural repertoire of super- in the immanence beliefs deeper pagan and salvation, in personal result, in Hollywood’s The mountains. trees and in rivers, natural forces monsters of these, where ned, diffuse hybrid is an ill-defi version, syncretic salva- and machines; from the beyond, the earth, from from emerge may of them. any come from may tion 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 599780415962612-Ch-02.indd 59 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 60

sean cubitt 60 predestination: those who arefatedcannot liveordietragically). or forepic(thetragic modeisunavailable where narrativeishaunted by of theimmanent supernaturaliscentre stage, whether played forcomedy new heightswithLost(2004–).Inallofthesepatternednarrations, themotif wireless media,inastyleinauguratedbyTwin Peaks (1990–1)and carriedto apparent incontemporary television dramasand theirconvergent weband Harry Potter and The LordoftheRings , and indeed isifanything evenmore it isinotherkeyfranchise projects oftheneo-baroque: StarWars, pattern-making isapparent inthePiratesofCaribbean franchise, asindeed painted ceilingdoesnot justhidetheroof—it hidesthevoid. This orgy of ward offtheboogieman,patternstolaceovertdark secret:thatthe also beconstrued asreweavings ofoldtalesinnewpatterns:patternsto absent but immanent unitythrough thelabyrinth ofconnectivity. Itcan chored chain ofsignifi ers seekingaperpetually absent goal,pursuingan (neo)-baroque canbeunderstood not only as anoutgrowth oftheunan- fatal emptiness. appearances canfrequently appearnot asthe fullnessofthedivinebut a and inlife.While evilisclear and present, theimmanent world beyond all of innocent victimsisalways “inexplicable”and “meaningless”in TV news to live,dieajustified deathafterafulfi lled lifeareallindoubt. The deaths Neo-baroque Hollywoodplunges usinto worlds where thecapacitytoact, individuals” byencouraging theeccentric, idiosyncratic and extravagant. vampire. Reality TV actstomaintain theideologicaltruththat“weareall life, whether theshamanicfi gure oftheHighlander orthemonstrous the dead,undead, theimmortal—those blessedorcursedwithendless Hollywood fi ction ispremised. The nexusoftermsincludes death,dying, the modeofabsolute Evilon which what passesforamoralcodein provide thestructuringvisual language ofmonstrosity, perversion, and at itsmostabsolute, and itisthereforenot surprisingthatdeathshould (the illusion of)meaning.Inthiscontext deathappearsasthenegentropic Individualism isthereverseofequally central taskofmaintaining you always werethrough theaccumulation oftherightcommodities. vidual agent ofpurchasing withtheinstruction tobecometheself the disciplineofconsumer lifestylemarketing, which addressestheindi- infrastructures depend (obedience totherulesofroad forexample); in anearly sequence inwhich gang-bossFrankCostello(Jack Nicholson) by intense mirrorings and symmetries,The Departed lays itscards on thetable Adapted from thefirst ofatrilogyfi mode, sittingasitdoeson thebrinkofarthouse/independent values. Scorsese’s the departed The labyrinth which Ndalianisand Kleinnote asacharacteristic ofthe The Departed(2006)doesnot seematfirst glance tofi t thispopulist lms madeinHong Kong chara cterized The Matrix, 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 61 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM even if, in the fi it deserves to be characters, minor gures of various even if, in the fi Visual symmetries accumulate around the non-criminal world. We see We world. the non-criminal around symmetries accumulate Visual the Catholic Church from an interior balcony in harmonious symmetry; in harmonious balcony an interior from Church the Catholic eye view of a even the bird’s cers, police offi young the symmetry of ranked of Billy (Leonardo story to the mirror As we switch football scrimmage. career in the police, the symmetries DiCaprio) during his brief legitimate This nine o’clock. towards frame ticking in full a clock are even stronger: asymme- sacred institutions, (symmetry of the just and simple dichotomy of many Already breaks down in minutes. try of the criminal underworld) zooms had featured focus pulls, dollies and the symmetrical compositions car of Frank’s Colin sits in the back the newly graduated When in or out. at his badge, we feel looking in centre-frame, framed by the seat backs just as we will the opposition already the instability of the opposition, in asymmetric steadicam; training is tracked evil. Billy’s between good and Captain Queenan of operations chief with undercover interview Colin’s empha- shot, in medium long is at attention, (Martin Sheen), conducted has him seated, in tighter framing, sizing the symmetry of the set; Billy’s his him and behind the subtler asymmetries of the props emphasizing gliding problem stooge Colin has no of sitting. Frank’s slightly skewed way seems to frame which Billy is treated to an interrogation the hierarchy: into gangster pair of displacements—Colin’s the Though him as the mole. if not separated by months cop turned gangster—are turned cop, Billy’s Colin sequences. these intercut years, they appear as paired narratives in with a view of to an apartment neighborhood, an upper-class moves into his to provide a trumped up charge on Billy is incarcerated the statehouse; like Colin’s good-natured, good-humoured, good is bumbling, The cover. rough- evil is direct, swift to action, boss Captain Ellerby (Alec Baldwin); The Winstone). (Ray man French right-hand like Frank Costello’s tongued, the impossibility by Brecht: earlier a theme enunciated lm speculates on fi is no in this world in an evil time. Innocence of being a good person defence, defended. advises the young Colin in the ways of the world, introducing the Latin the Latin introducing the world, of in the ways Colin the young advises of Portrait Joyce’s from as a quote it Colin recognizes serviam.” “Non phrase it is introduced recognize is that he does not Man. What Young a the Artist as God: against of his rebellion at the moment of Lucifer as the words by Joyce Costello in a garage, in scene is shot The serve. I shall not the At the voice of temptation. voice, husky speaking in a quiet, silhouette between a cop difference the asks what’s as Costello of the sequence, end face at last Costello’s match: that typical graphical a criminal, we have and the clas- longer is no This adult face. Colin’s face, and in the light, the boy’s so it is not in which one montage, a graphical to but sical editing it refers the into of the fresh-faced boy of time as the assimilation the passage much dialogue as the last line of Costello’s is most apparent, ambit of Satan that “My boy.” of his adult mole: rst appearance voices over the fi 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 619780415962612-Ch-02.indd 61 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 62

sean cubitt 62 the neo-baroque thatisenactedforusinand byThe Departed: would change what awaits them.Kleinobserves thedoubled experience of act ofwill,no actofwillthatcould convert into action, no action that this misadventure. dialogue betweenBillyand Colinviatheircellphones istheapogeeof the neo-baroque; itisalsoadissection ofitsmorallandscape. The silent camerawork, itsricher palette,itsrealism,isonly partlyasymptomof professional, and ethical.The Departed,withitsmixoffl uid and static phone not only connects, itblurs theolddistinctions, geographical, tion. The walls, thebuildings, thegeography arepermeable;the but amediumtogetmessage out tothegangthataraidisinprepara- in aslideshow ofgangmembers,weseehimasColindoes,not asaman a reverseangletoColin.Neverhaving metFitzythus farexceptasastill rather thanareverseangle.Cutback toFitzyinthecell,speaking,and tered tabletop.French picks itup,but wegetawideshot oftheroom remote location, thentoanother close upofaringingmobileon aclut- phone substitutesforthe cell:wecuttoareaction shot from Billyina passed betweenthem,thenbyanother shot ofacallbeingplaced. The structure isinterrupted fi rst byaverticalshot ofthemobilephone Costello’s muscle Fitzyinapoliceholding cell. The shot-reverse-shot Sica and Rossellini.Pretending tobehislawyer, Colininterviews But placehasceasedtohave thekind ofsolidityithadforRenoir, de the construction ofamoraldesertinmeticulously observedmilieu. conditions formigration tothewealthier, safer, cleaner North,frame so theurbansociologyofBoston, especiallytheIrishSouth Sideand the of Buddhisthellsfrom which ittakesitstitle(Cameron and Cubitt).Just geography and architecture, inhabits aworld thatisalreadydoubled. RecognizablyHong Kong inits ful 2002Hong Kong thrillerInfernal Affairs ( it isPurgatory. Likeitssource, Andy Lauand AlanMak’s hugely success- the protagonists Billyand Colinarealreadydead. This isnot justBoston: world, however, somethingpointed tobythetitle.Inmany respects, through theearly partofthefilm indicate somethingcurious about this monest authorial motifs,thepursuitofsalvation. The funeralsthatrun war. Itportrays aworld, and tracesinthatworld one ofScorsese’s com- work ofthePopularFront periodorRossellini’s and deSica’s afterthe Colin and Billy movetowards theirshowdown. They cannot makean The Departedisinmany ways arealistfilm inthetradition ofRenoir’s with gimmicks. .Soweimagine thatour ontological revenge against thesystemisknowledge thatitisfilled there isaprogram greaterthanthemselves. . Part ofour An audience goesfrom confusion totherealization that Infernal Affairs isalsosetinthelowestcircle Mou GaanDou),Scorsese’s film 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 63 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM awareness is a weapon against ideology, but in the end, we in the end, but ideology, against is a weapon awareness force), democratising a truth (a as the epistemology accept 328–9) the truth. (Klein about even a game , the neo-baroque is doubled or shadowed by the second or shadowed by the second is doubled Departed, the neo-baroque The In great development in twenty-fi rst-century media: the always-on wireless the always-on media: rst-century in twenty-fi great development spec- immersive immense and the the new, and In the old baroque world. also addresses them as individual— but engulfs the viewer-auditor, tacle the in the neo. By contrast consumer in the old, individual soul individual in perpetual isolation but is primarily of isolation, wireless experience connectivity, and between immersion contradiction The connectivity. we know Since the communicative. between the sublime and that mirrors mediated, that there is a host is technically that the immersive experience still has that the cinematic experience and the screen, of artisans behind it as the actual- we might describe form of mass entertainment, the legacy by wireless experience, The of isolation. with the illusion ity of community of community. the illusion and of isolation offers the actuality contrast, side of a dialectic: the immersive. If one has addressed only chapter This turn in the historical narratives traced here, that there is to be another the analysis. into back to be brought will have half of the equation second between immersive and of the relation an analysis through only Critically, of the understanding a genuine media will we be able to reach personalized constantly the supernatural—the discovery that we are in which ways In a letter today. the dead—functions placed in the place of the dying and low as “the two and of high described the problem to Benjamin, Adorno add up” do not they however, freedom to which, torn halves of an integral not reconciled, been low culture have high and (123). In an era in which between the spectacular, the distinction like Scorsese’s, least in works form, and individual in profoundly experienced immersive, collective event portable device with its extraordinary third-screen intimate the intensely in a new form. the same problem poses much for connectivity potential even if it has the capacity half of a story, cinema is only neo-baroque The of it. to tell the whole The technologies we live by we also see through, but seeing through them them seeing through but by we also see through, we live technologies The the neo- truth behind the attempt to understand very The is part of them. - of signifi labyrinth up in a because it ends move, a neo-baroque is baroque elsewhere an immanent because it hypostasises and chains, in endless cation which but are available, meaning, even true individuality truth and where er the next signifi fate, as some other place, as deferred—as is permanently of the position in stands supernatural in the neo-baroque The or the next. a ceiling, longer is no of the ceiling which illusion the impossibly complete an effect of the really a pattern, a cause that is actually is a story which of the past. future, not 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 639780415962612-Ch-02.indd 63 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 64

sean cubitt 64 notes 2. WilliamPoundstone’s New DigitalEmblems athttp://www.williampoundstone. 1. JoostvanGorselcontributes ananimation at http://www.iconique.com/ Kosmin, BarryA.,Egon Mayer and ArielaKeysar. Klein, NormanM.The Vatican to Vegas: AHistoryofSpecial Effects. New York: The Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, The CulturalLogicofLateCapitalism Cubitt, Sean.“SupernaturalFutures: Theses on DigitalAesthetics.” Future Cameron, Allanand Sean Cubitt.“InfernalAffairsand theEthicsofComplex Calabrese, Omar. Neo-Baroque: ASignofthe Times. Trans. Charles Lambert. Buci-Glucksmann, Christine.Baroque Reason: The AestheticsofModernity. Trans. Bordwell, David. OntheHistoryofFilmStyle . Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Beverley, John.AgainstLiterature. Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress, Benjamin, Walter. The OriginofGerman Tragic Drama . Trans. JohnOsborne.London: Bell, Gordon. MyLifeBits, Microsoft research: http://research.microsoft.com/ Bazin, André. “An AestheticofReality.” Bather, Neil.“BigRocks, BigBangs,Bucks: The Construction ofEvilin Altman, Rick. “Dickens, Griffi th and Film Theory Today.” Adorno, Theodor W. “LetterstoWalter Benjamin,” 18March 1936. works cited net/ (accessedFebruary 12008). flash/design.html (accessedFebruary 12008). 28 September2007. Survey, 2001.http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris.pdf. Retrieved New Press,2004. Verso, 1991. 1996. 237–55. Tickner, Jon Bird, BarryCurtisand Tim Puttnam.London: Routledge, Natural: Nature, Science, Culture . Eds.George Robertson, Melinda Mash,Lisa Buckland. Oxford: WileyBlackwell, 2009. Narrative.” Princeton, NJ:Princeton UniversityPress,1992. Patrick Camiller. London: Sage, 1994. Press, 1997. 1993. Verso, 1977. barc/MediaPresence/MyLifeBits.aspx, retrieved6October2007. Gray. Berkeley: University ofCaliforniaPress,1971.16–40. Studies, 2.1(2004):37–59. the PopularCinemaofJerryBruckheimer.” New Review ofFilmand Television Press, 1992.9–47. Narrative:Paradigm TheWars . Ed.JaneGaines.Durham,NC:DukeUniversity Politics. Eds.ErnstBloch etal.London: NewLeftBooks, 1977. Puzzle Films: Complex Storytelling inContemporaryCinema What isCinema?,volume 2. Trans. Hugh American Religious Identifi cation Classical Hollywood . Ed.Warren Aesthetics and . London: 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM the supernatural in neo-baroque hollywood 65 4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM4/1/2009 10:43:40 AM . Cambridge, . Cambridge, Terry Cochran. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986. University Manchester Manchester: Cochran. Terry Press, 1988. University MA: Harvard 2004. MA: MIT Press, . Trans . Trans Historical Structure of a Analysis Baroque: of the Culture Antonio. José Maravall, of Robot and Human Intelligences Future The Hans. Mind Children: Moravec, . Cambridge, and Contemporary Entertainment Aesthetics Neo-Baroque Ndalianis, Angela. 9780415962612-Ch-02.indd 659780415962612-Ch-02.indd 65 man without a movie camera—movies without men

three towards

a posthumanist

cinema?

william brown

the extinction of mankind?

To discuss “posthumanism” can be an emotional issue. For, it is easy to believe that posthumanism implies humanity’s possible extinction, a prospect that without doubt causes consternation in any human reader. Within the context of critical theory, there are indeed some theorists who view mankind’s development of intelligent machines and information super- highways as leading inevitably to the end of humanity. A prominent example is Friedrich Kittler, who argues that humans are merely a by-product in the development of ever more efﬁ cient processes of information exchange. Paul Virilio and Manuel De Landa, meanwhile, argue that humans are also potentially redundant in a world predicated upon surveillance technologies and war machinery (see also Johnston). Whilst Virilio and Kittler (and, to a lesser extent, De Landa) are noteworthy for their pessimism, they are not alone in downplaying the fact that humanity has traditionally understood itself as playing a central role

9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 66 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 67 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM Anti-Oedipus; A Thousand Thousand Anti-Oedipus; A here is a host of fi lms that certainly do refl ect the refl lms that certainly do of fi here is a host to. T a cinema of extinction? then a post of humanity, leads some to fear the end If posthumanism this takes place—or at the very in which cinema might be one humanist least threatens in the world. However, far from being necessarily a doom-mongering a doom-mongering necessarily being far from However, world. in the humanity, of as the end not better understood is posthumanism practise, the belief is precisely is, posthumanism of humanism—that as the end but Advances in reality. role binding and a central play longer no that humans as well philosophy, biology and neuroscience, astrophysics, in technology, pragmatism, actor-network-theory, [including] discourses as “[diverse] dynamics, post- of evolutionary accounts post-Darwinian deconstruction, into inquiries Foucault-inspired of social constructivism, versions Kantian to all contribute organs’,” ‘body without the Deleuzian knowledge/power, of human term “the end Engström (564) Timothy and Evan Selinger what seeks to displace discourse posthumanist In other words, exceptionalism.” con- “posthuman” new, practices with and theories old, anthropocentric be they technological endeavours, its creative and of mankind siderations dis- of posthumanist strands nd we can fi in mind, or artistic. With this Kevin Warwick, at all. Computer scientist pessimistic that are not course cyborg—literally becoming a ‘‘posthuman’’ to forward for example, looks lit- Others feel that Warwick’s part-machine. and a being that is part-man daily interactions even necessary; mankind’s is not eral self-transformation of human notions traditional already modify our machines with intelligent with a for example, believes that to interface N. Katherine Hayles, identity. Haraway (see also Hansen). Donna computer already makes us posthuman makes of us ‘‘cyborgs,’’ similarly interface believes that the human-machine and (masculine/feminine) nitions defi gender ne traditional redefi which Marshall from ideas can be seen as stemming Such social relations. nervous of our that the media were “extensions believed McLuhan, who ( Félix Guattari Gilles Deleuze and Whilst system.” dis- of posthumanist in the development a pivotal role Plateaux) also play sees the crea- that the use of machines argue they similarly since course, separate from in itself has a new identity which “assemblage,” of a new tion of see the creation Guattari of self. Deleuze and conceptions traditional our human, loss of something uniquely as the irredeemable not assemblages of the creation through self-recreation as the opportunity for endless but by becoming In other words, identities. wonderful ever-more complex and machines just with not of hybridization a process posthuman—through can be set free us—humanity with all that surrounds potentially, but, old mean letting go of our does indeed This limitations. its own from theorists, there is something positive in many for but, identity, xed’’ ‘‘fi becoming other. embracing the limitless opportunities of always 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 679780415962612-Ch-03.indd 67 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 68

william brown 68 (Christopher Nolan,2000), (David Fincher, 1999), The (MNightShyamalan,Sixth Sense 1999),Memento Malkovich (SpikeJonze,eXistenZ 1999),(David Cronenberg, 1999),FightClub include ters discoverthattheyarelivingwithinasimulation, and soon. Examples realizes thatheorsheisdead(albeitstillconscious), films inwhich charac- they thought theywere,“posthumous” fi lms inwhich theprotagonist includes films inwhich characters turnout tobesomeone otherthanwho somehow, thathuman identity isnot fi xed and/or stable. This group traditional humanist understanding oftheworld, and which suggests, cial’’ placeintheuniverse. interpreted asposthumanist, fortheysimilarly downplay mankind’s ‘‘spe- by showing humans asinferiortoother“supermen,” thesefilms could be humans as‘‘just another’’ (asopposedtoaprivileged) species,or, indeed, fi(including lms Man fi lms (SamRaimi,2002–2007),Hulk(AngLee,2003)and the X-Men 2001–2003). The lattergroup includes superhero moviessuch asthe (George Lucas,1977–2005)and theLordofRingsfi lms (PeterJackson, Prime examplesoftheformergroup ofcourse include theStarWars fi lms which “humans” have becomecapableoftranscending thelaws ofphysics. at theveryleastrelegated toequal statusalongside otherlifeforms),orin cinema thatdoesnot featurehuman characters (orinwhich humans are planet and/or intheuniverseiscontingent and not fixed orguaranteed. sidered posthumanist, too,since theyremind usthatour placeon the regardless oftheirpredominantly ‘‘happy’’ endings, cancertainlybecon- than not thehumans still‘‘win theday’’) posthuman future. These films, films show usliteralinterpretations ofa(potentially—in thatmoreoften both BryanSinger, 2000and 2003).Whatever thesource ofthethreat,these because humans evolveinto the‘‘next’’ phase ofevolution (X-Menand X2, 2004; Terminator 3:RiseoftheMachines , Jonathan Mostow,I, Robot,AlexProyas, 2003; to removeusfrom theplanet(The Matrix , Andy and LarryWachowski, 1999; own inventions, specifically robots, achieve artifi cial intelligence and decide 1995; 2003); itmightbeasaresultofdeadlyvirus( disaster (The Dayafter Tomorrow , Roland Emmerich, 2004;The Core, Jon Amiel, sun (Sunshine,Danny Boyle,2007);itmightbeon account ofanecological Michael Bay, 1997;DeepImpact,MimiLeder, 1997)ortheextinction ofthe non-living threatfrom outer space—beitameteoritecollision ( Paul Verhoeven,1997; Day, Roland Emmerich, 1996;Mars Attacks!, Tim Burton, 1996;Starship Troopers, potential extinction ofour species. The threatmightbealien(Independence Finally, thereisamorecomplexgroup offilms thatsimilarly challenges a One mightequally interpret aposthumanist cinemaaseitherbeinga 28 DaysLater…,Danny Boyle,2002);itmightbebecausehumanity’s A.I.: Artifi cial Intelligence, StevenSpielberg, 2001);oritmay simplybe The Matrix, but alsoTotal (Paul Recall Verhoeven, 1990),BeingJohn X-Men 3: The LastStand,BrettRatner, 2006).Byshowing War ofthe Worlds, StevenSpielberg, 2005);itmightbea The Others (Alejandro Amenábar, 2001),Vanilla Sky Outbreak, Wolfgang Petersen, Armageddon, Spider-

4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 69 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM 1 The transition from analogue photography, which has traditionally has traditionally which analogue photography, from transition The be deemed posthumanist if we are to under- cinema may be deemed posthumanist ‘‘new’’ This The absolute majority of the above fi lms are defi ned by the use of digital lms are defi of the above fi majority absolute The been thought of as an indexical representation of what is placed before the is placed before of what representation of as an indexical been thought stand traditional, analogue cinema as a predominantly human (and there- (and human analogue cinema as a predominantly traditional, stand analogue cinema features medium (see Balázs, 262). Whilst fore humanist) camera, digital faithfully captured by an analogue characters human of these human of the appearance cation the modifi cinema often involves this, see, (for more on in the digital morph is most notable This characters. in terms of “airbrushing” or simply, also, quite inter alia, Jenkins), but that we means is that the characters this What facial expressions. changing digital imagery, blood actors and esh and of “real” fl are a hybrid lm fi see on even if the charac- cyborgs, become “posthuman” meaning that they have as we traditionally are supposed to be humans ters that the actors play them. understand and perceive technology to create photorealistic special effects in order to render these to render special effects in order to create photorealistic technology manner—be these threats aliens or in a convincing threats to humanity ed that has modifi technology natural disasters. It is the same use of digital on arguably, also, in Hollywood, but nature of cinema, above all the entire of the being as a result in cinema’s change of the extent The a global scale. in its use in terms of sound, use of digital technology—from increased is framed—has caused the image in terms of how and terms of the image, Lewis), for example, Jon of cinema (see, the end some theorists to declare ). Language of “new media” (Manovich, or at the very least the creation the extinction of cinema? the extinction that cinema can be deemed the level of content just on it is not However, lms might feature fi contemporary many whilst For, posthumanist. con- life forms that do not other alien and monsters, cyborgs, mutants, more (for gender and of identity notions xed fi and traditional form to our the level on Pisters), we can also see cinema as posthumanist this see on the level of form. on cally, more specifi and, of production Eternal Eternal and 2004), Anderson, (Brad Machinist 2001), The Crowe, (Cameron be deemed lms can fi These 2004). Gondry, Mind (Michel of the Spotless Sunshine reality, physical no that we have suggest by turns for they posthumanist we we thought which in that the world reality is an illusion, that physical is “identity” that our and/or in fact a simulation, is key role a such played these body, from mind By divorcing physical. not and mental uniquely position of our understanding “humanist” a traditional, lms undermine fi about we think we know reveal that what and in the world/universe, lms rely of these fi many As such, is in fact unstable/illusory. ourselves the shattering of to reinforce in order nal ‘‘revelations’’ fi and ‘‘twists’’ upon lms portray. fi that the illusions humanist 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 699780415962612-Ch-03.indd 69 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 70

william brown 70 entirely. Instead, through UniversalCaptureand othertechniques, an sible’’ ‘‘camera’’ moves arepossibleisbecausetheydispensewiththecamera vision and motion areconcerned) viewpoints. The reason thatthese‘‘impos- allows thespectatorherselfto adopt impossible(asfarashuman powersof and events thatchallenge our humanist understanding ofreality;but italso not only dodigitaleffectsallowthespectatortoseeimpossiblecreatures bination ofthetwo. The abilitytodothisrenders cinemaposthumanist for, ing through walls,oncoming vehicles, and evenhuman beings),oracom- or infi nitelylarge ones), the creation ofimpossible‘‘camera’’ moves(pass- ral perception isconcerned) viewpoints (betheyofinfinitely smallobjects include thecreation ofimpossible (i.e.impossibleforhumans as farasnatu- technology toenablethecameradowhatever sheorhewishes. This can of analogueand digital),adirector/cinematographer canalsousedigital any way thatthedirector/graphic designerseesfit (creatingahybrid image all mannerofeffectsand manipulatethecapturedcontents ofanimage in dispense withthecameraentirely. For, whilst digitaltechnology cancreate tive isundermined, however, once digitaltechnology allowsfilmmakers to do. This simpleequation ofthecamera’s perspectivewithahuman perspec- been equated to‘‘seeing’’ orhaving an‘‘eye’’ inthesensethat(most)humans represent (theequivalent of)ahuman point ofview, or, moreprecisely, has manist cinema. Traditionally, theanaloguecamerahasbeenthought to light one furtherway inwhich digitaltechnology helpstocreateaposthu- questions about our old,‘‘human’’ reality. posthumanist reality, which possessesanewontology thatsimilarly raises that ‘‘reality’’ waspartofa‘‘fi ctional’’ world, i.e.aset),but ratheranew, indexical representation ofarealitythatexistedbeforethecamera(evenif elements, evenon thelevel ofcolor, suggestsacinemathatisno longer an happened and wehave not yetnoticed), but themixof‘‘real’’ and ‘‘virtual’’ not quite realisticenough topassfor“real”humans (unlessithasalready least, asanti-humanist. It should benoted thatanimatedhumans arestill uniquely withcomputers)canbeclassified asposthumanist, or, atthe very cinema (beitdigitallymodifi ed analoguecinemaor“cinema”created human character (seePrince, “True Lies”;“Emergence”), thendigital desired bythedirector, toadddigitalcrowds, ananimaloreven entire modify thecolorsofafilm, toaddand/or removedetailsthatareornot in It mightalsobeobvious thatNew York hasnot reallyflooded (ashappens be obvious thatabalrog doesnot existinreallife(asthe to bereal(“seeingisbelieving”)hasbeenirrevocablychallenged. Itmight in perception such thatour (looselyhumanist) faithintakingwhat wesee in amannerthatthetwo, “false” and“real,” becomeindistinguishable digital graphics, which canmodify/embellish/falsifythatreality—and doso camera (Bazin,What isCinema?I,14;alsoquoted inPrince, “True Lies”),to The DayAfter Tomorrow ). But,when thesamedigitaltechnology isusedto We shallreturntothequestion ofrealism,but first Iwould liketohigh- —provokes acrisis Lord oftheRings). 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 71 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM However, wonderful though though wonderful However, 2 Having established how digital technology provides cinema with the provides digital technology established how Having One might argue that cinema has not needed to involve a camera or a camera to involve needed that cinema has not One might argue In other words, digital cinema is a cinema that can be made without can be made without is a cinema that digital cinema In other words, tools to become a “posthumanist” cinema, we shall now look at how this at how look cinema, we shall now tools to become a “posthumanist” humanist in the traditionally paradoxically has its roots posthumanism provokes is a term that cinematic realism. If posthumanism of notions be at pains here to I should then so too is realism, and responses, strong simply quite I am referring; that is, of realism to which establish the kind a Bazinian conception humanism), given his inherent paradoxically, (and of a the depiction a move towards of the cut and of realism as a rejection time. space and continuous the achievements of Méliès and Phalke, Lye and McLaren, and the American McLaren, and Phalke, Lye and of Méliès and the achievements avant-garde from a move away are, digital cinema involves avant-garde the to the fore, to brought is of the image the construction cinema, where of the the movements in the services of “realism,” mainstream, where, account it is on are hidden. Indeed, that are “forbidden,” camera, even ones atten- it draws in which the way so much not (and realism of digital cinema’s only of not notions traditional our ) that it truly challenges to itself tion of time more fundamentally, also, and impossible, but is possible and what to us the impossible that digital simply by showing space. It is not and of the impossible depiction This be described as posthuman. cinema could digital cinema It is because its history. has been a trait of cinema throughout its it takes on that , rather, possible the impossible to us as if it were presents cance. signifi full posthumanist human characters since its inception, especially if one considers the early the early considers especially if one its inception, since characters human Méliès and established by Georges of spectacular cinema tradition in is downplayed characters of human the role which Dadasaheb Phalke, in or, (see Cubitt), as the Man in the Moon beings such of ‘‘magical’’ favour cam- involve need not which lm animation, fi history of the whole indeed, to on directly paints Lye or Norman McLaren, one eras at all if, like Len step fur- one , 302] takes this argument [Language (Lev Manovich celluloid. a subset cinema into has transformed that digital technology ther by saying traditionally has which round, other way rather than the of animation Bordwell what involved since cinema has long been the case). In addition, an that “block 24) calls “forbidden movements” (“Camera Movement,” or likely surrogate reading, refusing it as an intelligible anthropomorphic to that these are limited he does confess although for bodily movement,” the American avant-garde. and animation cameras and it is a cinema that can be made without human characters or characters human be made without is a cinema that can it cameras and lm, fi famous most Vertov’s Dziga the title of Misappropriating even actors. and a movie camera a man without involve digital cinema can therefore, men. movies without entire scene is digitized in 3D, subsequently allowing the fi lmmaker to to lmmaker fi the allowing subsequently in 3D, is digitized scene entire or he chooses. she way it in whatever lm” “fi 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 719780415962612-Ch-03.indd 71 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 72

william brown 72 (the appearance ofhaving used)traditional techniques. an animation), evenif,forthe timebeing,digitalcinemaretains Sakaguchi/Moto Sakakibara,2001—although thislatterfilm is,obviously, humans (asexemplifi ed by, say, FinalFantasy: The Spirits Within, Hironobu cinema hasthepotentialtobeawithout camerasand without since beenovershadowedbycinema’s “humanist” norms. Assuch, digital draws out theinherent potential forposthumanist thinkingthathaslong hybrid cinemathatcombinesthe two,but which, bycombiningthetwo, new techniques; itis,as Manovich (“Image Future”)haspointed out, a above). Rather, itisacinemathat involves oldtechniques evoking Méliès,Phalke,Lye,McLaren, and theAmericanavant-garde techniques—a point thatIshould takegreatcaretoemphasize (hence is not acinemacreatedbyspectacularsplitorschism from oldcinematic opposed toeitherhuman ormachine). Similarly, aposthumanist cinema the new, inthesameway thatacyborg isbothhumanand machine (as instead offersusthisnewperspectivethrough asynthesis oftheoldand not asplitorschism from humanism and/or thehuman. Posthumanism (contingent) position intheworld/universe, itisbecauseposthumanism is on mankind such thatweachieve agreaterunderstanding ofour own not involve theextinction ofmankind, but simplyoffersusaperspective following should bemadeclear: ifinfactposthumanism generallydoes “hidden” bythetechniques ofcontinuity), weshould contend thatdigital number ofshots in contemporary cinema (even ifthishighnumber is that spaceisinfactfragmented into multiple shots and angles. story unfoldsinrealtimeand inasingle,homogeneous space—evenif of sight,sound bridges,and theuseofoffscreenspace,thenwefeelthat space, acontinuity establishedthrough visual and auralcuessuch aslines is, say, Tatooine, asperStarWars). That is,ifthereisacontinuity oftimeand of out. Continuity, itmust benoted, isatechnique employedintheservices cinema, thisisdone intheservicesofcontinuity,asBordwell himselfpoints whilst thereisarguably morecutting/shots incontemporary Hollywood temporary Hollywood.Bordwell’s analysisisthorough and correct.But, in factasmuch ifnot more cutting(i.e.agreaternumber of shots) incon- raised bytheuseofdigitalcinema(i.e.through alack ofcutting),thereis contrary totheexpectation ofgreaterspatialand temporalcontinuity continuity.” Inhisanalysisofvarious recent films, Bordwell explainsthat, porary Hollywoodfi lms employatechnique thathelabels“intensifi ed David Bordwell (“Intensifi ed Continuity”) haspointed out thatcontem- a cinemaofintensifi realism, ofasustainedand continuous diegetic world (evenifthatworld Before analyzingthisposthumanist (and ‘‘post-Bazinian’’) realism,the In spiteofBordwell’s analysis, inwhich hehighlightsthegreater ed realism in conjunctionwith 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 73 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM War of of this by comparing the scene in War can perhaps better understand We Spatial continuity can be understood in two different ways: continuity continuity ways: in two different can be understood Spatial continuity to other ‘‘in-car’’ scenes that feature characters driving in other of scenes that feature characters to other ‘‘in-car’’ the Worlds (1971), Close ) explains, Duel (Spielberg As Buckland blockbusters. Spielberg’s (1993), feature “in-car” Jurassic Park Kind (1977), and Third of the Encounters various from shots various divides them into Spielberg in each scenes and, it in the shots—be across even if the ‘‘continuity’’ angles. Now, different i.e. gives the etc.—‘‘matches,’’ passing scenery, the form of engine hum, cut lessens the realism of the scene, because each of continuity, appearance space we experience reality, in human time), whilst space (and it fragments interests it is sometimes in Spielberg’s Of course, time) as continuous. (and that allows us to see through shot a head-on from to cut; by cutting away within a single frame and continuity within a single shot (or, after Bordwell, after Bordwell, (or, a single shot within continuity within a single frame and as fol- understood within a single frame can be Continuity shots). across in another, humans and shot in one dinosaurs lows: rather than showing the occupying dinosaurs , to show in Jurassic Park is able, Steven Spielberg means This characters. with human interacting same frame/space as and (see Elsaesser share the same ontology humans and that both dinosaurs continuity a sense of realism through 215–17), creating Buckland, and realism, a posthumanist is arguably realism This within the same frame. the through perception human everyday does it challenge only not since to exist (anymore), not of a creature that we know depiction photorealistic species sharing the same space with other humans it also shows but must who characters, of the human (thereby minimizing the prominence with a giant especially if they are to appear in frame in longshot, be shown shot; within a single there is also spatial continuity However, brachiosaur). of the form space to show a continuous moves through that is, the ‘‘camera’’ cutting. than through that space to a greater extent cinema also involves greater continuity through the use not of cuts linking of cuts use not the through continuity greater also involves cinema of the War Spielberg’s of Steven analysis . In his at all by not cutting but images apparently an example of this ) elaborates (Spielberg Buckland , Warren Worlds featuring shot to us a 150-second presents Spielberg continuity: unbroken to calm tries Chatwin), who (Justin Robbie son, his Cruise) and (Tom Ray without scene takes place The Fanning). (Dakota Rachel ed sister, his terrifi that Spielberg not a single cut. It is appearing to involve) (or involving refuses to offer us an alternative a single angle and lms this scene from fi stop the scene, the camera does not it; during perspective. Far from of the out and moving both into the characters, moving, instead circling this Since the camera were made of thin air. as if it and/or moving vehicle (we see to us a temporal continuity a cut, it presents involve scene does not a greater sense of realism to the scene that lends the scene in “real time”), in and For, in the “real” world). Earth yet attacked not (even if aliens have realism is predicated theory of cinema, Bazin’s with André accordance spatial continuity. temporal and upon 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 739780415962612-Ch-03.indd 73 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 74

william brown 74 its verysolidity, digital cinemacanpresent tousacontinuous space;this humanist, realism.Bydivestingthecameraand/or thephysical obstacle of objects, this,and othersceneslikeit,suggest tousanon-human, orpost- mountains, orentire planets.Bypassingthrough one orany ofthese physical objectsthatfi ll it—bethose objectswindow panes,cars,walls, For physical camerasand forhumans, spaceisfragmented bythesolid, camera nor ahuman canpassthrough glasspaneswithout smashingthem. tinuous, but not from thehuman perspective.For, neither aphysical geneous scene,Spielberg’s latestcarscene presents tousaspacethatiscon- Thanks tothedigitaltechnology thatlinks theshots into asingle,homo- which arelinkedthrough cuts)through theuseofdigitaltechnology. into aseamlesswhole (asopposedtoone fragmented into different shots of the Worlds wasshot usinga physical camera,thesceneissegued together ing aware thatthe camerawaspresent. Although much ofthescenein camera didthis,therealismofshot would bedestroyed byour becom- smash through thewindscreen and/or knock thedoorframe.Ifareal typically passthrough theclosed windows ofacar, foritwould have to is impossibleforaphysical camera.Afi lm camera,givenitsbulk, cannot ous timeand space,but thisrealismisalsopredicatedupon somethingthat extraordinary/“impossible” situations—here, analieninvasion). not somuch seektoreplicate everyday life,ascreatecredibleversions of realistic (although, again, thisisinspiteofthefactthatHollywooddoes single, continuous shot thatwould, through itsverycontinuity, bemore priate moment, but allthewhile thiseffectwould remainbuilt into a imminent danger(ifitexisted)wereeitheron- oroff-screenattheappro- around thecarinacertaindirection and atacertainpace,such thatthe Spielberg could easilycreatethesamesuspensebymovingcamera pense). Although thesceneinWar ofthe Worlds featuresno chasing aliens, falseness inorder tocreateacertainsensation intheviewer, namely sus- temporal continuity ofthescene(and infactself-consciously exploitsits evidence ofafi lmmaker’s skill,itstilldiminishestherealism/spatialand the useofcuttingtocreatesuspenseorany othereffectiswithout doubt able tonotice the(potential) dangerbeforeitistoolate?However, whilst they themselvesdonot, weaskourselves thequestion: willthesedriversbe Neill), inthatweknow thatsomething/someone isfollowingthemwhen than therespectivedrivers(DennisMann,Richard Dreyfussand Sam ahead (without checking hisrear-viewmirror). Becauseweknow more truck, UFOordinosaur, whilst thedriver, alsoinshot, looks obliviously Spielberg cancreatesuspensepreciselybyallowingustoseethefollowing more surprisingwhen saidtruck, UFOordinosaur appears.Similarly, dinosaur ( viewer oftheknowledge thatatruck (Duel), aUFO(CloseEncounters…) ora the rearwindscreen (and behind thedriver),Spielberg candeprivethe The continuity oftheshot makesitrealistic,inthatdepictsacontinu- Jurassic Park) isfollowingthevehicle—thereby makingitallthe War 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 75 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM Let 3 Panic Room (2002), Panic , in which the Fight Club, in which ’s narrator cannot tell narrator cannot Fight Club’s is also Tyler Durden (Brad Durden Tyler Fight Club is also ’s narrator is not the privileged individual that we might nor- individual the privileged narrator is not Fight Club’s There are numerous other examples of this in contemporary cinema. in contemporary other examples of this numerous are There If more proof were needed of the posthumanist nature of these shots, nature of these were needed of the posthumanist If more proof continuous space is, paradoxically, realistic from the Bazinian point of point Bazinian the from realistic is, paradoxically, space continuous (we of reality understanding to a human according realistic not but view, does). the “camera” what do cannot then we need only consider the opening shot of the opening shot consider then we need only the “camera” can pass between the legs of a banister frame and through a through and of a banister frame the legs can pass between the “camera” ce block, an offi through can move down , the “camera” In Fight Club keyhole. rear in the hole a bullet a van, through towards car park, a basement into we occasion, On another of a bomb. a close-up into of the van, and window has been Norton) narrator (Edward lm’s of the fi learn that the apartment “camera” by a gas leak. As if it were the gas, the re caused due to a fi destroyed tables. It oor and the surfaces of the fl hugging the apartment, moves around the ignition it before reaching moves behind the refrigerator and approaches goes up apartment The to its timer. according that turns the fridge on spark an outsize still, the “camera” drifts past occasion another ames. On in fl from other bits of detritus before emerging various coffee cup and Starbuck’s of these is a ce. Each offi narrator’s the into bin and the inside of a waste paper conan “impossible” and the “camera” performs in which further instance nally put been fi possible by its having that is made a shot shot, tinuous with a computer. with a camera at all, but together not brain, of the narrator’s the fear centre from backwards “camera” tracks the barrel of a gun that has then down his scalp, down his face and through obstacles just physical Here, not mouth. been placed inside the narrator’s lms suggest If these fi human. so has an entire but been passed through, have solid perspective thanks to their ability to pass through a posthumanist being, that a human then, by passing through objects as if they were thin air, In other of “thin air.” reduced to the equivalent is similarly being human words, the nar- lm. Rather, of a feature fi mally associate with the main protagonist the which space through piece of undifferentiated rator is simply another lm tting in a fi is fi This “empty” space. “camera” can pass as easily as through that exist in the same way does not the narrator discovers that “he” in which the narrator of he thinks he does. For, the has shot Tyler rightly separate the two, even after we cannot Pitt), and a lm involves of the fi nal shot the fi narrator/himself in the head (since “himself”Tyler used to do, suggest- 6-frame insert of a penis, a practise that if In other words, ing that “he” is still at large). us limit ourselves to two fi In director. lms, both by the same fi to two us limit ourselves is inside (“himself”) (“other” people), then it iswhat is outside what from supposedly respect to the narrator’s no tting that the “camera” also pays fi the nar- material boundaries, esh). Deprived of any (his fl boundaries physical are used; the we humans to which fashion exist in any does not rator/Tyler world. in a posthumanist “himself” identity nds polymorphous a narrator fi 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 759780415962612-Ch-03.indd 75 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 76

william brown 76 human beings). level ofrealism(albeitthatteleportation is,asyet,beyond thekenof lack ofcutsduring theteleportation inX2meansthatitachieves agreater digital effectscan,allegedly, bedeployed),thetemporalcontinuity of/the haps deservesevengreaterpraisethanSinger’s given theeasewithwhich not featureacutatall.WithallduerespecttoCocteau (whose geniusper- technology, becausethesceneinX2doesnot somuch hidethecutas matic realismcould potentially have reached itsapogeethankstodigital involved ahistoryofever-moresubtleways of artifice togivetheimpression ofcontinuity; but ifthequest forrealismhas appears and reappearswithinthesame, continuousshot . Now, bothscenesuse cally undetectable how theshot wasdone, but Nightcrawler appears,dis- Nightcrawler disappear, beforereappearingelsewhere. Notonly isitpracti- order tofooland defeatsecurityguards thataretrying tostophim.We see to thePresident. Once detected,Nightcrawler teleportsback and forthin the White House inanattempttosend apro-mutant politicalmessage achieved). Bycontrast, inX2,Nightcrawler (AlanCumming)infi ltrates emerging from thewall(only close analysisrevealshow theeffectwas the fi lm play forwards, wefollowthelogicofsequence and seeBelle wall thatthesheetwassupposedtorepresent. Ofcourse, while watching shot isaccompaniedbyathird shot ofBelle,standing verticallyagainst the shot looks asthough averticalBelleemerges from thewall. This “magic” the supportsand tobeengulfedbythesheet.When played backwards, the side oftheactress.Attimefilming, gravity causesBelletofallbetween Belle lyinghorizontal on asheetheldtautovertwosupports,one either emerges Belle. The shot isachieved byplaying backwards anaerialshot of castle. The film cutstowhat appearstobeawallinthecastle,and from it castle toherfamilyhome. We seeherdisappearfrom herbedinthebeast’s (Jean Marais)hasgiventoher. This enableshertoteleportfrom thebeast’s X2. InCocteau’s fi lm, Belle(JosetteDay) dons theglovethatbeast from JeanCocteau’s Labelle etlabête(1946)and thelatterfrom BryanSinger’s We candothisbycomparingtwoscenesinvolving teleportation, thefirst are linkedand makesensethrough thetropes ofcontinuity editing). than thefragmentation ofscenesinto different shots (evenifthesecuts continuity, establishedviaafailure tocut,canalsosuggestgreaterrealism it willperhapsbebesttoprovide furtherexamplesofhow temporal ous, inthattheyaresingleshots (theytakeplacein“realtime”).However, humans, asiftheywerethinair. These shots arealsotemporallycontinu- continuity, inthatthe“camera”canpassthrough solidobjects,including and Planet Earthand viceversa—ashappensin Contact(RobertZemeckis, 1997) realistically travel inasingle, continuous shot from deepspaceand into The shots inWar ofthe Worlds, In addition totheabove,digitaltechnology meansthat wecanphoto- Event Horizon(Paul W.S. Anderson, 1997)(forananalysis oftheseshots, 4 Panic RoomandFight Clubsuggestaspatial hiding thecut,thencine- 4/1/2009 10:43:54 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 77 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM

However, through a through However, 5 (2001), which was made was Russian Ark (2001), which ), but they do so by retaining enough they do so by retaining enough ), but 6 ), has emphasized the relationship between continuity and and continuity between the relationship ), has emphasized Welles Scott McQuire asks why anyone would want to make a fi lm solely on a lm solely on to make a fi want would anyone Scott McQuire asks why of a traditional narrative for us to recognize how/why it is challenging it is challenging narrative for us to recognize how/why of a traditional using the Sony 24p high defi nition digital camera. nition 24p high defi using the Sony realism. Digital cameras can, of course, allow fi lmmakers to capture images allow fi can, of course, realism. Digital cameras as an analogue 35mm camera and the same resolution that possess nearly does provide arguably This reel. than the typical, 10-minute for longer ed by Alexander as exemplifi greater continuity, “greater” realism through lm, fi single-shot 96-minute, Sokurov’s towards a supercinema towards ) is new to cinema. thereof temporal continuity (or lack Neither spatial nor Welles Orson and of Jean Renoir lms Bazin, in his analysis of the fi André (Renoir; see Ndalianis,155–6). It would appear, therefore, that there really are no are no really that there therefore, appear, It would see Ndalianis,155–6). of cinema, the language to expand ability digital technology’s to obstacles also in but be depicted, can photorealistically what in terms of only not from removing the camera by for, things are depicted, these terms of how from us anything is free to show lmmaker the fi process, lmmaking the fi wants). as she as long for angle (and any cutting. In addition, in the same way that these fi lms can make us rethink that these fi in the same way cutting. In addition, or can dispense with the camera as we of characterization, the conventions object), so, recording a physical, longer it (it is no understand traditionally of frames and the notion enable us to rethink digital technology too, could lmmaking. fi lms and other aspect of fi any/every virtually framing, and twist endings, narratives (through traditional lms challenge of these fi Many is “false” inability to tell what our through chronologies, convoluted through the rise of the passive as well as more simply through is “real,” what from victim as opposed to the active hero computer. The question is an apt one, for there certainly remain limitations for there certainly remain limitations is an apt one, question The computer. However, with digital technology. be achieved cannot can and/or to what of the digital cinema is a hybrid If is also short-sighted. question McQuire’s combines the old similarly that a cyborg same way the new (in the old and lms All of the fi to be. so because it chooses only the new), it is, in part, and or spatial continuity, of posthumanist instances contain discussed may realistic and in a single, continuous which, of temporal continuity instances act in an impossible/“posthuman” see creatures like Nightcrawler shot, perhaps more instances, numerous, lms do also contain these fi But manner. cuts, etc. as editing with such lmmaking techniques, fi of traditional never lmmaker from a fi stopping theory there is nothing in However, hybridization of old techniques (continuity) and new techniques (digital new techniques and (continuity) of old techniques hybridization walls, digitized sets, passing through of images, manipulation creations, ed” realism that an “intensifi a “new” or (after Bordwell) etc.), we do reach might also be described as posthumanist. 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 779780415962612-Ch-03.indd 77 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 78

william brown 78 and brought theminto theopen/themainstream). simply digitaltechnology drewout cinema’s posthumanist characteristics way ofthinking applies not justtodigitalcinema,but toallcinema— on celluloid; b analogue cinema,where images areinfact supposed referents thatitdepicts(atendency thatdoes,ofcourse, existin humanist initstendency todemocratize/not todistinguishbetween the computer usedtocreateit,therefore,thedigitalimage is,once again, post- ing beyond itsimmediatecolorvalue. From theperspectiveof ahuman) ofallmean- ital image deprivesthatmatter(evenifitis“partof” fundamental, way, the“pixelization” ofallmatter inorder tocreateadig- or lesserprominence ormeaningthanany other. Inyetanother, but quite animal, aplanet—each issimplypixels,withno pixelhaving greater no “cut”atall).Forthecomputer, therefore,awall,human, sky, an is stillsimply(fixed) pixelschanging color(i.e.colors changing intime;thereis irrelevant. Evenwhen adigitalfi lm givestheappearance ofcutting,it ahuman, askywe seeitonscreen,orawallis,tothecomputer, “partof” sents acertaincolorinposition. Whether each pixelis,when digital image isrendered simplyasaseriesofpixels,each ofwhich repre- in thesameway thatacomputerdoes,theinformation thatcomprisesthe simply interesting when werecallManovich’s dictumthatthedigitalimage is who triestobeasuperhuman but who is,atthelast,alltoohuman. Superman, asuperhuman pretending tobehuman, asopposedtoBatman, so radicallynewastobeunrecognizable.Inthissense,digitalcinemais employs techniques such asthecutinorder tohideitspotential forbeing cinema, on theotherhand, isacinemathatneednot cutatall,and yetwhich temporal continuity, continuity editing,and, ofcourse, deepfocus).Digital through realisttechniques ofthesortpraisedbyBazin,including spatialand “human” artformthattriestohideitstechnical limitations (byhidingcuts As Batmanisahuman tryingtobeasuperhero, sotooisanaloguecinema a changed bytheadvent ofdigitaltechnology. ble tothecinemathatweknow today, which hasalreadybeensoprofoundly future mighthold a“cinema”sodifferent aseventually tobeunrecogniza- is. Butthisneednot beso,and, ifweareallowedbriefl y tospeculate,the many traditional techniques thatallowustorecognizethenewforwhat it that tradition. These fi lms involve newtechniques, but theyalsoretain considered aposthumanist cinema,especially becauseitinvolves humans Having looked atthevarious ways inwhich digitalcinemacanbe projecting acamera The notion ofdigitalcinemaasposthuman isrendered allthemore If wemightmakeananalogy, traditional analoguecinemaislikeBatman. colors changing intime( ut perhaps,assuggestedbelow, thedigital, posthumanist Language). Inotherwords, ifweconsider images simply gradesoflightand shade 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 79 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM con- the case, as Branigan so lucidly points out. Camera as a out. points the case, as Branigan so lucidly an identifi able center for as an identifi be analyzed not a camera should instead, but, of an Author) lm (the private instrument a fi in fact moves. Therefore, when, watching a fi discuss- lm (and a fi watching when, Therefore, nothing in fact moves. If, when discussing cinema, we in effect “project” a camera (we apply discussing cinema, we in effect “project” If, when How we ‘‘project’’ different meanings of the word camera can perhaps camera can perhaps meanings of the word different How we ‘‘project’’ Here, broadly speaking, Branigan explains how, when discussing the discussing when how, Branigan explains speaking, Here, broadly notion is therefore determined by how members of a community agree to agree members of a community is therefore determined by how notion a sees projecting reality (96). After Wittgenstein, Branigan physical confront 311) (“Death,” as Buckland or, camera as taking part in “language-games”; meta- literal and contradictory, “the multiple, out puts it, Branigan points As a result, lm theory.” in fi concepts meanings of fundamental phorical that Branigan argues our own interpretation of the word camera), this means that different camera), this means that different of the word own interpretation our def- ideas: my different “camera” to refer to quite people can use the word that might believe Discussants yours. from is different of camera inition this is in when discussing a “camera,” when nition of defi there is consensus being fact far from these phenomena. In other words, we bring our own interpretations own interpretations we bring our In other words, struct these phenomena. is the (which experience the literal cinema outside from of these concepts to describe that experience. in order of still images) viewing of a succession that view- we consider when most clearly can perhaps be understood This lm in order a fi etc, in watching errors, continuity ers are happy to overlook we literally analyze what (176); that is, we do not ction fi lm’s to follow a fi it is worth bearing in we see. In addition, what we interpret how see, but that we can world of the outside prior knowledge that it is through mind is in fact consti- a cinema screen, for this “human” on recognize a human colored celluloid. through tuted by light projected ing it), to talk of a ‘‘camera’’ (or even of ‘‘movement’’ or a ‘‘shot’’) is to or a ‘‘shot’’) (or even of ‘‘movement’’ ing it), to talk of a ‘‘camera’’ most easily be conceptualized by remembering that, when we watch a fi lm, a fi we watch that, when by remembering most easily be conceptualized in of still images a succession but see a moving image, literally we do not which “camera” in the context of fi lm, we often are talking at cross-purposes, are talking at cross-purposes, lm, we often fi of “camera” in the context In other contexts. things in different “camera” can mean different since lm or c fi of a specifi term “camera” in the discussion the use of the words, of the a shared understanding so much ects not lm in general refl of fi discussant’s each how more but xed notion, fi and camera asan absolute lm of a fi “camera” in the context a/the about thinking when works mind , 60). lm in general (Projecting or fi without movie cameras and movies without men (or, at the very least, very least, at the (or, men without movies and cameras movie without turn should we in the movies), position their privileged deprived of men highlights in Branigan lm theory Edward in fi to a problem attention our of understanding his whether a Camera, before seeing Projecting his book, our of the camera affect discussion in the involved problems various digital cinema. for a posthumanist argument 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 799780415962612-Ch-03.indd 79 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 80

william brown 80 perspective. forces ustorethinkour understanding ofcinemafrom aposthumanist of society. Digitalcinema,inwhich there literallyisno camera,similarly as not beingaphysical entity, reduceshumanism tobeingafabrication in which thereisno camera.For, Branigan,byconsidering thecamera construct reinforces our posthumanist understanding ofdigitalcinema, Again, Branigan’s argument thatthecameraisnot agivenbut alinguistic through language-games, heexposesthecameraasbeingnot a challenge it,suggestingnot ahumanist, but aposthumanist point ofview. allowing continuity not toreinforce thisanthropomorphization, but to to anthropomorphize thecamera,caninfactbeturnedagainst itself, can seehowcontinuity, atechnique thatsurelyinclines aviewernormally analysis ofthe“impossibleshots” from movements” (39)involve anon-anthropomorphic camera.Givenour tric angles,swishpans,impossiblecamerapositions .and impossible believe thatitprovides uswitha “human” point ofview, but that“eccen- phizes” acamera;thatis,weattribute human characteristics toacamera/ this chapter. Forexample,he feelsthatcontinuity editing“anthropomor- Branigan on occasion referstovarious oftheissuesthatwehave raisedin “In thepresent age,” says Branigan Branigan believesthat,bypointing out thatwe“project” acamera Eisenstein remainpertinent. Oneshould becautious about search foritsunique features,Ibelievethat thelessons of where each newform ofdigitalmediaprovo “human nature.” (88) system and not byanimmutable, a priori conception of count as“human” would bedefined through agivensocial of interpretation, and acceptedpractices. The qualities that according toprescribedconventions ofbehaviour, canons larger process whereby societyfabricatesmeaningforitself anthropomorphisms. “Humanism”isrelocatedwithina view. .Instead,fi lm isridofmisleadingand reductive an invisible observer. or elsetorelay no one’s point of fi lmic realityinorder toshow thechoices beingmadeby real, physical objectmoving around inaprofilmic orpost- language weusetoseeit.(Projecting,18) camera, wemust understand theformalorinformal place occupiedbythephysical camera.. To framea film. Acamerawillappearinmany places,not justinthe to placeit—aswediscussand appraiseour reactions toa watching afilm. Acameracomes into being—weareable as adispersedand depersonalized (impersonal) effectof War ofthe Worlds and FightClub,we kes afrantic 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 81 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM other are made, how are made, how interpretations and how how under descriptions and we “connect” and “go on.” A fi lm “text” then becomes a A fi “go on.” and we “connect” Once we reject the idea that “meanings” exist in the world, we reject the idea that “meanings” exist in the world, Once will texts, the focus of inquiry hidden inside objects and we see shift to the cognitive activities of a spectator: how objects theorists of “new media” conclude that essential qualities qualities that essential conclude theorists of “new media” new technologies because be photographic lm cannot of fi between a photo- tell the difference make it impossible to arguments a computer-generated picture. Such and graph the need for on because they are premised miss the point, based to attain certainty in his or her judgments a perceiver what at an image, looking . . . When acts of perceiving. on ? A connection to be certain of is supposed is it that one that the been arguing if it is to be true? I have to the world, the is not world to the of photography connection physical thus causal (and be may to the world issue. A connection ways even “causal”) in many truly representative, focusing too quickly on physical characteristics, technology, technology, characteristics, physical on too quickly focusing radial expense of at the of a medium operations typical and reality The to other “older” media. sorts of connections (118) new medium is relative. status of a be reduced cannot these other ways And than “physical.” (181–2) to the physical. Early in his book, Branigan writes: in his book, Early Branigan continues: Here Branigan reminds us that digital cinema, in spite of its non- Here Branigan reminds images contains and like a photograph nature, still looks photographic to etc. However, “walls,” “humans,” that we recognize as containing in changing is simply colors that the digital image after Manovich, remember, contents discernible has no a digital image that, to a computer, time, and Branigan: just because the with reality), is to concur (or even a physical it However, like reality. real, it still looks physically is not digital image of view) that point a posthumanist for us to remember (from is important urges that Branigan the same way in are a false construct, these images of reality relies upon his readers to remember that the recognition of reality to the expectations and the viewer bringing prior knowledge cinema-going experience. Branigan is correct to raise this issue, and it is for this reason that it this reason it is for this issue, and is correct to raise Branigan not as involving of digital technology the use to understand is important to understand but analogue cinema, older, from split or schism a complete of the analogue narrative to respect/obey the conventions that it continues need to). not it does (even though 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 819780415962612-Ch-03.indd 81 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 82

william brown 82 digital cinemaitself. (understanding ofour) understanding ofcinematoutcourt,and not just the posthumanist (ordigital)perspectivemight,afterBranigan,enrich our cinema asaliteralphenomenon itselfmeansthatviewingallcinemafrom pensed. The potential similarities betweenBranigan’s thesisand digital which cameras,characters and traditional editingtechniques canbedis- very nature—and perhapsmoretangiblyowingtotheliteralmannerwith rigorous and timely, digitalcinemaraisesthesamequestions through its it isforthischapter), wemightargue that,whilst Branigan’s thesisisboth cepts involves “language-games” (somethingthatisastrueforBranigan its form,wecanreadilygrasptheposthumanist perspectiveon film. humanity’s central placeisdownplayed, and byrefl ecting thiscontent in used tocreateit.For, bydepicting the end ofhumanity, orworlds inwhich which digitalcinemaoftendoes,initscontent, reflect thelogicoftools humanist perspectiveisalsomade morereadilygraspablebytheways in camera), wecanarriveataposthumanist perspectiveon cinema. This post- graspable when welook atfi lms thathave beenconstructed without a is: byrealizingthatwe“project” a camera(aconcept thatismorereadily cinema ofdigitaltechnology, canleadustodraw similarconclusions. That pearance ofthecamerathatpotentially comesthrough theadoption by have traditionally understood films, itwould appearthattheliteraldisap- inherent toit. are termsand interpretations thatwebringtothefilm, but which arenot man characters and “impossible”perspectives/cameramovements), these it. But,infact,and on account ofitsveryimmateriality(aswellasinhu- may usetraditional words like“camera”or“shot” or“meaning”todescribe the sameconclusion: adigitalfilm mightlook likea“normal” fi lm, and we nature ofdigitalcinema,inwhich thereisno camera,wearemadetoreach part and not inherent tothefi lmitself.Byunderstanding theimmaterial ever “meaning”weattribute toafi lmisaninterpretation on theviewer’s In otherwords, Braniganiscorrecttoremind thefi lm viewerthatwhat- Onemightalsoaddthat contemporary Hollywoodseesa“crisisofaction.” 1 notes fi nd themselvespassivelythevictimsofacertainsituation, towhich they Buckland (271),afterDeleuze,have pointed out, involve characters who goal. Rather, many contemporary Hollywood fi lms, asElsaesserand certain tasks/roles—overcoming adversityinorder toreach hisorherfinal much feature narrativesinwhich ahuman character chooses toundertake In contrast totheclassical Hollywood narrative,many films now donot so All thewhile respectingthelikelihood thatalluseoftermsand con- Whilst Braniganperceptively raisesissuesabout theways inwhich we and knowledge have abasisinthebody. (21) (loose) collection ofdescriptions ofanartifact.meaning 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 83 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM edition. edition. th . Trans. Hugh Gray. Berkeley: University of Berkeley: Hugh Gray. Trans. II. Vol. is Cinema? What . Trans. W.W. Halsey II and William H. Simon. London: WH London: William H. Simon. II and Halsey W.W. Trans. Jean Renoir. . Trans. Jonathan Rosenbaum. London: Elm Rosenbaum. London: Jonathan Trans. . View A Critical Welles: Orson Allen, 1974. 1978. Books, Tree 1:2 (Summer 1977): 19–25. and Politics Journal of Film, Communication, Culture 55:3 (Spring 2002): 16–28. Film Quarterly Eds. Gerald Mast, Marshall Cohen, Leo Braudy. Oxford: OUP, 2001. 260–62. OUP, Oxford: Eds. Gerald Mast, Marshall Cohen, Leo Braudy. California Press, 1967. California Press, 1971. must respond. This subtle, but noticeable reversal undermines the human- undermines reversal noticeable but subtle, This respond. must causal being from humans reduces because it cinema, of ist conception of that was not trapped in a scenario characters to mere reagents, agents as viewing humans is a shift from there making. In other words, their own of consider- as victims to seeing humans motivators in stories, the primary struggle. Cubitt subsequently we must which against forces ably greater problem-solving.” describes this as “heroic (251) similarly the of to the manipulation thanks positions camera can occupy impossible position). so that the camera can occupy a certain set (removing walls but new, practices are brand that such so much is not however, point, The adds and out draws in turn which commonplace, that they are increasingly to cinema, an approach for the posthumanist to the potential emphasis view of cinema/ our instruct and/or itself might enhance that approach for critical debate. open up new avenues (Hugo Smith of Agent incarnations ghts many fi Reeves) Neo (Keanu which Future”) explains, the use of Universal (“Image As Manovich Weaving). set (space) and (temporal duration) scene the entire Capture here enables perspective us any enabling the “camera” to show thus to be digitized in 3D, it chooses. that to say here is not intention The credibility. from term here, is different for a claims even to make any credit the Cocteau effect, nor we do not used as she might be to “seam- spectator who, “cine-literate” contemporary more. credit the Cocteau scene any less” digital special effects, does not or the Singer the Cocteau nd/found or in the past fi now audiences Whether does not that the Singer teleportation or not, to be credible teleportations ), a greater himself (against a single cut suggests, if we use Bazin contain of cuts. level of realism by virtue of its continuity/lack DV. on (2000), shot movie, TimeCode ——. A Ciné-Tracts: Cinematic Space.” and “Camera Movement David. Bordwell, American Film.” Style in Contemporary Visual ed Continuity: ——. “Intensifi works cited works Readings, 4 and Criticism: Introductory Theory Film Close Up.” Balázs, Béla. “The Trans. Hugh Gray. Berkeley: University of Berkeley: Hugh Gray. Trans. is Cinema? What Bazin, André. ——. ——. 2 the which in ways ) also discusses Comprehension (Narrative Branigan Edward 3 , in in Matrix: Reloaded Brawl think of the so-called Burly One might also 4 that realism, as I employ the here to emphasize Perhaps it is appropriate 5 real time split screen might also be made of Mike Figgis’ 96-minute Mention 6 1. See endnote 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 839780415962612-Ch-03.indd 83 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 84

william brown 84 Pisters, Patricia. The Matrixof Visual Culture: Working withDeleuze inFilm Theory . Miller, Toby, and RobertStam(eds.). ACompaniontoFilm Theory. Malden,MA: Mast, Gerald,MarshallCohen,and LeoBraudy(eds.).Film Theory andCriticism: —— “Image Future.” Animation:AnInterdisciplinaryJournal 1:1(2006):25–44. Manovich, Lev. The Language ofNew Media.Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2001. McQuire, Scott.“DigitalDialectics:theParadox ofCinemainaStudioWithout McLuhan, Marshall.Understanding Media: The ExtensionsofMan.London: Routledge, Lewis, Jon (ed.). The EndofCinema as We Know It:AmericanFilmintheNineties,London: Kittler, Friedrich. GramophoneFilm Typewriter. Trans. GeoffreyWinthrop-Young Johnston, John.“Machinic Vision.” CriticalInquiry26:1(Autumn, 1999):27–48. Jenkins, Henry. “The Work of Theory intheAgeofDigital Transformation.” Hayles, N.Katherine.How We BecamePosthuman: Virtual BodiesinCybernetics, Literature Haraway, Donna J.Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The ReinventionofNature. New York: Hansen, Mark B.N.“CinemaBeyond Cybernetics,orHowtoFrametheDigital Elsaesser, Thomas, and Warren Buckland. Studying ContemporaryAmericanFilm:A Plateaux. —— .AThousand Trans. BrianMassumi.London: Continuum, 2004. Deleuze, Gilles,and FélixGuattari. Anti-Oedipus:CapitalismandSchizophrenia De Landa, Manuel. War intheAge ofIntelligent Machines. New York: Zone Cubitt, Sean(1999).“Phalke,Mélièsand SpecialEffects Today.” Wide Angle21.1 ——. “The DeathoftheCamera:AReviewand Rational Reconstruction Buckland, Warren. Directed by Steven Spielberg: Poetics oftheContemporaryHollywood ——. Branigan, Edward. Narrative Comprehension andFilm.London: Routledge, 1992. Stanford: Stanford University Press,2003. Blackwell, 1999. Introductory Readings , 4thedition. Oxford: OUP, 2001. Walls.” HistoricalJournalofFilm,Radioand Television 19:3(1999):379–97. 2001. Pluto Press,2001. and Michael Wutz. Stanford: Stanford UniversityPress,1999. Blackwell, 1999.234–61. A CompaniontoFilm Theory. Eds. Toby Millerand RobertStam.Malden,MA: and Informa Routledge, 1991. Image.” Conﬁ 10(2002):51–90. gurations Guide toMovieAnalysis. London: Arnold, 2002. Press, 1983. Trans. RobertHurley, Mark Seemand HelenR.Lane.London: Athlone Books, 1991. v021/21.1cubitt.html. (1999): 115-130.Alsoavailable athttp://muse.jhu.edu/demo/wide_angle/ Review ofFilmand Television Studies4:3(December2006):311–30. of Edward Branigan’s Projecting aCamera:Languages-Games inFilm Theory Blockbuster. New York/London: Continuum, 2006. 2006. Projecting aCamera:Languages-Games inFilm Theory. New York: Routledge, tics. Chicago: UniversityofChicago Press,1999. .” .” New . 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM towards a posthumanist cinema? 85 4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM4/1/2009 10:43:55 AM . Trans. Julie Rose. Bloomington: Indiana University Indiana Rose. Bloomington: Julie Trans. . Machine Vision The 49:3 (1996): 27–37. 49:3 (1996): Film Quarterly Theory.” 24–33. , 57:3 (2004): Film Quarterly Era.” the Digital 553–84. 9:2 (2007): Janus Head Models.” and Metaphors, Identities, 1989. Verso, London: Press, 1994. Prince, Stephen. “True Lies: Perceptual Realism, Digital Images, and Film and Images, Digital Realism, Perceptual Lies: “True Stephen. Prince, in Cinematography Cinema and of Filmic Artifacts: Emergence ——. “The Cyborgs: Naturally Embodied Engström. “On Timothy and Evan Selinger, Camiller. Patrick Trans. . of Perception Logistics The Cinema: and War Paul. Virilio, ——. 2002. Century, . London: Kevin. I, Cyborg Warwick, 9780415962612-Ch-03.indd 859780415962612-Ch-03.indd 85 movie-games and game-movies

four towards an

aesthetics of

transmediality

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska

Gilles Deleuze argues that the power of fi lm lies in the close alliance between the cinematic process and perceptual thought; fi lm not only “puts movement in the image, it also puts movement in the mind” (366). In conjunction with the cinematic apparatus, which is as much perceptual as material, audio and visual vocabularies working in the service of fi lm,1 become a potent and fl exible palette capable of generating a vast array of meanings and emotions. Like fi lm, digital games are screen-based, and as such utilize many cinematic features, providing thereby one of the more basic and formal reasons for the increasing numbers of movie-game tie-ins. Digital games often employ aspects of cinema to make more meaningful and lend resonance to the activities undertaken by players in a game, yet what defi nes games generally, distinguishing them from other media, is that a game has to be played. This necessarily involves the player in making choices that affect in some way the state of the game and that the game responds to those choices. Many movie tie-in games highlight the participatory nature of games in their advertising: “Live the Movie: Be the Hero”

9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 86 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 87 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM The Lord of the Rings Online. The , 2003, EA Games/New Line Cinema); Cinema); Line EA Games/New , 2003, Lord of The Rings: The Return of the King Return The Rings: The Lord of

Games are not afforded the spatial and temporal fl exibilities of fi lm exibilities of fi temporal fl the spatial and afforded Games are not (The Online , of the Rings Lord (The to Middle-Earth” move and bags your “Pack as with title in a game’s sentiments or even herald these 2007); Turbine, what Zion, war to save the slogan “In the up with x, backed Enter the Matri an entirely but is a major claim, This Shiny/Atari). (2003, play?” part will you in other media, Unlike any rhetoric. marketing simply It is not valid one. then respond and read, predict must digital games, players play to order arise that certain preset parameters, to situations or within correctly, is necessary This eld. fi in the auditory screen and on moment-by-moment to retain in other words, prevail—or, and prosper is to progress, if a player spaces of programmed within the tightly controlled, a sense of agency (1986, as Tetris games such relatively simple casual games. It is the case with mas- time-consuming as well as highly complex and Spectrum Holobyte) games like role-playing online sively multiplayer however. This apparent loss is the price to pay for player agency, a sense of agency, for player is the price to pay loss apparent This however. a to offer Movies tend cybernetic circuit. the in a game space and presence space, sometimes a diegetic into points entry diverse range of visual at others and in the case of the shot-reverse-shot, to character anchored a host plus the establishing shot, completely disembodied as in the case of lms are then composed of a mosaic of of perspectives in between. Most fi to create to established convention according ordered shots differential an important types plays of shot rhythm This some sense of continuity. the type lm. In this equation by fi produced experience in the aesthetic role time—a together can signal the passing of of edits used to join shots In many for example. to black, temporal ellipse might be signaled by a fade a across world games that take place in a realized person third rst and fi framing are anchored and types, point-of-view game range of platforms and is especially This controls. the player whom to the character directly to a fran- is central a given character games, where lm tie-in fi in common Batman, (Spiderman, even in some cases embodies the brand chise—or by the camera is therefore controlled The etc.). Superman, James Bond case in so called “god” and the a feature that is also increasingly player, Middle-Earth for Rings: Battle for Lord of the The Sims and games (The strategy games do however cut scenes within individual example). Non-interactive editing, generally in the service of of view and points often utilize multiple in all games, and found Cut scenes are not establishing place or situation. in length, acting as a few minutes are rarely more than present where with the fact that In conjunction for gameplay. context support to and by games of view offered games take place in real-time, the point many to that rather differently time in games are organized means that space and is that in a game context difference in cinema. A further notable found The player’s relation to the game-screen can therefore be said to be dialogic to the game-screen can therefore relation player’s The cybernetic. and 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 879780415962612-Ch-04.indd 87 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 88

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 88 Dominant paradigms oftasteaffectpatternsconsumption and therebythe concepts canonly operatethrough hierarchy, indeed theyareproduced byit. and consumption arerelatedtoidentity, powerand socialposition. Such These values aretheproduct ofintricate socialinteractions, wherein taste rhetorics, oftencentered insomeway on thenotion offi delity orquality. becoming evermoreintensively transmedial. to games,particularly inthebroader context ofacultureindustry thatis become apparent when addressingadaptations ofgamestofilms and fi lms gent features.Aheightenedawareness oftheseand theirimplications game. Invarious spheres gamesand movieshave bothsharedand diver- excessive and meaningfulinaccordance withtheimaginative world ofthe into thevirtual, where those realmovements canbemademoreelaborate, precise, controlled physical movements thatextend out from thephysical movement inthemind, likefilm, but theyalso demand from players often potent, ways tofilm. tell storiesand provide experiences inratherdifferent, yetstillequally lished forusinanother media. These factorsmeanthatgamesdoinfact point ofview, and tobeableexploreatwill aworld thathasbeenestab- embodied and therebylimityour perspectivelargely toyour character’s up arms,tolearnbeskillful,makecontext sensitivechoices, become sive audio-visual vocabularies ofHollywoodfilm. It isquite another totake against theodds,our passage easedbythefamiliarand effectivelyexpres- group ofendearing and falliblecharacters astheystruggleheroically the gameworld. Itisone thingtobecaughtupwiththetrialsofasmall skills and knowledge ofrulesand physics necessarytoacteffectivelywithin games liesintheprogressive development, practiceand masteryofthe trast, thepleasure(and sometimesalmostunbearableunpleasure) of his admittedlyredemptivedeathinThe Fellowship oftheRing(2001).Bycon- Boromir, should wewish,ashefights ahorde ofblood-thirstyUruk-haito are forced tolook on. Asisthecasewithnovel, wearepowerless toaid do nothing toalter. Despiteany desiresorurges wemay have todoso,we dramatic journey thatagivenfi lm orchestrates, which thespectatorcan sumed asentertainment canbesaidtolieinaluxurious submission tothe response toplayers’ actions and choices. In different ways and todifferent degrees gamesoffervarious outcomes in capital from thisdifference, establishingthedistinction oftheirmedium. control verytightlytheminutiae ofaplayer’s gamingsession. Gamesmake tightly theviewer’s aestheticexperience, itisbycontrast much lesseasyto While Hitchcock, forexample, celebratestheway hecancontrol very (even ifvarious cuesand encouragement isgivenforwiderexploration). what isseenand heard on screenisdependent on what theplayer does Movie-game ties-insareoftendiscussedgenerallyusingcertain persistent To adaptDeleuze’s point, digitalgamesputmovement intheimage, The pleasuresofwatching mostfiction-based fi lms designedtobecon- 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 89 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM Raiders of Raiders tie-in game on the Atari 2600 in 1982 being a good candidate for the Atari 2600 in 1982 being a good candidate the Lost Ark tie-in game on and between games relationship The tie-in. direct movie-game the earliest suc- commercial exceptional with many ever since, movies has broadened advertising to and marketing development, lm’s a fi cesses piggybacking with less of the cost and licensees ts for publishers and profi big produce of an original title. Movie inspired associated with the release risk usually dedicated gaming audi- amongst low reputation a fairly videogames have greater mass appeal, their cantly signifi alongside this is balanced but ences, generated by the movie boosting or nostalgia to the hype connection a few critical as well been quite have There diversifying audiences. sales and 1997), 007 (Rare, Nintendo, Goldeneye successes, however. as commercial one lm, is generally considered two years after the fi cantly released signifi the more recently and 64 console the Nintendo of the very best games on game received excellent Universal, 2005) tie-in (Peter Jackson, King Kong himself, as by Jackson monitored was closely its development reviews and later exceptions are as we show These reports (250–3). Thompson Kristin fail- been disastrous some movie tie-ins have by contrast to the rule, and went (Atari, 1982), which The Extra-Terrestrial more so than E.T. ures, none the publishers assumed the bankrupting Atari when towards some way classic. meet with the same popularity as Spielberg’s game release would game-inspired and occurred in both directions, have misconceptions Market movie-game growing pains: from commercialism to commercialism pains: from growing movie-game convergence as videogames them- existed almost as long movie tie-ins have Videogame was of the two markets potential commercial and crossover The selves. the of games machines, generation during the second seized upon economics of the contemporary entertainment industry—including the industry—including entertainment the contemporary of economics the interface more fundamentally even and to innovate, therein capacity the block, As the new kid on psychology. and experience between aesthetics, within are considered tie-ins, “second-hand” just not and games generally, replicatory. and uncomplicated they are always low-status, as if some circles been much has Grusin) which and (Bolter of “remediation” Even the concept replication to underline tends Game Studies contemporary used within up to do in terms some growing might have Games rather than innovation. the highly complex progeny nonetheless yet they are content, and of market Even in their rawest, computing technologies. and of state-of-the-art screen in ways players form digital games are engaging simplest or most exploitative games are lead- increasingly is offered by cinema. While what that go beyond of World Halo or Blizzard’s Bungee’s and (Microsoft le franchises ing high profi the stigma of the often still suffers from for example), the medium Warcraft and to game format is artistically the adaptation movie tie-in, even where neatly achieved. 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 899780415962612-Ch-04.indd 89 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 90

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 90 world inthiscasetheskinofasuperhero. the brand and theenthusiasm ofthatplayers have toinhabitafi ctional in theUSdespitereceivingmediocre reviews,demonstrating the powerof movie-game tie-inforthePlaystation 2forexample sold1.12million copies well, becauseofbrand recognition. Spider-Man2 (Activision, 2004)theoffi cial associated withlarge well-establishedfranchises stillsell,and sellextremely even inthecaseofmajorstudioslikeDisney. Itshould benoted thatgames to poorly realized gamesthatleanforsaleson enthusiasm forthefranchise, Nonetheless short lead-intimesand alack ofsufficient investment canlead tive potentials. This ismorecommonly known asmedia convergence. spread therisksofinnovation, and acreative desiretomaximizetheirrespec- of commercial interests’ desirestoexploitthepotential offranchises and will bedirectlyinterrelated. Thus, narrativeuniversesareforming asaresult simultaneous gameand animatedfilm release,where thetwodistinct works the cuttingedgegamedesignstudioOddworld Inhabitants and metwithpraiseforplaying tothestrengthsofbothmediums.Presently, game: vice-versa. The prequel tothePitch Black seriesoffi lms wasdevelopedasa made completesenseiftheviewerhadcompletedvideogame,and movie and theEnterMatrixgame,where somescenesinthefi lm only the crossover betweentheMatrix:Reloaded (Wachowski Bros./Warner, 2003) even including somegamesintheirscreennarratives,aswasattempted uted toproblems criticsand gamershadwithmovietie-ins.Filmwritersare opment process isalleviating someoftheproblems thatpreviously contrib- between film creativesand gamedesignteamsearlier on inthemoviedevel- examples. AsoccurredwiththeKingKong game,planningcommunication 2001) and The MatrixOnline (Monolith/EON/Warner/Sega, 2005)provide two the movieorreplicategame-friendly scenes.StarWars:Starfi ghter games which fallunder theumbrellaoflicensebut donot directlymimic compromises areemerging. Chiefamongst thesearediversifi ed spinoff movie licensewhich may have beenexpensiveinand ofitself.However, the stakesaresohighthatfewcompaniesreallywillingtogambleon a into gamesdoesexist,but inahit-drivenbusiness likethegamesindustry “Final Fantasy” moniker and branding issufficient toguarantee ahit. eventually forcing amerger withrivalsEnix.Invideogamespheres the Columbia Pictures,2001)and itcompletelyfailedtodraw inaudiences, they releasedthemovieFinalFantasy: The Spirits Within (Hironobu Sakaguchi, videogame publisherSquaresoft lostanestimatedUS$120million Bros. (Rocky Morton, HollywoodPictures,1983)attests.MajorJapanese movie basedon thatmostlucrative and iconic ofgamefranchises, SuperMario gaming brands toanentirely different audience, asthecriticalfailure ofthe movies runthesameriskwhen attemptingtosellcommercially solid The crossover potential forexciting,innovative adaptations ofmovies The Chronicles ofRiddick: Escapefrom Butcher Bay(StarbreezeStudios,2004), 3 isworking on a (Lucasarts, (Lucasarts, 2 when 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 91 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM World World Franchising and convergence therefore play important roles in game- roles important play therefore convergence and Franchising movie and movie-game adaptations. Henry Jenkins claims that we are now are now that we claims Jenkins Henry adaptations. movie-game and movie a shift that this represents notes He culture.” a “convergence living within inter- “controlling having conglomerates with media in media ownership, the way is changing which industry,” entertainment the entire ests across the levels of technology, occurs at Convergence (16). media is consumed cultural certain which within a context providing commerce, and content has been celebrated digital age The emerged. practices have industrial and participatory media that empow- exible and more fl for its capacity to offer analysis of such critical al. for rigorous (see Kline et ers the consumer as central the “franchise” has placed of convergence rhetorics), yet the rise conglomer- entertainment media and many of strategies to the marketing as many Targeting often an active facet of this strategy. ates. Risk splitting is (IP) allows Property Intellectual as possible with the same markets different it also can be used to and hits with less risk attached more opportunity for of movie-game is often just a single strand The visibility. a brand’s maintain in where industry, In a risk-averse approach. marketing this scattergun since and a game title was $15 million producing cost of 2004 the average 226), mainstream popular cul- (Thompson, grown then has undoubtedly manifests as This the domain of the cult. was once features what ture now are often aggres- that span a variety of media, and worlds ctional fi coherent Resident Evil (Capcom, 1996) fran- The further media. across sively marketed for example exists in dozens of games spanning several genres on chise literary works series of movies, ongoing an expanding platforms, multiple a comic Perry, by S. D. novels in Japanese as well as seven English-language published by Wildstorm. novels graphic several standalone and series book storylines portrayed and of the worlds infrastructure diegetic the However, or whole, a coherent add up into in these disparate media are designed to some are designed to maintain They another. one contradict at least not akin to the more macro-story yet unending form of driven, expanding strictly literary equivalent. format of a soap-opera than a more directed, activity, a marginal longer is no adaptation context Within this broad III Warcraft The in popular culture. instead it has become a major trend the has evolved, into game is adapted, indeed 2002) strategy (Blizzard, (Blizzard, 2005) massively multiplayer role-playing game, utiliz- role-playing 2005) massively multiplayer (Blizzard, of Warcraft class. several forms of character and vocabulary ing the same geography, time of writing the most subscribed to popularity (at new game’s This Card Trading the Warcraft game there has been) inspires online multiplayer into pieces feed back playing Some of this latest incarnation’s Game spinoff. in the online characters allowing upgrades to players’ product, the parent also been pub- manga-styled comics have game. Novels and role-playing explain the and races tell stories of the various ll in back-story, lished that fi state of affairs in the lead up to the current complex histories that have 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 919780415962612-Ch-04.indd 91 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 92

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 92 medium. videogames which pay lipservicetoboththeinspiration and thenew allows them. They canstillbreakevenormakeprofi t on fi lm-inspired benefi ts tothecreators, who canreston thelaurelsthatconvergence generation ofgroup fantasy hasthepotential tobringimmensefi nancial their ownmaterialand expressthemselvesthrough agivenfranchise. This ized online forums,wikisand websitesenablesawhole rangeoffanstoadd tive theyfeelapersonal investment inand duty towards. The useoforgan- fi nd creatorsvyingwithfansand players, alleager tocontinue thenarra- such astheWorld of Warcraft universeortheEveOnline(CPC,2003)galaxycan is gearedbyelaboration, proliferation and participation. Evolvingworlds Following thepathforged bymyth and fan-fiction, adaptation inthiscase cation thatgamesareattaininggreatercommercial authority and status. important factorhereisthatagameprovides the“parent” text—anindi- ues theexploitation ofthesingle,yetinherently malleablepieceofIP. An alliance pushesthefranchise across yetanother mediafrontier and contin- movie intheepicmould oftheRingstrilogy. This commercial/creative game world. The whole edifi ce iscurrently beingadaptedinto afantasy simultaneously. Allthree media have thepotential toretainthematic position ratherthanthewrittenword, which ironically may dogthefilm Often inreviewsofmovie-game tie-insitisfi lm thatholds thevalorized positioned asanaestheticbenchmark against which gamesaremeasured. ical reception and reviews.Cinemarather than thenovel istherefore game-making tools. The audio-visual isalsowhat ismostrewarded bycrit- terms ofdevelopment teams’focusand technological development of text, but itislargely audioand graphical realization thatisemphasized in dialogue translation. Many gamesdoinclude large amounts ofwritten sumed worldwide words becomeameansofdealingeconomically with tional text.InthecaseofJapaneserole-playing gamesdesignedtobecon- placed ofteninneo-medievalizedworlds intheformoffl owing instruc- regarded asexpressively and aestheticallynarrow, anantique curiositybest of newmedia,thewrittenword iseitherdeified, asignifi er ofauthority, or digital game.Itwould seemmore generallythatwithinthefrontier-world for hostility towards fi lmadaptations ofnovels islargely eschewed bythe the writtenword aboveallothermediacitedbyRobertStamasareason adaptations ofnovels orstoriesareregarded asinferior. The valorization of concern tomany recent theoriesofadaptation istheway inwhich fi lm analyses ofliterature-to-fi lm offeringscompletelyirrelevant. Ofcentral This isnot toimplythatgamesrender many oftheissuesraisedinprevious new, supposedlyflatter intermsofaccess,multi-dimensional mediascape. Theories ofadaptation have thentoberevisedfi t thecontours ofthis reading, watching, playing games—pastword: fi delio 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 93 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM them. Using a fi ctional ctional be them. Using a fi want to do is waste time and energy energy to do is waste time and don’t want thing you one The is with the game design. . . nobody trying to get creative the game for a Big Bob Broadshoulders going to purchase it solely itself; they are buying creativity of the game make to give them you exertions Any because of the brand. they creativity, want creative design are wasted; they don’t Big Bob. (172) want Stam argues that the specifi c attributes of cinematic form lend new of cinematic form lend c attributes that the specifi Stam argues action star “Big Bob Broadshoulders,” Crawford warns: Crawford star “Big Bob Broadshoulders,” action dimensions to the adaptation of a story or novel into fi lm that alter fi into of a story or novel to the adaptation dimensions also rings true for of it (something we claim experience our substantially to adapta- that in spite of this there is still a resistance games). He notes His diagnosis surfacing in loaded rhetorical terms like “parasitism.” tions, lm realizes fi to these two media lies in the way in relation resistance of such occurs within the reading, when terms what, in audio-visual concretely between delivery of differences modal The of the reader. imagination of the both the disregard to much via screen or text contribute content lm It is assumed that fi word. of the written the valorization new and their to overwhelm allow the cinematic experience viewers are passive and Thus, turning away from the fi lm in an attempt to create a different lm in an attempt to create a different fi the from away turning Thus, pitfalls for the to this model, pose just as many can, according experience distinction fundamental The medium. the parent designer as parroting of game the active engagement lm viewing and between the passivity of fi this Yet seems therefore to be something of a barrier to adaptation. playing are, as there fantasy, of spectatorship and view elides the complex processes a text. into points entry multiple is advocated by cine-psychoanalysis, in digi- character/star to see the the player tie-in games do allow Many as is also the case in absolute, their status as object is not talized form, but based- also form often a fantasy games we lms and lm. Instead in both fi fi games with an appealing character; just empathy, not and cation, identifi the character, because we act through cation greater identifi encourage status. inevitably retains some representational even as that character cohesion, and elements of themes or meanings inherent in the original original in the inherent meanings themes or of elements and cohesion, The adaptations. in their angles different from are, presented and text can, their about something new communicate are able to best movie-games of the events than simply parroting level, rather a thematic texts on parent that replicate scenes games even though below, lm, as we suggest the fi designer games maverick When very popular. undeniably lm are a fi from tie-in at any lm the fi recruits to avoid new design councils Chris Crawford movies, the goals of games and between clash an unfortunate cost, he notes it the visual, to privilege movies tend Since “star vehicles.” particularly take greatest pleasure in seeing case that audiences might appear to be the to stars) rather than wanting (and characters 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 939780415962612-Ch-04.indd 93 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 94

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 94 music, actorvoicesetc). fi lms (props, digitalassetssuch asmotion-captures, modelsand textures, Rings Onlinecould not draw obviously on theIPoron theassetsof the games toJackson and NewLine Cinema’s Trilogy, Turbine’s The Lord ofthe Microsoft’s franchise games(The ReturnoftheKing,2003;The Two Towers, 2002)and mind ofmany what characters and placeslook and sound like.UnlikeEA’s fi lmshave beenwatched, and watched recently, bymillions, fi xinginthe Jackson’s fi lmtrilogy. Asasetofblockbuster “event” movies,the“Rings” novels but also hasno choice but to adapt,atleastone remove,Peter evident inThe more complexwithinthecontext ofconvergence culturehowever, asis of and assessed byconsumers and critics. This question offidelity becomes fidelity totheoriginary product isusually highon theagenda when spoken modes isintrinsic toplaying contemporary digitalgames. cinemas). Cinemaisclearly aspiredtointheseways, yetstraddlingmultiple leading torepetition and stasiswhich mightbeassociatedwithanti-illusionist moving movement found inmainstreamaction movies(failure and death actions toproduce thetypeoffl uid, seemingly effortlessand forward- for example,theplayer isencouraged tochain togethertheircharacter’s often thecasethatinsomegames,“Prince ofPersia”series(Ubisoft1989–) and viewinrelaxed,passivecomforttheoutcome oftheirefforts.Itisalso sive, highlycinematicand spectacularmovie,allowingtheplayers tositback sense of“being”inthegameworld. Yet gamesdotend toclimax withapas- erate engagement atthelevelofimaginary, necessarytoaccruesome patterns alongside repeatedefforts atsuspension ofdisbeliefinorder togen- game requires constant inputswhich demand aknowledge ofitsrulesand cally dialogicthanthereader’s relationship withtheliterarytextorafi lm. A therefore thatagameplayer’s relationship toagameisevenmoreintrinsi- through agameand achieve asatisfyingsenseofagency. We would argue enigmatic audioand visual cuesextremelyattentively iftheyaretoprogress cinema, photography). Players arealsorequired to“read”embeddedand elements derivedfrom other media(various typesoftelevision, CCTV, within agameitself,which areco-present alongside awhole rangeof forums duringplay. Text-based objectsand interfaces arefound regularly Google isjustacouple ofclicks away, and oftenplayers consult manuals or than inthecaseofmovietie-in.Boundaries arethin,particularly when games and, asCrawford’s dilemmaillustrates, nevermoreinthespotlight viewer. This discomfortissymptomaticofthehybrid natureofdigital space betweentheconfident literaryreaderand theaffect-seekingcinema relationship withthetext.Gameplayers straddle,ratheruneasily, the reader must utilizeimagination inanactive,enliveningand highlyindividual receptive faculties,ratherliketakingawarmbathon acoldday, while the In thecaseofany adaptation, including where gamesareintheequation, The Battlefor MiddleEarthI&II

Lord oftheRingsOnline. This gameadaptsnot only Tolkien’s 4 Cuesarethough taken intermsofthegame’s (2004,2006),theofﬁ cial tie-in 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 95 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM Lord of

. Judgements about ﬁ delity and indeed indeed delity and ﬁ about the Rings. Judgements Lord of The found themselves having to cater directly to cater themselves having Rings Online found The Lord of

Both Stam and Julie Sanders note the way that critical perspectives the way note Sanders Julie Both Stam and informed by structuralism and semiotics have shaped academic analyses of shaped academic semiotics have informed by structuralism and of notions cultural artefacts as “texts,” on With an emphasis adaptation. Reader-reception originality become problematized. and authorship situa- and interpretational of different the notion with it theory brought meaning: Lara textual frames that further destabilized surety about tional colonialist, for example has been read separately as aristocratic white Croft tailored to suit the tastes of a heroine cyber-bimbo or empowering action that such of authority With the dislocation post-feminist generation. iconography, characterization, landscapes and musical modes, closely closely modes, musical and landscapes characterization, iconography, as close so not lms yet fi of Jackson’s the experience jar with to not enough game of the dimensions fact that the audio-visual The a lawsuit. to incur Baski’s lms than Ralph fi realized in Jackson’s has been what resemble more suggests with live action, animation mixed analogue lm of 1978, which fi is what on delity rests themselves fans, fi class not would who that for those it might be said While imagination. in the popular foremost freshest and Lord of the Rings in The strongly lms feature fi Jackson’s and that the novel more general fantasy-based eld, on further afi from Online, it also draws board a range of media, including from uences artistic/design infl texts and as well as other gaming genres. systems table-top role-playing games and or to the novel game not this online will primarily compare players Many previ- played games they have instead to other online lms but even the fi core gameplay The with generic similarities. cally those specifi ously, evolu- and are adaptations game interface, the used, alongside mechanic game table-top role-playing from of a genre originally adapted tions within the multiplayer established commercially , and and Dragons Dungeons tweak- and reiteration (SoE, 1999–), the constant by Everquest sphere online in the risk- practice standard ing of a few core “genre” game models being is how in-game “chat” in conversation A regular games industry. averse for and , for instance, Warcraft of World the game compares to Blizzard’s other of this and as an adaptation this game will be regarded these players of these texts are themselves many of course games—but online “fantasy” adaptations ways in many to and indebted fashion, in a circular in fact, and of Tolkien’s in turn reintroduces become a form of cultural capital that innovation democratic domain of and the supposedly liberated into back hierarchy the devel- Estate, Tolkien the the licenses from new media. After acquiring opers of The a and dedicated MMORPG genre gamers fans of the books, for zealous the IP of The more about knew no who of moviegoers mass-market adaptive grand The lm trilogy. fi the Rings than was expressed in Jackson’s craft an enjoyable gaming and a world build was to tell a story, challenge of these disparate new out all added up to something which experience adaptive materials. 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 959780415962612-Ch-04.indd 95 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 96

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 96 said earlier, morepervasivelydialogic. because gamescanbeplayed inarangeofdifferent ways, theyare,aswehave and thepanoply offactorsthatgovernour interpretational frames, but Films and TV serialsarealsoconsumed differently according tohardware we experience ofthe“text”orindeed the characteristics oftheadaptation. ent experiences ofplaying thesame game,alteringtherebytheproperties and meander around makingpotions. Alltheseexamplesmakefordiffer- game while you raidhighleveldungeons and Ijustchat withmy mates might have characters ofentirely thesameclass, raceand faction inthat an Orc Warlock and ImightinhabitaNightElfDruidin 14 inch TV or a widescreenplasmamonster. You mightplay intheskinof handheld Nintendo DS.Tomb RaiderLegend could beexperienced on asmall different). might beplayed on theGameCubeorWii(where controls areradically audio without lengtheningthetimetoprocess player actions. ResidentEvil4 choose ahigh-speccomputerthatpermitshighresolution graphics and low-spec computerthatresultsinlessdetailedgraphics while others are moreopen.Players may choose torunThe many variablesareinplay—some gamesofferlinearprogression, others literary orcinematictexts.Gamescomeinawiderangeofformatsand in any way stable,orthattheyaredirectlycomparabletomoretraditional and Krzywinska). the multiple affordances theyprovide formeaningmaking(Carr;Atkins scholars have found itusefultoregard gamesastexts,preciselybecauseof scholars asdeterimental tothestudyofgames.Nonetheless othergames theory isalsoregarded inthesameveinbythishard coreof“ludologist” computer gamesfrom literary theory” (Marie-LaureRyan,183);fi lm ing gamesas,and therebyattemptingto“emancipate thestudyof Markku Eskelinen(2001,2004)and JesperJuul have beenintent on regard- elevation ofliterature,gamescholars such asEspenAarseth(1997,2003), closed systems).Inwhat canberegarded asaninversion ofthecultural notations thatelidetheludological (thatwhich isspecifi c togamesas games canbeconsidered “texts,” atermtainted forsomebyliterarycon- Within gamestudiestherehasbeensomeresistance tothenotion that might beconsidered, draws systemicallyand intrinsically on othertexts. commonly acceptednotion thatany text,no matterhow innovative it theory entails, Kristeva’s concept ofintertextuality exemplifi es thenow and thediffi culty of adaptation toform. The releasedateissueisof atic forgamecriticsbecauseof production issues,thegoalsofcreators The typicalmovie-game adaptation hastraditionally remainedproblem- the successfactor That isnot tosay however thatthemeaningsagametextgeneratesare Final Fantasy3mightbeplayed on aclunky console orasleek

on a a Lord oftheRingsOnlineon World of Warcraft. We

4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 97 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM at World’s End at World’s (Treyarch Invention/Activision, Invention/Activision, 3 (Treyarch Spider-Man as such tie-ins, the movie” (Westwood/Virgin, Blade Runner (Westwood/Virgin, 1996), (Probe/Fox: Trilogy Die Hard Pirates of the Caribbean: Caribbean: 2002) or Pirates of the (EA Games, Towers Lord Two of The Rings: The For many who just want to be and see Jack Sparrow for a few hours hours for a few Sparrow see Jack to be and just want who For many before bedtime the issues that might be of concern to a dedicated and to a dedicated and of concern before bedtime the issues that might be For some it is enough apparent. not highly informed gamer are probably key signalled heavily and various get him through to laugh at his quips, of Johnny admire the replication some “Jackenisms,” presses to produce to guide him through and movements, shrugging off-balance Depp’s/Jack’s lms. At this the fi replicate scenes from some of which situations, various light-hearted fun that marries level the game is just a bit of throw-away Though just as was the case with the movie. swashbuckling, and spectacle : several other formats, the Pirates of the Carribbean it appears on in that the haptic innovation for the Wii offers an ostensible unique (Radical/Vivendi, 2006) are examples. 2006) (Radical/Vivendi, Is Yours World The 1997) or Scarface: suc- far greater opportunity for critical have in the latter category Those within a they are able to function simply because cess than the former, sales by trading off of well known boost and schedule development normal potential has more direct commercial former category The relished IP. and develop- The immediate advertising “splash.” of a bigger, because however, the into is often compressed of games in the former category cycle ment schedule. marketing gargantuan of a movie’s tighter constraints much limited cooperation run rife because, perhaps, of problems Production with game developers never worked well have may a studio which from the of with the maintenance movie executives more concerned before and Thompson nished product. c fi of this specifi than the critical value brand Rings tie-in games suffered from Lord of the The for example reports EA’s of access to voice acting, no lack including in this regard several problems the stopped, and shooting until lm trilogy ended the fi of how knowledge and slash” games (251). IP and in generic “hack of interest lack director’s certain amounts only and guarded lm material itself can be jealously the fi special Actors and released to developers during production. of footage trying when cult to deal with or ambivalent diffi effects designers can prove this form the game, especially where into crossover to insert some genuine over squabbles The lm contract. fi in an actor’s included of voice acting isn’t the successful developers with leave can run over and the license alone a release date a has which together a product very limited time to throw developers t-hungry Profi stone. few weeks before the movie release set in to diversify anxious lm marketing cynical fi sales and for guaranteed eager to the mediocrity contribute every possible sphere into the movie brand movie-games. of these direct adaptation such importance that it is worthwhile to divide movie-related games into games into divide movie-related to is worthwhile that it importance such of “game 2007), which movie-inspired games and 2007), End (Disney Interactive, at World’s the after long are released rigors and to these marketing subject are not movie, 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 979780415962612-Ch-04.indd 97 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 98

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 98 acy and fl uidity ofmovement withinthegameworld, analogue control ina3Denvironment, allowingplayers greaterimmedi- it wasamongst thefirst console fi rst-person shooter games tofullyembrace copies. That isRare’s Goldeneye 007. acclaim, winningaBAFTA award in1998and sellingovereightmillion successfully withinthegameform. Yet one gamehasgarneredcritical generate much oftheirappealthrough mimicking the modesofmovies IP franchises likeResidentEvil , replicate scenesgenerallyfailtomatch thecriticalappealofstrictlygame that fi lms arestructured.Evenmovie-inspiredgamesthatdon’t simply whether thereissomethingabout theformofgamesthatresistsway movies intermsofinvestment and production, itisworthconsidering than aspecific strataofthose who frequently buy videogames. these games’coremarket, which represents devotees ofthemovierather too much effortortechnical knowledge. Italsoisofdirectinterest to the gameprovides anopportunity toescapeinto afantasy realmwithout manipulate thecameraindependently ofcharacter movement, forothers might beregarded ascoveringupflaws inthegame,such astheinabilityto for someplayers who might be invested inanotion ofquality games,this (pressing thexbutton islesslikethatthanswishingthecontroller). While action and thetypeofaction theplayer hastomakeperformthataction position ofbeingJack byshrinkingthegapbetweenarealsword stroke be seenasjustanovelty, but works toencourage thecasual gamerinto the what isseentobehappeningwithinthegame’s diegetic world. This might eye connection betweentheaction theplayer doesoutside thegameand using asword—rather thanpushingbuttons. This makesaliteralhand/ Wii controller isusedtomakethetypeofmovements thatone would if competitors atthetimeofrelease. so Bond’s everevolvingsuper-watch doubles asthegame’s pausemenu, Trademarks ofthefranchise arereworked toserveadirectlyludic purpose, for thegame,and actors’likenessesare used forthecharacter models. on thesatellitedish.Moviequotes areinterspersed withdialoguewritten jump offthedamthrough tothefinal confrontation withvillain Trevelyan scenes from thefi lm areincluded inthegame,from theopeningbase- extra-fi lmic content byproviding new objectives. Allofthememorable catered not only forgamersseekingmorechallenge, but alsodeepenedthe and thestory reworked tofit into the new mould. Different diffi culty levels Short scenesfrom themovieareusedtobuild upwhole levelsofthegame, some basedon themovie,othersbasedon the(posthoc) novelization. than theminutiae ofthemovieitselfittook theformofaseriesmissions, feature thatreallystoodout. Inspiredmorebythecharacter ofJamesBond There areseveralreasons why Goldeneye 007hasclassic status.Primarily, While itisthecasethattie-ingamesplay second fi ddletotheir parent Grand Theft AutoMetal GearSolidorGrandTheft,which The singleplayer “campaign”wasthe

unlike many ofits 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie-games and game-movies 99 4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM4/1/2009 10:44:07 AM movie tie-in achieved critical success by a different route, route, critical success by a different movie tie-in achieved King Kong The The This game’s development was neither hurried nor underfunded, and and underfunded, nor was neither hurried development game’s This opting to forego many traditional ludic elements in an attempt to bridge elements ludic traditional many opting to forego rst- Primarily a fi gaming experiences. the gap between cinematic and of ammo, display usual 007, the game has no like Goldeneye shooter person is completely clear Instead the display health levels or inventory. player character’s cues, the player is accessed by audio-visual this information and the screen turning red when is low and ammunition when remarking meant diegesis within the all this information he is injured. Containing two are really only There ces needed to be made. that several other sacrifi of com- to varying degrees types of simple puzzles in the game repeated the learning curve is immediacy means this simplicity and but plexity, new to the genre, which of this is that players A further upshot minor. of the target a sizable amount quite for this game can include unusually becoming com- immersing themselves and trouble no will have audience, possibilities allows control and Allowing a small set of actions petent. that the tension and the monsters on to focus their attention players missile carry one can only can generate. Players them encountering pushing the game towards is scarce, ammunition a time and at weapon links to the cinematic. a gaming genre with even closer “survival horror,” by oppor- sections these tougher for getting through are rewarded Players of the reminiscent segments, person in third as King Kong tunities to play in the movie. During these scenes the power rela- special effects sequences over the beasts that can happily run amok players is reversed and tionship been terrifying them. have the underlying game engine was reused for multiple original IP titles, so it was reused for multiple game engine the underlying its theme in the movie than attempt- nding game fi was more a case of this complement franchise game and The source. from ing a direct adaptation original fea- the as such and to compromise, needing without another one with via its connection to the mass market tures of the game were brought therefore malleable franchise. and long-lived a very well-known, health meter and status screen. It also sometimes functions as a weapon, as a weapon, functions sometimes It also screen. status meter and health than movies rather several Bond from abilities incorporated designers and in the gadget had the functionality allowing only and back being held was preceded mission 1995). Each by Martin Campbell, (directed Goldeneye these through team. Reading backup Bond’s ngs from briefi by written to how on direction provided with the movie some familiarity alongside actions, gameplay cueing successful level and during the act “in character” rst-person fi The ways. completed in various can be missions although more lending character, and gap between player framing reduces the in providing and to the player of Bond agency therefore the profoundly realize can tasks the player to achieve ways multiple freedom of scope and movie. their own self-generated 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 999780415962612-Ch-04.indd 99 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 100

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 100 hold it,intheposition ofparent text. tie-ins and thereverence withwhich many but not allgamedesigners something new, evenifinmany ways cinema isstillplacedthrough both (88). Itisinthisthatgamesdisplay aprofound difference tofi lm, adding ‘what if?’thatthenaddstheagency ofthe ‘I’intheposingof‘what ifI?’” computer gameisalmostentirely dependent on thebasicprocess ofasking and aesthetic values. AsAtkinsastutelynotes “The actual playing ofa lives uptoaplayer’s expectations oraccords withtheirparticulartastes to penetratethespacesetupbyfi lm, whether ornot thisexperience degree, mostmovie tie-insbringathird dimension thatallowstheplayer puter game”(89). To agreaterorlesser, moresimpleorsophisticated sion thatwould only bemadeavailable through itsremediation asacom- version ofBladeRunnerallows“aplayer tohave accesstoathird dimen- consider gametie-insassimplyadaptations. AsBarryAtkinssays thegame ble oftellingstoriesinnewways. Inthissenseitisperhapsreductiveto back ofa Triple Amovie,gamesareextremelysophisticated artefactscapa- Griffiths, yetinfacteventhecaseofthose simplyproduced tosellon the regarded bysomeasajuvenilemedium,awaiting thetouch ofaD.W. tant not tofl atten out thedifferences betweenmedia.Gamesarestill addressing film adaptations areapplicabletogametie-ins,but itisimpor- to getcloser tothecinematicmode. the newergamegivesupsomeelements ofthegamingexperience inorder game takeson thefranchise inorder toenhance elements ofitself,while prevent thegamefrom achieving thecultstatusofGoldeneye 007 ities ofthegame. The sacrifi cesthedesignteamhadtomakearelikely affective powerofthefilm into itsboththeaudio-visual and theludic qual- sound effects. The strengthofthegameliesinway thatittranslatesthe which iscombinedwithhighproduction values oftheaudiotracks and itself inalevelofgraphical detail considered highatthetimeofrelease cinematic counterpart beyond basicaestheticsimilarities. This manifests lead designertoensuretheexperience retainedadegree ofparitywithits development team,and PeterJackson collaborateddirectly withthegame’s ers and theirspecialeffectsstudioworked closely withthegame diacy thatisoftencoretotheexperience ofwatching afilm. The filmmak- into thefinished product, aswellproviding thetypeofnarrativeimme- window wereabletoaddahighdegree ofpolishtothecontent thatwent and bysacrifi cing gamelengthtotherigours oftheshort releasedate completed inaround five orsixhours byaplayer familiarwiththegenre, of themovie.Designerscreatedanextremelyshort gamewhich can be fi t thenew settingwhere players control one ofthecentral characters structure ofthefi lm,rewritingthestoryinminor ways asappropriate to To conclude, many ofthedebatesand issuesthatarepertinent in As withmany film tie-ins,thegamepicks out itsownpaththrough the . Theolder 4/1/2009 10:44:08 AM movie-games and game-movies 101 4/1/2009 10:44:08 AM4/1/2009 10:44:08 AM . Boston: . Boston: A Multi-Dimensional The Brain Is the Screen: Deleuze and Deleuze Brain Is the Screen: The The Blade Runner Experience: The Legacy of a of a Legacy The Runner Experience: Blade The oblems in Search of a Solution: The challenge of Cybertext Theory Theory of Cybertext challenge The of a Solution: oblems in Search , Brown University 2004: Digital, Brown Dichtung Theory.” Ludology to Literary and http://www.brown.edu/Research/dichtung-digital/2004/3/Eskelinen/index. 1 2008). htm (accessed July University Press, 2006. York New The MIT Press, 2005. The McGill-Queen’s and Marketing. Montreal: Culture Technology, Interaction of University Press, 2003. 1980. Blackwell, Oxford: S. Roudiez. . Ed. Leon and Literature Press, 2006. . Ed. Gregory Flaxman. Minneapolis: University of of Cinema. Ed. Gregory the Philosophy Minnesota Press, 2000. 1 2008). (accessed July www.gamestudies.org/0101/eskelinen/ Hopkins University Press, 1997. Hopkins University Press, Press, 2005. ower Wallfl London: Science Fiction Classic. Ed. Will Brooker. University Manchester Krzywinska. Manchester: Tanya Barry Atkins and Press, 2007. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000. 1 2008). (accessed February www.digra.org/hardcore/hc18/ . Utrecht 2003. . Utrecht Up Conference of the DiGRA Level Proceedings of Games. Typology or lack of, and music, blocking, spatial organization, kinesics, alongside alongside kinesics, organization, spatial blocking, music, of, and or lack characterization. narrative and cemojo.com/movies/?id= http://www.boxoffi using data from of $137m 1 2008). (accessed February nalfantasy.htm fi 1 2008). February tie-ins. EA game lms and fi between Jackson’s relationships technical . New York: York: Media Collide. New Old and New Where Culture: Convergence Jenkins, Henry. Worlds Games between Real Rules and Fictional Video Half-Real: Jesper. Juul, Digital Play: The The Digital Play: Greig de Peuter. and Dyer-Witherford Nick Kline, Stephen, to Art A Semiotic Approach in Language: Desire Text.” Bounded “The Kristeva, Julia. of Story. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Ryan, Marie-Laure. Avatars 2006. Routledge, York: . New Adaptation and Appropriation Julie. Sanders, 1.1 (July 2001): http:// Game Studies 1.1 (July Gaming Situation.” “The Eskelinen, Markku. ——. “Six Pr works cited works . Baltimore: Johns Literature on Ergodic Perspectives Aarseth, Espen J. Cybertext: Lise Sunnanå. Smedstad and Aarseth, Espen J., Solveig . Eds videogame/player/text Krzywinska. “Introduction.” Tanya and Atkins, Barry, Media. New Remediation: Understanding Grusin. Richard and David Jay Bolter, http:// Videogames.” Analysis and Textual Play: Diane. “Un-situated Carr, New Riders, 2003. on Game Design. Boston: Chris. Chris Crawford Crawford, Brain Is the Screen.” Deleuze, Gilles, “The notes 1 style, sound, lighting, editing, dialogue, colour, framing, Camera movement, 2 budget to total production $32.1m opposed total gross US Domestic 3 (accessed http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_video_games See 4 and of the commercial (224–56) for an account Thompson See Kristin Blade Runner.”Atkins, Barry “Replicating 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 1019780415962612-Ch-04.indd 101 9780415962612-Ch-04.indd 102

douglas brown and tanya krzywinska 102 Thompson, Kristin.The Frodo Franchise: The LordoftheRingsandModernHollywood. Stam, Robert.“Introduction: The Theory and PracticeofAdaptation.” Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2007. Alessandro Raengo.Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. and Film:AGuidetothe Theory andPracticeofFilmAdaptation.EdsRobertStam Literature 4/1/2009 10:44:08 AM saw heard

musical

sound design in five contemporary

cinema

k.j. donnelly

Film sound has seen some radical developments in both technological and aesthetic terms over the last thirty years or so. The traditional basic speaker system in cinemas in many cases has been replaced in many by a multi- speaker system which involves a signifi cant spatialization of fi lm sound allied to a remarkable improvement in sound defi nition. These changes augur an altered psychology at the heart of much new cinema, instilled by sound’s increased importance for fi lms. The sound of noises, for a long time relegated to the background like a troublesome relative in the attic, has therefore benefi ted from the recent improvements in defi nition brought by Dolby. Noises are reintroducing an acute feeling of the materiality of things and beings, and they herald a sensory cinema that rejoins a basic tendency of … the silent cinema. The paradox is only apparent. With the new place that noises occupy, speech is no longer central to fi lms. (Chion 155)

9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 103 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 104

k.j. donnelly 104 assumptions about cinema’s diegetic world and theplaceofsound inthis. new technologies and newtechniques and concomitantly different semi-dislocated manner. Furthermore,Saw illustrates the assimilation of The fi lms wieldsound ofteneitherexplosivelyorinadisconcerting and confusion betweenwhat mightbetermed‘‘film music’’ and ‘‘sound effects.’’ anempathetic but focusinginsteadon textureand timbreand plays upon a alone. Clouser’s music inthefilms isoftenunmelodic,unmemorableand partial remix,ofthesound world asawhole rathermerelythanthemusic be possibletoapproach Clouser’s work intheSaw films asanadaptation, a rebuilding sonic materialratherthan“creating”assuch. Hence, itmight to thispoint, hewasknown forhisremixesofexistingsongs, adaptingand and performedbyfi rst-time fi lm music composerCharlie Clouser. Up music-sound effects-dialogueatomization. The fi lm’s music waswritten although many recent fi lms donot followthedominant conventions of very intimate relationship ofsonic elements thatmakesitunconventional, can sound synthetic and music cansound likesound effects. The film hasa between incidental music and sound design:consequently, sound effects which Iwillbediscussinginthischapter. There isno soliddemarcation tially musical innature,following amusical logicratherthanany other. poses, music. Sound designinthesefi lms mightbeunderstood asessen- verisimilitude thantheyareasanaestheticeffect,as,toallintents and pur- couple ofdecades.Sound effectsareoftenlessusedtobolsterasenseof increase inthedegree ofambient sound and ambient music overthepast for bysocialand culturalaspects:therehasbeenagradual but exponential design inmainstreamfilms. Ontheother, though, itmightbeaccounted digital surround fi lm sound and thecorresponding importance ofsound music. Ontheone hand, thismightbeattributed tothedevelopment of design: where thereisaconvergence ofsound effects,ambient sound and music hasanintimately close relationship withthefi lm’s overallsound that through loud music orfeaturedsounds. with significant amounts ofasynchrony and sound asaneffectinitself,be tially amovefrom acinemadominatedbysynchronized dialoguetoone centred cinematoone thatallowsmoreprominence to‘‘noise,’’ ispoten- had anotable impacton fi lm aesthetics.Any movement from aspeech- Michel Chion points totechnological developments incinemathathave music withsound effects,creatingasonic continuum. Musicinfi lm has accurately weshould usetheterm“voices”),somerecent films have fused soundtrack, much asclassical musicals fusedmusic withdialogue(ormore In certainrecent fi lms therehasbeenanotable fusing ofelements ofthe transformation The fi rst fi lm intheseries,Saw, hasahighlydistinctive soundscape, The seriesofSaw I–IV(2004–7)demonstrates asituation where fi lm 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 105 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM To Live and Die in Live To (1982), and while rock keyboard keyboard rock while Blade Runner (1982), and (1981) and Chariots of Fire Technology has played an important part in recent developments in developments part in recent an important has played Technology fi lm sound and music, and technological determinism is always an attrac- determinism is always technological and music, and lm sound fi easily pro- and of relatively cheap availability The tive if too-easy answer. led to an explosion at the turn of the 1980s synthesizers grammed keyboard the use of these instru- premised upon musicians and of popular music lms. In the 1970s, John Carpenter’s fi impact on had a notable This ments. in their use of simple textures unique lms sounded scores for his own fi next decade they were sounding by the but synthesizers, with monophonic partly inspired. they had pop music more like some of the contemporary for his scores came to some prominence Vangelis player Greek keyboard for toes into had dipped their Keith Emerson and Wakeman like Rick players syn- and using drum machines lm scoring, by the mid-1980s pop groups fi for Chung’s as Wang scores, such thesizers were producing a signifi cant interaction with other elements of the soundtrack as well as as of the soundtrack other elements with interaction cant a signifi dia- with its interaction that argue might even one and the images, with years, the develop- In recent with images. its interaction logue outweighs designers sound has allowed technology sound digital converging of ment music allowed lms and in fi effects sound to enhance software to use musical of sound elements incorporating their own music to produce composers aes- convergence, in line with technological developments, effects. Such has meant industries and platforms harmonizing and thetic convergence almost integrated lms but to fi simply a “bolt-on” longer is no that music narratives, per- lm titles and level: instigating fi a conceptual genetically on continuing while existing music, spin-offs from lms as fi haps even having of the exciting moments and articulate the most emotional to inspire and media. audiovisual other lms and of fi majority overwhelming analogue to digital sound from development revolutionary The L.A. (1985). on 30), and aspects of cinema (Sergi many impact on has had a notable than most other areas, allowing minute perhaps more sound and music aspects. By the turn of the of all aural precise manipulation and alteration tted fi and scores to be constructed millennium, it was possible for musical digital (or similar) and using AVID a computer screen at home, lm on to a fi lm makers like fi Consequently, technology. (DAW) audio workstation lms the scores for their fi Robert Rodriguez are easily able to construct making music medium, and lm less of a collaborative themselves, making fi has revolu- DAW of the elevation The less collaborative perhaps than ever. high of relatively allowing easy construction production, music tionized most of the top Hollywood although computer, a home on music quality nal recording the fi ups” until use them for “mock lm composers only fi of sequencing the development However, with an expensive orchestra. being produced the styles of music on uence software has had a direct infl types of software arena. Examples of the dominant in the popular music Live and Logic, Ableton Cubase, Sony Steinberg include sequencer 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1059780415962612-Ch-05.indd 105 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 106

k.j. donnelly 106 and non-diegetic music: “unconscious.” Rick Altmanwrote about thedifferences betweendiegetic manifests acollapseofmental space,betweenthefilm’s “conscious” and its lapse ofthespacebetweendiegetic sound and non-diegetic music. This tinct psychologies ofmusic and sound effectsmix. There isanotable col- merely thanaimingtoduplicateon screenactivity. Consequently, thedis- wielded inan“artistic”manner, manipulatedforpreciseeffectrather conceptualization ofsound designinsuch films, where sound elements are ing, etc.).Ontheothersideofcoin,thereisanincreasingly “musical” basic sound manipulation, dealingwithconcepts such asenvelope, fi lter- ingly isconceptualized insonic terms(oratleastinelectronic termsof tronics forbothmusic and sound effects,which meansthatmusic increas- passages ofsynchronization. Onecontext forthisistheuseofdigitalelec- contained natureofthe sound track inspireslessintheway ofextended inspires acertainsonic (and audiovisual) complexity, while themoreself- tion ofelements and theirparticularindividual sonic qualities. “musical,” orattheveryleastbetrays amusical awareness oftheinterac- people areapproaching soundtracks inamannerthatmightbetermed more aware ofsound asanabsolute thanperhapseverbefore,film sound procedures to“compose”music. While on theone hand, composersare to “manipulate”sound effectsthesameway thatcomposersuse thesame by sound designersand editors,who usedigitaltechnology and techniques circulation. Such technology isnot only usedby“musical” peoplebut also very leasthaschallenged thelimitedconcepts ofmusic thatwereinwide tute “music” and what mightconstitute “non-musical sound,” and atthe orchestration, etc). This canleadtoaconfusion about what mightconsti- tion enshrinedinso-called“classical training”(harmony, counterpoint, placing instereomix,etc.)morethanthetraditional virtuesofcomposi- focusing on themanipulation ofsound on abasiclevel(e.g.,reverb,filters, ulate electronically. This encourages a“sound forsound’s sake”approach Such music technology instilsanawareness ofsound and abilitytomanip- adapted, treatedand woventogetherinto anewmusical composition. tion ofsound samples,pre-recorded passages ofmusic, which could be that wasdevelopedinhome studios,withanemphasis on themanipula- aspect hasbeenresponsible fortheproliferation ofdance music inthe1990s ess oflooping,where apassage ofmusic isrepeatedverbatim. This latter processed, through audioenhancement/distortion and through theproc- nology isthatmusic canbereduced torecorded components thatarethen Propellerheads Reason. Oneofthecentral tenetsofsuch computertech- Saw evinces aunified and complexfi eld ofmusic and sound effects. This cinema’s referential nature),while the[non-diegetic] music cific sense:the diegetic refl ects reality (oratleastsupports By convention, thesetwotracks have takenon aquite spe- 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 107 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM aesthetic rather track lifts the image into a romantic realm far above the above the realm far a romantic into the image lifts track (11) blood. esh and of fl world conception of sound in the cinema. For a long time, in the cinema. For a long of sound conception representational fi lms seem to have soundtracks that have a dislocated nature, that have soundtracks lms seem to have fi Saw The convergence of music with ambient sound and sound effects con- sound and sound with ambient of music convergence The traditions rming emotion, affi eliciting and effects includes music’s Film incidental setting), pro- as mood and (such of information or provision cation clarifi as well as lm world, in the fi bath that immerses the audience viding a sound attempting to provide aspects that include functional the more traditional time-spaces. As such, and joins between shots edits and across continuity while lmic movement fi the score can also furnish a sense of, or emphasize lm articulate a formal structure for the fi and to clarify also functioning functions Related structural closure). and cadence punctuation, (through com- lm, and in the fi action subsequent anticipating might also include not dimension a further symbolic screen activities or providing on menting (139), Noël Carroll lm. In separate writings, in other aspects of the fi evident a newspaper (213–22) all quote Roy Prendergast Jeff Smith (6) and Copland hall composer Aaron in the 1940s respected concert where article functions These function. music lm incidental of fi ve categories posited fi states of charac- highlighting the psychological are: “creating atmosphere, a sense of continuity; building ller, fi neutral background ters; providing (28). off with a sense of closure” it then rounding and sustaining tension uence infl enormous has an It regularly material functions. Music has many having become at least partially uncoupled from the image track of track the image from become at least partially uncoupled having lm. the fi than unclut- of dialogue and of in terms of clarity was thought cinema sound is This elements. sound diegetic of composition functional tered but as well as to technical recourse have which lms in fi evident particularly concom- The lm. fi the horror in most notably extremity, representational of mental adds up to a degree in this equation of synchronization lack itant At times, lm for the purposes of horror. by the fi emphasized uncertainty, the travenes the fi lm tradition of solid demarcation between such elements. elements. such between demarcation of solid lm tradition the fi travenes as essen- lms might be understood design in fi sound suggested, As I have software” designers use “musical sound in nature. After all, tially musical (such of music designed primarily for the production digital products and has led to a more This ProTools). standard as the industry In a similar manner, the unifi ed fi eld of sound merges these distinct chan- these distinct merges eld of sound ed fi unifi the manner, In a similar subjective, and terms) the objective lm’s the fi mixing (by nels, potentially and conscious unstable reverie, and xed perception fi reality, and fantasy communicational. and musical least, not and unconscious, 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1079780415962612-Ch-05.indd 107 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 108

k.j. donnelly 108 great carecanbetakenwithqualitative aspectsof certainsounds—as the like, orperhapsevenapartof,the musical dimension offi lms.Consequently, of directemotional and aestheticroles, inshort, makingfilm sound more sound’s representational function, which freesittofulfil moreintheway primary psychology. Such opportunitiesareopenedbytherecession of emotional effect,morelikeanemanation from theId,amanifestation of attic early in The Exorcist (1973). This instance isnot simplyasound—it isan effects arepreciselysonic effects, such asthedisconcerting noise from the might beapproached asjustmoments ofaestheticeffect,where sound from thatofmusic infilms. Perhapssuch aunityofsound effectsand music for theillusions on screen.Nowthisisaverydifferent traditional function erally), and point toour expectation offi lmsound tobemerelyavehicle ricated natureoffilm sound (and indeed synchronized cinemamoregen- used inavant garde films mightserveasanobtrusivereminder ofthefab- that istoguarantee theillusionistic world on screen.Random sound effects home videocamera. to thesounds recorded from anintegrated microphone mounted on a how conventional film sound is.Certainly, thisisapparent ifitiscompared volume, but not intruding on theimportant conversation, underlines just voices and unobtrusive carenginesounds risingthen fallinginpitch and a representation ofthose sounds, aconvention allowingcrisply-heard past weexpecttohearthose sounds corresponding. The factthatwehear on screentalkingweexpecttohear what theyaresaying, when acardrives and thesurrounding world weimagine. Consequently, when weseefaces films existessentially tobolsteror“makereal”theimages weseeon screen space on screenis“real.” Afterall,one mightargue thatmostsounds in 33–4), and sound isone oftheprincipal elements thatconvince usthatthe world on screenasanunproblematic reality(on some level)(Kracauer haps any otherelement offilm. Sometheorizethatweperceive thediegetic whelmingly isfunctional. Itworks toelideitselfascontract morethanper- in harmony, itshould beadmittedthatinmainstreamfi lms sound over- providing consent fortheaudience’s emotional responses. primary role inelicitingemotional responses intheaudience, and in through representing ideas,objectsand emotions. Indeed, itperformsa is justified. Musicregularly performsaninstructiverole, creatingmeaning music as“wallpaper”or“window dressing”which, perhapsinsomecases, effect. Such neutralmusic has givenrisetopejorativedescriptions offilm before beingmoreemphatic withthemusic ormakingaspecifi c musical emphasis, withwhat wascalled “neutral”music inthetrade(inBurt80), David Raksinnotes thatitwascommon toenter beforetherequired on thepacingofevents and “emphasizing the dramatic line”(Burt79). However, having statedthis,film sound stillretainsaprincipal function Without assuminganunassailablecinematicidealofsound and image 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 109 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM I call superfi eld the space created, in multitrack fi lms, by fi in multitrack eld the space created, I call superfi of all sorts and music, city noises, natural sounds, ambient issue from can space and the visual rustlings that surround of the screen. boundaries the physical outside loudspeakers relative stability and precision By virtue of its acoustical of quasi-au- a kind has taken on this ensemble of sounds eld, in that fi to the visual with relation existence tonomous we see what on by moment moment depend it does not (150) onscreen. A further part of this process, evident in some fi lms, is the convergence lms, is the convergence in some fi evident A further part of this process, Michel Chion discusses the new sonic space offered by directional mul- by directional space offered the new sonic discusses Chion Michel of music and sound effects, with a concomitant collapse of the strict demar- a concomitant effects, with sound and of music it has to a degree, course, Of the two that reigned earlier. between cation score from separate musical clinically been impossible to fully and always or suggested cer- emphasized has mimicked, effect. Music regularly sound lms are regularly effects in fi sound Similarly, in the diegesis. tain sounds con- world diegetic the illusory from more than simply an emanation effects that or emotional symbolic often have They lm. structed by the fi that it might be argued status. Indeed, their representational outweigh or in attempting to approximate, been spent have energy and time much to the birdsong from the natural world, from, at least take inspiration in terms of a solid distinction So, talking of machinery. sounds rhythmic becomes accompaniment musical effect and sound between the diegetic in terms of However, thought. deeper and scrutiny closer cult upon diffi This new fi eld is not simply one of dialogue and sound effects, but one one effects, but sound of dialogue and simply one eld is not new fi This This can be the key to its organization. with music their interaction where Dolby to Chion, According has inspired a new aesthetics. development a gen- to establish works which passive offscreen sound, favours multitrack more of which (and for shots free movement permits more eral space and of the spatial disorientation any ups) within that space, without are close to keep tendency is a corresponding there viewer-auditor (85), although screen as spatial anchors. on speaking characters ti-speaker surround sound as a “superfi eld,” “which changes the percep- the changes “which eld,” “superfi as a sound surround ti-speaker scene construction” the rules of [audio-visual] thereby of space and tion he insists lm, fi monaural of tradition of much it retains (150). Although from different qualitatively space and of off-screen that it is an extension term “acous- uses the Philip Brophy similarly space, while sonic previous space (38). multidirectional tactile and to articulate the new monium” with his description: continues Chion sounds have value in themselves rather merely than being conventionally being conventionally than rather merely in themselves value have sounds sounds of stereotypical repertoire a small from of sounds representative production). television the case in much (as remains 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1099780415962612-Ch-05.indd 109 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 110

k.j. donnelly 110 the sound and music forForbiddenPlanet,JamesWierzbicki notes thatthis sense oftheexoticand uncharted thatthefilm represents. Inhisstudyof marking theambience oftheunfamiliaralienplanet,and addingtothe (such asthemonster, forexample).Othersappeartobeenvironmental, incidental music, someclearly aresynchronized withimages on screen gins ofsounds. Someoftheelectronic sounds appeartobefunctioning like nant traditions ofHollywoodfilm scoring. There adirectconfusion of ori- then collaged to fit thefi lm evinces aprocess farremovedfrom thedomi- indeed, itsorigins inrecordings of“cyberneticsound organisms” that were purposes offi lm production thiscould not becreditedas“music,” and a soundtrack of“electronic tonalities” byLouis and BebeBarron. Forthe sound effects.Probably thebestexampleisForbiddenPlanet(1956),which had certain sound films having asonic continuum thatfully merged music and well bepresent on thesoundtrack anyway. There wasaminor tradition of mimic orsuggestcertaindiegetic sound effects,eventhrough theymay probably moreevident in thefi lm scoringtradition where music will accompany thefilm inmany cases“did”thesound effects. This tradition is back toanorigininsilent cinema,where thelivemusic performedto number ofrecent films, although thismarginal tradition mightbetraced retaining afootindiegetic sound effectsand ambiences. organized sound thatisabletobemorerhythmic and moremelodicwhile preceding music, fi rmly supplyingtheimpression ofacontinuum of door. Yet theconsistency ofthesound iscertainlynot atoddswiththe very loud and percussive sound matched totheimage ofanautomatic tion ishaltedabruptlybyanearby dooropening.Sonically, thisinvolves a words, re-organized and repeatedshards ofsound effects.Hercontempla- like itwascomposedfrom various “non-musical” sound samples,inother what appearstobeherweddingphotograph, wehearmusic thatsounds laboratory accident. Shortly afterwards, when protagonist Alicestudies Marilyn Manson wrote forthefi lm astheaction followstheevents ofa musical” sounds, leadinginto aloopofone oftheelectronic themes voice-over narration accompanied bymetallicand booming“non- recent exampleoftheprocess isResidentEvil(2002). The film begins witha using digitalsynthesizers tofusethesounds on ageneticlevel.Amore a rocking chair creakingwasmerged withsound recordings ofascream, the development ofspecialsound forEvilDead2(1987),where thesound of notable impacton theproduction process. Anearly exampleofthiswas the relativeaccessibilityofcomplexsound-treating equipment have hada accompany on-screen action. The advent ofdigitalsound technology and responsible forconstructing aconventional seriesofsound effectsto composers produce music forfilm, and foleyartistsand sound editorsare fi lm production, therehasbeenarelativelysoliddivide:musicians and Such aunifi ed fi eld ofmusic and sound effects isevident inagood 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 111 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM The Birds as a contin- The them. (26–7) from In contrast [with traditional orchestral scores of the time], scores of orchestral [with traditional In contrast ction science-fi 1950s for many in scores sounds electronic they tended thus and non-traditional, lms were strikingly fi non-diegetic between boundary long-standing the to blur did not sounds effect. Electronic sound diegetic and underscore narrative objectives; in many “foreign” simply accompany directly cases, they seemed to emanate Another fi lm that has a soundtrack that goes beyond simple sound simple sound that goes beyond lm that has a soundtrack fi Another (1977), which makes particu- Eraserhead (1977), which Lynch’s is David music effects and lm. the fi through in the background sound use of ambient harrowing larly sounds, industrial lm, by Alan Splet, collaged design for the fi sound The sonic continuous and a disturbing into wind rumbles and metallic noises, moves to the fore- and unchanging It is not action. lm’s for the fi backdrop of the general function it takes something from at times. Arguably, ground mood for the a vague and backdrop a sonic provide lm scores, which fi ed as non-diegetic easily classifi not were fact that these sounds The action. for as acous- that they were more satisfactorily accounted meant music some dreadful emanating from effects: seemingly the sounds matic sound Alan Indeed, in the distance. somewhere machines industrial indistinct but compiling and was far more than merely recording work sound Splet’s Realm , a Different Sounds From 3-disc set, lms. An available for use in fi sounds Some of with his collaborator Ann Kroeber. along work Splet’s showcases of the construction illustrate and Presences” the pieces are called “Unusual were used in some of which environments, sound autonomous nearly effects being a sound nominally lms. Despite the collection fi Lynch’s David uum of ambient bird sounds most clearly in the sequences of bird attacks. of bird in the sequences clearly most sounds bird uum of ambient (1963) has a soundtrack that mixes sound that mixes sound Birds (1963) has a soundtrack The Hitchcock’s Similarly, sense. in the traditional underscore no It contained music. effects and idea), Herrmann’s (apparently design” “sound Instead it used electronic Remi Gassmann and with experimentalists in Munich was recorded which Herrmann composer at the time, Bernard regular Oskar Sala. Hitchcock’s noises, bird using synthetic while nal product, the fi was “advisor” and as such by experimenters produced musique concrete remains related to the Birds’ sound 1950s. The Pierre Henry in the 1940s and and Pierre Schaeffer and soundtrack of the element as merely another music design approached that nevertheless are effects,” with “sound underscore replaced a musical appears to repre- the soundtrack While in their inspiration. musical fairly screen, they are in fact produced on the action that match sounds bird sent screen. It on with the birds synchronized vaguely only and electronically to the soundtrack might be more apt to characterize was not an isolated case, and through traversing the membrane of conven- the membrane traversing through and case, an isolated was not psychology: to a new pointed functions sound tional 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1119780415962612-Ch-05.indd 111 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 112

k.j. donnelly 112 sound. possibilities ofanextended rangeofbass tones available to5.1Dolby much ofthefi lm, thissequence exploitsthedramatican Mera and David Burnand note: than asthetraditionally separatemusic, dialogueand sound effects.Miguel fied sound designthatconceives ofthefilm’s sound inholistic termsrather relationship ofsound toimage. Certaincontemporary films evince auni- ventional useofsound infi lms, withaconcomitant questioning ofthe The effectofaunifi edfi eldofsound and music isthedestruction ofcon- film sound asmusic(andfi lm musicassound) being simply“recorded sound effects”readyforgeneraluse. set, theymanifestmoreasustained,“cannedatmosphere” ratherthan clearly organized pattern,and thus moreclearly becomes“music.” turing metallicsounds and developingfrom thedeeprumblesinto amore diegetic ornot. Ashisdesperation grows, themusic grows involume, fea- embraces deepsub-bassrumblesthatareambiguous astowhether theyare pears downatunneland astheothersearches forhimthesoundtrack Creep (2004).Atthestartoffi lm one ofapairsewage workers disap- ture ofdiegetic sound and music evident intheLondon underground-set effects foranything inthediegetic world. There isaseeminglyorganic mix- easily recognizableasfi lmscore,but equ and what mightbeconstrued assupernatural sounds. Itcertainlyisnot ing Donnie towakeup. This isaccompaniedbydeepambiguous rumbles Donnie Darko(2001),avoice(belonging to“Frank”) appearsinthenight,tell- both cases,theambiguityisdoubtless partofthegeneraleffectfi lm. In sequences where sound could beconstrued asmusic orassound effects.In tal music. FilmssuchGrudge asSe7en(1997)orJu-On:The (2003)have notable more specifically from music infi lms intheformofnon-diegetic orinciden- sound asaunified fi eld hastakenahighdegree ofitslogicfrom music, and sion oftone toasequence orsuggestions ofvague connections. Inshort, fi lm tions traditionally associatedwithmusic, such emotional ambiences, provi- to verifyitsactivities.Instead,sound effectscantakeon moreofthefunc- terms. Sound effectsarenot simplyabout matching what thescreenrequires Such fi lms withaunifi ed sound fi eld dealwithitinhighlysophisticated theatre. (5) cinema, fl own into thevirtual orchestra pitofthemovie nineteenth-century orchestral scorestypicalofclassic and editedform,and thus isatoddswiththerehashed the alliance ofmusic and sound designasarecorded means ofaudioproduction infilmmaking thatencourages Modernism isinherent inthetechnologically enabled ally failstoidentify itselfassound d psychological 1 Like Like 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 113 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM ’s musical sound musical ’s fi lms centre upon the activities of the “Jigsaw Killer,” a serial killer Killer,” the activities of the “Jigsaw upon lms centre fi Saw Sometimes it seems easy to forget that for centuries we have had a we have that for centuries Sometimes it seems easy to forget Indeed, since the advent of multi-track recording technologies in the in technologies recording of multi-track the advent since Indeed, saw The ways imaginative is at pains to threaten or kill people in creative and who as well as a high level of invention, involves This individual. apt to each escape for the of potential route planning leading to a tortuous meticulous a men coming into lm starts with two rst fi fi The lms. of the fi protagonists with clues securely but both handcuffed of a deserted building, basement theory of organized sound relevant to the cinema: music. Music is at heart to the cinema: music. relevant sound theory of organized concepts some of its dominant in time and events sound organizing about lms. For example, the general fi in organization in sonic are highly evident the “aria” or sing- to as “backing” assigned to a space is conceived ambience with has been concerned tradition ing voice of dialogue. A more recent developed in , which musique concrete music: into recordings making sound distortion and the manipulation was based on 2 and War after World France be a massive reduc- it would tape. While magnetic on recordings of sound there nevertheless are shared lm sound, that it is similar to fi to suggest tion that the primary fortuitous It is hardly assumptions. and of interest points in with a background an individual comes from lm sound of fi theorization has Chion . Michel a training in musique concrete and music electroacoustic this body of thought theories from of terms and number a large introduced of the few areas to deal with lm. As one study of fi the praxis into and be a stopping-off point should terms, musique concrete often in musical sound, lm soundtracks. analysis of fi brief) for any (however 1960s, Dolby stereo and surroundsound in the 1970s and digital sound sound digital 1970s and in the surroundsound and Dolby stereo 1960s, complex increasingly become have in the 1980s, soundtracks technology expan- to the exponential points Weis Elisabeth Indeed, sophisticated. and technicians sound of number by the indicated resources of sound sion lm during a fi on number with the lms in comparison fi recent on working of labour division The system (Weis). Hollywood studio of the the heyday or sound editor the supervising sound precise, although is often quite direc- Many resources. over all sonic dominion to have designer will tend lm, while of their fi character nal sonic input to the fi cant a signifi tors have lms. Film sound- for their fi sound also design the Lynch like David ones attempt to Any creativity. with great care and are constructed tracks effects” is doomed— as simply “sound ed soundtrack the unifi approach point a musical is from viable approach only The doomed to banal answers. long for a very of sound has been the “science” all, music After of view. in deter- cant impulses are highly signifi that aesthetic it is clear time, and concerns than representational rather merely lm soundtracks, mining fi screen action). match (to make sounds 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1139780415962612-Ch-05.indd 113 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 114

k.j. donnelly 114 recordings thathave ahighlyindividual stampon them. subsequently asaremixerformany rock groups, producing newversions of becoming known asamemberofindustrial rock group NineInch Nailsand music programmer, beinginvolved intelevision incidental music before auditory equivalent oftheperson sittinginthefilm theatre. auditor position inthefilm mightbeconstrued inthisway tofurnishthe could thisbeseenasanauralRearWindow [1954]?). Thus thespectator– nium forhim(offeringasonic experience close toours astheaudience: The fi lm could becharacterized asa“point ofaudition sound” acousmo- than sees)theproceedings throughout, unperceived bythetwoprotagonists. theorized long ago and faraway). InSaw, theJigsaw Killerhears(rather fragmentation ofthevaguely-coherent subjectposition ofthespectator(as sonic spacemanifestsanexpansion ofexperience, but simultaneously a forces sonic space’s elevation inimportance tothepoint where thefi lm’s diegetic sound effectbeingnon-diegetic music). The limiteddiegetic space further enhanced bytheuncertain statusofmuch ofthesound (asbeing logical mismatch betweentheimage track and thesound track which is this mismatch isdramaticinitself.Furthermore,itmakesforapsycho- of claustrophobic visual spacewithexpansiveand echo-laden sonic space: rather thananoverlit basement room. This provides astrikingmismatch which makesthefilm feellikeitistakingplaceinalarge arenaofemptiness expanded spaceinthesoundtrack. There iscopious useofreverband echo, film ishighlyeffective,but isenhanced orthrown into reliefbyafeelingof that isdeniedbythefi lm’s visual construction. The claustrophobia ofthe of space,where thedramaofauralelements encourages afeelingofspace for thistoadegree. Thus thelimiteddiegetic space inspiresasonic drama sound track’s useofunusual timbresand unfamiliaractivitiescompensates the narrativeisgripping,visuals areoftenquite pedestrianand the variation fortheaudience and removethepotential forboredom.While film takesplaceinone room. The soundtrack thus servestoprovide some overwhelmingly staticvisuals. Apartfrom flashback sequences, thewhole on anaestheticofmatching asumptuous soundscape towhat areoften about possibleescape(and redemption fortheirsins).Itisnotably based using non-musical sounds, such asmetallicclashing and banging,in approached thescoreinafarfrom traditional manner. Hewasinterested in different from aconventional orchestral fi lm score,and indeed, Clouser manipulation isadvantageous forafi lm that requires somethingradically that group inthemidand late1990s.Abackground in electronic sound Nails piecesinthefilm’s temptrack (Sacks). Clouser hadbeenamemberof the The film’s music composer, Charlie Clouser, startedoffasanelectronic Saw project afterdirectorJamesWan hadusedanumber ofNineInch Subconsciously, Ithinkalmostsound asthough these sounds thatmighthave originatedinthesound effects. 3 Clouser joined 2 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 115 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM , which included slow atmospheric music as well music slow atmospheric included Fragile, which The [Tracks] usually have a level of density, which is greater which a level of density, have usually [Tracks] of things than most scoring cues, in terms of the number Usually, I don’t try to use sounds that will clash against the against will clash that try to use sounds I don’t Usually, things like that. design—doors slamming, gunshots, sound that James [Wan] the music of But because of the character and of metal screeching a lot involve it would wanted were going to get in the which banging types of sounds, skillful [sic] mix that effects, so it was the of the sound way (Clouser) kept everything together. might be unseen characters to attack, on the other side of the other on to attack, characters be unseen might the with] [b]lurring also a concern was . . . [There the wall. the from that spring sounds industrial having line, and viewer might make the of the movie [which] background of that more aware and music as of the music less aware we were trying to anxiety and sense of tension the general create. (Sacks) While the drum-based passages provide energy, much of the rest of the much energy, provide the drum-based passages While ’s temp track was Nine Inch Nails’s 1999 Nails’s was Nine Inch temp track ’s of Saw likely main source The music is sparsely-textured. The type of music Clouser concentrated on on concentrated Clouser type of music The is sparsely-textured. music the vertical aspect: focuses on double-album double-album remains) was (and Reznor Trent While songs. noisy as more up-tempo and An at this point. was a mainstay Clouser in the group, player the principal is ethereal tracks and for the textural importance of Clouser’s indication The , for “atmospheres.” Below Great The the track credit on his sleevenote although of atmosphere, as provision music scores are premised upon Saw sounds of non-musical alternation as a distinct they might be characterized drum patterns, char- with kinetic mechanical tones, spare synthesizer and Nails. Nine Inch particularly groups, rock acteristic of certain industrial patterns percussion with energetic that he used the sections noted Clouser the speeded up images include sections These adrenaline” (Sacks). “to build for some of the “reverse bear trap” of a man caught in razor wire, and has to beat a time limit to remove a piece of a character where sequence, fatal headware. potentially While the fi nal mix may accommodate Clouser’s sounds as well as sound as well as sound sounds accommodate Clouser’s nal mix may the fi While ed appears to be a unifi material in what sonic with similar effects, it works asked to list It is little surprise that when music. and eld of sound fi who Bebe Barron, and Louis mentioned Clouser his work on uences infl Forbidden Planet (Clouser). for sounds/music electronic the provided Director James Wan wanted to use the score precisely as an effect, for psy- to use the wanted Director James Wan impact. Clouser emotional impact rather than merely for chological noted: 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1159780415962612-Ch-05.indd 115 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 116

k.j. donnelly 116 out any careformatching itsmoodwiththatoftheimages (8).In or music thatfollowsitsownlogic continues across emotional action with- Michel Chion’s notion of“anempatheticmusic,” where mechanical music disconnected from proceedings. This lack ofempathy canberelatedto music, lacking any emotional warmthtothecharacters and beingpartially mental. Infact,throughout, Saw tends touseemotionally “cold”sound/ and thevertical(momentary) aspectsratherthanthemelodicordevelop- into films effectively, Clouser points toaconcern withmomentary texture While many formsofmusic thatwork outside thecinemacanbereined speakers, ararityinfilms and highlyobtrusive sonic activity. some reversedsounds and the music alternatingbetween the front two dramatic and unusual visual, thesound alsoactsunconventionally, including making foraregular rhythmic pulseofsound and image. Matching the hand. Each shot appearsregularly and isaccompaniedbyasonic “hit,” shot and close upsofthebody’s bloodied headand thegunclasped inits between them,thereisaseriesofshots ofthebodythatinclude arevolving samplers but often retainingtheiroriginalmetallicsonic character. Clouser usedrecordings oftheseasraw material, manipulatedindigital that weredesignedtobebowedand scrapedtocreatesounds (Sacks). with metalsound sculptures. These wereChasSmith’s metalsculptures in thatClouser’s electronic score makescopious useofsounds originating ditional film scoring.Asound artinfusion tofilm isfurtherevident inSaw scene (Sacks), denotes aprocess closer tosoundscape creation thantotra- terms ofsound elements thatwould formasonic foundation foreach it appearsplayed on atape. That Charlie Clouser conceived hismusic in horror films and dramatizesand punctuates thevoiceofJigsaw Killeras in thetraditional sense.Forexample, itusesdeepdrones conventional to as sounds derivedfrom sound samples.However, itisnevertheless“scored” tion ofsounds incirculation. Itutilizesawealthofelectronic tones aswell the characters on screen. functions offilm music, which istoallowtheaudience toempathizewith emotional level,refusingtotake advantage ofone oftheprincipal refuses toprovide music that“connects” withthecharacters on an atmosphere and energy thatmatch screenmoodand action, but themusic connection ofsound toimages canbevague and themusic provides Upon thetwoprotagonists noticing adeadbodylyingon thefl oor One aspectofClouser’s score thatisinstantly strikingisthesheervaria- “background.” (Clouser) record and itmightbetoobusy ortoodensetoserveas scoring becausetheywind upmakingitsound likea people comingfrom arecord background when they’re them todecodeitall. That kind ofworks against alotof happening and how much attention you have topay to Saw, the 4/1/2009 10:43:09 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 117 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM because in a more concrete and tangible manner than in and because in a more concrete a con- eld provides lms the superfi fi monoaural traditional of all the space sur- consciousness constant and tinuous now the image that … such the dramatic action rounding a sort of solo part, seemingly in dialogue with the plays (150–1) concerto. in the audiovisual orchestra sonic To describe such sounds, with unapparent origins, Chion invokes the invokes origins, Chion with unapparent sounds, describe such To has sections with sparse dialogue, which therefore lack the therefore lack with sparse dialogue, which has sections Overall, Saw When Adam tries to get the tape player from the dead body’s hand, a hand, dead body’s the from player get the tape tries to Adam When concept of the “acousmatic,” a term initiated by Jerome Peignot but devel- but Peignot a term initiated by Jerome of the “acousmatic,” concept without hears that one ned as “… sound defi and oped by Pierre Schaeffer, calls “vis- Chion of this is what antonym The 71). seeing the cause” (Chion of “direct notion with Schaeffer’s as a correspondent sound,” ualized sounds. ambiguity to such is an essential There origin). (with a clear sound” certainly evinces much variation, but also consis- but variation, much certainly evinces aspect of Saw sonic The loud scrapes and as drones, of obscure origin, such uses sounds tently more likely but sounds as diegetic be construed could all of which bumps, screen. on lm world origin in the fi any lacking are non-diegetic, most regular and clear lynchpin of synchronized sound and image. image. and sound of synchronized lynchpin clear and most regular (Lawrence two characters is premised upon Furthermore, the fact that Saw showing allows for dialogue without room up in one Adam) chained and of the spatial set-up and is aware audience The the speaking characters. that the notes Chion has more freedom of movement. the camera thus of spatial tradition eld” has erased the “superfi of the sonic development for establish- losing the requirement lms through in fi scene construction shots, long re-establishing) ing (and shot showcasing the tape player in the hand appears simultaneously with simultaneously appears in the hand the tape player showcasing shot wake In the the action. synchronizing and marking “hit,” drum an echoed tape player, to try to obtain the some cloth uses his shirt and of this, as Adam starting passages: sonic distinct of fairly a number moves through the music of reminiscent by a sound interrupted falling ethereal monody with a high, then a sound, squeaky high-pitched a short, train passing, then a distant a voice choir), treated male like an electronically (that sounds deep drone to up the cloth as Adam picks Then, of repeated guitar feedback. brief burst to that of a bowed cymbal, similar metal sound, a synchronized use, we have Sonically, water tank being hit). (like a large deep sounds followed by echoed emanates from likely which a succession, seems very much this sequence use of the encourages digital technology contemporary the ease with which their and [DAWs] of the digital audio workstations loops (particularly sonic is further under- This “blocks”). musical samples and ease of manipulating in the toilet cistern, in a bag a saw nds Adam fi when lined by the moment guitar feedback like heavily-echoed sounds by what is accompanied which gure. fi a single musical repeated into looped and 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1179780415962612-Ch-05.indd 117 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 118

k.j. donnelly 118 Kruger’s basement intheNightmare onElmStreet films, orinspace shipssuch effect. There arehighly-effectivelow-volume continuums, such asFreddy the film moreeffectivelyinsonic termsthanmightbeavailable asavisual thetic, yetsuch general“ambiences” function toimmerse theaudience in hang inuncertainty forthelistener. logical terms,such sounds areperceived asapotential threatinthatthey ately obscure,although theirsource mightbeunderstood later. Inpsycho- points totheessential ambiguityofsuch sounds. Their originsare immedi- disturbing effectofsuch ambiguous sound isdiscussedbyChion, who diegetic? That information isneverfurnishedbythefi lm. The potentially bass rumbles(almostsub-bassrumbles)on thefilm’s soundtrack. Arethese ment through confusion ofsound and image. Similarly, thereareregular of thediegesis and, signifi cantly, addtoasenseofambiguityenviron- indication ofany diegetic originforthesesounds. They question thestatus They certainlydon’t sound liketraditional film score.Butthenthereisno we hearmuch intheway ofmetalsounds thatcould possiblybediegetic. potential threatinthattheyhanguncertainty fortheperceiver. InSaw, understood later. Inpsychological terms,such sounds areperceived asa Their originsareimmediatelyobscure,although theirsource may be are non-diegetic sound effects. diegetic sounds ofthemysterious fogitself.However, inalllikelihood, they they mightbepartofGraemeRevell’s non-diegetic music, ortheycould be in hercar, therearedeepthreateningsounds. Their statusis ambiguous— the remakeofThe Fog(2005),asDJStevieWayne (played bySelmaBlair)sits the diegetic world, mostnotably insurrealorhorror films. Forexample,in From timetotime,however, sound effectsappeartocomefrom outside mational aspectsofactivitieson screenornearbystillinthediegetic world. anchored toscreenrepresentations. They provide thespatialand confor- not invite directquestions about itsorigins.However, sound effectsare screen. Now, non-diegetic music ispurelyconventional, and assuch does somewhere thatisnot existentially connected totheworld represented on fi lm’s non-diegetic music, which alsoemanatesfrom anobscurespace are “offscreen,” theyare“offworld.” films likeHitchcock’s Psycho (1960).However, in upon thedramaofoff-screenspace concealing theunknown, such asin fusion and potential threat. The horror genreoftenhasbeenpremised matching thescreenworld and thus manifestsanextreme ofmental con- lost itssynchronization absolutely, inthatthereisno possibility ofits understood and placed in thesurrounding (diegetic) world. Itindeed has it could emanatefrom theworld on screenyetcannot beretrospectively likely hasthesameambiguityofacousmatic sound, although itsounds like wonder ifrecent cinemaiswieldingthe“non-diegetic sound effect,” which As anauralcounterpart totherare“non-diegetic insert,” They aresounds “from nowhere,” occupyingthesamespaceas 5 This appearsliterallytobeanoccultaes- Saw , thesesounds not only 4 wemight 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 119 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM

. It illustrates . It illustrates Saw but also in fi as lms such in fi also but Forbidden Planet The affective quality [of music] is consistent [with the diege- [with the is consistent [of music] affective quality The Although are not. aspects of the music sis]; the acoustical seem to by the music produced the affective associations that pro- the sounds images, to the corresponding belong brain the Somehow, do not. associations duced those or attenu- ignoring to this affective meaning, while attends (373–4) source. ating its acoustical ’s synthetic sound sound synthetic applied to Forbidden Planet’s Reverb is heavily interplan- the expansive opening of invoke rstly to effects fi imposing sense an to invoke secondly and etary frontiers, of European fteen centuries space. At least fi of size and up thundering used reverb to conjure architecture church movies followed suit power; sci-fi omnipotent scale and God- and mysticism of technological with their own brand (108) fearing morality. So, it is nothing to do with representing the world on screen and more to screen and on the world to do with representing So, it is nothing Annabel Cohen notes tone. an emotional an effect and do with providing that: a degree of mental separation emanating from the evident mismatch in Saw mismatch the evident from emanating separation of mental a degree fi lms and television series. Rick series. Rick television and lms fi Star Trek in the Enterprise Starship as the lms fi some Hollywood that note Tatroe Sonia and Jones McGraw Altman, had which sound,” “atmosphere low-volume had continuous in the 1930s space (352). Such sonic lm’s a fi in the audience of “enveloping” a function is a charac- which space, sonic of is an effect of the extension “enveloping” of reverberation effect of the degree also an but surroundsound teristic of terms, reverb In audio sound. recorded any on evident (or “reverb”) open space visually. of showing the equivalent expresses “space” as adding a sense of space around reverb, of electronic Furthermore, the use as aesthetic in er of sound might be seen as a prime signifi sound, a recorded repre- ect the space to refl attempt vague lms rather than following any fi that, “psychoacoustically, notes Philip Brophy screen. on visually sented we can aurally separate what experience: an out-of-body us reverb grants of inconsistency This it occurs” (108). the space in which we hear from ambi- the expected sound and the soundtrack on space represented sound This screen. on the space represented emanated from have that would ence in evident only is not and with an enclosed sounds, and music of expansive, reverb-drenched electronic approach and might go further, space. We visual circumscribed more than it is a repre- of a state of mind as a manifestation echo reverb and some- space but signify diegetic After all, it does not of anything. sentation In his of sound. enveloping unconscious and an emotional thing beyond, continues, Forbidden Planet, Philip Brophy of discussion 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1199780415962612-Ch-05.indd 119 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 120

k.j. donnelly 120 film thatisbeyond representational functions. these fi lms areabout mental space,enabledbythesonic dimension ofthe another, inexploringmental and psychological space.Inotherwords, the useofsound insomefi lms, fi lms thatareinterested, one way or have beenaimedatacertaintendency inmusic, but isequally applicableto wider exploration oftime,spaceand sound …”(64). This quotation may and thephysicality ofsound waves inenclosed spacehasevolvedinto a to thesynthetic mimicryofresonance, thestructuralpotential ofdelays recorded voices).Sound theoristDavid Toop points tothe“…attraction representational counterpart oftheimages on screen(and diegesis of diegetic and non-diegetic sound asapsychological effectmorethan asa echo and reverbmarks amusicalappropriation ofsound space,unifying the distinct psychologies ofmusic and sound effects. The useofelectronic As registered earlier, theunifi cation ofsound effectsand music conjoins and newage music. There mightalsobeaninfl uence from sound art, places through sound, atradition reinvigorated bycertainambient music be tracedtothetradition ofprogrammatic music, illustrating vistasand scapes thatwork on theirownindependently oftheirfi lm. This could example). However, anumber ofrecent fi lms offerveryrich sonic land- those traditions morethantheycomefrom outside (from artmusic, for and video/computer games),and theserecent scores/soundtracks engage of this–—but there isatradition ofsound effectsinfi lm (and television, music mightwellsound like“sound effects”totheuninitiated.I amaware sensual experiences. cerns should allowforthefactthatsound-dominated films areessentially naïve descriptions of“what happens”inthose fi lms. Narratologicalcon- tracks renders many analysesthatignore theirnuances littlemorethan increased depthofaestheticization evident inmany recent fi lm sound- such asthisneedacknowledgement from those studyingfi lm. The techniques and hardware have encouraged aconvergence. Developments tinct astheyhadintheheyday oftheHollywoodstudiosystem,but aspects. The personnel involved intheirproduction oftenremainasdis- what once wasafairly impermeablemembranebetweenthesetwosonic since thecomingofsynchronized sound cinema,have converged and cross sion ofscoreand sound effects. These twoaspectsoffi lm sound, distinct However, inrecent years therehasbeenmoreintheway ofradicalconfu- sounds (asindeed hasmusic habitually imitatedthesounds ofnature). efforts tokeepthemseparate.Filmscoreshave regularly imitateddiegetic Of course, music and sound effectshave always beenmixeddespite conclusion Now, on one level,someofthisdiscussion mightseemnaïve.Austere 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 121 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM is Heresy between diegetic space between diegetic not to mention the recorded soundscapes soundscapes the recorded to mention not 6 (1994) was to provide certain sounds certain sounds (1994) was to provide Crow The , Thunderstorm Recordings: Nature Freed from a functional role, freed from the diegesis, and freely mixing and the diegesis, freed from role, a functional Freed from It is incontrovertible that the category of music has expanded to include to include has expanded of music that the category It is incontrovertible sound and non-diegetic music. This manifests a collapse of mental space, manifests a collapse of mental This music. non-diegetic and sound perhaps not and its “unconscious,” and “conscious” lm’s between the fi with music, fi lm sound is able to manifest a direct emotion, and a primary and is able to manifest a direct emotion, lm sound fi with music, by developed construction mixing and of sound tradition The psychology. a over was premised upon the world uential infl Hollywood and classical with a con- and music, effects, dialogue and of sound solid demarcation appears This the system as a whole. and of purpose for each clarity comitant of the rela- solid understanding of purpose and ect a sense of clarity to refl American cinema protean that mark things in the world between tionships clarity of sonic the collapse of consensus of the time. By the same token, the cultural political developments—perhaps ect social and might refl political a social and of, or simply emanates from ection is a refl confusion is beyond what but ection,” “refl such speculate about can We confusion. collapse of the is that there is a remarkable doubt of sonic artists such as Hildegard Westerkamp. Such “soundscaping” is per- “soundscaping” Such Westerkamp. as Hildegard such artists of sonic environ- a sound attempt to objectively record haps less to do with any and as personal “psychogeographically” gure sound than it is to confi ment ed might also be identifi this process a degree, To landscapes. emotional aural psychological and a mental aim to produce lms, which in some fi . Saw as is the case in landscape, much other sound. For instance, CDs of natural sounds, not just of singing not CDs of natural sounds, For instance, other sound. much as the Global Journey such of natural landscapes, recordings but whales, CD and ambiences that can be used in the fi lm or in Revell’s score. This sug- This score. or in Revell’s lm that can be used in the fi ambiences and ed to by in its origin, as testifi design that is “musical” ed sound gests a unifi screen credit. Williams’s which has been a burgeoning area of the art world over the past couple couple the past over art world of the area a burgeoning has been which and for discussion relevant artist one instance, a concrete As of decades. known (usually is Brian Williams of boundaries a number has crossed who some of his music, eld rock in left-fi Starting as Lustmord). artistically Dunster Abattoir in as the spaces (such c were of specifi recordings early with worked [1984]). He Disowned Paradise Cathedral on Chartres Bangor and metal per- using “found” they were SPK when group rock experimental like sounded that recordings regular to produce on went he and cussion His 1990 album lm soundtracks. fi by horror they were inspired as such albums (sub)genre, while ambient” the “dark seen as inaugurating lm samples in their night- fi use of horror Soul make copious Monstrous The in has worked Over the past decade or so, Williams marish soundscapes. with in collaboration usually designer,” sound Hollywood as a “musical in SPK in the 1980s). he collaborated (with whom composer Graeme Revell lms like in fi role Williams’s 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1219780415962612-Ch-05.indd 121 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 122

k.j. donnelly 122 OnGlobalJourney records, GJ3638,2001. 6 Aphilosophical problem isposedbythenotion ofthenon-diegetic sound 5 These aretheproverbial shots oftrainsgoinginto tunnelsthatallegedly 4 Clouser worked intelevision music withAustralian composerCameron 3 Such asinothercelebrated“sonically based”films likeThe Conversation (1974) 2 When protagonist Katerunsalong thedesertedunderground train,the 1 notes in widercinema. only betweenrational and irrational elements insuch horror films but also Kracauer, Siegfried. Theory ofFilm: The RedemptionofPhysical Reality.New York: Copland, Aaron. “Tip totheMoviegoers: Take Off Those Ear-Muffs.” Cohen, AnnabelJ.“FilmMusic:Perspectivesfrom CognitivePsychology.” Clouser, Charlie. “Interview” atign.com.http://music.ign.com/articles/562/562509p1. Chion, Michel. Audio-Vision: SoundonScreen . Editedand translatedbyClaudia Carroll, Noël. Theorizing theMovingImage . Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Burt, George. The ArtofFilm Music.Boston: Northeastern UniversityPress, Brophy, Philip.100ModernSoundtracks . London: BritishFilmInstitute, 2004. Altman, Rick, McGraw Jones and Sonia Tatroe. “Inventing theCinema Altman, Rick. The AmericanFilmMusical.London: BritishFilmInstitute, 1987. works cited audience member. on anassumption about theillusory world on-screen, madebyanidealized effect. The concept ofdiegetic isitselfhighlyquestionable, beingdependent Eisenstein’s Strike(1926). intrusion ofashot ofabull beingslaughteredattheviolent riotconcluding fodder ofcomedy. Probably themostfamous non-diegetic insertisthe implied sexscenesinsilent films. They arelikelyapocryphal storiesand the Fastlane and LasVegas. He worked on shows including The Equalizerand Kojak, and morerecently on Allen inthelate1980sbeforeworking withNineInch Nailsand asaremixer. or Blow Out(1981). with someofCharlie Clouser’s kineticmusic intheSaw films. “sound effects”than“musical” inorigin. This piecehasnotable similarities music consists ofarhythmic loopoftreatedmetallicsounds thataremore Oxford UniversityPress,1960. York Times, 6November1949,section six. Hanover:Wesleyan UniversityPress,2000. Music andCinema.EdsJamesBuhler, CarylFlinnand David Neumeyer. html (accessed03/12/2004). Gorbman. New York: Columbia University Press,1994. Press, 1996. 1994. University Press,2000. Eds JamesBuhler, CarylFlinnand David Neumeyer. Hanover: Wesleyan Soundtrack: Hollywood’s MultiplaneSound System.” MusicandCinema. The New 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM musical sound design in contemporary cinema 123 4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM4/1/2009 10:43:10 AM . Manchester: . Manchester: . London: Serpent’s Tail, Tail, Serpent’s . London: Miguel Mera and David Burnand. London: Ashgate, 2006. London: Burnand. David Mera and Miguel 9 October 2004. http://www. Friday to Day,” “Day in NPR’s Clouser) Charlie 15/11/2006). (accessed nrp.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4132853 Press, 2004. University Manchester Press, 1998. University Columbia 2004. Cineaste. 21.1–2 (1995): 42–48. Sound.” 2005. Scarecrow, European Film Music . Eds Film European “Introduction.” Burnand. David Miguel and Mera, 1992. Norton, York: A Neglected Art. New Roy M. Film Music: Prendergast, with ” (interview for Saw Scary Soundtrack Clouser’s Rob. “Charlie Sacks, in Contemporary Hollywood Era: Film Sound Dolby The Gianluca. Sergi, York: . New Film Music Popular Marketing Sounds of Commerce: Smith, Jeff. The Silence and Memory Music, Weather: Haunted David. Toop, of Postproduction Technique and Art The Tanks: “Sync Elisabeth. Weis, Guide. London: Forbidden Planet: A Score Barron’s Louis and Bebe James. Wierzbicki, 9780415962612-Ch-05.indd 1239780415962612-Ch-05.indd 123 the shape of 1999

six the stylistics of

american movies

at the end of the

century

barry salt

Why does it matter whether or not there is an objective description of the standard form of American commercial cinema in the here and now? Well, just for a start, there is surely something wrong when none of the reviews of Paul Thomas Anderson’s Magnolia mention one of its major formal features, which is that it is conducted in very long takes by the standards of 1999. Amongst the hundreds of other fi lms backed in one way or another by Hollywood studios appearing in that year, there is only one other fi lm, Woody Allen’s Sweet and Lowdown, which is fi lmed with long takes. That nobody mentioned the long take style in connection with Sweet and Lowdown is just slightly more excusable, as Woody Allen has been shooting fi lms that way for many years. The fundamental principle of aesthetic judgement that is important in this context is that deviations from the norms of the period are important, and indeed potentially of artistic worth. If you can’t handle this, then you are off in the egomaniacal world where nothing but “critical intuition” is used in dealing with art. So how does one deal with establishing objective descriptive standards for dealing with the mass arts of fi lm and television?

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 124 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM the shape of 1999 125 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM he descrip- Another obvious variable used in fi lm construction is the Scale of Shot, is the Scale of Shot, lm construction variable used in fi obvious Another The easiest basic variable in fi I call the to obtain is what lm construction easiest basic variable in fi The I fi rst proposed statistical methods for the formal analysis of both for statistical methods rst proposed I fi tive terms used then were “French foreground” and “American foreground,” foreground,” “American and foreground” tive terms used then were “French terms I The up.” by the still-used term “close afterwards followed shortly of C’s Five in The to be found and in the 1940’s, current use are those V. the period, Joseph , written by a Hollywood cameraman of Cinematography Close only, head Up (BCU) shows are as follows: Big Close They Mascelli. Close Up (MCU) includes Medium shoulders, head and Up (CU) shows just below the from (MS) includes the waist up, Medium Shot body from (MLS) shows Shot Medium Long hip to above the head of upright actors, at least the full (LS) shows Shot Long the knee upwards, the body from in the the actor small shows (VLS) Shot Long Very and height of the body, of an actor sticking shoulders the head and shows which frame. (A shot of air above them does the lower part of the frame with a yard into the television lm and decades in fi as a Close Up). In recent count not of Long kinds has come to replace the various term “Wide Shot” vaguer nely graded, more fi I am keeping to the earlier, described above, but Shot or Closeness of Shot. This is measured by how much of the height of the much is measured by how This or Closeness of Shot. is visible within the frame. Again, this of the shot actors in the foreground as 1912. T least as early at from lm-makers has been discussed by fi Average Shot Length (ASL). The lengths of the shots making up fi lms have making up fi lengths of the shots The Length (ASL). Shot Average at least 1912, though lm-makers since time to time by fi been discussed from in particular of shots it in terms of the number done invariably they have lms were exactly be perfectly satisfactory if all fi would This lms. fi individual the even approximately lms are not All fi they are not. the same length, but Length, which Short of the Average introduction my same length. Hence in this matter. been taken up by other people interested has since individual fi lms and groups of fi lms in 1968, and these proposals were fi rst fi were these proposals in 1968, and lms of fi groups lms and fi individual rst results of the program fi the Form”), and published in Salt (“Film more of my year in Salt (“Statistical Style”). Much appeared the same can to critical considerations, also their application results in this area, and ). Moving into Pictures and Technology be read in Salt (Film Style and how to do it how are those for analyzing movies that the terms used be obvious It should only that the indeed and them together, makers in putting used by their to reverse the con- is for the analysis in general terms approach rational task, the for my Fortunately the work. used in creating process struction the past for most of been constant lm form have of fi basic components the in American cinema around they had been established once century, the has drawn In fact the American cinema War. time of the First World it stylistically behind along of the world cinema in the rest commercial up to the present. ever since, 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1259780415962612-Ch-06.indd 125 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 126

barry salt 126 iably contains panningmovements aswell. The zoomcategory, admittedly sometimes referredtoas“crabbing.” Any tracking on acurvedpathinvar- line, including those sideways tothecameradirection and subject,which is simple tracking shot includes only camera dollymovements inastraight are fairly self-explanatory, but itisworthremarking thatmy category of track, track withpan,track withpanand tilt,crane,and zoom.Allofthese number ofshots orcutsinafilm. with astand-in. Iexpressthesethreequantities aspercentages ofthetotal hand going into theirpocket, forthesecanbe,and frequently are,shot I alsoinclude inthiscategory such shots asaBigCloseUpofanactor’s tant scenes,eitherofwhich donot show anactorfeaturedinthefilm story. that Icollectisthenumber ofinsertsused. That is,shots ofobjects,ordis- other inthescenecount asreverseanglecuts. The otherbasic quantity In otherwords, not allcutsbetween“singles”oftwoactorsfacingeach angle (RA)when itchanges thecameradirection bymorethan90degrees. far lessfrequently, used.)Inmy work, Icount acutasbeingone toareverse expression shiftedto“reverseangle.” “Reverseshot” wasoccasionally, but angles, and indeed the term “cameraangle”itselfcametobeused,the actors, but asthecameramovedcloser in,and wasappliedatmorevaried appear in1908.Atthattimetheywerealways shot atadistance from the or oftenjust“reverses,” was“reversescene,” aftersuch thingsbegan to originally usedintheUnitedStatesforwhat arenow called“reverseangles,” tion acharacter islooking intheprecedingorsucceedingshot. (The term scene, and Point of View shots, which areshots takenexactlyinthedirec- taken inapproximately theopposite direction totheprecedingshot inthe each otherwithinscenes. These arereverseangles,which describeashot fractions intheresults,which Ithinkisunnecessarilymessy. the useofpercentages almostdemands thatone begin tousedecimal easily convert topercentages ifyou wish,bydividingfive). Incidentally, go back and alterthirtyyears’worthofresultstodothis.(Also,you can of each typeofshot asapercentage ofthetotalnumber, but Iamloathto ent ClosenessofShot. Itwould bepossibletoexpresstherelativefrequency son betweentherelativetendencies ofdifferent film-makers tousediffer- integer inthisoperation. This isdone tomakeaneasyand clear compari- there would beinanaverage 500shots inthefi lm.Iround tothenearest I thennormalize orstandardize thenumber tobetherelativeproportion gradation ofscaleshot corresponds toagainst theactor’s height. still becomparedwithmine,aslong asadefi nition isgivenofwhat each Scale ofShot inmakingasimilaranalysistotheone here,theresultscan making morethanfifty yearsago. Ifone wishestouseadifferent systemof terminology which wasinusewhen Ifi rst becameinvolved withfi lm- As forcameramovement, thecategories Iusearepan,tilt,panwith Other basicunitsoffi lm construction refertotherelation ofshots to After counting thetotalnumber ofshots ineach category inafi lm, 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM the shape of 1999 127 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM The Underground Comedy Movie Comedy Underground The Storytellers The Music of the Heart Heart to Heart.com Buys Happiness Money Curse The Point of Pirate’s Treasure The Wheels Zombies on Wax Hot Doom Point Up Pick Palmer’s A few other people have taken up these methods over the last thirty taken up these methods have A few other people what to do it to what most 1999 because this is the lms from with fi to work I chose For this survey, of American numbers been able to see large I have year for which recent an companies have (British television television. British free-to-air lms on fi lms fi to show only lm distributors with the major American fi agreement at least three years previously). that were released in the cinema in the UK fairly seems to have (which Movie Database to the International According more than 1000 American feature years), there were reliable data for recent American co- lms that are listed as fi lms released in 1999. (I am including fi made I am excluding by the IMDb, but country with another productions to men- to video” features, not also “straight lms, and feature fi for television in the animated features). Ideally, and documentaries feature-length tion selection make a random would sample, one for a representative search VHS cassettes on are available all of them not lms, but 1000 or so fi these from lms that are fi that those shows check in the USA. A rough even or DVDs at for which exactly to those fairly in these formats correspond available reduces the number This the IMDb. a vote on registered least ten people have this corpus lms from fi of twenty selection to 671. A random to be considered following list: the generator produced number using a random years, fi rst Harv Bishop in a stylistic comparison of the fi lms of Peter of the fi comparison in a stylistic rst Harv Bishop years, fi J. Porter has applied then Michael certain other directors, and Bogdanovich Buckland Warren most recently, analysis, and in television similar methods lms. fi Hollywood of recent a couple has tested them on not strictly a camera movement, includes zooms made with simultaneous simultaneous made with zooms includes movement, strictly a camera not made to are which small extent of movements Camera or tilting. panning as counted, a little are not they move about well-framed as keep the actors for the by camera operators effectively automatically been done these have same The cance. signifi without hence are years at least, and last eighty reason. made for the same of a foot or so dolly adjustments applies to small for per 500 shots number to the normalized are also Camera movements lm in question. the fi 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1279780415962612-Ch-06.indd 127 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 128

barry salt 128 20 films from theseproduced thefollowinglist: released on VHS orDVD inBritain.Makinganother random selection of a rough correspondence withthebodyofAmericanfi lms from 1999 This gave me179films toselectfrom, and theseusefullyhappenedtohave and votesarefarfrom always beingcomplimentary to thefilm concerned.) ion and voteon theIMDb.(Asyou cancheck foryourself, such opinions the corpustothose films forwhich atleast500peoplehadputinanopin- more peoplehadbeeninterested inexpressinganopinion. SoInarrowed limit myself toaselection from asmallergroup offilms about which rather Jesus’ Sonand MusicoftheHearthave beenreleasedintheUK.SoIdecidedto And would you reallywant toreadmy analysisofthem?Inany case,only Storytellers and AnInvitedGuest,someofthesefilms arelonging tobeignored. How many ofthesehave you seen,orevenheard of?Withtitleslike Three to Tango (Damon Santostefano) The Talented Mr. Ripley (Anthony Minghella) Snow FallingonCedars (ScottHicks) SLC Punk!(JamesMerendino) The SixthSense(M.NightShyamalan) The MinusMan(Hampton Fancher) The MatingHabits oftheEarthboundHuman(JeffAbugov) Man ontheMoon(MilosForman) Love Stinks(JeffFranklin) Life (Ted Demme) Jakob theLiar(PeterKassovitz) The Insider(Michael Mann) EDtv (Ron Howard) Detroit Rock City(AdamRifkin) Deep BlueSea(Renny Harlin) Crazy inAlabama (Antonio Banderas) Brokedown Palace (Jonathan Kaplan) The Blair Witch Project (Myrick and Sanchez) Angela’s Ashes(AlanParker) 10 Things IHateAbout You (GilJunger) The Distraction Raw Nerve Jesus’ Son Scar City An InvitedGuest Storm Cremaster 2 Outside Providence Coming Soon Playthings The 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM the shape of 1999 129 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM and a and 1 and Minus Man and The (1992). The graphs graphs The (1992). , and it is very brief at Ashes, and Angela’s only form a very small part of American production, production, form a very small part of American Deep Blue Sea only . The quite representative balance of genres in of genres balance representative quite The . Project Witch Blair The Over the last decade I have obtained many thousands more values for more values thousands obtained many Over the last decade I have I have also included in the results the fi gures for two additional shows. shows. gures for two additional in the results the fi also included I have this variable, so the fi gures represented in the histograms here supersede gures represented this variable, so the fi History and Analysis Technology: Film Style and in my those as in the earlier and cover the same six year periods used in that source, or height of the column ned so that the are defi intervals the class survey, lms with ASLs of fi the number represents ve, say, fi bar above the number the 1994–99 period, In the case of 5.9999. . . seconds. and between 5.0 seconds lms with ASLs greater than 25 seconds fi lms. Any this is 192 fi for instance, what we get put this in con- To Length (ASL). Shot at is Average rst thing to look fi The in this variable in American trends a historical survey of the text, I present I have gures all the latest fi 1940, including cinema since commercial collected (see Figure 6.1). This seems to me to be a convincingly varied collection, though naturally, naturally, though collection, varied a convincingly me to be seems to This of the representation proper no it contains sampling, of the method given US fea- original list of all rubbish in the absolute of amount rather large the cheap from representatives include it does 1999. However, tures from SLC Punk! Human and of the Earthbound Mating Habits with The of production, end to dollars, not thousand or two hundred one about made for being clearly mention action expensive mindless us that extremely nal sample also reminds the fi like lms fi they money much however they attract, and attention much however the case of Deep Blue in much that not actually ce. Well, take at the box-offi of them contains discovered in this sample is that none I points Sea. Minor conven- is a very City , which Rock Detroit though sequence, a real car chase car bumping highway a short have does comedy, teen rock-music tional do things such sample, though lm” in my “art fi genuine no is There duel. but the year, for production exist in the total American in thing I notice other The the edge of this category. SLC Punk! are nudging activity, explicit sexual and of nudity the sample is the relative absence of the scripts. In fact ed by many be justifi scenes could such even though in the sample is in nudity real the only These are the fi 1998, because this has, as far from lm Dark City (Alex Proyas) are the fi These up to the present, lm the fastest cutting in American fi as I know, that. I think this may actually represent a trend which has been underway has been underway which a trend represent actually that. I think this may being activity now of sexual for a few years, with explicit representation in Britain, to and of production, exiled to the very bottom end increasingly television. piece of television drama from 1999, namely an episode from the soap 1999, namely an episode from drama from piece of television Lang). Place (Richard opera Melrose 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1299780415962612-Ch-06.indd 129 American 1940–45 (Mean ASL = 8.97) American 1946–51(Mean ASL = 10.47) 250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0 97531 2523211917151311 97531 2523211917151311

American 1952–57(Mean ASL = 10.13) American 1958–63 (Mean ASL = 8.80) 250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0 97531 2523211917151311 97531 2523211917151311

American 1964–69 (Mean ASL = 7.11) American 1970–75 (Mean ASL = 6.63) 250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0 97531 2523211917151311 1197531 25232119171513

American 1976–81 (Mean ASL = 6.55) American 1982–87 (Mean ASL = 6.12) 250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0 97531 2523211917151311 97531 2523211917151311

American 1988–93 (Mean ASL = 5.85) American 1994–99 (Mean ASL = 4.92) 250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0 2321191715131197531 25 97531 2523211917151311 Figure 6.1 Historical survey of Average Shot Length (ASL) in American commercial cinema 1940–1999.

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 130 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM are lumped together in the column after the 25 second column. The total number of fi lms recorded in the 1994–99 sample is 1035, whereas the period 1970–75 is represented by only 373 fi lms. The other periods are represented by numbers of fi lms between these two fi gures, and for the whole sixty years I am dealing with 5,893 fi lms altogether. The number of fi lms covered by each graph is proportional to the total area inside the columns (bars) of the histograms of that graph. The majority of these ASLs are taken for

the complete length of the fi lms concerned. My initial practice of being the shape of 1999 satisfi ed in some cases with the ASL for the fi rst 40 minutes of a fi lm was abandoned ten years ago. The fi rst observation about the general trend of change over this sixty years of American cinema is obvious. The cutting rate or number of shots has increased fairly steady over the period, and the measure of this, the ASL, has decreased. The position of the modal (or most common) value of the ASL can easily be seen to be moving leftwards from 9 seconds in 1946–51 to 3 seconds in 1994–99. Although it stands out clearly, the modal value is not the most accurate way of measuring the general trend, because its value is susceptible to the size of the class interval chosen. Preferable is the mean ASL for each period. This can be seen to be decreasing continuously from the high value of 10.47 seconds in 1946–51 to 4.92 seconds in 1994–99. The period 1946–51 was the peak of the adoption of the long take way of shooting fi lms by a select group of Hollywood directors, though not by the majority. (Any fi lm with an ASL of greater than 11 seconds will contain many long takes; that is, shots having durations of 30 seconds and above.) The long take school of directors were still hard at work in Hollywood through the 1950s, but then they began to be displaced by newer entrants to the profession in the late 1950s, and the mean ASL started to go down. The continual decrease was held up for a while in the 1970s by a bit of a return to shooting long takes, now using the zoom lens as well as tracking and panning as a means of keeping a shot going beyond the normal length. At the other extreme, the fi rst appearance of ASLs of less than 3 seconds in American sound cinema appears to be in 1968, with Daniel Haller’s The Wild Racers, followed by Russ Meyer’s Cherry, Harry, and Raquel in 1969. Through the 1970’s there were a few more Russ Meyer fi lms, and also a handful from Sam Peckinpah and George A. Romero. In the 1980s, there were slightly more action fi lms such as the later Rambo and Rocky fi lms, and also a few action horror fi lms, that also had ASLs below 3 seconds. Then 131 suddenly in the 1994–99 period the number of fi lms with ASLs less than 3 seconds leapt to 72 fi lms out of the sample of 1035. This development is accurately represented by two fi lms in the twenty-fi lm sample for 1999 that I am analysing in detail. These are Deep Blue Sea and Detroit Rock City, as you can see in Table 6.1. Incidentally, the move towards faster and faster cutting in American cinema over the last fi fty years has not been led by American television

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 131 4/1/2009 10:45:36 AM Table 6.1 Average Shot Lengths, percentage of Reverse Angle cuts, percentage of Point of View shots, and percentage of Insert shots for the twenty-ﬁ lm sample from1999

Title Director ASL RA POV INS

10 Things I Hate About You Junger, Gil 6.7 58 4 2 Angela’s Ashes Parker, Alan 3.9 31 4 10 Blair Witch Project, The Myrick, D & Sanchez, E. 15.8 1 2 44 Brokedown Palace Kaplan, Jonathan 5.8 50 6 6 Crazy in Alabama Banderas, Antonio 5.4 45 8 8 Deep Blue Sea Harlin, Renny 2.6 24 10 23

barry salt Detroit Rock City Rifkin, Adam 2.2 25 5 11 EDtv Howard, Ron 5.5 31 8 12 Insider, The Mann, Michael 5.4 33 6 6 Jakob the Liar Kassovitz, Peter 5.7 37 10 4 Life Demme, Ted 4.5 55 6 2 Love Stinks Franklin, Jeff 4.6 49 7 6 Man on the Moon Forman, Milos 3.9 46 18 4 Mating Habits of the Abugov, Jeff 5.6 35 6 9 Earthbound Human, The Minus Man, The Fancher, Hampton 5.5 50 10 15 Sixth Sense, The Shyamalan, M. Night 8.6 57 21 15 SLC Punk! Merendino, James 4.2 38 3 7 Snow Falling on Cedars Hicks, Scott 5.3 23 6 13 Talented Mr. Ripley, The Minghella, Anthony 5.0 45 6 6 Three to Tango Santostefano, Damon 3.7 61 5 6

Melrose Place Lang, Richard 4.0 70 3 5 Dark City Proyas, Alex 2.0 26 7 14

practice. I believe the pressure on time and expenditure in television production militates against the larger number of camera set-ups necessary to get a shorter ASL. In any case, I have a collection of results for television drama and comedy for the last fi fty years, and these show that fi lm cutting rates have always been faster than those in television. The part of this 132 research relating to the last ten years can be read in Salt (“Practical”). Going back to the slow end of cutting, you can see from the distribu- tions that in the 1990s there are now very few fi lms indeed with an ASL greater than 11 seconds. I have previously suggested that for American fi lms made after 1990, any having an ASL greater than 9 seconds falls into the “art fi lm” category, though I now think that 10 seconds is a better dividing line. For the 1994–99 sample of 1035 fi lms there are only 26 features with ASLs longer than 10 seconds. The only ones from 1999 amongst the 140 odd

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 132 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM that I have so far seen, and having an ASL greater than 10 seconds, are Sweet and Lowdown, Magnolia, and The Blair Witch Project. Inside the sample, The Sixth Sense is fl irting with the idea of being an art fi lm, according to this criterion, with an ASL of 8.6 seconds. Otherwise, the majority of fi lms in the sample (16 of them) have ASLs between 3 and 7 seconds, just like the vast majority of the fi lms in my much larger sample for 1994–99. One would think that eventually a limit will be reached in cutting rate,

and we may be near it now. This limit is presumably imposed by the mini- the shape of 1999 mum length of comprehensible sentences in dialogue scenes, together with just how many reaction shots a dialogue scene will stand without looking ridiculous. There is no limit to how many shots a scene of pure action may be broken down into, but even the most mindless action fi lm needs a certain amount of explanation in the dialogue as to the reason for all the bashes, crashes and explosions. However, we may already be seeing a new way of getting the effect of a cut without actually making one within a shot. For the last several years, many action fi lms have scenes in which the lights that are ostensibly lighting the scene are fl ashing on and off during the course of the shots, which, particularly if these lighting changes are extreme, gives the effect of virtual cuts within the shot, because successive lengths of footage look so different to each other under the lighting changes. There are a number of examples of scenes with this technique in Deep Blue Sea, Detroit Rock City, and Dark City. The complete tabulation of Average Shot Lengths, percentage of Reverse Angle cuts, percentage of Point Of View (POV) shots, and percentage of Insert shots for my twenty fi lm sample from 1999 is given in Table 6.1. There is not a great deal to be said about the percentages of reverse angle cuts in the fi lms under consideration—they range from 21 percent to 70 percent, ignoring The Blair Witch Project, and all these values could have been found forty years ago. However, there are probably more fi lms with RA percentages above 40 percent than there would have been forty years ago. In the very special case of the The Blair Witch Project, its basic feature that all its shots were taken by the two cameras used by the characters in it eliminates the possibility of reverse angles and POV shots, except under very special circumstances. That is, one of the characters has to be shown fi lming one of the others, and then there has to be a cut to the footage from their camera. This does happen a couple of times in the introductory scenes, but not thereafter. You might say that the fact that since all the 133 shots in the movie are fi lmed by characters in the fi lm, then that should make all of them POV shots, but my defi nition of a POV shot is one that represents what one of the characters shown in an adjoining shot sees, which accords with ordinary fi lm nomenclature, and it is this defi nition that gives the result above. The percentage of POV shots is in general below 10 percent for the sample, with the exception of two fi lms. In Man on the Moon a great deal of

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 133 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the fi lm is occupied with the protagonist performing on stage or television, watched by people who know him, so The Sixth Sense is the only truly exceptional case. Here, a proportion of the POV shots are assigned to the psychiatrist character after the prologue near the beginning of the main story, and also at its end. Those near the beginning seem to me misleading about the physical existence of the psychiatrist, since if we see his POV shots just like those of the real people in the fi lm, this tends to imply that he exists, just like them. You might say that this goes with the treatment of the res- taurant scene, in which his wife appears to reply to what he says, and which is equally deceiving of the fi lm audience. But at least there are no shots of him done as POV shots from the viewpoint of the other characters. And barry salt it must be pointed out that the handling of “subjective” effects, including POV shots, has frequently been logically inconsistent, ever since such things fi rst appeared in movies a hundred years ago. Also striking, in a negative way, is the low proportion of POV shots in The Talented Mr. Ripley, particularly if we contrast it with Alfred Hitchcock’s treatment of a not dissimilar Patricia Highsmith novel, Strangers on a Train, fi fty years before. In that case, 18 percent of the cuts are between one of a character and their POV, and, boy, are they working dramatically! Insert shots are another aspect of “pure cinema,” as Alfred was wont to put it (or basic fi lmic narration, if you want to be pretentious about it), and these are given due emphasis in some of the fi lms. They are of course performing their suspense/thriller function in Deep Blue Sea, The Minus Man, and The Sixth Sense. The Blair Witch Project takes this kind of thing to what must be a new world record, eclipsing Fritz Lang’s efforts of long ago. (Peaking at 27 percent Insert shots in Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse [1933]. For more details see my “Fritz Lang’s Diagonal Symphony” in Salt, Moving into Pictures, 190–6.) Whether they would have worked just as well if there were rather less of them in The Blair Witch Project is an interesting question. In Snow Falling on Cedars the inserts mostly occur in the numerous arty “mental image” sequences.

how close we are

The proportions of shots of different scale (or closeness) for the fi lms in my sample are presented in a series of graphs of the histogram variety (Figure 6. 2). I have grouped them on the page according to the degree of 134 resemblance between their profi les. The degree of close resemblance between the Scale of Shot profi les for the fi rst eight of the fi lms, and also their resemblance to that for the Melrose Place television show is rather scary, particularly in contrast to the variety to be seen in the many results for the 1920s through the “High Hollywood” period of the 1930s and 1940s presented in my Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis (Salt). And of course this very heavy emphasis on the use of close shots is unparalleled in

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 134 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM Brokedown Palace Crazy in Alabama 219 200 200 171 150 150 106 106 100 100 61 63 64 46 43 47 50 32 50 37 3 3 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

EDtv Love Stinks 200 200 197 159 150 150 116 105 100 100 69 66 58 48 51 52 44 50 50 32 2 1 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human SLC Punk! 200 200 160 159 150 150 107 100 94 88 100 66 64 61 56 51 49 50 33 50 3 9 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

Three to Tango Melrose Place 244 200 189 200

150 150

102 105 100 83 100 63 50 42 47 50 31 38 22 23 6 4 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

The Minus Man Man on the Moon 200 200 195 177

150 150 125 112 100 100 66 58 56 47 46 44 50 39 50 32 0 1 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU Figure 6.2 The proportions of shots of different scale (or closeness).

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 135 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM The Talented Mr. Ripley Detroit Rock City 200 196 200 164 150 150

100 100 85 79 64 69 63 66 51 56 53 50 45 50

3 5 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

10 Things I Hate About You Angela's Ashes 224 200 200 152 150 150

100 82 100 88 64 72 68 53 52 60 50 37 36 50 3 4 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

Jakob the Liar Life 200 200 154 150 150 138 129

100 88 100 76 81 81 65 69 72 50 32 50 1 9 2 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

The Sixth Sense The Blair Witch Project 200 200

150 135 150

100 91 93 100 96 93 88 79 74 70 5959 60 50 50

2 0 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU

Dark City Deep Blue Sea 200 200 153 150 150 140 112 106 100 87 100 94 56 51 50 44 39 42 50 46 12 9 0 0 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU Figure 6.2 (continued )

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 136 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 137 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM 5 5 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU 57 62 33 Angela’s Ashes, Angela’s 102 30 140 45 117 47 128 Snow Falling on Cedars Falling on Snow 32 196 Beyond a Reasonable Doubt (1956) Beyond a Reasonable 0 0 50 50 200 150 100 200 150 100 1 33 VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU VLSLSMLSMSMCUCUBCU 31 101 79 40 48 ) . In these fi lms the . In these fi Ripley Mr. Talented The Jakob the Liar, and 98 98 79 The Insider 89 134 North By North West (1959) 12 167 is the only fi lm in the sample that has the kind of in the sample that has the kind lm fi is the only Life Demme’s Ted 0 0 50 50 200 150 100 200 150 100 fairly even distribution across the Scale of Shot from CU to LS that was CU to LS that from the Scale of Shot across even distribution fairly be due to feature may regressive This a time. upon once common quite Witch Blair The Sixth Sense and lms. The in directing fi inexperience Demme’s in but the Scales of Shot, across a pretty even distribution also have Project Big Close Up so charac- on emphasis heavy the equally this case they have even Dark City push the emphasis times. Deep Blue Sea and teristic of recent Shots. Long of the scale onto at the other end Big Close Up, and further onto of Long the extra proportion and spectaculars, ction fi are both science They the spectacular is to contain the middle range of closeness against Shots the past. The fi rst variant on what is clearly now a standard profi le is repre- profi a standard now is clearly what on rst variant fi The the past. , You I Hate About Things made up of 10 by the group sented above a more even background out of Close Ups (CUs) stand number large le is that of this sort of profi One interpretation of the other scales of shot. of lip service to the notion paying are reluctantly the directors concerned it is And alone. pure category “more Close Ups” by just going for that directors in this group— that there are three non-American noticeable Minghella. On the other hand, Anthony Peter Kassovitz, and Alan Parker, lm-makers, the former fi Adam Rifkin are purely American and Gil Junger before making 10 television of commercial amount directed a large having with making low budget been involved Adam Rifkin having , and Things this to make before getting a bit more money a while lm junk for quite fi interpre- in my Kiss. So perhaps there is nothing lm celebrating the band fi of Shot similar Scale Man on the Moon also has a fairly Forman’s Milos tation. le. profi Detroit Rock City, Rock Detroit Figure 6.2 (continued 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1379780415962612-Ch-06.indd 137 sets and their destruction and transformation that is so essential to these fi lms’ being. I wouldn’t be surprised if further work showed that this profi le was characteristic of other similar big budget fi lms. Incidentally, The Blair Witch Project has a number of peculiarities in framing, which are due to the desire of the makers to give the impression that it is the rushes of a real cinéma vérité fi lm that were shot by the characters in it. As their fear and anguish grows, the framings become compositionally unbalanced, and indeed go so far as to be a crude sort of Dutch tilt framing even when they put the camera down onto some fi xed surface to get a shot with themselves in it. These devices probably work in the usual expressive way for an unsophisticated audience, but a microsecond’s thought should barry salt tell you that someone who can conquer their fear suffi ciently to pick up a camera and fi lm what is going on, will be certain to also get the shot reasonably well framed. Finally we have two fi lms which have the most extreme use of Big Close Up, The Insider and Snow Falling on Cedars, both of which have relatively intimate stories, which makes possible such large numbers of Big Close Ups, and both of which are intentionally pushing the envelope of commercially acceptable style. They also show the way that fi lm leads television, for television shows do not get quite this close on the average, as indicated by the Scale of Shot distribution for the Melrose Place episode. (The pressure against television shows using very large amounts of Big Close Ups is that under the fast shooting regime of television, there is considerable danger of producing ugly looking pictures of the actor’s heads in Big Close Up if a slight error is made in framing by the operator. In looser framings, slight framing errors do not draw attention to themselves quite so much.) In the process of analysing these fi lms with respect to Closeness of Shot, I realized that there has been a change in the standard framing of a head in Big Close Up, and also to some extent of ordinary Close Ups, over the last decade or two. Whereas Big Close Ups used to be framed cutting the fi gure at the neck at the bottom of the frame, and at the top of the head at the top of the frame, now it is more usual to include a bit of the shoulders, and cut through the forehead at the top, so leaving the closeness just the same, but substantially changing the look of the shot. That this change had passed me by up to the point of making this analysis is yet another illustration of the usefulness of these methods. 138 moving around the scene

There are characteristic variations in the use of camera movement amongst ﬁ lm directors, and I deal with this by counting the number of camera movements of various types in the ﬁ lms (Table 6.2). These are tilts, pans, panning and tilting simultaneously, tracking, tracking with panning, tracking with panning and tilting, crane movements, and zooming. (Yes, I know the last

9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 138 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 139 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM 9 11 46 26 5 0 97 2622 1122 15 2117 12 27 3418 13 27 23 226 11 31 28 2 2 21 29 21 6 723 13 96 20 10 021 96 20 7 3 016 93 8 14 3 5 92 24 3 27 29 027 14 86 19 16 410 79 7 9 24 228 0 7 6 5 4 0 5 15 77 9 0 0 74 14 9 2 1 66 2 4 0 53 0 1 51 48 0 47 Camera movements for the twenty-fi 1999 from lm sample the twenty-fi for movements Camera Although I actually collect all these categories, in this case I will con- in this case categories, collect all these I actually Although solidate some of them, so as to bring out the similarities and differences differences the similarities and solidate some of them, so as to bring out tilts together in the So I put both pans and lms more clearly. between the fi Tracks together with the with Pans Tracks put the and of Pans, category in terms of the total lms are ordered fi The Tilting. and with both Panning distinguish I do not per 500 shots. with camera movement of shots number track- of supporting the camera, so that hand-held methods the different tracking go in together with the traditional Steadicam tracking ing and a dolly. with the camera on of these is not actually a camera movement, but it changes the content of the content it changes but a camera movement, actually of these is not to get it in somewhere.) I have and the frame during the shot, Insider, The Insider, City Rock Detroit Crazy in Alabama SLC Punk! EDtv The Man, Minus The Ripley, Mr. Talented Love Stinks 17 Sea Deep Blue 15Life 19 Ashes Angela’s 25 the Moon Man on 3Tango to Three Mating Habits of the 0 Human,The Earthbound 79 Table 6.2 Table TitleThe Project, Blair Witch the LiarJakob 24 PalaceBrokedown 79 Cedars on Falling Snow 24You I Hate About Things 10 Pan 24 28 22 15 152T P w CityDark Track 17 30 23 T w PTThe Sixth Sense, 6 0 Crane 24 22 19 20 Zoom 31 Total 47 18 30 50 310 10 3 5 25 10 0 11 0 0 1 22 104 115 103 102 7 35 0 100 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1399780415962612-Ch-06.indd 139 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 140

barry salt 140 enced, but itislikelythat these isundoubtedly intentional, since theirdirectorsareallveryexperi- Human. The noticeably smalluseofcameramovements inthefirst threeof extensively inG.I. Jane(1997),and inAnyGiven Sunday(1999)anewoptical NYPD Blue.Waving thecameraaround forextraexcitement istobefound which show theinfl uence ofthecameraoperating inthetelevision show a moreand more agitated effectaswegothrough tothelastofthese. shots having anextrabitofwobbleputon, and sointentionally producing sively gradeduseofthesetechniques, from dollytoSteadicamhand-held Steadicam, and alsoold-stylehand shooting. There seemstobeanexpres- a highamount ofcameramovement, withbothmoveson adolly, and on a The mostadventurous ofthesefi lms stylisticallyisThe Insider,which uses sense ofuneaseinThe SixthSense,but itjustirritates me,hereand elsewhere. Mr. Ripley inour sample.Itcould beclaimed thatitproduces anexpressive of thiskind of short and slowtracking inSnow FallingonCedars and The Talented in trick doesnot originatewithM.NightShyamalan, but hedoes itabitmore the cameratracks slowlyacross behind one ofthemsittingon asofa. This characters astheymovearound. The characters aresittingdown,say, and them aredone on quasi-static scenes. That is,theyarenot following the lot ofthemarealsosideways tracks orcrabbingmovements, and mostof Sixth Sense. These movements areingeneralshort inrange,and slow, and a not usedintelevision studiowork. for lotsoftracking ofany kind, and theSteadicamkind inparticular, are No doubt GilJunger wasrelishingtheopportunitytosethiscamerafree, since laying tracks foradollyisveryexpensiveintermsoftime and labour. done withaSteadicam,asithasto benowadays when thereisalotofit, Things IHateAbout You. Inbothofthesecases,mostthetracking isactually ticularly large amount oftracking withafreeheadinJakobtheLiarand 10 Dark City,though thisisnot strictlypartofour mainsample,and thepar- Other thingsthatstand out aretheverylarge proportion ofcraneshots in Life, from another inexperienced director, should beincluded inthisgroup. as hisinexperience (proven bysomedubious eye-linematches). Perhaps camera movement becauseofthesheerlack oftalent ofitsdirector, aswell Ashes, distinguish adefi nite lowcameramovement class, madeupof ment domakesomedistinctions amongst someofthefilms. Itispossibleto Nevertheless, wecanseethatthedifferent combinations ofkinds ofmove- unique withrespecttocamera movement, asitisinotherrespects. The SixthSenseandThree to Tango. Apartfrom this,The Blair Witch Project istotally simple pansand tilts,which rangebetween15and 27,withtheexception of The SixthSensethanhiscontemporaries. Indeed, there isasmalleramount Incidentally, therearesomeotherfi lms from 1999and thereabouts The otherstand-out figure istheamount ofstraight-linetracking inThe One curiositythatleapstotheeyeisrelativelyuniformuseof Man ontheMoon, Three to Tango, andThe MatingHabits oftheEarthbound The MatingHabits oftheEarthboundHuman haslittle Angela’s 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 141 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM Angela’s Ashes, Jakob the Angela’s hiatrist is staking out his prospective child child his prospective hiatrist is staking out Zooming is in general not used in our sample, at least in any noticeable noticeable sample, at least in any used in our not Zooming is in general is the use of out-of-focus of out-of-focus Insider is the use in The striking device But the most the look of the picture the look propor- was that a large the last decade lms from of fi impression My casual or bias applied to all their scenes for expressive had colour of them tion sample just in my lms of the fi stylistic purposes. But careful examination can be, even for the expert impressions intuitive wrong how goes to show correctly bal- fairly their shots lms have fi eye. In fact, most of the twenty are of the night exteriors, which light, with the exception to white anced to this exceptions minor The bias. bluish generally given the traditional an orange or amber have , which Life and Palace are Brokedown generalization exteriors, presumably to suggest the heat of the Far day bias given to many eriors int of night has a number Insider , which The and East or the Deep South, are major exceptions The with a slightly warm tone. patient. And I havepatient. in other seen this device used in these sorts of ways become a cliché. lms. It has fi recent way. (Some of these movies were fi the camera to lmed with a zoom lens on (Some of these movies were fi way. set-up to from changing of the focal length when adjustment give a quick or loosen- slight tightening an occasional sometimes they have set-up, and within the in the focal length to a small change ing of the framing due a small pan more than I count that as a zoom, any count not I do but shot, of a small number we have or tilt for re-framing purposes.) Otherwise, they naturally where concert, nal rock City in the fi Rock zooms in Detroit tel- actuality is about in EDtv, which small number a similarly and belong, real zooming is mostly habitat of the zoom. Otherwise, another evision, “Vertigo” of the is a repetition This exception. with one nowadays, out so in the reverse direction, track zoom and effect; that is, a simultaneous perspective of the shot the internal the same, but that the framing stays of expressive device is used for comedy near the beginning This changes. of near the beginning also almost invisibly , and You I Hate About Things 10 the psyc, when Sixth Sense The effects. For instance, when Russell Crowe enters the room where the bosses where the room enters Russell Crowe when instance, effects. For lm, the the fi of near the beginning are meeting company of the tobacco is in sharp of the big boss, which of the head of the back is a Close Up shot he and of focus, out well and in the background is distant focus. Crowe he is the object of even though the shot, for the rest of that way stays Big from way are also brutal focus pulls all the There interest. principal of out-of-focus with messy bits play much and Shot, Long Very Close Up to in a thoroughly of the frame in the foreground, hair etc. obscuring parts way. unconventional device was used in front of the lens on some shots to give the effect with effect with to give the shots some on of the lens in front was used device at all. moved being not that was a camera 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1419780415962612-Ch-06.indd 141 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 142

barry salt 142 sets, sothatthereisno separation ofthefigures from thebackground. out ofshot, withtheleveloflightfallingrapidlyaway tothewallsof its poverty-stricken interiors litbyone ortwofairly small softsources just tional inthisrespect. This film hasmuch themostrealisticlighting,with Jakob theLiar,and completelyabsent inAngela’s Ashes , which istrulyexcep- the figures. This tends tobelow, asusual nowadays, and islargely absent in and Stinks and Life through toverysoftlightingon thefigures in the interior scenes. This rangesfrom hard lightingon thefi gures inLove place avaryingdegree ofhardness (directionality) inthelightappliedto noticeable variation inlighting styleacross thesample,withinfi rst touch ofthemiserablesaswell. Atamoretechnical level,thereisajust and inthecaseoflatter, toemphasize thepastnessofstory, witha emphasize themiserableconditions under which theircharacters exist, all colours throughout. Inthefirst two,thishaspresumablybeendone to Liar, and Snow FallingonCedars, allofwhich have haddesaturation appliedto behind thecharacters changes within theshot to represent theirfantasies. ingenious way. SLCPunk!hasacouple ofscenesinwhich thebackground the dialoguecarryingback and forthbetweenfantasy and reality inafairly the leadingcharacters arefollowedbyadepiction ofthesefantasies, with action, and Life hasasequence inwhich theverballyexpressedfantasies of representing theimaginings oftheprotagonist arecutstraightinto the ing mental images intheminds oftheircharacters. In films isthelarge number ofthemthatuseshots and sequences represent- shows lessthan5 percent having narrated stories. it wasfi fty yearsago, since aquick check on alistoffi lms from 1946–51 the storyhasbecomemorecommon inthelastcouple ofdecadesthan framed byatrialscene.Myimpression isthattheuseofnarration topower Snow FallingonCedars isamixtureoffl ashback narration and memories made bysomekind ofextra-terrestrialbeingabout thesubjectoftitle. Earthbound Humanispresented asadocumentary, withpersonal narration, pear, soitdoesn’t really count asanarratedfi lm. The MatingHabits ofthe regretting what hehaddone toinitiatetheaction, but thisdoesnot reap- scenes. fl ashbacks toldtoanaudience byanoldparticipant withintheframing appears inthefilm astheiryounger self, while Life ispresented asaseriesof Punk!, and CrazyinAlabama arenarratedinvoiceoverbysomeone who that wasstandard fifty, and more,yearsago. Oftherest, Fourteen ofthesefi lms telltheirstoriesinthebasicstraightforward way telling thestory The otherfeaturethatIhave noticed in theseand many otherrecent Man ontheMoon.Another variableistheamount ofbacklight usedon The Talented Mr. Ripley isbegun withavoiceoverbytheprotagonist The MinusManscenes Angela’s Ashes, The MinusMan SLC 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 143 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM The Blair Witch Witch Blair The , Falling on Cedars Snow there are fantasy scenes belonging belonging scenes are fantasy there Single shots of unexpected content suddenly cut into the narrative into suddenly cut of unexpected content Single shots The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human of the Earthbound Habits Mating The how good are they? are good how aesthetic worth are, objective criteria for evaluating and most rational The 3. Success in car- uence, 2. Infl 1. Originality, of their importance: in order Here, as in other respects, intentions. maker’s the rying out also and to execution, conception for its originality from out stands Project The No. 3. Criterion under success scores some points its great commercial of them none since lms, for all these fi success counts of commercial degree their makers undoubtedly lms, and fi avant-garde lms, let alone are art fi Falling runner-up in originality is Snow The success in mind. had commercial images, mental and ashbacks mixture of fl worked , with its heavily on Cedars then SLC focus, and with play Insider, with its novel followed by The closely as such style tricks, of New Wave lm uses a small array last fi This Punk!. talk- and sequences, documentary fake jokey freeze frames, peculiar shots, transformations besides the matted-in background ing to the audience, 3, success in carrying Criterion Evaluating already mentioned. that I have inten- the maker’s what knowing on depends intentions, the maker’s out if out nd easy to fi lms this is mostly fairly fi for recent are, and tions form part of the press this usually on statements to. Indeed, want you in the case of release. For instance, lm’s at the fi pack In have begun appearing in quite a number of fi lms recently, and other nota- other and lms recently, of fi a number appearing in quite begun have ash appearing fl the skies with lightning 1999 include ble examples from Sunday. (Oliver Any Given of Oliver Stone’s in the latter parts gratuitously directors, of other the work on uence a bit of infl has had quite Stone most out- The , in this sample.) Cedars Falling on in particular Snow including inside the bullet of a spent 1999 is the viewpoint of the cut-ins from landish Kings. Apart from Three O. Russell’s soldier in David guts of a wounded inserts is that they ashes and of these memory fl the point showing-off, cutting rate a bit. the of increasing way are another to the human characters who are the subject of the fi lm, which doesn’t doesn’t which lm, the fi subject of are the who characters human to the also has his Sixth Sense the psychiatrist in The sense, and logical make much any have does not Crazy in Alabama visually. represented images mental head of the female a voice inside the it does have but images, mental visual convey times, presumably to at track the sound on through lead coming the lm, besides this fi , throughout Falling on Cedars As for Snow her insanity. ashes of brief fl there are also many sequences, ashback fl conventional The unexpectedly. past cutting in the characters’ of objects from images dramatic develop- of much with the lack of all this, together combination reduces its narrative lm, almost trial scene of this fi in the framing ment failure. its commercial explains ciently suffi and drive to zero, 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1439780415962612-Ch-06.indd 143 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 144

barry salt 144 Cinematographer, ScottHicks said: according toaconversation recorded byChrisopher Probst intheAmerican in thereviews. This isthatthereareno dramaticdevelopments stemming commenting on afeatureofJakobtheLiarwhich Ihave not seenmentioned ards alsocounts under thecraftpartofCriterion 3,and hereitisworth Human inthisarea. The quality ofscript construction byconventional stand- Criterion 3.Soone candefinitely mark downThe MatingHabits oftheEarthbound and evaluating theirsuccessindoingthismakesuppartofthecalculus of these fi lms wereintending tocomplywiththeordinary craftstandards, photographed inhighkeythroughout. adaptation ofthisnovel, RenéClément’s Pleinsoleil(1959),wasequally in cynicismand nihilisminfi lm scripts.Incidentally, theprevious fi lm that areoutside my immediateconcerns, such asthemarked increase appeared inrecent decades,along withvarious changes insubjectmatter commercial fi lm. Itoccurstomethatthisisanother tendency thathas like thatofHicks, issurprisinglyperverseforthemakerofanexpensive avoid thestandard fi lmic expressivemethods, soMinghella’s approach, As Ihave noted above,thereareotheraspectsoftheformthisfilm that Minghella isquoted byJay Holbenassaying that: of realartfilms, who tend toshrugoffsuch reactions. were indeed concerned withaudience reaction. This isunlikethedirectors for theaudience rejection ofitupsetitsmakers,which shows thatthey He moreorlessachieves this,but obviously theideawaspushedtoofar, One canreasonably assumethatthemakersofmoreordinary of Something similaristhecasewithThe Talented Mr. Ripley. Anthony look thatwould stand in counterpoint totheaction. (57) to doabsolutely thereverse,and lend thefilm aromantic sentiment, wedecideditwould bemuch moreinteresting monochrome and increasingly moodyimages fullofpre- led on. Ratherthanpresent Mr. Ripley asacollection of contradict theratherpurgatorial journey thatwearebeing innately gorgeous about thelandscape, and completely The film islitwithwarmhues thatservetocollectwhat is slice ofcake.(Probst 98) through itsdifferent timeframes,likeaknifethrough a Hatsue and Ishmael.Iwanted thefilm tomoveseamlessly teries: what happenedatsea,inthewar, [and between] through thegradual unravelling ofseveraldifferent mys- principle intheoveralldesignoffilm. The storyistold away atonce, but insteadgradually. That wasour guiding is quite what itappearstobe;therefore,you nevergiveitall The whole fi lmisabout theprocess ofrevealing.Nothing 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 145 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM Up to this piece of research, I have always worked with prints of the with prints worked always I have Up to this piece of research, Discovering the infl uence of a fi several years, to wait for at least lm has a fi of uence the infl Discovering fi lms I was analysing, and indeed almost exclusively with 35 mm prints, and and with 35 mm prints, almost exclusively indeed lms I was analysing, and fi It machines. at-bed editing other fl and Steenbecks with them on I worked lms, of most of these fi been possible for me to get 35 mm prints have would been have transport would hire and the costs to me of educational but ve the cans up fi of then lugging the labour to mention £2,000, not around So the Film School. of the London oors of stairs to the editing department fl a non-linear VHS tapes. I fed these into and DVDs from analysis was done a cheaper PC (though an ordinary editing system, in fact Adobe Premiere on they were being digitized in real time, while do just as well), and NLE would in the digitizing programme the window the camera moves from I recorded to do in real time, analyst, this is just possible screen. For the experienced lm in the fi more slowly through I went Then lms. even for the fastest cut fi requires usually which the Scale of Shot, recording the NLE programme, lms with for the fi particularly going back, and starting some stopping and Two this pass. the Inserts on I also record Lengths. Shot Average very short POV of reverse angles and more passes are necessary to get the numbers with a jog- VHS recorder a do this on VHS tape I usually a If I have shots. these last two quantities recording manage as I can usually control, shuttle the complete it is possible to do lms. Alternatively, at high speed for most fi as control, with a jog-shuttle VHS recorder a on entirely analytical process ana- in the past. For my programmes analysing television when done I have is awkward players system for DVD control the standard lytical procedure disc. directly with the DVD trying to work to use when and so it cannot be applied to the evaluation of these movies. A fi lm’s infl u- infl lm’s of these movies. A fi evaluation be applied to the so it cannot and in it, both lm-makers have fi other the interest on of course, depends, ence term. in the longer and immediately, of the trade tricks the complete characteris- by recording be done should the analysis Ideally, down the etc.) in succession length, (scale, movement, shot tics of each complete analysis of all the permits the most This lm. length of the fi I initially the variables. But although between possible interrelationships longer three times about it took that I found years ago, tried this thirty odd gives This cases. used, except in a few special since I have than the method see made above. you the general comparisons for information cient suffi over the length sequentially quantity used here collects each method The to days 35 twelve-hour about took this method even lm, and of the fi lms dealt with in this article. fi analyse the twenty-one from the basic situation established at the beginning until about half-way half-way about until at the beginning established basic situation the from audiences. for most ciency defi a serious is of course This lm. the fi through in this respect. equal discussed here are fairly lms not of the fi rest The 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1459780415962612-Ch-06.indd 145 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 146

barry salt 146 the intended cinemareleaseframing. Another diffi culty thatcanoccur fi lm wasshot from much furtherback thanitreallywas,withrespect to copy. That is,ifIhadanalysedthe VHS copy, Iwould have found thatthe of thesceneverticallyin VHS framethancould beseenintheDVD ’Scope proportions. This meant thatforany shot much morecould beseen the cinemaprints, wastakenfrom themiddleoforiginalframein the VHS copyhadbeentakenfrom thefullframe,and theDVD copy, like check showed thatinthecaseofDeepBlueSea,which wasshot inSuper35, I alsochecked withthe VHS copyofthesamefi lm where possible. This release prints ofthefilm. screen orevento’Scopeproportions byopticalprinting when makingthe silent periodaperture. This image on theoriginalfilm is maskedintowide- “full” apertureinthegateofcamera,which is equivalent tothe old fi lms inSuper35.Inthisprocess, thecameraexposeswhat iscalledthe screen, thisproblem hasreceived anewboostfrom theshooting ofmany an increasing trend toreleasing VHS copiesproperly maskedintowide DVD transfersarevirtually always giventhecorrectmasking,and thereis tions thatwereintended tobeseeninthecinema.Despitefactthat fi lms, transferredtovideo,and not maskedin tothewidescreenpropor- Academy image thatwasinvariably recorded on thenegative forAmerican shot “fl at,” i.e.withspherical lenseson thecamera,may have thefull wide screenfi lms. The problem isthatfi lms madesince thenwhich are or inawidefilm system,thediffi culty doesnot existinquite thisformfor screen on projection, orareshot inone oftheanamorphic ’Scopesystems, American featurefilms madesince 1954 areintended tobemaskedwide- of themoredistant Shot Scalesinto thenextcloser category. Since all Close Upsinto theBigCloseUpcategory, and anevensmallerproportion on theScaleofShot isfairly slight,asitshiftsaverysmallproportion ofthe when theyareshown inthecinema,oron aSteenbeck. The effectofthis around theframeon transfertoagreaterextent thanthescreenmasking both 16mmcopiesand, evenmoreso,videocopiesarecropped inall from videoand DVD copiesoffi lms. ForoldAcademy screenratio fi lms, recordings. Moreimportant isthequestion ofScaleShot determination correction intheaboveresults.Nocorrection isnecessaryfor NTSC applied totheASLbymultiplying itbyafactorof25/24.Ihave appliedthis the originalrunningtime. This meansthatacorrection factorhastobe ning timewhen played on PAL systemdevicesisshortened by4percent of the consumer mediumat25framespersecond. This meansthattheirrun- per second when theoriginalfilm weremade,but arealways transferredto These areinitiallycreatedfrom fi lm prints thatwereshot at24frames relates purelytotheuseofrecordings madeforthePAL television system. when working from taperecordings orDVDs offi lms. The fi rst ofthese Where possible, I usedDVD copieswhen analysing thesample,and There areimportant cautions tobemadeabout the analyticalprocess 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 147 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425 0 50 100 150 Figure 6.3 1987. lms released between 1982 and Length of American fi Shot Average coda lms in this cutting rate in American fi the latest results for the check If you some discrep- will notice , you Technology in Film Style and those against article small samples that I had in is inevitable, given the relatively This ancies. the last word restricted stylistic norm ed an increasingly has identifi I believe this research lm making, feature fi American commercial that has gripped most ordinary I have and shooting, close continuous using extremely fast cutting, and this stylistic from deviations nature. Substantial described its essential to low restricted entirely, quite fortunately not but are mostly, norm unexpected and of other interesting a number lm-making. And fi budget the way. turned up along have points with fi lms shot in Panavision, or other ’Scope systems (as opposed to (as opposed systems other ’Scope or in Panavision, shot lms fi with VHS frame is that full camera), with a Panavision lmed being fi merely ’Scope frame. A panning” the 1:2.35 and be made by “scanning copies can will show the video transfer ’Scope frame during the across pan made than more of a problem so creating no true height of the frame, almost the end one cut from a scanning lm, but fi ratio of an old Academy a video copy an introduces sometimes happens, which frame to the other, of the ’Scope there are a there before. If wasn’t which lm the fi into extra cut apparent Length Shot this will affect the Average of these, number substantial even I of them, but the expert eye can detect most Fortunately, slightly. to lm. But re-examining a fi missed some scanning cuts on I have nd fi be culties can most of these diffi copies to DVD stick as you repeat, as long avoided. 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1479780415962612-Ch-06.indd 147 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 148

barry salt 148 train, and much ofthisfootage wasshot hand-held, which would have bucks byshooting in EasternEurope. AgreatdealofDerailed wasseton a really bigbudget production, but Misiorowski gotquite alotofbangforhis has anAverage Shot Lengthof1.63seconds. This fi lm wasclearly not a directed byBobMisiorowski, and starringJean-Claude Van Damme,and it ting champion, which probably stillholds thetitle.ItwasDerailed(2002), bly, withinayearofwriting“The Shapeof 1999,” therewasanewfastcut- a DVD recording ofitpublishedayearortwoafteritsrelease.And inevita- since everyAmericanfilm madeand shown inacinemawillcertainlyhave truly random sampleoftheAmericanfi lms shot inany particularyear, Average Shot Lengthforthatperiod. 1982 to1987,itisprobably prettyclose tothecorrect value ofthemean sents about aquarter ofthepopulation ofAmericanfi lms fortheperiod years. Inotherwords, itincludes lotsofrubbish.And giventhatitrepre- Length ofeveryfi lmIcould possiblyseeon television overthelastdozen strictly speakingnon-random, itresultsfrom my gettingtheAverage Shot statistical samplingtheory. Eventhough my much larger present sampleis a random sampledragging intoomany non-typical fi lms, according to Shot Length,but not certainly, since thereisanappreciablechance ofeven would probably have gotcloser tothetruevalue forthemeanAverage I but itwasalsodefinitely non-random. That is,itwastakenfrom films that the areaof2,000to3,000Americanfeaturefi lms made from 1982to1987, sample wasnot only smallgiventhesizeofpopulation, which wasin tion (thefi lms), byselectingasamplefrom thepopulation. Myinitial ble (Average Shot Lengthinthiscase),which ischaracteristic ofapopula- which accounts fortheerror. small samplehasrelativelytoomany fi lms intherange7to9seconds, present sampleis6.12seconds. Closerinspection shows thattheearly mean Average Shot Lengthfortheperiodcalculatedfrom thevastlylarger give ameanAverage Shot Lengthfortheperiodof8.4seconds, whereas the are about thesame,inrangeof 5to6seconds. However, theearly results allowing forthedifference in scale,and themodal(mostcommon) values there isageneralresemblance betweentheshapesoftwodistributions, whereas thelatestresultsareforasampleof596fi lms. You canseethat graph. They areshort becausethesamplesizein1992wasonly 75fi lms, of also includes thedatafrom thehistogramforsameperiodon page 283 those years. for theASLsofAmericanfilms releasedbetween1982and 1987,inclusive of 1992. To illustrate theeffectofsamplesize,infigure 6.3Ireproduce agraph wanted toseeinthose days. Ifithadbeen completelyrandomly selected,it Film Styleand Technology, which isrecorded asshort tinted barson the However, inthisnewtwenty-fi rstcentury, itisfi nallypossibletogeta All thisillustrates abasicfactabout thereliabilityofestimatingavaria- This isbasedon therelevant histogramyou canseeinthisarticle, but 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM the shape of 1999 149 4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM4/1/2009 10:45:37 AM Journal of Hill Street Blues.”Hill Street End of Days, directed . London: Starword, Starword, . London: 28.1 (1974): Film Quarterly ed. London: Starword, Starword, ed. London: nd . 2 and Analysis History Technology: Film Style and Moving into Pictures: More on Film History, Style, and Analysis Style, on Film History, More Moving into Pictures: 2006. Studies, 2,1 (2004): 61–85. and Television 1992. Media Practice 2.2 (2001): 98–113. The Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 31 (1987): 323–34. and Electronic Journal of Broadcasting The Bogdanovich with Ford, Hawks, Hitchcock and Welles.” M.A. thesis in M.A. thesis Welles.” and Hitchcock Hawks, with Ford, Bogdanovich 1985. University of Colorado at Boulder, Journalism. American Film: A Guide to Contemporary Studying Buckland, Warren Elsaesser and 2002. 80–116. Arnold, Edward . London: Movie Analysis 1998. 13–22. corpus of American fi It is in England. shown lms of 1999 fi corpus of American by Peter Hyams. It contains 3875 shots in its 112.5 minutes running time, in its 112.5 minutes 3875 shots by Peter Hyams. It contains After studying it, I believe Length of 1.74 seconds. Shot is an Average which years. in later will be broken can and this record New Review of Film Review was published in the New chapter of this version An earlier ——. “Practical Film Theory and its Application to TV Series Drama.” TV Series Drama.” to its Application and Theory ——. “Practical Film ——. 81.6 (2000): 97–105. American Cinematographer C. “Impeccable Images.” Probst, Sight & Sound 43.2 (1974): 108–9. Aesthetics.” Salt, B. “Film Form, Style, and Pictures.” ——. “Statistical Style Analysis of Motion works cited works of Analysis in Film: A Comparison Variable Medium “A H.J. Bishop, Thomas Style Analysis.” Statistical Criticism and “Mise en scène W. Buckland, 81.1 (2000): 56–71. American Cinematographer Ego.” Holben, J. “Alter . Los Angeles: Silman-James Press, of Cinematography C’s Five The V. Mascelli, Joseph Directing Styles in Comparative Analysis of M.J. “A Porter, ——. 1 the ed from identifi stakes has just been in the fast cutting A new winner speeded up production considerably. Unlike the previous speed champions, champions, speed previous the Unlike considerably. up production speeded this of the shooting in elegance to visual attention much was not there restrictions. of budget casualty another transitions; to tidy shot lm, nor fi note 9780415962612-Ch-06.indd 1499780415962612-Ch-06.indd 149 tales of epiphany and entropy

seven paranarrative

worlds on

youtube

thomas elsaesser

the trouble with narrative

Film theory has always had particular problems with narrative. Was story-telling the cinema’s manifest destiny, as an earlier generation of historians used to think, or does “early cinema,” especially in the formula of the “cinema of attractions,” prove the exact opposite? How medium-specifi c is narrative, given that it is generally recognized as a quasi-universal way of making sense of experience? Is (classical) narrative a mode of world-making or “totality-thinking” that reveals or refl ects Western capitalism’s political unconscious (in Fredric Jameson’s sense)? Or can narratology, as a highly specialized and sophisticated trans-media discipline, manage to clarify the problems (e.g. levels of narration, enunciation, the role of the reader) that classical fi lm theory, based as it was on linguistic models, failed to resolve? Some of these questions now seem to belong to a by-gone age, a pre- history to our present that in several ways is hardly recognizable. Not only because, according to a wide-spread (but highly debatable) belief, narrative no longer matters in mainstream cinema, driven more by special effects

9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 150 4/1/2009 10:46:43 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 151 4/1/2009 10:46:43 AM4/1/2009 10:46:43 AM My aim is less exalted, but this essay is nonetheless concerned with the concerned is nonetheless this essay My aim is less exalted, but Today, then, a more anthropological, but also technologically infl ected infl also technologically but then, a more anthropological, Today, changing function of narrative: that is, with the question of what happens of what of narrative: that is, with the question function changing for shaping human have cultural forms we of the central one when itself in a nds fi the “real world” about sensory data as well as information of much happens when Or more precisely: what of overstretch. condition by stored, and i.e. recorded is being produced, information this data and the has been the case since which with humans, in cooperation machines, is being fully acknowledged which but century, of the twentieth beginning the Photography, rst century. of the twenty-fi the beginning since only in this respect: gather- are all hybrids the Internet and cinema, television, that narrative can make sense of, and ing more sense-data than humans of kind what Second, i.e. articulate, “linearize” or “authorize.” can contain, by the of witnessing are afforded of spectatorship, of participation, roles is which access of this data, especially in an environment and display discrete also “dynamic,” cinema), but collective (like the public and common, loops, for feedback allows that is, which (like the Internet), “interactive” and shapeless. and both endless potentially is thus in real time, and change approach to narrative seems to prevail, according to which narrative is narrative to which to prevail, according to narrative seems approach retrieving of storing, organizing, c, way culturally very specifi one, only may that other modes are both possible and accessing data in time, and and to be seen as a special instance tends Narrative now even be more desirable. as the lm narrative—be regarded case of fi or—in the of the “archive” cultural superiority when and rival for quasi-universality all-but-defeated the (computer- or video-) game. In the anthropological competing against accord- functioning principle, organizing sense, narrative is still a central of which some rules, “scripts” or “programs,” c compositional ing to specifi death, or as birth, maturity, “life” patterns, such large-scale are mapped on In the case of myths, or the initiation. the quest of the journey, the idea on fashion either bricolage function, the cultural or religious narratives have coding processes and Lévi-Strauss), or by other taxonomies follows (if one the to represent Lakoff), follows George (if one of natural phenomena purpose within it: narrative as place and our and origins of the universe, “his” God(s) . . . between “man” and of the “interfaces” one and spectacular scenes than story-telling skills and careful plotting. It is It careful plotting. skills and story-telling than scenes spectacular and antiquated, especially seems now city that media-specifi with the concern faith or the and remediation, and belief in intermediality given the general that is the ambition gone Also long “convergence.” fears surrounding to read all master code by which the linguistics might provide (structural) to advertisements lms, from texts to fi literary from of culture, products two “database narratives”: and narrative” there is “interactive And fashion. thanks to the in the discussions, occupying pride of place now oxymorons challenges conceptual possibilities and success, aesthetic commercial games. enjoyed by computer 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1519780415962612-Ch-07.indd 151 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 152

thomas elsaesser 152 have totaketheformofclassical narratives.Hecanevenclaim that scène, orprovide resources foremergent narratives” (2004),yettheydonot associations; theymay embednarrativeinformation withintheirmiseen tial stories.” Heargues that “spatialstoriescanevoke pre-existingnarrative gamer communities. tial storiesorspatialnarrativesincreasingly gainattention evenoutside cited asthecompetitorsforhegemony ofnarratives,and so-calledspa- ceivable and doindeed exist. Computergames,asjustmentioned, areoften simultaneity, ubiquity and placelessplaces,otherculturalformsarecon- beginning, middleand end areonly one such culturalform.Intheeraof one oftheaxeson which tostringdataand accessit,thenstorieswitha plotting atrajectoryand providing closure. Itfollowsthatiftime isonly such asequence and formakingconnections ofcontinuity, contiguity, of ending” areone and thesamething)isonly one axison which toconstruct arrow, tending towards closure: and inthisrespect“death”and “thehappy the caseofnarrative,on our primaryexperience oftimeasanirreversible space and subject,orthe“here,” the“now” and the“me.” position,” or“reader-address.” Narratives,inotherwords areabout time, of reception ormodeofaddress:what usedtobereferredasa“subject- and stylisticresources known as“narration,” provide foracoherent point monly inalinear, consecutive fashion: theyalso,through thelinguistic Narratives areways oforganizing not only spaceand time,mostcom- determines thedirection ortrajectoryofthejourney, but key-words or chain ofaction and reaction, nor the temporalsuccession oflocales contiguity, combinatoryand chance. Inotherwords, neitherthecausal Vladimir Propp and many other narratologists),but bytheworkings of ter’s aims,obstacles, helpersand opponents (tocitethestoryformula of different sites,spacesand places,not bythelogicofanindividual charac- narratives and gamesneedrules),and thenletshim/herselfbetakento dynamic architecture, setsupafewground rulesforhim/herself(both YouTube—might beabletotell,once auserdecidestoengage withtheir stories thesitesofWeb 2.0socialnetworks—MySpace, Facebook, Flickr, their time(interesting though thismay be),but moretoseewhat spatial My concern islesstoturn Tolstoy orDickens into gamedesignersbefore Henry Jenkins,forinstance, thinksofbothnarrativesand gamesas“spa- My essay startsfrom thenotion thatlineartemporality(basedasitis,in easily communicated inagodgamelikeCivilization. (2004) the context ofanovel, yet itoutlines ideas,which could be Napoleon’s Russiancampaign. The passage isdeadweightin of alternativechoices mighthave reversedtheoutcome of ment ofWar andPeace where heworks through how aseries true callingasagamedesigner, should rereadthefinal seg- anyone who doubts that Tolstoy mighthave achieved his 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 153 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM , how seductive it is to take as reliable fact what has been written, seductive it is to take as reliable fact what , how One could object that the post-human position too readily subscribes position object that the post-human One could Most of us are well aware of the dangers of relying on such a monopoly a monopoly such of the dangers of relying on Most of us are well aware between man and machine, bios machine, to the more or less smooth alignment between man and model of evolution: operates with an adaptationist thus and techné, and biology studies of evolutionary recent to some eminent according which of information, but we also know, from our frequent, if shamefaced use of frequent, our from we also know, but of information, Wikipedia in a hands more rewritten by many once and deleted rewritten, amended, of others, I accept the conven- with millions along Yet single Wiki-entry. myself willy-nilly align and affords, ready-to-use knowledge such ience development: momentous of a potentially with the implied consequences to in turn, we tend This, machine. “man” and of mind, the creeping fusion collapse of the nature/culture divide, as part of the overall take for granted which condition, post-human as part of the so-called cally, more specifi and they can be seamlessly articulated with beings so that gures human “confi essential there are no (Abbas). In the post-human, machines” intelligent compu- and between bodily existence demarcations or absolute differences biological organisms, and between cybernetic mechanisms ter simulation, quests. pursuing goals or humans and programs running on between robots post- of the representative a prominent of N. Katherine Hayles, In the words cogni- of distributed is happening, is the development view: “What human of in hundreds computers interact and humans in which tive environments (1999). often unobtrusively” daily, ways constructive instability constructive in scripted experiment as the site of my YouTube I opted for when Thus, clos- YouTube is only Not cinema in mind. had the spaces, I still very much different extracted from segments visual that it shows est to the cinema, in movies, advertisements, home performances, media (cinema, television, suggests the YouTube also because but pop-concerts), sessions, camcorder a full universe: if of totality, owners, Google—of a kind its illusion—like seem to think, it either people now Google, many it on nd fi cannot you (and so increasingly and or having, worth knowing not exist, or is doesn’t I needed for a lecture recently when YouTube: surprisingly) with equally th in the video Griffi by D.W. Wheat of A Corner in get hold not could but be able to I would reassured me that YouTube on check a quick library, the web. directly from scene my show tags, tag-clouds or clusters of such key-words, embedded links, user’s user’s links, embedded key-words, such of or clusters tag-clouds tags, is a long There associations. “free” own one’s of course, and comments, in literature, going concatenations and chains such of generating tradition Cervantes’ as such novels, rst narratives we call the very fi to some of back lms like Luis to fi , all the way Shandy Tristram Sterne’s , or Lawrence Don Quixote . Palindromes Solondz’ Todd Phantom of Liberty and The Buñuel’s 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1539780415962612-Ch-07.indd 153 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 154

thomas elsaesser 154 the concept ofconstructive instability. This, too, I takeready-madeofftheshelf, also known as“smallworld syndrome”). “six degrees ofKevinBacon,” aparlour version ofthat partofchaos theory another populargame:“sixdegrees ofseparation” (oritsmovie-fan version: game as“Chinesewhispers,” and intheway Iuseit,iteasilycombineswith more thanafragment oftheprevious contribution. Children know the participants, continuing adrawing orapieceofwritingwithout knowing the technique—Cadavres exquis (Exquisite corpses)—involved adaisy c derived from Freud’s psychoanalytic freeassociation. Aspecifi c technique popularamong theSurrealists—automaticwriting—allegedly and theirurban dérives. Ialsofallback on anold-fashioned avant-garde and Walter Benjamin,beforebeingrevivedbytheParis Situationists the mannerofmetropolitan flâneur madefamous byCharles Baudelaire I imagine myself aWeb 2.0-flâneur, minglingwiththeanonymous crowd in generated web-links,and theirembeddedinformation. Atthesametime, machine symbiosis”asfact,Ialignedmyself withthelogicofauto- limits. Accepting,forthesakeofargument, thepost-human “human- YouTube mighttell,when certainoftheparameterslistedabovearesetas edge” and “life”implicateeach otheron theweb,but ofwhat “narratives” this question Iconducted anexperiment: not only ofhow “art,” “knowl- “convergence culture”canmakeitshome on theInternet? In order totest aggregation and clustering, what kind ofartorknowledge, what kind of verge around replication and repetition, self-regulation and feedback, dissemination: iftheprinciples of“art”and “life”collapse,coalesceorcon- death, orclosure). this context would beanother word forfi nitude, thatisthecertainty of “human,” inthesenseof“un-adapted”and sensitiveto“failure” (which in mutation, chance and contingency), inorder toremain“art,” thatis, emulating processes ofreproduction, replication, random generation, culture aswenormally understand it)hastobecomemorelife-like(by both engineeredand programmable, thepossibilityarisesthat“art”(or may evenhold out apromise: as“life”becomesmore“artificial” bybeing “engineering” and “programming.” This raisesaninteresting prospect and “art” and “artifi ce,” allofthemnow practicessituated between“design,” but ofatechné which needsitselftoberefi gured around thenotion of of “culture”and “nature,” bothofwhich stand under thesignoftechné, of thepost-human position, one iswell-advisedtoreflect on thedefi nitions remain constitutively un-adapted. confi dently, Damasio and DanielDennett),ismuch toolarge anassumption tomake (by Francisco Varela, Thomas Metzinger, but alsoincluding Antonio To givesomeindication ofthe resultsoftheexperiment, Ishallintroduce Similarly inthesphere ofknowledge production and knowledge On theotherhand, itistruethatevenifone rejectsthefullimplications 1 since itwould seemthathuman beingsaremorelikelyto version of hain of 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 155 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM The advantage gained was manoeuvrability. While an ordi- While manoeuvrability. gained was advantage The to change energy wings requires ghter with swept-back nary fi simply would the X-29 [with wings tipped forward] course, this particular Although indicated. “fall” in the direction of aware designers are well aircraft plane was never produced, Fighter manoeuvrability. the trade-off between stability and to being unstable, while are, by design, very close planes today (Vorhees) passenger planes are designed for stability. Mindful therefore of the fragility and fallibility of both human beings fallibility of both human and fragility therefore of the Mindful and of machines, I found it advisable to factor in the structural value of it advisable to factor in the structural value I found of machines, and as the feature that needs to be eliminated, but as a negative not “failure”: productive. can be seen to become failure potential where very point is failure potential or rather where productivity, of such c example A specifi X-29, as the ghter planes such fi advanced a special feature, is the USA’s could only that not unstable fashion an aerodynamically designed in such is already the to a lesser extent (which alone be piloted by humans they not jets): they would or jumbo airliners transatlantic commercial case of many speeds: aircraft at most sub-sonic be extremely dangerous as it were. Its engineering provenance has been overlaid by a neo-con by a neo-con overlaid has been provenance engineering were. Its as it Lebanon–Israel the about Rice Condoleezza by for instance, usage, political the civilian among she called the deaths summer of 2006: war in the “constructive Israel and in Lebanon chaos the resulting and population the is not instability constructive me about interests What instability.” the but (“shit happens”), Rumsfeld of Rice or Donald implicit cynicism the narratives of a place in have even “failure” and idea that “instability” to make about the points One of situations. emergent adaptive, dynamic or imponder- risk and they involve one: systems is an obvious self-regulatory on in his attack Lanier, guru” Jaron “Internet others, the As, among ability. about is real concern there out, has pointed Maoism,” Wikipedia as “digital collectives are and individuals of control extent and of agency the kind life, in everyday of much systems” run so “intelligent when over, handing nancial the fi or—especially—on the government, the area of medicine, systems such of modern warfare. Information in the conduct and markets as realized, more fallible than is usually considerably them are as we have that chaos the gridlock failures, electricity power-station can be seen from that come effects are down, or the knock-on c lights the traffi ensues when c systems. Of course, air-traffi in the international disturbance a local from hierar- but phenomena, self-regulatory that these are not argue could one precisely built and was conceived the Internet top-down, while and chized typical of linear forms of com- to minimize the domino-effects in order due to the general It is indeed or command-and-control. munication dent system that we feel so over-confi distribution success of this package circuits. systems and of all complex in the workings 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1559780415962612-Ch-07.indd 155 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 156

thomas elsaesser 156 risk, but alsoadesignadvantage. from thestart:not asadesign fault,but speciallyengineeredasacalculated indeed, fallibilityshould bebuilt into thishuman-machine systemright in otherwords, wasthattheprinciple ofinstabilityand volatility, and spectacular “crashes”inrecent times.Oneconclusion ofmy experiment, also inherently unstable:how dangerously socanbeenseenfrom some more advanced tradinginstruments, such asfuturesand derivatives,are A similarexamplecould begivenfrom thefi nancial markets, where the combination ofsearch terms—the tagclouds—with thecluster mechanisms and feedback dynamicsofthese“opensocials”or“social graphs” i.e.,the telethons. advertising, children’s television, mathsclasses, aswellgameshows and raphy and fl ip-books, galleryshows ofavant-garde artistsand high-end from contexts asdiversethecinema’s beginnings inchronophotog- using theappropriate tags, linksand comments, turnedupvideomaterial ances, television and personal camcorders. Inmy experiment, forinstance, rarely originateson theweb,but consists ofclips from movies,perform- and what is“real.” Inthecaseof YouTube, thematerialorcontent still tested-and-approved, Iamtemptedtosay) understanding ofwhat is“true” exists: modified, inotherwords, byathoroughly pragmatic (Richard Rorty users’ ownsenseofwhat isimportant, useful, amusing orofwhat simply (as controlled byGoogle)isconstantly modifi ed and amplifi ed bythe and user-generatedcontent websites,where themonopoly ofinformation equilibrium on theInternet, were—asmentioned—the socialnetworking force centred on constructive instabilityasasystemicallyprecarious it collapsesorself-destructs.Myfocusofattention forthisnewfi eld of purpose ofdrawing maximalusefrom theprocesses engendered when form, namelyastheproperty ofan artefact,constructed and built forthe of crisisand criticality. no longer mobilizeaviableresponse otherthanageneralized condition have littletraction, while thenotions of“resistance,” “critique,” “opposition” priate, but where thepost-modernvocabulary ofappropriation, pastiche also anxiety ofinfl uence ortheautonomy ofstyleseemincreasingly inappro- where classical ormodernisttermslikeprogress, mediumspecifi city, the the Internet, when placedagainst thefamiliarhorizon ofglobalization, disciplines may have witheach otherinrespecttonarrative,especiallyon fi lm- and media-studies.Ifocuson thetransfersorconvergences these performed failure took meinamorecircumscribed field of application— I now want toreportwhere theideaofconstructive instabilityor performed failure: narratives ofcollapse Utilizing what Iunderstand tobetheunderlying algorithmicstructure I understand theterm“constructive instability”fi rstinitsmostliteral 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 157 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM tipping , etc., to , etc., reaction chain , instability 2 It also seems very fi tting that a Japanese car maker should have com- have tting that a Japanese car maker should It also seems very fi Looking at the original advertisement more closely, it is clear that the it is clear more closely, the original advertisement at Looking missioned this ad, for it was Japan that fi the US how and Europe showed rst ad, for it was Japan that fi this missioned costs by just-in-time delivery: in to reduce how to make cars with robots, we several of the principles rms that pioneered it was Japanese auto fi short, this on which, but the term “post-Fordism,” together under lump now What (or “Honda-ism”). just as well be called “Toyota-ism” analysis, could assembly line mise en scène of a meta-mechanic we see, then, is the ironic slogan has it) or (as the Honda Pure magic” hands! no “look: says which life of objects so beloved by to the oneiric “the power of dreams” (alluding Bardou-Jacquet, bien sûr, Antoine a Frenchman director, The the surrealists). videos, work- music ads and creative artist of high concept is a well-known Britain. and ing in both France setting connotes a gallery space: white walls, wooden parquet fl oor, no no oor, fl walls, wooden parquet a gallery space: white setting connotes unmis- but in a playful, It also alludes light-sources. controlled windows, artists of the twentieth of several canonical to the work takeable fashion Alberto installation: eld of sculpture and in the fi notably century, as oor,” “fl The André. Carl Tinguely, Jean Calder, Giacometti, Alexander pop art area; it combines display opposed to the wall, has become the main art. of land conceptualism with the ecological to easel painting resistance the honda cog the honda as is generally known and car, Accord is for the Honda advertisement The of Internet amounts It generated—besides enormous Cog.” the “Honda in the Guardian, the in the press, with articles coverage c—serious traffi effect cross-over it had a substantial the BBC. In short, on Independent and became, in fact, an “urban legend.” media as well, and the traditional into a Monty factor that it spawned recognition and is its reputation Such of the by two promoters called the “Human Cog,” parody, Python-esque service called 118.com. UK directory assistance and sort algorithms of the YouTube site, I began, a few months ago, to ago, months a few began, site, I YouTube of the algorithms sort and , terms collapse of the trail the semantic follow starting to make my I decided take me. Eventually, it would see where “made history” In 2003 it had British advertisement. two-minute a point as of the Internet the power success proved fame and because its only not because its production also but for advertisers, attention” of a “window in it squarely dollars to produce—put six million around cost values—it the ambiva- It also demonstrated of Hollywood blockbusters. the league of as a bipolar principle understood of the idea of collapse, when lence of bal- in-between: of transition, moments with creation, and destruction term of urban- use a favourite or—to concatenations, of interlinked ance, climatologists—of of ecologists and also sociologists, but ists and points (Gladwell). 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1579780415962612-Ch-07.indd 157 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 158

thomas elsaesser 158 banter betweenQand Bond. rolled joints, allplayed out against intense homophobic/homo-erotic Californian beach cultureand airliftsuspension, Rizzlacigarettepaper, references arenow toChristopher Lambert,BobMarley, theRastafarians, scene, which givesitaquite different sub-textand culturalatmosphere: bly inGoldfi nger by theimmortalengineer-inventor played byDesmond Llewelyn,nota- Q, given atthemodifications workshop inthebellyofMI5headquarters, the Aston Martin’s gadgets, and especiallythose fabulous demonstrations link immediatelyconnected the“life” ofthepartsHonda Accord to from theHonda Accord totheAston MartinDB5,Bond’s famous car. The Bond, and sodidtheusersof YouTube. Very soon Idiscoveredtags thatled just work.” Iassociated itimmediatelywithSeanConnery and James there isthevoiceatend, intoning thetag line:“isn’t itnicewhen things parts), inorder forthemtoperformhumans. nature documentary, about thepatience ittakestotrainanimals(here:car contemporary automobiles,but italsomimicsthegenericfeaturesofa guage ofcinemaour fascination withtheengineeringmarvelsthatare Honda’s famous “Successis99%Failure”—ends upcelebratinginthelan- video—which, byanicecoincidence,“making-of” hasasitsmottoSoichiro inevitable concatenations ofcollapsingmoments and obedient parts. The immense effortthatwent into theproduction of such aneffortlessand yet video,which givessomeglimpsesofthe extract from a“making-of” well asgenerously celebrates. temporary art:preciselythesort ofartthe“Honda Cog”gently mocks as and tothisday isone ofthemost influential collectors ofmodernand con- also worked), who inturn“made”“Young BritishArtists”chic and hip, pany thatdevised theposter, and forwhom Antoine Bardou-Jacquot has made advertisingchic and hip,thankstoCharles Saatchi (headofthecom- ing” wasthe1979-sloganthatbrought Margaret Thatcher topowerand one ofthemostfamous party-politicalcampaignsever. “Labour isn’t work- when thingsjustwork?” cannot but evoke—for aBritishlistener, atleast— cultural layers. For, besidesBond and automotivegadgets,“isn’t itnice (reminiscent ofbothMarcel Duchamp and Charles Chaplin). tion and transmission, but inamanner thatmakesthemmeta-mechanic cated, ingenious orroundabout way, utilizingcommon principles oftrac- humble tasks(likesneezinginto ahandkerchief) inanespeciallycompli- (1883–1970). The namestands forakind ofmachine thatdoessimpleor ately associatesone obvious fatheralsooftheHonda Cog—Rube Goldberg but visiblydelightsinhisplayful as welllethalmodifi cations, immedi- Back tothe“Honda Cog”:besidestheallusions toJapanand post-Fordism, The linkson YouTube around the“Honda Cog”quickly leadtoan Apart from thevoice,itiswords thathold another keytothead’s The gruffboffin-engineer from MI5who “neverjokes about hiswork,” (1964).Another linkbrought metoaFrench mash-upofthis 3 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 159 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM 4 Fischli and Weiss’ 1987 fi follows the lm, Der Lauf der Dinge fi 1987 Weiss’ and Fischli as string, effect of a series of simple objects such domino cups, rubber tires, plastic soap, Styrofoam bags, garbage re, combined with fi when mattresses; and pails, balloons, these objects form a hypnotic gravity, air (gas), water and that disturbs the viewer with its kinetic energy of chain potential. chaotic two Swiss artists, Peter Fischli and David Weis, who have been working been working have who Weis, David and Fischli two Swiss artists, Peter The connections between the “Honda Cog” and “Der Lauf der Dinge” Cog” and between the “Honda connections The The rough, para-industrial set-up, the processes put in motion as well as put in motion set-up, the processes para-industrial rough, The There are many descriptions of this video on the Internet. One reads: One the Internet. of this video on descriptions are many There (just as the ironic allusions to their respective predecessors in art, cinema allusions (just as the ironic the very stuff of cultural history popular culture) are, of course, and as the materials used inevitably recall many of the key elements of modern of the key elements as the materials used inevitably recall many not but practices, notably other avant-garde art and sculpture, conceptual sus- and for balance II period: the concern War the post-World from only the late art (from assemblage Constructivism), and (Suprematism pension and 1960s), trash objects, garbage the 1950s and 1940s), kinetic art (from small and Pop), ready-mades New Realism and materials (from recycled the energies nally, fi and Duchamp), made useful (Marcel wasted energies for- not Andre, of Carl the work inert matter from in apparently inherent paint- the action Serra and skills of Richard getting the macho-engineering Pollock. Jackson pre-programmed—of ings—here duly automated and On the (on-line) sleeve of the DVD one fi endorsements, more hyperbolic nds fi one sleeve of the DVD On the (on-line) choreographed—A “ingeniously tags: YouTube also more potential but masterpiece would ); “This Times York (New extravaganza!” Duchampian come drawing Rube Goldberg (Flash Art); “A made Picasso envious” have of . . a gleeful send-up de force. Epic tour ); “An Tribune to life” (Chicago (Art in America). Thermodynamics!” of the Laws der lauf der dinge der lauf at the only not Cog” nod-and-wink of the “Honda the words However, or of Saatchi lms, Charles fi of James Bond (whether cognoscenti knowing did (which problems possible legal also anticipate but political campaigns) makers the where so obliquely) (not by acknowledging arise), indeed a nor gallery, a London not idea for the ad from: the had “appropriated” of the most one There, of 1987. the Kassel documenta from but billboard, Lauf der Dinge” “Der video, entitled a half-hour popular art-pieces was Things Way generally translated as “The of things” literally “the course of the bi- (exploiting the possibility I think better rendered but Go,” Its authors “Lauf”Things.” from Life of linguistic slippage to “Life”), as “The are was their international videotape This 1970s. the early together since breakthrough. 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1599780415962612-Ch-07.indd 159 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 160

thomas elsaesser 160 of reference atwork: thatofthetest,ortest-run rewards hisperseverance). a drivenand relentless perfectionist: success—theperfecttake—fi nally authenticity) aswellofauteurism(theartist’s vision isparamount, heis mercial filmmaking (money and labour invested equals aestheticvalue and videoone recognizesalltheclichéscreation: ofcom- inthe“makingof” Internet phenomenon itwould be),isverytraditional intheideologyofits serendipitous initsmedia-effects(no one anticipated quite what an far, Iwould highlightthefollowingpoints: fi rst, the“Honda Cog,” while its early stages offormation. totality-in-the-making, however amorphous orblob-likeitmay appearin nonetheless seemingtoformpartofadiscernabledesign,“narrative”: loaders iscross-hatched withagooddealofcontingency and chance, while topical, taste-drivenorart-historicalknowledge baseoftheusersand up- and hierarchy, inwhich the(admittedlystillmainlyverbal)pop-cultural, themselves: inotherwords, byadifferent, much “flatter” modeoflinkage me not bycriticalessays, but bythe YouTube tags and usercomments these culturalreferences, genealogiesand associations weresuggestedto ture. Yet thepoint tomakeinthepresent context isthatthemajorityof motional toolalsoformuseums and othertraditional templesofhighcul- adopted not only forcarsand othercommodities,but isnow astaplepro- rescue ofhighculture,eventhough thistypeofadvertisinghasbeenwidely of distinctions, ratherthanaspartofthe(democratizing)solution or and 1980s.Itisbymany seenaspartoftheproblem oftheculturalcollapse made globalbyamong others,Saatchi &Saatchi inBritainsince the1970s nomena isfurthermorethetrademark ofthesmartad,aspioneered and tion.” The saturation withpunsand arcane references tointer-media phe- of plagiarism: of“homage,” “remediation,” “pastiche” and “appropria- sions canbeaccommodatedwithinthetraditional parametersjustthis side in bothitsmodernistand post-modernistvariants. The echoes and allu- trials, therecalcitrance and resistance ofthematerials,emphasizing spective thatopenedinOctober 2006.It,too,concentrates on theendless specially compiledbyFischli and Weiss fortheirmajor Tate Modernretro- video alsofor“DerLaufderDinge,” challenge, thereisnow a“makingof” that ever-elusive, dogged-by-failure, perfomativity. Asiftorespond tothis tion, excellence and self-improvement, which istosay, intheserviceof machine arefrequently mentioned, humbly putintheserviceofperfec- failure” rule. Likewise,thelabconditions, thestresstestsofmanand it took 605takesto“getitright,” eloquently illustrating the“99percent take, there-take,hereamplified and exaggerated tobecomeitsownparody: voiced, withthepost-human. Inthe“Honda Cog”itmanifestsitselfinthe precisely betweenDeleuze’s “control society”and theconcern, already Second, and asacounter-argument, one canobservealsoanewframe If Iweretodraw somepreliminaryconclusions from my experiment so 5 6 astheparadigmsituated quite 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 161 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM Touch of Evil (1958) Touch gravity-defying Roadrunner gravity-defying The other studied anachronism concerns the physics used in both used the physics concerns other studied anachronism The A third point, worth highlighting because it brings the “Honda Cog” brings the “Honda because it worth highlighting point, A third a retrospective a studied anachronism, notes one in both works, Finally, works, and the way they fi Neither gure causality. they fi the way and works, and “Der Lauf der Dinge” not only in line with each other, but aligns them but other, each in line with only der Dinge” not “Der Lauf and work is that both are the lm theory, fi lm studies and issues in fi with major the on comments this in my I already highlighted lmmakers. fi de fi of bona is it but blockbuster, to the Hollywood its proximity and Cog,” “Honda lm/video- exists as a fi Lauf der Dinge” only that “Der out worth pointing self-destruction, of machinic of a performance lmic record the fi tape: it is not in the 1960s, or the Fluxus York them in New staged Tingeley as such staged an event but Actionists, Vienna the and Vorstell Happenings of Wolf of an auteur- case is that in each mise en scène The cally for the camera. specifi to move it, when to place the camera, exactly where decides who director, A half- its (con-)sequence. and action each reframe to frame and how lms with maxi-budgets, mini-fi lm theory comes alive in these of fi century of opting for the implication and “montage,” take” and the “long around edits” “invisible some While in depth” or “cutting in the camera.” “staging preferred choice editing is the continuity take classic are discernable, long Welles’ as Orson ways in both pieces, as calculated in many their respec- concerns has two aspects: one This temporal deferral at work. technique, Regarding the other their (meta-) physics. tive artistic technique, to certify in the “making of” Cog” team are proud video (indeed the “Honda this extraordinary of their success) that they engineered it is the condition in the with the aid of digital effects, which not “for real” and concatenation And to “cheating.” amounted have aesthetic they are committed to would in advertising, so the norm yet, by 2003 digital effects had already become it from knows as one such is a deliberate self-restriction that their decision of Modernism. Likewise, Fischli art at the highpoint minimalism or concept artists were seri- the time when their tape at around produced Weiss and of video to the new media technologies their response considering ously a manifesto in favour is clearly work Their editing. digital compositing and in the face of nger stuck middle fi an ironic indexicality, of materiality and the in the heated debate about taking their stand the digital to come, and age. post-photographic in the loss of indexicality performativity now in the mode “performance of failure” as a goal in itself, as a goal of failure” mode “performance in the now performativity Cog”). the “Honda (as with thing” “vision asserted vulgarly than any rather , Player The in Robert Altman’s pastiched (famously shot opening tracking (1967). Wavelength Snow’s zoom in Michael 1992) or the bravura dream logic of a Salvador Dalí or Hans Richter the oneiric here, nor antics operates at the familiar middle- lms Causality in these fi lm sequence. fi the physics, Rooted in Newtonian proportions. within human level and invisibi- fast disappearing into makers celebrate a visible, tangible world, as well as at the of the scale (at the macro-astronomic lity at both ends 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1619780415962612-Ch-07.indd 161 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 162

thomas elsaesser 162 places: toCairo inEgyptand OhiointheUS,toGroningen inthe Buñuel’s sive, refl exive and self-referential thantheMarxBrothers’ Duck or Soup Mephisto on theirMagic CarpetinF.W. Murnau’s Faust,and more recur- most wonderful journey ofdiscovery, morestupendous thanFaustand of rhizomaticprofusion, beckoning inalldirections and sending one on a which openedupwholly unexpectedavenues, inawonderful efflorescence on theInternet and YouTube startedoffseveralotherchain reactions, infi nite repetition. thing else,precipitatingaFallinto theHellofeternal in-difference and tion extractstheterriblepricethateverythingbegins tolook likeevery- rules, but unlike theGreatChainofBeingrisingtoGod,thisconcatena- Internet is“pre-modern”initsregime ofrepresentation: resemblance serendipitous descent into chaos. InFoucault’s epistemicterms,the referenced toyetmoreofthesameand thesimilar, plunging one on a thousands ofsimilaroreventhesamevideos,commented on and cross- ously balanced and perilously poisedoveranabyss:ofhundreds, ifnot narratology, against ahorizon ofa“stupidGod.” around theworld; and athird answerwould be:into theproblems of imposed constraints? One answerwas:nowhere atall;asecond one: all became my search criteria,and once YouTube’s tag-clouds defined my self- my epicentres, once “collapse,” “concatenation” and “chain reactions” take me,once Ihadchosen the“Honda Cog”and “DerLaufderDinge” as node around “constructive instability”and theperformativityoffailure ture inmy test,thequestion arose: where would thissemantic knot or with tagging and user-generatedlinkson YouTube poses.Foratthisjunc- the tippingpoint alsoencapsulates themainchallenge thatmy experiment the “BigBang,” i.e.thebirthofour ownphysical universe. sion, asifone wereinvited tobeonce morepresent atthemoment of nation ofbuild-ups and disastershasalsoamoresombre,cosmicdimen- tweaked forhumorous effect,while in“DerLaufderDinge”theconcate- display areinthecaseof“Honda Cog”highlystylizedand deliberately YouTube are,precisely, non-linear and rhizomatic. The “oldphysics” on in themediawhich one now encounters theirwork: theInternet and micro-sub-atomic level),but alsoinsistingon alinearcausalityvanishing collapse). While clearly applyingtotheirwork asawhole, bevor’s zusammenbricht (balance ismostbeautifulatthepoint ofimminent Fischli and Weiss have astheirmotto: around theworld ineightyclicks All overtheworld:searching the“Honda Cog”and “The Way Things Go” Nowhere atall:followingthe YouTube tags puts one on acusp,precari- The Phantom ofLiberty.Butitalsotook metomany different “real” Am schönsten istdasGleichgewicht, kurz 7 thisaestheticsof 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 163 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM 8 A different kind of task preoccupies an obsessively ludic New York artist York New preoccupies an obsessively ludic of task kind A different by the name of Tim Fort, whose website is appropriately named “www. website is appropriately Fort, whose Tim by the name of hybrids, Goldberg his time devising Rube spends who and lunatim.com” to the of the cinema itself. His homage to be little allegories turn out which Ott’s Fred galloping horses, of cinema (chronophotography, beginnings its transport by and strip, and the celluloid more evoke Sneeze), once here made visible but unseen by the spectator, devices, machine through “kinetic art Fort himself calls his works simplicity. in their mechanic repertoire of impulse transmission devices, using an extended movement this originary idea of cinema and of montage,” the magic and techniques over ghost, like a fantasmagoric hovers, movement, as pure mechanical so contraptions: meta-mechanical Rube Goldberg of the Internet’s many makes of the site some- YouTube on presence their clustered so that much as it is—in its as much funeral parlour, reverential thing like the cinema’s parlour. pachinko at least—an electronic Japanese versions That the tags from Fischli and Weiss should quickly bring one to Rube to Rube one bring quickly should Weiss and Fischli from the tags That the there,” suspect that “out was to be expected. But little did I Goldberg a very serving contraptions elaborate mechanical such idea of building several countries, that following, and an enormous simple purpose, has conventions, Rube Goldberg annual the US, hold and Germany including imperfect) function- (usually rehearsals of their and trials, test-runs while are public halls, but or in large workshops ing take place in high-school or on in New England, garage Dad’s most often videoed in the proverbial With the cam- apartment. Cairo oor in a fl bedroom the little brother’s geniuses of little more than eight or ten years at the ready, always corder a bottle catapulted by a mouse- from ll a cup of coke to fi how try out of age, the ringer- of to use the vibrations us how trap snapping tight, or show on that switches reaction to set off a chain mobile phone their setting on by Purdue organized convention the radio. At a major Rube Goldberg US, the task all over the from engineering graduates University among of twelve separate fresh orange juice using a minimum was to squeeze steps. self-propelling mechanical, cluster and forking path “rube goldberg” path forking and cluster Netherlands and Yokohama in Japan, to Manhattan and to Hamburg, to to to Hamburg, and to Manhattan in Japan, Yokohama and Netherlands in Germany to teenagers lab in Utrecht, to a science and Indiana Purdue, a television and Tokyo in loft, to a gallery York in a New an artist and be retraced paths can or forking journeys Not all of these studio in Paris. of them some bundled sorted and I have sake, convenience’s here, so for small “cluster-bombs,” to become the clusters allowed and clusters, into “Der Lauf Cog” and the “Honda from outwards radiating ignited and der Dinge.” 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1639780415962612-Ch-07.indd 163 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 164

thomas elsaesser 164 cluster and forking path“pythagoras switch” rithms, and thus theappropriate patron saint not somuch for the Pythagoras would have beenafi tting grandfather ofthepoweralgo- terms ofthemagic ofnumbers and themysteries ofmathematics. Middle Agesand beyond, and whose mainanalysis oftheuniversewasin important Gnostics oftheancient world, who survivedrightinto the Euclidean solids, as welltotheso-calledPseudo-Pythagoreans, thefirst leads one inyetotherno lessintriguing directions: togeometryand to the universefrom itshinges.ButthefactthatitiscalledPythagoras Archimedes’ name:thesinglepoint ofequipoise thathesaidcould lift principle ofpitagora suicchi resemblesthefamous fulcrumassociatedwith be calledtheArchimedean switch alsoforanother reason. Afterall,the (it)]” usually attributed toArchimedes (and not Pythagoras), but itshould parapraxis, afailed performance: namely, not only is“Eureka,[Ihave found less tend to think ofthename“Pythagoras” asamisnomer and evena Granted thattheseshort performances doindeed flip aswitch, Ineverthe- thinking about thinking,tofl ip thatepiphany switch ineverychild.” Switch’ wants tohelpkidshave thatmoment ofA-HA!We want toraise dren aresupposedtohave, thankstoasortofcategory switch: “‘Pythagoras NHK websitethemakersmerelyhint at“theEureka-experience” thatchil- the strictrulesofphysics. of indeterminacy, miraculously conjoining thepleasuresoffreeplay with jingle. APythagoras Switch isaminimalistexercise increatingclosure out fl ip confi rms theidentity oftheshow and plays amaddeninglyaddictive the moment when theballfallsinto areceptacle or hits amini-gong, the a tiny flourish, apoint ofrecursivenessand self-referentiality. Signalledby side-effects and causedelightfuldistractions. The journeys always end with switches and gatesthatopenupunexpecteddetours, provide surprising mechanism ofsuspension, reversal,dispersion, and through levers, interrupt but cannot fi nally stoptheball’s trajectoryacross balancing gravity (Newtonian, forsure),theobjectscreateintricate obstacles, which tous but steadydownward motion. Subjectingtheballtolaws of allow one orseveralsmallballs(or coloured marbles)totravel inacircui- bands, steeltapemeasures,chinaware spoons) alignedinsuch away asto ious combinations ofeveryday objects(tea-kettles,books, pencils, rubber “Pythagoras Switch,” and isaimedatchildren. Itshows simple,but ingen- collectively known aspitagora suicchi. This istheJapanesepronun cluster ofvideosfrom a Tokyo-based educational television programme, unlikely combination “JapaneseRubeGoldberg” landed meamong a of theusercomments—in anapparently quite different direction. The that led—“laterally”but alsobythesimpleaddition ofanadjectiveinone From theRubeGoldberg connection itwasbut “one degree ofseparation” Why isitcalledPythagoras Switch? Nobodyseemstoknow, and on the ciation of 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 165 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM pitagora pitagora 9 Another of these televised Japanese shows on YouTube features a more YouTube on of these televised Japanese shows Another of lesson another home also brought toppling contests domino The If the Pythagoras Switch is minimalist and haiku-like, in its elegant econ- its elegant haiku-like, in and is minimalist Switch If the Pythagoras the side of is all on by contrast, cousin, a close delicate epiphanies, and omy refer- I am of hand”: “getting out of the nearly and excess, the incremental with knock-on to do Japanese pastime, having ring to that other major is in too, Japanese television Here, toppling.” effects, namely “Domino as such telethons, domino regular it appears to stage since the forefront, which and mouse-click, with another I happened to hit upon the one and rich a notoriously Sukarno, of Dewi inventory featured the entire models herself (who personality television and society-lady amboyant fl All her of shoes). racks and racks least by owning not Imelda Marcos, on lined furniture, etc.—are books, jewellery, coats, shoes, belongings—fur cascade of con- other in a descending each on fall up so as to topple and oor of the top fl commodity fetishism from and consumption spicuous to the swimming pool. out and her villa to the basement Pythagoras Switch and instead for the sort- and cluster-algorithms of cluster-algorithms and for the sort- instead and Switch Pythagoras next place, right rst fi in the suicchi pitagora me discover that made YouTube to Rube Goldberg. TV celebrity and day” path “domino forking and cluster high-tech contraption, where the steel ball’s trajectory is only one phase, phase, one is only trajectory the steel ball’s where contraption, high-tech includ- setting off further reactions, and agents releasing other mechanical also gravity- but Weiss, and in the manner of Fischli ing small explosions on is commented show The sh bowls. in goldfi action defying underwater as if they are the performing parts, encourage re up and fi by experts, who and race or a steeple-chase, like a sack in a competitive sports event, players grace of videos in particular combines the conceptual of the one as commodities, Just follow the tag.” ag, follow the fl “don’t globalization: state, so of the nation “respect” the boundaries longer no labour trade and and borders easily cross telethon” or “domino reaction” “chain the tags also has an toppling, for instance, of domino world The even continents. with the rambunctiousness of Sumo-wrestling, while serving a typi- while of Sumo-wrestling, with the rambunctiousness suicchi namely to make a simple task—in this case purpose, cally Rube Goldberg top—very compli- on with an egg to prepare a bowl of Ramen noodles the aesthetic that is worth noting it again, Once indeed. intricate cated and the Pythagoras while the televisual: oscillates between the cinematic and takes, with a camera that pans and prefers long programme Switch the and contest Rube Goldberg reframes rather than cuts, the Japanese of televised replays the typical action favour by contrast, telethon, Domino they are also reminis- commentary with their spoken but sports events, the they even re-invent cinema, and of silent of the “benshi” tradition cent lms. Porter fi rst Edwin the very fi from overlap action 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1659780415962612-Ch-07.indd 165 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 166

thomas elsaesser 166 assembled multitudes makeupa gigantic portraitoftheirDearLeader. nies ofOlympicGamesortothefl ag-waving girls inNorthKorea,whose “image,” comparabletotheformations one seesattheopeningceremo- year’s theme.Music,magnitudes and motion wereallintheserviceofan fell, theyformedanever-changing kaleidoscopeofimages thatfi tted the Domino Production Company and televisedbyEndemol. Asthedominoes on thethemeof“MusicinMotion” designedbytheWeijers Brothers the 2006world championship, heldon November27,2006inGroningen, number ofdominoes inone go:4,079381million ofthem,tobeexact,at champions and holders oftheGuinnessrecord fortopplingthelargest (in alternation withtheSouth Koreans),theDutch have beenworld a mereclick away from Tokyo. Foritseemsthat forseveralyearsnow annual championship, the“Domino Day,” which madetheNetherlands describe theeffectsofthisencounter? both “stupid”likechance and “all-knowing” likeGod.How canone nal logicgenerallyescapeshim/her), anew“authority” interposes itself, the access-points, by way ofsort-algorithms and tag-clouds (whose inter- ryteller touser. Yet since theuserdepends on the“machine” togenerate “syuzet” or“plot”)seemstopassfrom “narrator”to“narratee,” from sto- tion ofinformation, and theorder orsequence inwhich itisaccessed(the (the “fabula” or“story”), narrational authority, i.e.the(uneven)distribu- clusters ofmultiply interrelated and virallyproliferating semantic links logic ofthetime–spacecontinuum, i.e.thediegesis istransformedinto with, namelytheplaceofnarrative asinterface betweendataand user. As the can betackled here, but itallowsmetoreturnthequestion Istarted through words, sound and aboveall:images. representations thatgive asenseofrecognition and self-presence, relayed increasingly impatient (aswellasaccident-prone) humans, requiring visual switches (electric-electronic dominoes, one mightsay), and intelligent but performative) machines, runningon programmes relayed togatesand face—the “interface,” inshort—between stupidbut infinitely patient (and other. Forthis“image” isnothing but thefilter, membraneoruser-friendly very different kinds ofsystemareexpectedtocommunicate witheach “image” reminds usofthefactthatinman-machine symbiosis,two and inany caseincomprehensible totheordinary user—theideaofan of thealgorithms,codesand protocols—mostly hiddenfrom view cive, normative powerofsuch softwareasoperatestheInternet atthelevel or ofyoung women)formingarecognizablelikenesshighlightthecoer- image, and one oftotalitariandomination. While multitudes (ofdominoes Perhaps itisfitting tointerrupt this“Tour ofthe YouTube World” withan between epiphany andentropy The concept oftheinterface atthisjuncture raisesmoreissuesthan 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 167 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM the digital

CORRECT attention is at least in part attention which ranks above the which BEAUTIFUL result of experiments exists; this is result of experiments CORRECT are often very close, for example when the the for example when are often very close, ) is, in our view, incredibly narrow. Similarly, Similarly, narrow. incredibly view, ) is, in our EVIL ; this is obtained when it’s a close shave or the con- or the shave a close it’s ; this is obtained when GOOD thin and smooth. The wrong result is obtained when when result is obtained wrong The smooth. thin and and and candle on the swing sets ﬁ fuse. Because re to the detonating the swing sets ﬁ on candle the swing tend and the candle childish, they are nice and fuse is evil the detonating the good, whereas towards need it for harmless things. On the other don’t because you is good if it functions, installation every object in our hand, of gives it the chance because it then liberates its successor, Weiss) and (Fischli development. range (which in terms of moral theology might also be in terms of moral theology might also be range (which called GOOD CORRECT Naturally, this tape is also concerned with the problem of problem with the this tape is also concerned Naturally, for not be blamed An object must innocence. guilt and “An further. for proceeding also and further, proceeding unambiguously obtained when it works, when this construction collapses. this construction when it works, obtained when there is the again, Then struction collapses exactly the way we want it to—slowly want we collapses exactly the way struction aesthetic layer The that is, a beautiful collapse. intricately, and a sandwich— on is like the butter of a function top on rather result the wrong and things get going of their own accord, The get going at all. they don’t is obtained when In the context of narrative, it suggests that the “worlds” which open up open which of narrative, it suggests that the “worlds” In the context Fischli and Weiss see the encounter in both ethical and aesthetic catego- aesthetic and ethical in both encounter see the Weiss and Fischli Grand Theft do they resemble a video game like Grand Theft Auto ), nor and Peace War . picaresque as a consequence of following the semantic trail of “The Honda Cog” and Cog” and Honda trail of “The the semantic of following as a consequence anonymous, a creator-narrator (multiple, “Der Lauf der Dinge” both have (to the extent one have do not and singular-in-plurality) nonetheless but individuals, together various that they are self-generated). By bringing they can be locations, in very different obsessions their activities, skills and their coming to my called “scripted spaces” (since is nonetheless encounters one what Yet . like Second Life world or a virtual full characters, detail and interest, in human of sorts, rich a story-world call could one wisdom: in the genre of what and of humour “scripted” or “programmed”), but they are neither directly comparable to but “scripted” or “programmed”), the re-interpretation Jenkins’ were to apply generous (even if one novel classic of ries. That they are aware of the problem of who or what is in control and of and in control is what or of who of the problem aware they are That ries. on by their remarks is shown responsibility and has agency or what who themselves, they “the things” By fully implicating der Dinge.” “Der Lauf for the human- that agency the dilemma on meta-critically comment symbiosis poses: machine 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1679780415962612-Ch-07.indd 167 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 168

thomas elsaesser 168 Borges’ shaggy dogstories,reminiscent ofJanPotocki’s ManuscriptFoundinSaragossa, which togethernonetheless makeout ofexquisite corpsesalivelyclutch of of strands madeupforsomeweakplottingand meandering storylines, YouTube” ledtoaseriesofforking pathnarratives, where themultiplicity I wasabletoextractviathetags attached tothevideos.My“Travels with obtains, assuggestedbythesemantically quite coherent clusters, which degree ofautomation, where nonetheless acertainstructuredcontingency become known becausethey “sign”theirwork: Antoine Bourdou-Jacques, “Rube Goldberg,” “Pythagoras,” “JamesBond,” “DewiSukarno”; others apparently afavourite pastimeforfirst yearcomputer science students. ent sortingalgorithms(insertion sort,selection sort,shellsorts,etc.): videos, allmanually “remediating”orgraphically “interfacing” thediffer- algorithm, calledindeed “bubblesort,” explained on YouTube bytensof do withsorting.Masahiko’s video,ittranspires,visualizes apopularsorting pletely baffled me,until its tags ledtoseveralothervideos,alsohaving to re-arranging themselvesinfast-forward motion, according tosize,com- uploaded onto YouTube. The piece,which shows alineofpeoplewaiting, Sort” Iwaslinkedto,obviously fi lmed illegally inagalleryspaceand the videoartistSatoMasahiko, one ofwhose installations, called“Bubble YouTube into view. OneofthecreatorsPythagoras Switch seriesis meta-dimension emerged, which brought one ofthecoremechanisms of pastiche and repetition. Forinstance, viathePythagoras Switch another remediate aprevious stage oftheirownmediality, asnostalgic orironic in thesensethattheyeitherenacttheirownconditions ofpossibilityor nation, Pythagoras switches and fallingdominoes are performativealso tive feedback”: thedemonstrations ofchain reaction, mechanical concate- self-reflexivity and auto-referentiality, no doubt duetotheeffectsof“posi- in itslinkage, nonetheless seemstoproduce asurprisinglyhighdegree of propagating inalldirections, while non-hierarchical and “flat” or“lateral” narrative address? a castofbelievablecharacters, and evengeneratesaparticularmodeof to beperceived doesnot mimiccertainformsofnarrativeself-reference, create YouTube. Butwho istosay thatthisperformative persistence tobe, tobepresent and and self-performance, thetrialsand errors ofthecollective“me,” which is carved out ofaseaboilingmagma madeupofhuman self-presentation prevails. Myclusters around “collapse”wereonly smallislands ofsense other hand, thechaos ofhuman creativity, eccentricity and self-importance architecture and design,basedon itssearch and sortalgorithms.Onthe strongly informedand shapedbymathematics,viathesite’s programming paradox alluded toabove:thestructuredcontingency is,on theone hand, YouTube, asindicated, isauser-generatedcontent site,withahigh The cast ofcharacters, aswesaw, included some well-known names,such as Narrative self-reference : The rhizomaticbranching orviralcontagion Garden ofForkingPaths, orBuñuel’sThe Milky Way. 10 This createsthe 11 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 169 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM With the traditional a-symmetry of the single point of a-symmetry of the single point With the traditional Mode of address. To put this in the terms of another discourse, more germane to the discourse, of another put this in the terms To origin (the author, the narrator) addressing a potentially infi nite number nite number infi a potentially the narrator) addressing origin (the author, Barthes’ “writerly by Roland of readers or viewer already deconstructed of the authorship the multiple other narratologists since, many text” and Whether, the biggest problem. in itself present not tales should YouTube more like a user than a reader/viewer I behave YouTube, accessing when between “narrative” and of the relation problems (with all the attendant of address I am the mode Rather, main concern. my “game”) is also not con- classically is the “empty space” of enunciation, trying to focus on YouTube c subject-effects of the gured by the specifi refi now ceived, but addictive, as is inherently YouTube a site like hand, user/viewer: On the one after an Yet another. and another and to another along one video drags one delicately poised and balanced precariously realizes how or so, one hour and the joy of discovering the unexpected, the marvellous is, between one an equally into descent the rapid and even the miraculous, occasionally of number void of an unimaginable the staring into palpable anxiety, their banality or obscenity in of images, videos, with their proliferation the epiphany, and Right next to the euphoria commentary. and sounds of endless and of repetition then, is the heat-death of meaning, the ennui out to suck begins of entropy progress the relentless in short, distraction: is what might say, one “entropy,” and all life. “Epiphany” drain away and in the recursiveness encapsulated YouTube, nes the “subject-effect” of defi accu- quite to this extent which yourself,” “broadcast of its own tagline scripted spaces or YouTube’s c “mode of address.” rately describes its specifi by nor diegesis a coherent by narratives are held together not picaresque post-human: it is to fi nd oneself in the presence of strange organisms, puls- of strange organisms, in the presence oneself nd it is to fi post-human: or encoun- enters one the tags on depending mutating, ing, moving and even I am not the choices aggregates lters and sorts, fi YouTube ters, as (instead of let- themselves semantically they cluster That of making. aware their shape) “image”—determine organization—an ting a more Gestaltist also partly but interface,” to the “human concession is partly another of verbal the cultural noise it is where value: because of special heuristic proof the mathematical program, the information encounters language the throwing and of performed failure, instability viding the constructive the unpredictability into dirt of human creativity and grit of human adaptation. of perfect human-machine machinery Fischli and Weiss, Tim Fort, Sato Masahiko, the Wijers Brothers; many many Brothers; Wijers the Sato Masahiko, Fort, Tim Weiss, and Fischli home-made low-res camera in to the themselves merely present more and of knowing ways YouTube the them, however, to all of Thanks videos. empower- participatory, and exive, educational refl and are ludic travelling line soft dividing an unusually marking in short: humbling, ing and role storytelling and engineering, hard-core design and between creative repetition. and singularity playing, 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1699780415962612-Ch-07.indd 169 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 170

thomas elsaesser 170 failure, forasFischli and Weiss sowiselyputit:amschönsten istdasGleichgewicht . pleasurable, thankstoconstructive instabilityand theperformativityof between infi nity and indefi niteness, astateonly madebearableand even with theirunimaginable and yetpalpablemagnitudes—they suspend us against theopenhorizon ofour “stupidGod,” theWeb 2.0feedback loops ceral response. Epiphany and entropy remind usofour finitude, and—held YouYube talesisnarrativeinitsreferential expanse,but kineticinitsvis- times thetremblingtightrope underneath herfeet,thepleasureof plane withitswingstippedforward, orthehighwireacrobat sensingatall Lauf derDinge”while ignoring orevendisavowing therest.Likefighter like floral bouquets, orcherry-pick thegemslike“Honda Cog”or“Der impression thatitwaseitherpossibleorresponsible togathermy clusters misleading, ifIdidnot emphasize itscentral place,and insteadgave the it putsmeon notice thatmy experiment would beincomplete and even and theplurality oftheuncountable inwhich thesingularoccurs. “emptiness” ofrepetition and redundancy, thesingularityofanencounter oscillation betweenthe“fullness”ofreference and recognition and the cognitivist orpragmatic theoryofspectatorship),but byaperpetual a coherent “subject-position” (whether articulatedbyapsychoanalytic, . “In2003,hedirectedtheinternationally acclaimed and multi award win- 5. 4. http://www.sfmoma.org/exhibitions/exhib_detail/98_exhib_fischli_ Myspecialthanksto FabriceZiolkowski (Paris) forproviding thetranslation 3. “Antoine Bardou-Jacquet signed toPartizan MidiMinuit in2000.Hehad 2. KeithAnsellPearson writesthat:“A livingsystemresolvesitsproblems not 1. notes went on towinaGoldLion atCannes,Best commercial and GoldatBTAA ning throughout theentire commercial break duringtheGrand Prixand for real.Itwasavictorypatience and passion! Itfi rstcausedastirrun- with afour day shoot attheend. Itwasshot intwotakesand was alldone chain reaction. Ittook months ofmeticulous planningand trial and error, 2 minute commercial showing Honda partsbumping into each otherina ning Honda ‘Cog’ commercial forLondon’s Weiden &Kennedy. Itisa weiss.html. and culturalcommentary on theclip. ?antoine_bardou_jacquet/biography Partizan web-site:http://www.partizanlab.com/partizanlab/commercials/ tronic music scenewithsuch artistsasAlexGopher and EtiennedeCrecy).” Solid (anindependent record company thatisthecentre oftheFrench elec- design company, situated withinthesameoffi ces ashisclose friends from previously studiedgraphic designinParis beforesettinguphisowngraphic environment” (147). structures which thenservetomediateand defi ne itsrapportwiththe but ratherthrough aprocess ofself-modifi cation, inwhich itinvents new simply byadaptingitselfthrough modifyingitsrelationship toitsmilieu, Whether thereisabetternameforthisoscillation, Idonot know, but 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM paranarrative worlds on youtube 171 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM web-site: http:// web-site: Partizan : http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/lanier06/lanier06_index. Edge ters around the selected video and see the tag-clouds scatter. My thanks to My scatter. see the tag-clouds and the selected video ters around to this feature. attention my for drawing Pepita Hesselberth (Amsterdam) Japan in this essay. all things pertaining to regarding elucidations spread-sheets, cient—electronic the simplest, if the least effi sort is bubble the mythical and (VisiCalc) “killer application” rst fi the computer’s “birth” of Apple computers. www.partizanlab.com/partizanlab/commercials/?antoine_bardou_ jacquet/biography. Ronell. Avital see ety, retrospec- & Questions” “Flowers Weiss and in the Fischli show (1984), on 2006–Jan 2007). (Oct Modern in London Tate tive at the before, most systematically by Marsha Kinder. before, most systematically html (accessed June 1 2008). html (accessed June 1 2008). (accessed June http://necsi.org/events/iccs/2002/Mo14_Vorhees.pdf . Ed. John Bergson New The Life.” of Organismic Illusion Transcendental the 146–167. University Press, 2006. Manchester Manchester: Mullarkey. 1 2008). (accessed June works/the-way-of-things/ 2000. Little Brown, York: New (1999): http://www.press. machines and humans on Katherine Hayles 2008). 1 June uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/borghayl.html(accessed 1 2008). (accessed June mit.edu/cms/People/henry3/games&narrative.html Film Database Narrative.” Interactive for New Digital Media and Legacy 55.4 (Summer 2002): 2–5. Quarterly (2006). 8. A button on the YouTube Screen now allows one to “explode” such clus- to “explode” such allows one Screen now 8. YouTube the on A button links and 9. for his hints, (Yale) Gerow to Aaron My special gratitude goes 6. soci- paradigm of the control of the test as a the new regime on For more Afternoon by their series Equilibres—Quiet 7. for instance, As demonstrated, . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005. . Urbana: University of Illinois Drive Test The Avital. Ronell, of Complex Systems” (2002). Stability: A Principle “Virtual Burton. Vorhees, works cited works : CTheory.net Bodies.” Virtual on View Posthuman Abbas, Niran. “The 1 2008). (accessed June http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=266 Exposing Creative Evolution/Involution: and Keith. “Bergson Ansell Pearson, D (n.d.). Media Art Net: http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/ Weiss, and P. Fischli, . Can Make a Big Difference Things Little How Point: Tipping Malcolm. The Gladwell, N. and with Albert Borgmann N. Katherine. An interview/dialogue Hayles, (2004). http://web. “Game Design as Narrative Architecture” Jenkins, Henry. Forever: Buñuel’s Narrative Fields and Avatars Marsha. “Hotspots, Kinder, of the New Online Collectivism” Hazards The “Digital Maoism: Jaron. Lanier, Buñuel has been made 10. and storytelling link between interactive The 11. sorts, but shell sort, and selection sort, of sorting: insertion types Different a few.” to name but D&AD at Pencil a Gold and 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 1719780415962612-Ch-07.indd 171 9780415962612-Ch-07.indd 172 4/1/2009 10:46:44 AM feminism, philosophy, and

part two queer theory

9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 173 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 174 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM reformulating the symbolic universe

eight kill bill and

tarantino’s

transcultural

imaginary

saša vojkovic´

circularity of inﬂ uences: europe–hollywood–asia

The capacity of Hollywood to absorb the infl uences of other cinemas, to incorporate them into its system, and to turn the familiar into the unfa- miliar or vice versa is well known. In the past, Hollywood’s exclusive source of inspiration was European fi lm. In some ways it was an even exchange, because while European fi lms infl uenced American fi lms, European ideas were “Americanized” and re-imported into European cinemas. Even in European auteur cinemas and fi lm movements such as the French New Wave, authorial Otherness is affi rmed precisely through mirroring; in these cases, however, the recourse to a Hollywood genre implied its simultaneous subversion. One of the most pertinent examples is surely Jean-Luc Godard’s Breathless (A bout de souffl e 1959), in which the main protagonist, Michel, is literally mirrored in the image of Humphrey Bogart in the fi lm poster of The Harder They Fall (Mark Robson 1956). Instead of confi rming his status as a gangster of Hollywood calibre, however, Michel will be remembered as a European

9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 175 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 176

saša vojkovic´ 176 (2004). Beforethe“honkongifi cation” center ofour interest is Tarantino’s KillBillvol.1(2003)and KillBillvol.2 influences depends preciselyon their transculturalimaginaries, but inthe cinema. There areanincreasing number of films inwhich thecircularity of ment which hasbeeninsertedinto theEuro–American exchange—Asian tion, increasingly present on the(trans)culturalscreen,isthird ele- Hollywood and European cinema. Today, withthemovement ofglobaliza- is imaginable (orunimaginable) within thefilm. rated. They regulate therelations betweenthecharacters aswellallthat fabula, foritisinthefilm’s fabula thattheculturalimaginaries areincorpo- infl uences isatstake,itnecessarytotake into consideration thefi lm’s pletely different culturalimaginary. Therefore, when thecircularity of the fi ctional worlds oftheHollywoodfi lmsand isconditioned on acom- Hollywood style,thefilm’s fabula alludes tothefictional world thatopposes process itselfinThe Bicycle Thieves draws on theprinciples oftheclassical (Bordwell syuzhet. Through thisinteraction theviewerconstructs thestory, orfabula defi nition ofnarration asaninteraction oftheviewerand theplot,or Thompson isdovetailingon cognitivistfi lm theoryand David Bordwell’s leans on thestylisticstrategies oftheclassical Hollywood(Thompson). the neorealistfi lmof Vittorio DeSica, employs thedirectaddressofcamera—Kristin Thompson argues that it jettisons theprinciple ofcontinuity editing,breaksthe180degree rule,or film deconstructs (“de-realizes”)classical Hollywoodstyle—thatis,while anti-hero who wasbetrayed byhisAmericangirlfriend. While Godard’s cinema). Hence, atstakeistheinfl uence ofculturalimaginaries on the erosexual relationship (which isalmostregularly thecaseinHollywood phobia, and doesnot require adramaturgical disclaimer byinsertingahet- between twomenisnot perceived ashomoerotic, doesnot provoke homo- in intimate (frequently bodily)contact, yetthiskind ofrelationship Kong fi lmsofJohn Woo. Woo’s gangstersareemotional, and theyengage —the ideaofbrotherhood and loyaltypromoted especiallyintheHong tion ofmasculinitytypicaltheimaginary ofHong Kong gangsterfi lms European and Hollywoodproductions. Atstakeisthespecific representa- inspired bytheCityonFire, arestillextremelyrareincontemporary in which Mr. White isholding Mr. Orangeinhisarms,aninteraction when thebossofgangaccuseshimbetrayal. Scenessuch astheone agent saves thegangster’s life,and inreturnthegangstertakes his side City onFire ( Tarantino appropriated one ofthelinesfabula ofRingoLam’s fi lm At thetimeWestern audiences werenot familiarwiththefactthat the mostinnovative ways, anexampleofwhich ishisReservoirDogs (1992). one ofthefirst directorswho incorporated theinfl uences ofthatcinemain In thepast,dominant exchange ofinfl uences wasbetween Narration). Regardless ofthefactthat Long hufeng zun,1987):asecretagent and acopbecomefriends; the 1 ofHollywoodfi lm, Tarantino was Bicycle Thieves ( syuzhet orthenarrational Ladri dibiciclette 1947), 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 177 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM Speaking of the circularity of infl uences in relation to the image of fem- to the image in relation uences of infl Speaking of the circularity (1996) by lm Irma Vep fi is the French for the discussion pertinent ininity, by the (played Vidal director Rene ctional lm the fi In this fi Olivier Assayas. of re-launch is preparing a Jean-Pierre Leaud) who icon New Wave French Les lm classic fi in the remake of the 1916 French character Vep the Irma This actress. Kong a Hong Feuillade, decides to engage by Louis Vampires of her the basis Cheung on Maggie lm chose lm within a fi director of the fi Cheung joins (1993) where Trio Heroic lm The fi Kong in a Hong performance Yeoh—and Michelle Mui and with two women of action—Anita forces transcultural imaginary and gender: putting pressure on lacan’s lacan’s on putting pressure imaginary and gender: transcultural symbolic order the clas- that the directors of proving insisted on New Wavers French The the that in spite of all the imperatives of and authors sical Hollywood are lmic “fi than their French Hollywood system, they are more interesting as Wim the directors of New German cinema, such Similarly, fathers.” in their for inspiration look did not Fassbinder, Werner or Rainer Wenders the other side models on instead turned to their role “German fathers” but Fuller (Elsaesser). or Samuel Ray, Nicholas Sirk, of the Atlantic—Douglas emigrated from Sirk the fact that Douglas Nevertheless, if we consider more evident. is even uences of infl the circularity to Hollywood, Germany Hollywood, director in Kong Hong In comparable spirit, the most successful Hollywood and Kong between Hong describes the relationship John Woo, that Hollywood started to imitate Hong “It is ironic in the following way, lms (to a cer- fi Kong 1990s because Hong lms of the late 1980s and fi Kong lms, so Hollywood is imitating fi of Hollywood are imitations tain degree) cinemas are case, Hoover 309). In any and Hollywood” (cited in Stokes the cinematic Through of Others. uences the infl being revitalized through rms the urgency is opened up that reaffi texts a new line of communication transnational and as well as intercultural engagement, of intersubjective of a reworking this requires mentioned, as I have Accordingly, literacy. Lacanian psychoanalysis. questions of genre, style, identity, and the representation of gender. I will of gender. the representation and identity, style, of genre, questions Kill Bill vol.1 Tarantino’s applied to theory as lm fi psychoanalytic discuss of Lacan’s reconceptualization Butler’s Judith why explain vol.2, and and of for an examination is a necessary precondition cation of signifi law is the representa- concern central universe. My transcultural Tarantino’s Law- Lacanian the traditional where world ctional fi of femininity in a tion a presupposes endeavor my Butler, Following hold. does not of-the-Father alter the normativ- and expand of the Lacanian symbolic to reformulation relation a productive into is to be brought ity of its terms. If psychoanalysis need to explore the the cultural screen we on changes with the emerging the symbolic universe. possibility of reworking 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1779780415962612-Ch-08.indd 177 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 178

saša vojkovic´ 178 Butler reminds us,is“thenormative dimension oftheconstitution ofthe vol.1 and vol.2putpressureon Lacan’s symbolicorder. The symbolic,as mous poetwho sangherpraiseinthefamous “Song ofMulan.” remained famous (and evenabsorbedbyHollywood) becauseofananony- heroine oftheFiveDynasties(420–588).Alegendary fi gure, shehas access tothepoliticalsphere isHua Mulan(FainCantonese) the girls and womenwho wishedtoabandon astrictlyfemininerole and gain tural heritage. natural—are dependent on thenorms thatcirculate withinChinese cul- arts novels, orthetraditional Chinesestoriesofthefantastic and thesuper- female characters thatcanbefound forexample, inBeijingOpera,martial ligent womenfi ghters, womenwho areknowing subjects—the typesof female subjectisconceivable and which actions shecanperform. The intel- exceeds theleveloffi ctional world, thatdetermineswhat kind of ematic storytelling,but itisthespecifi c vision ofthefi lm, avision that related tothespecificities ofthegenreincorporated into theprocess ofcin- fi lms. Therefore, thefactthatwomen aredepictedasskilledfi ghters is cable tobothmenand women,itisnot strangethatthiswould emerge in Since theway towards transcendence under Buddhismwasequally appli- we alsoneedtoconsider thethird dominant religion in China—Buddhism. tion ofsocialand culturalformations thatregulate what womencando, fi lms. Apartfrom Taoism and Confucianism, when itcomestotheques- that iswithout parallelinEuropean orAnglo-Americanaction-adventure riors remainaliveand, remarkably, womenplay aheroic role toanextent predicated on specific conventions and practices. sense offemaleempowerment emanatesfrom thefi ctional worlds/ the superhuman skillsofthefemale characters, but atthesametime tions. The viewing pleasurederivesfrom theexhilaratingaction scenesand laws ofcommon sensethatgovernthesocialimagination ofWestern tradi- female heroes, itispossibletoargue thatthesefilms work contrary tothe Speaking generallyofAsianfi lms thatfeaturefabulas populatedwith that regulate what kind of femalecharacter isimaginable and conceivable. do withtheconnection betweenthenarrativeand therulesand norms The actions thewomenfrom Hong Kong films areabletoperformhave to with acertainmodeofculturalexpression thatinformsthefi lm’s fabula. Morocco inthecityofMarrakech. this about, forasthestorygoes,directorhasseen version ofThe Vampires. Itisthepresent-day mobility, asitwere,thatbrought replacement fortheFrench actressMusidorawho strarredintheoriginal fi ctional director, thiswomanofaction from theFarEastisideal saves theworld from adespoticeunuch. According tothevision ofthe We willsee that,aswiththeabovementioned films, Tarantino’s In spiteoffemalesubordination indailylife,thestoriesofwomenwar- The typeoffemalecharacter featuredinThe Heroic Trio isinterdependent 2 Oneprototype thathasservedasamodelformany Chinese The Heroic Trio in Kill Bill fabulas 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 179 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM His ideas 4 Lacan’s concept of the “Symbolic” was inspired by was inspired of the “Symbolic” concept Lacan’s 3 Butler is radically opposed to the view that the “constitutive outside” outside” Butler is radically opposed to the view that the “constitutive In Judith Butler’s terms the constitutive outside is the unspeakable, the outside terms the constitutive Butler’s In Judith For Lacan, this is the determining signifi and er in the history of the subject signifi For Lacan, this is the determining the writings of the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. Claude anthropologist of the French the writings sexed subject within language. It consists in a series of demands … with the … with the of demands in a series It consists language. subject within sexed here also referring I am effects” (106). subjectivating to materialize power governs the which of the Law-of-the-Father, notion Lacan’s to Jacques (Lacan). symbolic order can be delimited through a pre-ideological or prediscursive “law” because a pre-ideological or prediscursive “law” can be delimited through has anti-feminist the pre-ideological status of the symbolic law on insistence to the idea that woman objection Crucial here is Butler’s consequences. nonnarrativizable. “It means that identity always requires precisely that requires always “It means that identity nonnarrativizable. constitutive of the emergence The abide” (Butler 188). it cannot which the loss but the symbolic order, into entrance on is predicated outside is structurally emblematized by the feminine. in the process effectuated with populated imaginary cultural a non-Western we consider When cinema which Kong Hong and female warriors, as is the case with Japanese that the vol. 2, it is clear Kill Bill vol. 1 and Tarantino’s uenced infl have the paternalistic sym- on be observed as dependent woman warrior cannot that Beatrix to conclude cult diffi theorized by Lacan. It is not bolic order based network an alternative symbolic on universe is contingent Kiddo’s of the concept Lacan’s While worldviews. and fabulas alternative on ned defi Beatrix Kiddo as a cultural position us to consider Symbolic urges at the same time, precisely the fact that by a set of symbolic relations, a cult to place her into makes it diffi Beatrix Kiddo is a cultural position that inform Lacan’s relations symbolic based on theoretical framework concepts. psychoanalytic the organization of the larger symbolic fi eld. Lacan also introduces the term also introduces eld. Lacan symbolic fi of the larger the organization ne male that defi positive values and the cultural privileges phallus to indicate has no the female subject to which society, subjectivity within patriarchal to continues and theory has provoked aspect of Lacan’s this access. Basically, Language,” and of Speech Function feminist criticism. In “Field and provoke the male subject cultural privileges, to acquire Lacan suggests that, in order phallus. the penis for the that is, he mortgages esh,” of fl “that pound mortgages the into Lacanian theory turns the woman argued, As feminist critics have for of the Law-of-the-Father, outside” as the “constitutive element, foreclosed the symbolic order. to enter the male subject renounces that which she lacks are crucial for Lacan’s theory of the subject in that he proposes a close con- a close he proposes of the subject in that theory for Lacan’s are crucial The language. of the family and structuring agency between the nection of symbolic rela- ned by a set defi is a symbolic network, as part of family, are cultural positions these persons; the actual transcend that always tions strength- Lacan further a biological/natural connection. have need not and through language Oedipus complex and between the ens the relationship the “Name-of-the-Father.” he calls er—which the paternal signifi 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1799780415962612-Ch-08.indd 179 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 180

saša vojkovic´ 180 symbolic universe. reside. They willhelpustoconceive theterms tostartreworking Lacan’s need togoJapanand thentoChina,where thementors ofBeatrixKiddo Tarantino’s authorizes and produces thisforeclosure. sense ofunsymbolizable,isalways relativetoalinguisticdomainthat stumbles, istowork withthenotion thatwhat counts asthereal,in change thestatusofwomanasrock upon which thesymbolic emerges astheverycondition ofthisprediscursiveorder. Away, then, to therefore, sheisnot available asapoliticalsignifier. Paradoxically, woman such conditions, sheappearsasthatwhich cannot besymbolizedand, emerges asthe“outside” itself,asthe“stain”ofsymbolicorder. Under Kiddo. Without hissword itseemsunlikelythatshecould have liquidated Hanzo, themasterswordsman from Okinawa who makesasword for the narrator, thehighestnarrational authority inKillBill vol.1isHatori for thatcomment. Apart from BeatrixKiddo,who occasionally appearsas a samurai. When sheisstruck byKiddoand isreadytodie,sheapologizes issue ofKiddo’s race,insinuating thata“white girl” canonly pretend tobe down betweenO-RenIshiiand BeatrixKiddo,O-RenIshiibringsupthe with anyone inthe Yakuza clan who bringsupthisissue.Inthe final show- important: O-RenIshiiisJapanese-Chinese-American, but shedoesaway one who fi gures likeaJapaneseheroine. The question ofheritage isquite Japanese womendressedinkimonos), structurally, BeatrixKiddoisthe though, iconically, OyukicanbecomparedtoO-RenIshii(bothare which themainprotagonist, Oyuki,hastofacethefi nal challenge. Even (but alsoone ofthesceneswhere shebegins herquest forrevenge),in garden coveredwithsnow, reminding usof thelastsceneinLady Snowblood performance asawomanofaction. costume. LadySnowblood alsowearsakimono, which doesnot inhibither kung fufi lms, while O-RenIshiiwearsakimono, atraditional Japanese dressed inaBruceLee-likeoutfit, revealingaconnection with Hong Kong mafi a and thenumber one person on Kiddo’s deathlist.BeatrixKiddois vol.1 istoagreatextent centered on O-RenIshii,theheadof Tokyo Beatrix Kiddo,sheisanexpertkillerand shehasadeathlist. Tarantino’s revenge on four peoplewho murdered herfatherand brother. Aswith Oyuki, wasborninjail,and hermotherpassedon toheramission totake The film isstructuredthrough volumes and chapters. The maincharacter, which wasalsomadeinto afeaturefilm directedby Toshiya Fujitain1973. In masculine/feminine vs.yin/yang the woman ofaction andthedivision between thesexes: Kill Billvol.1, Tarantino isinspiredbythemangastoryLady Snowblood, The sceneofthefi nalduelbetween O-RenIshiiand BeatrixKiddoisa Kill Billvol.1and vol.2tothematizethe“outside,” wefi rst 5 To explorethispotential of 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 181 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM (1969), which can of Zen (1969), which Touch A to the 1960s, to King Hu’s If we go back I am also referring to the “body of Tao,” the Taoist priority given to the priority given to Taoist the Tao,” the “body of I am also referring to As mentioned above, the types of imaginary solutions that can occur in that solutions the types of imaginary above, As mentioned be taken as exemplary of a trend of Hong Kong action heroines, we will we heroines, action Kong of Hong be taken as exemplary of a trend the man, her while ghter, a skilled fi active and that the woman is nd fi acts as an occasions many on the father of her child, and unwed husband cer who offi lm, a government cause. In this fi supports her observer and man, The this idyllic situation. has come to arrest the woman interrupts ghting skills, makes an attempt fi of her extraordinary completely ignorant herself and ready to defend steps forward woman The her. to defend he realizes that the stunned when He is absolutely for her dagger. reaches A Touch ghter. the night is an expert fi he has just spent woman with whom lm festival in 1971, at the Cannes fi screened in 1969 and of Zen was produced Pleasure and “Visual seminal article two years before Laura Mulvey’s years before it was published in four Narrative Cinema” was written, and human body over social and cultural systems. The inevitable pair of com- The cultural systems. body over social and human exchange of equal principle Taoist yang—the and is yin plementaries yang are the two fundamental and Yin passivity. between activity and sun, and moon hot, they serve to designate cold and action; Tao’s of phases complemen- Their life. and masculine, death feminine and hard, soft and of rst law is the fi their alternation exists in everything, and tary opposition yang, and into its apex, it changes yin reaches Chinese cosmology: when as men- in Beijing Opera, which, can trace this tradition vice versa. We and the martial arts on uence infl a profound had such earlier, tioned the “masculiniza- Traditionally, cinema. Kong genre of Hong swordplay as a prob- perceived cinema is not Kong ghters in Hong fi of female tion” Their question. femininity into bring the character’s it does not lem, and for their character presuppose the loss of femininity, masculinity does not This as is typically the case in Beijing Opera. two in one, duality, entails it designates a cross-dressing is called wudan, and type of female character her feminine appeal. maintains who woman of action a given narrative, such as the idea that a woman can be the best fi are ghter, can be the best fi idea that a woman as the such a given narrative, imaginary. socio-cultural of a concrete sensibility up with the legal bound structures alternative cultural contexts, Japanese Chinese and Within the alternative imagining for the potential and are at work, cation of signifi presupposes also that the This dimensions. new acquires female characters passive/ sexes—active/male versus between the Freudian division notorious at cation signifi with the models of complemented female—needs to be rule of con- Taoist For example, the cultural imaginaries. in different work lms infers interdependency fi Kong of Hong myriad traries traceable in the forces. feminine of masculine and separation rather than the strict vol. 1. It is thus her mentor from from mentor her It is thus vol. 1. in Kill Bill particularly of enemies, a series sub- of female the representation affects that imaginary cultural a Japanese lm. the fi jectivity in 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1819780415962612-Ch-08.indd 181 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 182

saša vojkovic´ 182 Freud saw asthepossibleresolutions ofthecrisisfemininity: femininity isconcerned. ForFreud,asMulveyreminds us, ideas (albeitinacriticalmanner)when theactivesolution forthecrisisof In themeantime, Mulveyhasrevisedherviewsbut shestillrelieson Freud’s man’s role astheactiveone who advances thestory, makingthingshappen. controls thenarrativestructureofclassical Hollywoodfilms. Mulvey’s argument thatanactive/passiveheterosexual division oflabor controls images, erotic ways oflooking and spectacle. Especiallyrelevant is way film refl ects sociallyestablishedinterpretation ofsexual difference that the journal Screen. Letusrecallthatthearticle takesasitsstartingpoint the can perform“masculine”tasks: theyarephysically strong and display high heroines intheserviceofpatriarchy. These aretheaction-heroines who Speaking ofmainstreamcinema, thisoption inprinciple involves action- women seektoembodytheman who represents theirnarcissistic ideal. and seekaccess toself-lovethrough another person’s loveforthem,these other words, unlikethewomenwho position themselvesasloveobjects would betheactivesolution tothecrisisoffemininity(Silverman).In As KajaSilvermancontends, putting amanintheplaceofherego-ideal In relation toMulvey’s discussion letusadditionally recalltwopaths There isasplitbetweenspectacle and narrative,which supportsthe possessed. (Freud82–84) survival oftheboyishnaturethattheythemselvesonce longing for masculine ideal—anidealwhich isinfacta reaching femalematurity, theystillretainthecapacityof masculine lines;afterthistrend hasbeencutshort on their puberty theyfeelmasculineand developsomeway along development from narcissism toobjectlove.Before do not have towaitforachild inorder totakeastepin complete object-love. There areotherwomen,again, who which, startingout from theirnarcissism, theycangive own bodyconfronts them likeanextraneous object,to object love.Inthechild which theybear, apartoftheir remains cool,thereisaroad which leadstocomplete Even fornarcissistic women,whose attitudetowards men of womeninpatriarchal society. (30) These problems reflect veryaccurately, theactual position tain problems oflanguage and boundaries toexpression. same asthose hehasmappedout forthemale,causingcer- girls. The termsheusestoconceive offemininityarethe a periodheseesasmasculine,orphallic, forbothboysand a crucialperiodofparalleldevelopment betweenthesexes; femininity iscomplicatedbythefactthatitemerges out of 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 183 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM 7 Kill Bill. , which tells of a , which Most importantly, they are inserted into the Oedipal the inserted into they are importantly, Most 6 vol. 2 we learn about Kiddo’s mentor, or per- mentor, Kiddo’s In Kill Bill vol. 2 we learn about 8 The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts Memoirs Warrior: Woman The vol. 2 proves, however, that the character of the traditional the traditional of that the character however, Kill Bill vol. 2 proves, In the place of exile, with Pai Mei as her mentor, Beatrix Kiddo will rede- mentor, Mei as her In the place of exile, with Pai Traditionally, in the context of feminist fi lm theory, discussions on on discussions lm theory, of feminist fi the context in Traditionally, A Touch of Zen/Hsia nu/Hap lui of Zen/Hsia, for exam- Touch A from ne herself, as did the heroine fi 1969 masterpiece. she retreated to the Buddhist temple in King Hu’s ple, when skills by Buddhist she was taught swordplay in the mountains, Hidden away the of meaning on the structures lms echo of these fi fabulas The monks. Kingston’s literature is Maxine Hong level. An example from extradiegetic novel a term from Hong Kong cinema. A shi fu cinema. Kong Hong shi fu, a term from say haps, we should possesses who is a person or si fu (in Cantonese) (Romanized Mandarin) in a relationship mentor and skills, acts as a teacher practical and spiritual as a father a si fu can function principle, In a male) student. with (usually medium of In terms of the gure, that is, he enjoys the highest authority. fi Tarantino’s lms. in kung fu fi si fu characters encountered lm, we have fi lm fi in a Hollywood can be resurrected imaginary Kong the Hong from mentor or recycling: referentiality, of hommage, a question only not lm. But it is fi character, to the main female secret knowledge discloses a si fu who for, struc- in the narrative Mei has a key position Pai Beatrix Kiddo, the monk lm. ture of the fi young woman who goes away to learn kung fu, and then returns as a general, to learn kung fu, and goes away who woman young While the male characters can easily engage in an intersubjective exchange, exchange, in an intersubjective can easily engage the male characters While In keep- are concerned. characters female readily the case when this is not or in Lacanian terms, as a monster, role mythological ing with the woman’s in-be- up stuck often end the object of plenitude, the female characters space can also This of the male characters. tween the subjective exchange in it will be considered in this context be theorized as the space of exile and positive terms. beatrix kiddo and the space of exile kiddo beatrix combat skills, they can act as leaders, and maintain or restore the law and and law the or restore maintain and as leaders, can act skills, they combat of patriarchy. order gender in fi lms are informed by psychoanalytic concepts, implying also implying concepts, by psychoanalytic lms are informed in fi gender terms been theorized in of the narratives has c structuring that the specifi sce- to the psychoanalytic of the subject. According of the Oedipalization In the new Hollywood place. is to take the father’s “destiny” nario, the son’s the son and the father but at work, longer no is principally this process universe; of the symbolic protagonists the two central nevertheless remain to recreate has son the father, of the the authority instead of internalizing can be of paternal authority thematizing The Vojkovic´). (see this authority It is pre- of the Law-of-the-Father. notion Lacan’s Jacques to bear on brought Tarantino’s in that is being reconceptualized cisely this authority trajectory, implying that they are initiated into the father’s universe. the father’s are initiated into implying that they trajectory, 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1839780415962612-Ch-08.indd 183 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 184

saša vojkovic´ 184 crete fi lm theaction issetinthefar-away past,atatimewhen women, that anameisusednegates thegender differences, becauseinthecon- the nameofhero’s femalehelperistranslatedasKiddo. Itisnot strange the Hong Kong fi lm Swordsman2/ChingSiu-tung(Stanley Tong, 1991),where fe/male kidnewconnections openup;one exampleistheconnection with “kiddo” points tobothafemaleand amalechild. Through theconnection universe one meaningservesonly topropel newand conflictual allusions, which iswhat theword ispartlyimplying. Since in Tarantino’s authorial firms hispatronizing attitude, becauseforhimsheisa“littlegirl,” a“kid,” who addresses herbylastname—Kiddo—which insomeways con- Mamba and who ultimatelybecameherlover, isBill.Hetheonly one the martialartsasfarfilmic mediumisconcerned. guidance of Yuen Woo Ping,possiblythemostfamous sifuand advisorfor role models,and surely, thiscould not beachieved without thehelpand fantasy about such acharacter isconditioned byhisown(not only) Oriental Kiddo would beunthinkable without herOriental sifus.Clearly, Tarantino’s imaginary, which inthefirst placeimpliesthatacharacter such asBeatrix Ishii. Inthatsense,thefi lm’s of Yakuzas; intheend shescalpstheiruntouchable femaleboss,O-Ren skinned femalewarriormanages tooverpoweranunimaginable number nary. Withthehelpofthislethalsamurai instrument, theblonde, white- sword. “Incredibly,” ofcourse, from theperspectiveofWestern imagi- phenomenal masterHattoriHanzowho craftsforheranincredibly sharp Far East.Inthefi rst fi lm, beforefacingO-RenIshii,Kiddofi rst visitsthe tional goal,arefi ghting techniques and strategies thatoriginatedinthe strength, and conditions thesuccessfulachievement ofapracticallyirra- after Bud,ElleDriver, and finally BilltheSnakeCharmer. straight with Vernita Greenand O-RenIshii,and in on asearch forthesnakes.Infirst part, the nextfour yearsinacoma.When sheregains consciousness, shesetsout lously survivesBill’s sado-masochistic attack ofjealousy, but shespends executes amassacreinthechurch on herweddingday. The Bridemiracu- start anewlife,Billison hertrail,and withthehelpofhispoisonous squad, able fi ancée—a modestownerofarecord shop. Inspiteofhereffortsto any explanation, adoptsanewidentity (Arlene Plympton), and finds asuit- to startanewlifefaraway from Billand hisvipers.Shedisappearswithout of professional killers.When shegetspregnant withBill’s child shedecides the BrideaswellBlack Mamba,isamemberofBill’s Viper Squad, agroup and thenwithPai Mei,justasAyuki, shecantakerevenge. horde. When BeatrixKiddocompletes hertraining,first withHatoriHanzo riding attheheadofanarmy ofmentodefend hervillage from amonstrous Beatrix Kiddo’s fi rst sifu/mentor/“father,” who turnedherinto Black What makestherevengepossible,givesBeatrixKiddosuper-human Let usrecapitulatethefabula ofKillBillvol.2:BeatrixKiddo,known as fabula draws itslogicfrom thetranscultural Kill Billvol.1,shesetsthescore Kill Billvol.2shegoes 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 185 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM musculi- musculinized, for their bodies In contrast to the Hollywood examples, the women warriors in the women warriors Hollywood examples, to the In contrast 9 Regardless of Tarantino’s semiotic games, displacements, and subver- and games, displacements, semiotic Tarantino’s of Regardless If a Hong Kong woman was tied up, shoved into a coffi n and buried six buried n and a coffi into woman was tied up, shoved Kong If a Hong sions, Bill as the true patriarch represents the authority and law, and Kiddo, and law, and the authority represents Bill as the true patriarch sions, is under- This gures as a little girl. woman, fi is a grown she even though names in a the girls’ is calling out a teacher ashback: fl scored in a short the of a little girl, Beatrix Kiddo, instead she calls out when but classroom to get and relations the power to change In order adult Kiddo responds. she has received the secret knowledge on draw must her revenge, Kiddo Mei. si fu, Pai her Chinese from are generally not muscled and man-like even when they have a masculine they have even when man-like and muscled are generally not appearance. feet under, broke her way out with the help of Shaolin kung fu, Western with the help of Shaolin kung fu, Western out her way broke feet under, expect a nar- not they would that bizarre but nd perhaps fi viewers would this person that explains how ashback that is, a fl cation, rative justifi is a Hollywood imaginary case is reversed when The a skill. such acquired be as convincing only not the dead would return from at stake; Beatrix’s to the past discloses going back Mei, but with Pai ashback the fl without the fanatical commit- expressed through part of her personality another Mei. We ed by Pai personifi authority and loyalty to the tradition and ment by lms produced fi Kong in the Hong of commitment this kind encounter It is Liu Chia-hui. Gordon cent starring the magnifi brothers the Shaw Mei that Pai of character the type chose Tarantino in fact, that interesting, to some the part. According Liu to play Gordon that he engaged is, and forging the law-of-beatrix kiddo, reworking the symbolic order the symbolic reworking kiddo, the law-of-beatrix forging the year Mei from Pai an anecdote about Bill narrates ashback, fl In Beatrix’s else how of time, because outside means that this is a person 1033, which that of truth, construction The contemporary? Mei be Beatrix’s Pai could Mei becomes extremely with Pai apprenticeship Beatrix’s is, of a lie about inter- for Beatrix Kiddo to become case a reason is in any This transparent. Mei is inserted Pai cinema, whereas Kong twined with the history of Hong a new Mei acquires Kill Bill Pai Tarantino’s In present. Hollywood’s into to break a wooden taught Kiddo how who meaning; he is the character he teaches even more importantly, ngers, and with the tips of her fi board exploding heart technique. ve-point-palm her the fi especially those who had knowledge of the martial arts, dressed as men. as men. arts, dressed martial of the knowledge had who those especially Kiddo, Kong of the Hong us, then, Kiddo reminds Hollywood Tarantino’s charac- girl”/“warrior” “pretty the Chinese traditional us of reminds who mas- and of femininity reinvention The Opera. Beijing from ter that stems turned as men being such cases genre involved the action culinity through and becoming both masculinized as well as women a spectacle into nized. Hong Kong action fi be described as lms cannot fi action Kong Hong 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1859780415962612-Ch-08.indd 185 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 186

saša vojkovic´ 186 brothers’ productions becamethesifuof aHollywoodfilm. Mei asacharacter isdrasticallyredefined—the despisedmonk oftheShaw ter. Inreturn,through theinteraction withtheblonde femalewarrior, Pai emancipation ofBeatrixKiddo,and shewillstartanewlifewithherdaugh- Tarantino’s transcultural imaginary, Pai Meimakespossiblethecomplete she hadplannedfour yearsearlier, beforeBillcaughtupwithher. In herself from hercharismatic sifuBilland fi nally accomplishthatwhich the helpofhis“explosion ofthehearttechnique” Kiddowillforeverfree ultimately personifi es thehighest narrational authority inthefi lm. With of how contradictory, evil,excessive,or“fl at”Pai Meiisasacharacter, he cult persona isanegative character who isgivenanother chance. of Bill’s professional killers. who collaboratedwiththeintruders who conquered China,isthementor sion seemsquite wise.ItislogicalthatPai Mei,theancient traitor, theone close thesecretknowledge tothecharacters ofaHollywoodfilm, hisdeci- think about which one ofthecelebratedheroes would bewillingtodis- instead ofchoosing one ofthefamedheroes issurprisingatfirst, but ifwe the condemned and discarded Pai Mei(who sitsalone on topof thehill) the source ofthemartialartsteachings. Tarantino’s decision toresort tial artsskillsthroughout theworld, and theone who ishelpingtodestroy opposite characters—a rebeland atraitor—one who wants tospreadmar- Therefore, inone schizophrenic move, Tarantino connects twocompletely the martialartsinorder tofi ght against theforces oftheintruders. leung, 1978),Liuplayed aShaolinmonk namedSan Ta who wants tolearn the rebel.Apartfrom this,inthe fi lm The Shaw brothers’ production wasplayed byLoLieh,while Gordon Liuplayed spread among theChinesepopulation. Shaolin, fearingthatthemartialartsfrom theancient monastery would sive measuresand, amongst otherthings,wanted tobantheteachings of riots. The Manchurian government wascontinuously introducing repres- and establishedtheChingDynasty, which causednumerous rebellions and Ming Dynastyintheseventeenth century, Manchuria conquered China who took thesideofManchurian perpetrators.Withthefallof entered thehistoryofHong Kong cinemaasatraitor, asaShaolinmonk (Lau Kar-leung,1977)and theFistof White Lotus(LoLieh,1980).Pai Mei acter, whom wemeetinseveralHong Kong films, such as legends, Pai Mei,alsoknown asWhite Brow, isanextremelynegative char- cultural formations ofhuman lifesuch asreligion, thedivision oflabor, or Stories and imaginings arebound upwitha law thatisrejoined toother woman’s position on atranscultural screen Tarantino usually offersanewchance tocultactors;inthiscase,the The role ofthemonk Pai Meiwho betrayed hisShaolinbrothers inthe

36th ChamberofShaolin(LauKar- Shaolin 10 Regardless Executioners 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 187 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM It is necessary to learn a double movement: to invoke the to invoke movement: It is necessary to learn a double to institute an identity provisionally hence, and, category as a site of per- at the same time to open the category and the term is questionable That political contest. manent neither it, but to use not mean that we ought does not per- not ought does the necessity to use it mean that we it proceeds, by which the exclusions interrogate petually to live the to learn how to do this precisely in order and er in a culture of demo- of the political signifi contingency 222) (Butler cratic contestation. Hence, Butler is advocating the necessity of acknowledging the universal Butler is advocating the necessity of acknowledging Hence, she is also insisting on but to contest, is open as a site which term, ideology, repetition. term through the possibility of subverting the universal er is itself a settling takes as a political signifi one what to Butler, According of er implicitly cites the prior instances signifi ers. A political of prior signifi ers. prior signifi of those promise the phantasmatic on itself, drawing because it presupposes a return. a subversive function can have Repetition as can be understood which for a site of political contestation Butler argues “woman” as a prescriptive model for female sub- a space of analysis where presupposes that woman’s This jectivity becomes open for re-negotiation. in terms of a tem- status as a “stain” of the symbolic needs to be considered porary linguistic unity. history (Geertz). I would add here that the characters’ vision is bound up is bound vision the characters’ here that add I would (Geertz). history it is that lm, and fi of the world ctional the fi exceeds that a worldview with More world. of the outer concerns philosophical and critical on dependent the . Clearly, fabula to the level of the can be related this vision cally, specifi that chal- of femininity 2 offers an image vol. Kill Bill vol.1 and of fabula is at Law-of-the-Father the universe where Lacanian symbolic lenges the by the Law- universe governed is that the symbolic this means What work. as a norm, not possibility and be seen as just one of-the-Father should alternative universes. ers and signifi alternative because there are various under- cation signifi of law of Lacan’s reconceptualization Butler’s Judith xed (Butler). What or fi predetermined is not this law scores the fact that incomplete er as an always the signifi is the move from Butler interests to that point hence er, the political signifi to return to the real, to promise er a political signifi In that sense, can occur. investments phantasmatic where process, a two-way eld through fi ne the political its power to defi acquires er is thus signifi The sustaining its constituency. creating and that is, through new eld, of introducing the political fi constituting and capable of structuring can be to Butler, according “Woman,” new subject positions. and concerns Even though as a site of new articulations. er, as a signifi taken as category, of the initial suspension an all-inclusiveness, unity, to a false this term alludes ers: of future signifi for the production is the condition difference 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1879780415962612-Ch-08.indd 187 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 188

saša vojkovic´ 188 bolic itself. tests thesymbolic,atstakeisa reformulation and proliferation ofthesym- stake isnot only thestructuringofimaginary which on occasion con- as Butlerputsit,evaporateunder theprohibitive force ofthesymbolic.At dition fortheproduction ofnewcultural formsofsexuality thatwillnot, in reality. Nevertheless,conceptualizing thistypeofuniverseistheprecon- China, inauniversefar, faraway, auniversethatdoesnot have areferent exile, somewhere betweenHayakawa and Hayakawa, Okinawa orancient inspired byKurosawa’s Yuki Akizuki,clearly points tothatterritoryof Hayakawa Country. enough then,thePrincess departsfrom Hayakawa Country toarriveat territory, thePrincess must cross theterritoryofenemy. Paradoxically from Yamana Country toHayakawa Country. Therefore, toreach thesafe and Hayakawa Country ismuch morediffi cult tocross thantheborder was defeatedby Yamana Country, theborder betweenAkizukiCountry Hayakawa Country and Yamana Country, but becauseAkizukiCountry to berestored. The journey iscircular: AkizukiCountry borders on tection ofLord Hayakawa until asituation arisesfortheHouse ofAkizuki The Princess must flee toHayakawa Country where shewillhave thepro- and sheisherselfhunted bytherulerofexpanding Yamana Country. Princess Yuki AkizukiinAkiraKurosawa’s HiddenFortress (1958)wasdefeated, female subjectivity.) Quitesimilartothefabula ofStarWars, thefatherof the structuringofnarrativeisnot dependent on thestructuringof Wars sive exile”isannounced intheStarWars trilogy, forexample.(Although Star characters isnot completelynew. The potential solution forthe“discur- female subjectivity. The recourse tothespaceofexileinrelation tofemale female characters, offersthepossibilityforrenegotiating and redefi ning tion, thespaceofexile(theconstitutive outside, thereal)reservedfor come into being.When regarded withinthisalternativenormative injunc- cially) femaleexistence, and itisanoccasion foralternativesubjectivitiesto Beatrix Kiddoengages our capacitytoenvision adifferent kind of(espe- signifi ers areenabledtocompetewiththepaternalsignifi er. Tarantino’s screen. (trans)cultural position thatdefines herasasubjecton the(trans)cultural inary, implyingherposition inthefabula /the symbolicuniverse. Kiddo isdependent on herposition within Tarantino’s transculturalimag- symbolic order, orevenmultiple symbolicorders. Asasubject,Beatrix meaning, atstakeisthepossibilityofconceiving analtogetherseparate (from theLacaniansymbolicordered bytheLaw-of-the-Father) with Princess Leia’s briefperiodofleadershipinthehistoryuniverse At stakeisnot only thepossibility ofinvesting thespaceofexcluded thematizesthespaceoutside thegalactic empire,faraway from Earth, 12 Newuniversescancomeinto beingtotheextent thatalternative 11 Itisthis 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 189 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM Terminator 2 Terminator The In The ciation). The Long Red Sonja (1985), The (1996), Twister Speed (1994), them into structures implying them as well as them into Strange Days (1995), Strange whose contour breaks the smooth surface of the breaks the contour is the detail whose Skandalon “ , Yvonne Tasker offers an account of the history of the offers an account Tasker Yvonne Spectacular Bodies, , Tasker looks at female roles in other genres, and she estab- in other genres, and at female roles looks Tasker Girls, Working lishes an important connection between the representation of women and of women and between the representation connection lishes an important for the Alien relevant issue is particularly This their status as social agents. lms, pro- in the fi the leading role also plays who Weaver, series. Sigourney lms of the series. duced the last two fi (1990), for example, Tasker adds that “masculinity” is adds that “masculinity” Tasker (1990), for example, Blue Steel (1992), and of a muscular She addresses the emergence to the male body. limited not conceptions gures pose for binary these fi the problems and female heroine muscu- Hamilton’s of Linda For further implications identity. of gendered in Murder New Women: 2, see also “New Hollywood’s lar body in Terminator Willis’ Sharon Smith, and in Neale and Margie,” and Mind—Sarah in her High Contrast. ,” 2 Terminator and Louise and “Combative Femininity: Thelma In text” (84). cinema of the 1980s as a “muscu- describes the action Tasker heroine. action as lms such fi consideration into Taking lar cinema.” Kiss Goodnight (1996), is made to be both a pretty heroine and a military hero, the most famous most famous the a military hero, and be both a pretty heroine is made to pronun Mulan in Cantonese Mulan (Fa Hua is certainly one was there Center Cultural Kong at the Hong of China series presented Legends story a heroic , based on Family Yang Ladies of the Great The opera cent a magnifi skilled in are all of whom Dynasty, of the Song of twelve women warriors For the exam- of the family is the grand-mother. the head martial arts, and Yong’s see for example Jin in martial arts novels, ples of women warriors Mountain. See also of the Snowy Volant Fox and Cha) Deer and the Cauldron (Louis in Kao, the Fantastic edited by Karl of the Supernatural and Tales Classical Chinese Slayer.” Chi, the Serpent particular the story “Li the relation designates the Imaginary is as follows: while nition brief defi the subject through the Symbolic produces its images, and between the ego is, the Law-of-the- that by the Law, order realizes its closed and language Real forms the The the Real. is eld Lacan introduces fi third The Father. as well of the Imaginary escapes the mirror which residue of all articulation it can and Imaginary, nor as the grids of the Symbolic. It is neither Symbolic in is lacking for that which It stands element. as a foreclosed be understood Pontalis. and See Laplanche the symbolic order. of can be elaborated. In Elementary Structures symbolic network an entire which (incest marriage and that the rules of kinship Kinship, Lévi-Strauss argues nat- and biological relationships taboo) create the social state by “reshaping forcing ural sentiments, their original characteristics” compelling them to rise above others, and in of language the importance (490). Lévi-Strauss ultimately emphasizes territory. inhabit the same psychic securing that all the members of a group Realist and French Theory the Chain: Feminism, skandalon in Breaking on discussion Fiction. 6. In notes 1. (19). in his Planet Hong Kong forward term that he puts Bordwell’s is David This 2. a female character stereotypes where Beijing Opera of legendary Speaking elds, a 3. fi between the psychic distinction methodological of Lacan’s In terms 4. by means of has suggested that the family is the agency In brief, Lévi-Strauss 5. of the symbolic recalls Naomi Schor’s woman as the stumbling block The 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1899780415962612-Ch-08.indd 189 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 190

saša vojkovic´ 190 ——. HardBodies:Hollywood MasculinityintheReaganEra Jeffords, Susan.The RemasculinizationofAmerica:Genderand the Vietnam War Irigaray, Luce.“Women’s Exile.” Trans. Couze Venn. Ideology andConsciousness Hong Kingston, Maxine.The Woman Warrior: Memoirs ofaGirlhood AmongGhosts. 2 KajaSilvermanintroduced theterm“culturalscreen”inherThe Threshold 12. This istheargument IelaboratedinSubjectivity intheNew Hollywood Cinema. 11. Anexampleisthegloballypopularactorfrom the1970s—John Travolta— 10. SeeSusanJeffords, HardBodies,and RemasculinizationofAmerica. 9. This notion thatwomenare“extraterritorial”is inspiredbyanumber of 8. While thefi 7. lm Thelma andLouise(1991)demonstrates theimpossibilityof Geertz, Clifford. LocalKnowledge: FurtherEssaysinInterpretive Anthropology Freud, Sigmund. OnMetapsychology: The Theory ofPsychoanalysis. Trans.James Falkenberg, Pamela. “Hollywoodand theArtCinemaasaBipolarModeling Elsaesser, Thomas. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: OntheDiscursive LimitsofSex. New York: Routledge, ——. Bordwell, David. Narration intheFictionFilm . London: Routledge, 1985. works cited New Jersey:RutgersUP, 1996. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,1989. 1 (1977):62–76. London: Picador, 1977. Basic Books, 1983. Strachey. London: Penguin,1991. System: ABoutdesouffl e and Breathless.” 1989. 1993. Harvard UniversityPress, 2000. of the Visibleof World. this TV series,and itwastheessential viewingforhisgeneration. of thisvolume informedme,hisgeneration knows Carradineasthestarof viewers growing upinBritainand theUS.AsWarren Buckland, theeditor nitely animportant pieceofintertextual information, inparticularforthe image ofDavid Carradine,thestarof1970s TV series most pertinently forthediscussion atstake, Tarantino’s recycling ofthe Pam Grier, played theleadingrole in Tarantino’s Jackie Brown (1997).Perhaps Similarly, thebiggestAfricanAmericanfemalestarfrom theearly 1970s, Travolta wasre-launched tostardom via Tarantino’s who achieved cultstatus with hisdiscodancing inSaturdayNightFever (1977). Julia Kristeva“Women’s Time.” Ideology and Consciousness”; SarahKofman,“Ex: The Woman’s Enigma,” texts byfeministcriticsand philosophers: LuceIrigaray, “Women’s Exile, female character uttersthesameline. dick!” InThe, facedwithacompletecrisis,themain LongKissGoodnight Frustrated byherseargent’s derogatory treatment, sheexclaims, “Suck my female character istryingtoprove thatwomenbelong inthemilitary. strained toappropriate bothmusculinity and masculinity. InGIJane,the (1991) and GIJane(1997)radicalizetheextent towhich womenarecon- escaping thelaws ofpatriarchy, fi lms such asBlueSteel, Planet HongKong: Popular CinemaandtheArtofEntertainment.Cambridge,Mass.: New GermanCinema:AHistory.Basingstoke: MacmillanPress, Wide Angle VII.3 (1985):44–53. . NewBrunswick/ Pulp Fiction(1994). Silence oftheLambs Kung Fu,isdefi - . New York: . 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM kill bill and tarantino’s transcultural imaginary 191 4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM4/1/2009 10:46:56 AM s. High . London: . London: . Bloomington: . Bloomington: . London: Routledge, Routledge, . London: Terminator 2.” Terminator Louise and and Thelma . London: Cinema. London: Contemporary Hollywood Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Genre and the Action Cinema and the Action Genre Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Subjectivity in the New Hollywood Cinema: Fathers, Sons and Other Ghost Cinema: Fathers, Hollywood in the New ´, Saša. Subjectivity Working Girls: Gender and Sexuality in Popular Cinema in Popular Girls: Gender and Sexuality Working Routledge, 1993. Routledge, 1998. University Press, 1988. Princeton ASCA Press, 2001. Amsterdam: Film. Durham: Duke Hollywood Contrast: Race and Gender in Contemporary University Press, 1997. from the Third to the Tenth Century (Chinese Literature in Translation) in Literature (Chinese Century Tenth to the Third the from Indiana University Press, 1985. University Indiana University Press, 1986. Columbia 1977. & Company, Norton W. W. 1973. Norton, York: Smith. New Nicholson Press, 1969. Beacon Boston: Rodney Needham. Sturmer, von John Richard 1989. Routledge, 1998. Routledge, University Press, 1985. Columbia York: New 1996. 1999. ——. . Princeton: . Princeton: lm Analysis fi Neoformalist the Glass Armor: Kristin. Breaking Thompson, Vojkovic “Combative Femininity: Willis, Sharon. Classical Chinese Tales of the Supernatural and the Fantastic: Selection Selection and the Fantastic: the Supernatural of Tales Chinese Classical (ed.). Y. S. Kao, Karl 4.2 (Fall 1980.): 17–28. 4.2 (Fall 1980.): Enclitic Enigma.” Woman’s The “Ex: Kofman, Sarah. York: Moi. New Toril Ed. Reader. Kristeva The Time.” “Women’s Kristeva, Julia. London: York, Sheridan. New Alan Trans. . Écrits: A Selection Lacan, Jacques. Donald . Trans. of Psycho-Analysis Language The Pontalis. J.-B. J., and Laplanche, Bell, James Harle Trans. of Kinship. Structures Elementary The Lévi-Strauss, Claude. University Press, Indiana . Bloomington: and Other Pleasures Laura. Visual Mulvey, eds. Murray Smith, Neale, Steve and Breaking the Chain: Feminism, Theory, and French Realist Fiction. and French Theory, the Chain: Feminism, Naomi. Breaking Schor, Routledge, York/London: . New World Visible of the Threshold Silverman, Kaja. The Verso, Cinema. Hong Kong City on Fire: Hoover. New York: Michael Lisa, and Stokes, Yvonne. Tasker, 9780415962612-Ch-08.indd 1919780415962612-Ch-08.indd 191 (broke) back to the mainstream

nine queer

theory and

queer cinemas

today

harry m. benshoff

Movies with lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered (LGBT) characters have been produced in unprecedented numbers since the late 1980s. After decades of invisibility and/or connotative stereotyping (enforced by the Hollywood Production Code and the fi lm industry’s more far-reaching and long-lasting heterosexism), the last twenty years have seen the rise of a vigorous gay and lesbian independent cinema, including the so-called New Queer Cinema. Television has given us mainstreamed queers-next- door like “Ellen” (1994–1998) and “Will & Grace” (1998–2006), while quasi- independent Oscar-winning fi lms like Boys Don’t Cry (1999), The Hours (2002), Far From Heaven (2002), and Capote (2005) play to ever-widening audiences. Even recent mainstream Hollywood comedies fi rmly aimed at heterosexual consumers such as Talladega Nights (2006) and I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry (2007) have included not-wholly derogatory gay subplots and characters. Importantly, this rise in the number of LGBT images has been accompanied by the development of queer theory, both a broad approach to restructuring the ways we think about human sexuality as well as a more

9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 192 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 193 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM ). Furthermore, continuing innovations in fi lm in fi innovations ). Furthermore, continuing Images Matter of The This boom in LGBT media mirrors the tremendous gains that lesbian, the tremendous boom in LGBT media mirrors This Yet, what does all this signify about our current understandings of understandings current our this signify about does all what Yet, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people in Western nations have made in have nations people in Western transgendered and bisexual, gay, years of the AIDS crisis during the early most areas of real life. Before and dared to who to anyone often hostile culture was (1981–1985), Western psychia- Doctors and sexuality. and of gender notions dominant question it a crime, considered disease, the courts a homosexuality trists considered was a nasty little it as a sin. Homosexuality condemned most religions and were expected to stay Homosexuals blackball. and secret used to blackmail families. and friends from orientation hiding their sexual in the closet, certainly no for LGBT people, and civil rights protections were no There however, Today, D’Emilio). Weeks; (Chauncey; marriage of gay discussions While sight in America. more common openly LGBT people are a much rmly as fi door is not still persist, the closet heterosexism and homophobia declare educators now and was. Doctors, psychiatrists, as it once latched dis- psychological be a social and homosexuality—to homophobia—not behav- sexual criminalizing consenting all state laws and ease. In 2003, any down by the United States Supreme Court. iors between adults were struck distribution (such as Hollywood’s development of art house boutique sub- boutique of art house development as Hollywood’s (such distribution cable television satellite and rentals, sales and sidiaries, straight-to-DVD also allows for a broader-than-ever web-based technologies) channels, of all kinds. to audiences to be distributed images spectrum of queer (homo)sexuality and the American fi lm industry? Does the mainstream- lm industry? fi the American and (homo)sexuality commod- necessarily mean its concerns culture and lesbian and ing of gay as much: suggested critics have Several queer depoliticization? and cation ifi and asexual, white, of “nice gays”—overwhelmingly images that the new to create a new worked community—have the queer removed from of sex and the kinds have who of “bad queers”—people demonization That Warner). (Walters; fences picket with white clash politics that sexual of the notion as it is on dependent a point, accurate up to thesis is probably as such culturally pervasive media institutions mainstreaming vis-à-vis replicate dom- to cater to and tend that television network Hollywood and develop- mainstreaming is an important such However, ideologies. inant a just not because it affords representation of queer in the history ment more images), (i.e. more and representation in queer difference quantitative being proof images the greater number difference: a qualitative also but Such complexity of images. and duced also allows for a greater diversity of Western demographics ects the actual diversity more accurately refl other mar- of stereotypes and the use challenges and communities, queer group minority any control and to contain ginalizing tactics that work (Dyer, focused critical method that allows us to make better sense of the cultural the cultural sense of make better us to that allows method critical focused sexualities. contemporary construct and that represent artifacts 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 1939780415962612-Ch-09.indd 193 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 194

harry m. benshoff 194 rethink what itiswethinkknow about human sexualities. and thedevelopment ofqueer theory, asetofideasthatchallenges usto fi lmmaking,politicaland socialactivisminthestreets and pollingplaces, factors, including developments intheindustrial structureofAmerican diversity ofqueer images inWestern fi lm isduetoahost ofinterrelated American west).Asdiscussedbelow, theunprecedented number and (2005, about apairofruggedlymasculine queer cowboysin therecent Quinceañera (2006,about agay cholo inLosAngeles),and Brokeback Mountain York City), ers), history, one canfind fi lms likeLatterDays(2003,about gay Mormon teenag- texts asregularly asarewhite gay men.)Still,atthismoment inAmerican capitalism; queer womenand peopleofcolorarenot represented inthese queer typeson screenisstilllimitedbythestructuresofwhite patriarchal etc. (Itshould benoted attheoutset thatthisincreasing divergence of individualizing traitsofrace,gender region, class, ability, age, bodytype, been joinedbyawiderangeofmultifarious queer types,distinguishedby swishy white maleinterior designersormannishprison matrons—have sexuality ingeneral. The one-note cinematicstereotypesofpastdecades— challenges perceptions, and changes theculture’s understanding of(homo) ibility and marginalization, thecomingout ofLGBTpeopledispelsmyths, fight forequality and thepassingofcivilrightslaws. Afterdecadesofinvis- visibility—both onscreen and inreallife—isanecessarycomponent ofthe still balkattheideaofsame-sexmarriage. Nonetheless, Iwould argue that cians—even those who allegedly supportequal rightsforLGBTpeople— can laughat“Will&Grace”and stillgay-bash, justasmainstreampoliti- place twenty yearsago—has movedtocenter stage. marriage, which mostLGBTpeoplecould not have evenimagined taking into theircongregations and eveninto theirclergy. The debateforgay many mainstreamdenominations arebeginning towelcomehomosexuals behavior, theyprofess tolovehomosexuals themselves.Moreimportantly, And although many fundamentalist religions stillcondemn homosexual history and theory(Hocquenghem; Wittig),aswellthedisciplines of specific” (Sullivanvi).Itcanand doesdraw upon previous lesbianand gay of knowing and ofbeingthatmay not always initiallybeevident assex- identity. Even morebroadly, queer theorycritiques “normalising [sic]ways with human sexualities and how theyimpactupon history, culture,and philosophy, anthropology—in short any disciplinethatdealsinany way courses, including film and television studies, literature,history, sociology, Queer theoryemerged from and now transectsmultiple academicdis- queer theory, queer fi Yet, visibilityisnot thesamethingasequality (Walters). Homophobes Saving Face(2004,about anAsianAmerican lesbiansurgeon inNew Brother toBrother (2004,about queers intheHarlem Renaissance), lm theory 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 195 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM visible Between Men). essentialized poles. In truth, mil- essentialized seemingly In broad terms, queer theory insists that there is a general overlap theory insists that there is a general overlap queer terms, In broad The work of feminist philosopher Judith Butler has also been founda- Judith philosopher of feminist work The between all forms of human sexuality—and that all forms of sexuality are that all forms of sexuality sexuality—and between all forms of human them. As such, we use to describe images and actions, shaped by the words, complicate and deconstruct goals is to continually central of its one historians have As queer binary. straight–gay illusory culture’s Western were coined in the homosexuality and the terms heterosexuality noted, their original meanings were somewhat although century, late nineteenth a state of disease (Katz). By the middle both connoted than today: different homosexuality and heterosexuality however, century, of the twentieth terms straight with the more colloquial synonymous had become fairly about thinking to dominate contemporary binary continues This gay. and just behav- not types of people and is used to classify (and sexuality human for decades that there is argued historians have and iors), even as scientists gray area between these a huge Sedgwick has also explored numerous paradoxes in Western culture’s culture’s paradoxes in Western has also explored numerous Sedgwick to functions the closet how shown and sexuality, of human understanding think- of Western binary that structures much the hetero–homo regulate ). Epistemology ing (Sedgwick, are denied or made in sexualities human multifarious of unique, lions tional to queer theory. Her concepts about the performativity of gender performativity of gender the about Her concepts theory. to queer tional produced are identities sexualized and gendered that sexuality—i.e. and are rather but exist prior to actions do not that identities actions, through of social construction uidity and the fl them—also insist on by produced literary scholar register, (Butler). In a slightly different sexualities human lit- Western desire queered homosocial on work Sedgwick’s Eve Kosofsky (Sedgwick, contexts patriarchal its myriad erature and cultural studies, reception theory, and psychoanalysis. Perhaps most Perhaps psychoanalysis. and theory, reception studies, cultural and poststructuralist of the many by is informed theory queer closely, theory, postcolonial feminism, wave third ideas that shape postmodern of production and the politics, practice, about of thinking other ways and that theory postulates thinking, queer of that Like much social identity. is rather a given, but or biological an essentialized not is sexuality human is it within which discourses the various that is shaped by uid construct fl is an important History of Sexuality The Foucault’s Michel As such, spoken. is suggests that sexuality In it, Foucault theory. text of queer foundational by is in fact actively constructed culture, but repressed by dominant not speaking, such of institutionalized ways various through culture dominant or diseased), the as healthy (sexuality of the medical establishment as those or as sinful (sexuality the church and as criminal or legal), (sexuality law soci- historians and premises, Foucault’s on Expanding more rarely holy). archeology—reconstructing a sort of queer practice regularly ologists now by place, time, as determined sexualities exploring diverse human and/or institution. and 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 1959780415962612-Ch-09.indd 195 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 196

harry m. benshoff 196 and poststructuralismtounwind thequeer aspectsofclassical Hollywood reception (Doty, MakingThings), while stillothersemploy psychoanalysis Other criticshave usedit toexplorethequeerness of mass cultureand its AIDS videocollectivesand contemporary LGBTfi lmmakers (Gever). (Mayne; Doty, MakingThings). Ithasbeenusedtoexplorethework madeby Hollywood directorslikeJamesWhale, George Cukor, and Dorothy Arzner or heterosexual, ortransvestite—somethingthatRussoneveraddresses. criticism’s basictasksistocomplicatewhat we evenmeanbyhomosexual, under different industrial and socialconditions. Thus one ofqueer fi lm considered queers, fortheimages allvaryagreatdealand wereproduced of what histitlereferstoas“homosexual[s] inthemovies”should infactbe book sis thatprecededit,anapproach perhapsbestexemplifi edby Vito Russo’s complicating the“spotgay” typeof“positiveornegative” image analy- Creekmur). Queertheoryhasbeen appliedtofilm studies invarious ways, edited anthologies (deLauretis;BadObject-Choices; Fuss;Gever; 1990s, asinfluential essays appearedinaseriesofspecialjournal issuesand meanings ofgender and sexuality. which theymaintain (ormorerarelycritique) thevarious hierarchical allows ustodissectthose images and begin toanalyzethemfor theways in understandings ofgender and sexuality aseither-orbinaries,queer theory popular culture,including Hollywoodmovies,contribute tosimplistic construct theshapeand experience ofany human sexuality. While most and unique discourses and institutions thatimpactupon and ultimately exegete, forone ofthegoalsqueer criticismistoilluminate thespecific ualities. Butdescribingsomethingasqueer isonly the startingpoint forthe umbrella termthatcanbeusedtodescribemost—ifnot all—human sex- only” istheonly normal and desirablesexuality. Queer, then,becomesan “married-straight-white-man-on-top-of-woman-sex-for-procreation- institutions ofheteronormativity, abroad socialstructurethatclaims that sexualities (not justLGBTones), inorder todeconstruct theideologiesand and sexualized hierarchies itcreatesand supports. exposes theinadequacy ofthestraight–gay binary, aswellthegendered “normal” heterosexuals and “deviant” homosexuals. Useofthetermqueer suggest anunderstanding ofhuman sexuality strictly dividedbetween practicing analsexishiddenbythestraight–gay binary, which tends to numbers—there areprobably moreheterosexuals thanhomosexuals branded disgusting,profane, orbestial. The factthat—intermsofsheer sexist thinking,analintercourse isoftenassociatedwithgay men,and often ual couples canand doengage inanaleroticism; however, withinhetero- by thestraight–gay binary. Forexample,bothheterosexual and homosex- Queer fi lm theoryhasalsobeenapplied toauteurstudiesofclassical Queer theorybegan tobeappliedfi lm studiesinthelate1980sand Queer theory, then,examinesthesocialconstruction ofallhuman The Celluloid Closet:Homosexuality intheMovies.Russo’s exhaustivecatalog 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 197 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM are themselves best understood as queer—fi genres like lm as queer—fi best understood are themselves forms Historically, queer theory developed in the academic world alongside alongside developed in the academic world theory queer Historically, new queer (and not so queer) cinemas so queer) (and not new queer practice located lmmaking fi New Queer Cinema describes an independent 1990s the early circa Europe Western and North America around in and theory as structuring princi- videos used queer and lms fi These (Aaron). inde- gay of the lesbian and political than many were more overtly ples and Queer New many had come before them. Indeed, features that pendent video collectives, in AIDS activist groups, involved lmmakers had been fi universi- and cultural theory at colleges had studied contemporary and/or criti- lm festivals, New Queer Cinema found ed at LGBT fi ties. First identifi lms and theaters. Its fi success in art house commercial and cal acclaim as well as ideology, and of taste, form, notions videos openly challenged New Queer Cinema style has sometimes sexuality. and gender, race, class, lms partake of postmodern been dubbed “Homo Pomo” because the fi queer activism in the street, and the fi rst wave of work inspired by queer inspired by queer of work rst wave the fi activism in the street, and queer vigor. and as well as creative—was infused with fury theory—both critical bigotry toward and inaction governmental ghting against For activists fi of difference,” a necessary “community was used to designate AIDS, queer (Duggan). People behaviors identities and variety of sexual of a broad inclusive in the late 1980s repre- homophobia institutionalized ghting AIDS and fi tended mainstream media (even though population a highly diverse sented man dying with of the sad, white image to the to reduce that population den- the usual included community c queer specifi historically That AIDS). cross-dressers, bisexuals, also or lesbian ghettos, but gay izens of bourgeois straight people, people, people of color, people, disabled transgendered cul- resisted Western who so on—anyone kings, and drag leather queens, Queer communities sexuality. and structures of gender dominant ture’s as well region and race, gender, of class, borders cross now) (both then and people in a shared cause. As with their uniting very different as sexuality, pejo- a previously reinvesting and itself (reclaiming queer use of the word theo- activists and of queer rst wave rative term with new meanings), the fi LGBT of the era’s So were many unruly. and to be provocative rists meant directly informed by queer work to produce began lmmakers, who fi as the New Queer known became quickly that collectively work theory, Cinema. syntax (Hanson; Miller in Fuss). Some queer fi lm critics argue that some that some critics argue lm fi Some queer in Fuss). Miller (Hanson; syntax cinematic construct lm all animated fi the and lm noir, fi lm, the musical, fi the horror (Benshoff; amuck do run can and forces queer in which unreal worlds are joining with lm theorists fi queer Most recently, n; Dyer). Farmer; Griffi notion the monolithic historians to queer social feminists and wave third (Katz; Dixon). heterosexuality of cinematic 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 1979780415962612-Ch-09.indd 197 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 198

harry m. benshoff 198 otypes such asthequeer psycho-killer (Swoon, tive” images. Some ofthefilms dorecycle (in order toquestion) oldstere- many ofwhom wereconcerned withNewQueerCinema’s alleged “nega- identity—but alsothecinematicstylesusedtorepresent them. most NewQueerfilms and videos—exploresand questions not justsocial found footage, and evenplayful fi ctitious vignettes, Drawing together poetry, dance, personal reminiscences, historicaland aspects ofbeingblack and gay innorthern Californiaduringthatsameera. unique underground culture.Similarly, Tongues Untiedfocuseson various color inNew York Cityinthe1980sand how theyfashioned theirown mentary of thetwentieth century. The morestraightforward ethnographic docu- existence and representation ofqueer AfricanAmericansintheearly part also examinetheways and means(orlack thereof ) thatallowedforthe tion ofthose inpower. Works like Lookingfor Langstonand The Watermelon Woman think about thenatureofhistory—and how itisoftentoldfrom theposi- Edward IIand Swoonaredeliberatelyanachronistic, askingtheviewerto ualities theyrepresent. how medialanguages or discourses shapetheformand content ofthesex- lesbian romance withexperimental sequences, again callingattention to ent cinematicgenres.Similarly, GoFishpunctuates itsstraightforward cifically tocallattention tohow queerness isusually figured withindiffer- up ofthreeinterwoven storiestoldinthreedifferent cinematicstyles,spe- tlers, while Zero Patience isaghost storymusical about AIDS. Hollywood buddy/road movieforHIVpositivequeers and teenage hus- mentary style.The Living Endand MyOwnPrivate Idahoreappropriate the Hollywood and avant-garde styles,and eventhemixoffictional and docu- on minimalismand excess,appropriation and pastiche, themixingof and The Watermelon Woman Sant, 1991),Zero Patience (JohnGreyson, 1993),GoFish(RoseTroche,1995), Kalin, 1991),The Living End(Gregg Araki,1991),MyOwnPrivate Idaho(Gusvan Edward II(DerekJarman,1991),Poison (Todd Haynes, 1991),Swoon(Tom Looking for Langston(IsaacJulien, 1989),Paris (JennieLivingston, isBurning 1990), and filmmakers ofthismovement wereTongues Untied(Marlon Riggs,1989), emphasize socialconstructionist modelsofidentity. Someofthefirst fi lms able formalboundaries, thecrossing ofstylesand genres,and almostalways styles and ideas(asdoesqueer theoryitself). They tend tofocuson perme- with happyendings. Those typesofmovies arealsonow beingmadeby or gay, arestillweanedon and oftenstilldesireHollywood-stylemovies cally pretentious. Afterall,Americanmovieaudiences, whether straight many LGBTfilmgoers found thefilms tobedry, unpleasant, and theoreti- New QueerCinemawasnot always applaudedbyLGBTaudiences, Many NewQueerfi lms alsochallenge masternarrativeslikehistory. Unruly and transgressive,NewQueerCinemasimultaneously draws Paris isBurninganexemplaryqueer casestudyofpoorqueers of (Cheryl Dunye, 1995). Poison, Tongues Untied—like The Living End),and Poison ismade 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 199 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM The Incredibly True True Incredibly The (1996) can earn, such (1996) can earn, such Birdcage The (1993) or Philadelphia seem to suggest that queer queer seem to suggest that Mountain Monster (2003) or Brokeback (from Samuel Goldwyn Goldwyn Samuel Mambo Italiano (from Films) and IFC Camp (from The rise of New Queer Cinema did not go unnoticed by Hollywood, go unnoticed not rise of New Queer Cinema did The LGBT and queer independent fi lmmaking, serving more or less queer serving more or less queer lmmaking, fi independent queer LGBT and and they briefl y tried (unsuccessfully) to market a few fi lms that explored a few fi y tried (unsuccessfully) to market they briefl and Threesome of Hearts (1993) and as Three such more open parameters of sexuality, lms were fi in 1990s mainstream Hollywood most queers (1994). However, family members—who best friends, supporting characters—neighbors, of view point a political and community denied both queer were regularly were LGBT characters on lms to focus centrally Even the few fi (Walters). genres, Hollywood formulas, to dominant according constructed regularly social follows the traditional stereotypes. For example, Philadelphia and white bourgeois a nice, desexualized, on format, centering lm fi problem revenues are almost negligible. Thus, more and more independent fi lms fi more independent more and Thus, almost negligible. are revenues art as auteur-based distributed and are being pitched content with queer stars and lms. With bigger cally LGBT fi pictures, rather than specifi house lm, by the start of the twenty- fi independent queer than the usual budgets latest attempt to as Hollywood’s lms were emerging these fi rst century, fi audiences. themes to ever-wider queer market lesbian and gay independent fi lmmakers. For example, For example, lmmakers. fi independent gay and lesbian box the art house at between $1–2 million grossed only each Films), and of dollars a of millions hundreds ce (Goodridge 13). Compared to the offi like lm Hollywood fi niche markets, is often facilitated by new distribution channels such as such channels distribution is often facilitated by new markets, niche video com- Specialized mail-order rentals. sales and DVD direct-to-home been have Culture Q Connection and Video, TLA, Wolfe as panies such are also they and now, years for many community to the queer marketing that they then release projects funding lm production, fi moving into of the Internet with the advent catalogues. And their mail-order through all types of queer YouTube, and websites like PlanetOut/PopcornQ and distrib- and/or being advertised features are increasingly videos, and shorts, LGBT while However, private venues. such through uted to consumers reve- it rarely generates much be thriving, may lmmaking fi independent lm. or lesbian fi it gets ghettoized as a gay when backers nancial for its fi nue lms of 2003 fi ed independent gay-identifi For example, the highest grossing were Eating Out Eating and (2000), Hearts Club Broken The in Love (1995), Girls Two of Adventure the narrative form and of Hollywood the conventions upon (2004) draw previ- lovers into gay lesbian and insert but comedy, romantic genre of the lms fi unchallenging of such production The roles. heterosexual ously critics to decry the state has led some to New Queer Cinema), (compared New seeing more radical cinema, LGBT independent of contemporary lms like Hedwig and the fi recent or dying. However, Queer impulses as dead Hollywood (2003), as well as quasi-independent Tarnation (2001) and Inch Angry lms like fi to thrive. continues cinema) to lesbian or gay cinema (as opposed 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 1999780415962612-Ch-09.indd 199 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 200

harry m. benshoff 200 gay man–straightwomanbuddy films such as and broadening itspotential audience base,Hollywoodthencreatedafew in ahandful ofcomedieslikeIn&Out(1997).Emulating “Will&Grace,” Thanks for Everything, JulieNewmar (1997),and morestraightactorsplayed gay old drag queen stereotypesincomedieslikeThe Birdcage andTo WongFoo, crisis, centering insteadon tearfulfamilymelodrama.Hollywoodrevisited failed todramatizethequeer community’s activistresponse totheAIDS to-be heterosexual actorsinHollywood.Asitscriticspointed out, Philadelphia gay manplayed by Tom Hanks,one ofthemostnon-threatening known- Gate/Universal), tribution areThe CryingGame(1992,Miramax), keted asprestigepicturesthatjusthappentohave queer content. being niche marketed tosmallurbanLGBTaudiences, thefi lmsaremar- larger, moremainstreamaudiences inAmericanmultiplexes. Insteadof studios, theycanthenbedistributed viaaplatformingreleasepatternto reviews and multiple awards. Butasfilms alsobacked bymajorHollywood pendent” cinemathesefi lms play atfestivals where theygarnergood been successfulinbringingqueer concerns towideraudiences. As“inde- evidence suggeststhatthisnewproduction and marketing strategy has playing field for“truly”independent film production and distribution, the sidiaries hasbeendecriedbymany criticsforsupposedlynarrowing the Pictures. And while thecreation ofthesequasi-independent boutique sub- such asSony PicturesClassics,FoxSearchlight, and Warner Independent established theirownvaguely separate“independent” distribution outlets Disney, NewLineCinemawasabsorbedinto Time/Warner), orelsethey acquired various independent companies(Miramaxwasacquired by during the1990sand 2000s,almostallofthemajorHollywoodstudios these fi lms arenow beingproduced and distributed. Asiswellknown, wider distribution thatusually accompaniesit—isdueinparttotheways number ofOscarnominations and wins. The Oscarattention—and the into thenewmillennium,queer fi lms weregarneringanunprecedented won anOscarforBestDocumentary Feature.However, bythe1990sand Times ofHarvey Milk(1984)and Common Threads: Storiesfrom theQuilt(1989)each During the1980s,queer work began tobehonored bytheAcademy: The the GoldenGlobesand theAcademy ofMotion PicturesArtsand Sciences. is itsincreasing validation bycriticaland professional institutions such as lated bythefilm’s butch-femme aesthetic. draw inbothlesbianspectatorsaswellheterosexual maleaudiences titil- and Newmarket/Columbia TriStar HomeEntertainment), Brokeback Mountain (2002, aco-production betweenMiramax and Paramount), Fox Searchlight), FarFrom Heaven (2002,FocusFeatures/Universal), The Hours Among thefilms thathave followed thispatternofproduction and dis- Perhaps themostinteresting development inrecent queer filmmaking The ObjectofMyAffection (1998).Similarly, Bound(1996)wasanattemptto American Beauty(1999,DreamWorks), Boys Don’tCry(1999, Gods andMonsters (1998,Lion’s My BestFriend’s Wedding (1997) Monster (2003, 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 201 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM Hours The : queer not gay not : queer (which swept the Oscars and won for Best Picture) won swept the Oscars and American Beauty (which is another queer take on the cinematic melodrama and the cinematic melodrama and take on queer is another Hours The , yet another quasi-independent award-winning and and award-winning quasi-independent Mountain, yet another Brokeback (which won a Best Actress Oscar for Hilary Swank) is based a Best Actress Oscar won Cry (which Don’t Boys brokeback mountain lms is Ang of fi crop example of this recent the most-well known Probably Lee’s widely distributed queer fi by most was misunderstood Mountain lm. Brokeback fi queer widely distributed neither Ennis Del Mar Yet cowboy movie.” as a “gay popular discourses or queer, a gay, (Jake Gyllenhaal) claims Twist Jack (Heath Ledger) nor Ennis. “Me says queer,” I ain’t know (“You identity. otherwise homosexual sex together, their occasional In fact, aside from replies Jack). neither,” intercuts three different but thematically related stories, each focusing on on focusing related stories, each thematically but three different intercuts times and women living in different in the life of three different a single day rela- at the possible lives and is a historicized look emerges places. What years of Western hundred one women across to queer available tionships history. on the true story of Brandon Teena, a female-to-male pre-operative trans- a female-to-male Teena, the true story of Brandon on Pierce, Directed by Kimberly murdered. was brutally raped and who sexual how emphasizes and sexuality and lm complicates issues of gender the fi of queer-phobic to become a target Brandon doom regionality and class violence. retired lm’s of the fi violence the brutality and repression: thematizes sexual homo- to be the result of his repressed Marine (Chris Cooper) is shown by New produced , written, directed, and Heaven desires. Far From sexual the is a gloss on Vachon, Christine and Haynes Todd lmmakers Queer fi Hollywood melodrama. As with the best of the classical content form and cinematic style as much on is a comment Heaven lms, Far From fi of Haynes’s Stephen sexuality. and gender, of race, class, exploration as it is a queer Daldry’s win, for Nicole one (and with nine Oscar nominations was honored Michael ). Based on Woolf Virginia Best Actress turn as Kidman’s of the same name, novel Pulitzer prize-winning Cunningham’s (2005, Sony Pictures Classics), Notes Pictures Sony (2005, Capote Focus Features/Universal), (2005, Independent Warner (2006, Infamous and Fox Searchlight) (2006, on a Scandal lmmak- New Queer fi were made by former lms Some of these fi Pictures). the social emphasizing in form as well as content, queer most are ers and depict. Gods and lives they that shape the queer discourses historical and is Best Adapted Screenplay) an Oscar for won (which , for example Monsters lmmaker fi Hollywood of classical historiography queer an imaginative was Ian McKellen (who actor Sir lm by gay in the fi played James Whale, forth and ips back lm fl the fi stylized, an Oscar). Queerly for also nominated the between “reality” and the present, and in time, between memory lms, exploring the nature fi horror depicted in James Whale’s bizarre worlds work. his life and it impacted upon how and homosexuality of Whale’s 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2019780415962612-Ch-09.indd 201 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 202

harry m. benshoff 202 designed tofi gure humor and disavowal. Likethetag-line “gay cowboymovie,” each was circulated duringthefilm’s releasenervously attemptedtocontain through Western, somethingthemany jokes, cartoons, and comedysketches that Mountain preference formalebonding overheterosexual romance. Assuch, Brokeback tion versusthewilderness,conformity versusfreedom,and ultimatelythe bles bothintermsofitsmiseenscèneaswellthematicconcerns: civiliza- indeed verydifferent from alltheotherWesterns thatitsoclosely resem- gay cowboymovie”toparticularizeit,leteveryone know thatitwas much likeastraightcowboymovie. Thus itwasdismissivelylabeled“THE not somuch becauseit is a“gay cowboymovie,” but becauseitlooks so and homosexual. Itupsetstheinstitutions ofheteronormative patriarchy Mountain blurs theborders betweenstraightand gay, betweenhomosocial heartland and specifically into itsiconographic masculinesubject, (Mendelsohn). Butbyplacingmalehomosexual desireinto theAmerican would afi lmabout two“queer eye”interior decoratorsinNew York City themed desires. Asimilarfi lm about twowomeninlovesuch asthewestern- American Cowboy—may have hadand mightstillhave homosexual ited thatone ofthemosticonic images ofheterosexual masculinity—the white, Western, heteronormative discourses. critique thedominant institutions and subjectpositions createdwithin understood asafi lm thatusesthetoolsand methods ofqueer theoryto enough”—as many gay audiences complained— homosexual desire.Insteadofbeinga“gay fi lm” thatwasnot “gay tique ofcompulsoryheterosexuality and itsdenialand oppression of human sexualities. And insodoing,Brokeback Mountainsounds astrident cri- ing those ofgender, class, and region—that produce complexand distinct ticular placeand timeinorder todissectthemultiple discourses—includ- broader theoreticalsense,makingstrangethesocialinstitutions of apar- not gay inthenarrow, “identity-politics” sense,but itisquite queer inthe out mostofthefilm. Brokeback Mountain—likeitscentral characters—is thus both Ennisand Jack arequite publicly and obviously heterosexual through- landscapes, climate,and and topography dictatelocalculturaltraditions ing, sheseesherselfasa“geographic determinist,” writingabout how “regional historiography. Indeed, incommon withmuch theoreticallyqueer think- love story;insteadshewrote somethingthatmightbeclassifi ed asqueer story. Proulx wasout todosomething morethancreateasimpletragic cowboy” labelassimplisticand naïvewhen itwasfirst attached tohershort American West and itstraditional cowboymasculinity. anomaly, and not somethingcentral tothedominant mythologies ofthe Brokeback Mountaincausedapopculturepanicbecauseitforthrightlypos- The author ofBrokeback Mountain,AnnieProulx, alsodisownedthe“gay Desert Hearts(1985)would not have caused such consternation, nor literally queers theuber-butch generic space oftheHollywood Brokeback Mountain as adeviant Other, tosituate itasan Brokeback Mountainisbetter Brokeback 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 203 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM bandanas, which according to the decades-old Gay to the decades-old Gay according which Mountain bandanas, Brokeback could afford afford Mountain could lm, Brokeback fi art house As an urban independent The fi lm’s dual focus—queer male love story and critique of Western of Western critique story and male love focus—queer dual lm’s fi The to be understood as queer love story. But as a mainstream, multiplex, sub- But as a mainstream, multiplex, love story. as queer to be understood aspects, framing itself instead as those urban release, it had to downplay (perhaps most a western, and/or a weepie, more of a universal love story, glowing reviews) as a prestige and awards multiple as it won importantly The ad campaigns. lm had at least two different the fi cantly, picture. Signifi lm— the fi “practically de-gayed consumers ads aimed at heterosexual held by his picture- Jake Gyllenhaal cooing over his newborn son showing newspapers gay publicists sent lm’s the fi On the other hand, perfect wife.” blue the the left for tops; worn on anal sex, “worn on Code, represent Hanky mean- lm was obviously the fi while 37). And right for bottoms” (Kusner also dem- studies have reception men, recent rural gay ingful to urban and in the American women appeal to heterosexual its tremendous onstrated heteronormativity—played out in interesting ways across the fi lm’s pro- lm’s the fi across ways in interesting out heteronormativity—played lm began Its life as a fi reception. and distribution, marketing, duction, had been involved who Schamus, James producer independent gay when Annie 1990s, optioned lms of the early with several seminal New Queer fi the project to bankroll in Hollywood wanted No one story. short Proulx’s to get the in the seven years it took and content, because of its homosexual of the Hollywood as one throughout lm made, the script became known fi uke of a fl ever written. It was actually screenplays greatest unproduce-able Shamus’s nancing. fi nd to fi lm fi corporate restructuring that allowed the by was bought (Good Machine) company production independent a new Universal subsid- into merged of 2002 and Universal Pictures in June of Focus Features, co-president iary named Focus Features; as the new was then able to green light his own project. Schamus kinds of work.” Thus, she specifi es that Jack and Ennis were “a couple of “a couple Ennis were and es that Jack she specifi Thus, of work.” kinds by the shaped self-knowledge and kids, opinions country home-grown waters of increasing in emotional themselves nding fi them, around world as cow- (or even them as gay identifying 130). Far from depth” (Proulx, them- homophobic clearly Ennis “were and writes that Jack boys), Proulx cowboys, be part to be wanted Both the Ennis character. selves, especially For (130). that way” out work it didn’t but Myth, Western of the Great cow- gay not of “destructive rural homophobia,” her story was one Proulx, seeing Jack lm in a similar fashion, the fi approached boys. Director Ang Lee period focus on intense Lee’s of their environments. Ennis as extensions and time shape that place and ways the many generic detail underscores and lm’s of the fi one they make. Arguably the choices and characters lm’s the fi of an almost palpable its creation is aesthetic achievements cant most signifi struc- apparatuses and ideological time, the dominant feeling of place and both real and American West, the recent marked tures of feeling that mythic. 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2039780415962612-Ch-09.indd 203 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 204

harry m. benshoff 204 expresses itinStraightwitha Twist: Queer Theory andtheSubjectofHeterosexuality culinity areinfactdeeplyimbricatedwithone another. AsCalvin Thomas many theoristshave argued thathomophobia and heteronormative mas- a critique ofpatriarchal masculinityand compulsoryheterosexuality; which welive. has everquestioned thedominant structuresofgender and sexuality under heartland (Groth). The fi lmseemstospeakanyone and everyone who itself alimitingand sexiststructure(Floyd). Similarly, Jack and Ennis it isdramatizinghow Midwestern Americancultureofthe1960s–1970s was miss thispoint: thefilm isnot treatingitsfemalecharacters inasexistmanner, complained thatthefilm ignores theplightofmen’s spouses seemedto ual relations—as wife,girlfriend, daughter, ormother. Commentators who especially derivetheiridentities solelyfrom theirlocation withinheterosex- cumscribed bywhite, heteronormative, patriarchal capitalism. The women on theextrememargins ofsecond wave feminism.Allofthemleadlivescir- describe thecharacters inBrokeback Mountain,ruraluneducatedpeopleliving monotony, repetition, and predictability”(Dixon 8). Those adjectivesclearly puts it,“Performingstraightnessentails rigidself-discipline. Itisastateof a central tenetoffeministand queer theoriesfordecades.Asone theorist into narrowly-defined socialroles derivedfrom theirbiologicalsexhasbeen the normative identity. sexual desireand morebecausehehasbeenterrorized into acceptingitas “scared straight”—hedefi nes himselfasheterosexual lessbecauseofhis they somehow know ofhissexual relationship withJack. Ennisisliterally imagining thatpeopleintownarestaringathim,singlinghimout because tionship iseverdiscovered.Ashe ages, Ennisgrows increasingly paranoid, even asanadultEnnisfearsthatheand Jack willbemurdered iftheirrela- masculinity justifi ably punishesqueers. The lesson wassosuccessfulthat dered gay man,inwhat wasmeant tobeanobjectlesson astohow violent year-old Enniswastakenbyhisfathertoviewthemutilated bodyofamur- own “straightmind” out ofabjectterror. Ashisback-story reveals,nine- apparent thaninthecharacter ofEnnisDelMar, amanwho maintains his Nowhere inthestoryorfilm ofBrokeback Mountain isthisformulation more Brokeback Mountain’s critique ofheteronormativity necessarilyborders on The ideathatinstitutionalized heterosexuality trapsmenand women (arguably antisexual) ofheteronormativity itself.(98–99) and women(afterall,thesethingshappen)asthe erning not somuch specifi c sexual practicesbetweenmen produces and maintains “thestraightmind” assuch, gov- horror of/fascination withabjectedhomosexuality that it ispreciselythatculturallyproduced and reinforced straight mind becausethisterror The terror ofbeingmistakenforaqueer dominatesthe constitutes thestraightmind; institution

: 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 205 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM The Thanksgiving dinner scene at Lureen and Jack’s home is especially is home Jack’s at Lureen and dinner scene Thanksgiving The is not the corner- Mountain is not in Brokeback Furthermore, heterosexuality effective in delineating the various dis-eases of Western heteronormativity. In heteronormativity. dis-eases of Western effective in delineating the various for masculine superiority while jockey L. D. his father-in-law and it, Jack the (traditionally to carve the turkey begins As Jack their wives sit by silently. with the Jack grabs the utensils from L. D. duty of the “man of the house”), In order here.” do the carvin’ round that the “Stud Duck’ll snide admonition Lureen suggests that she will defers to him, while to keep the peace, Jack eat his dinner. doesn’t to turn off the televized football game if her son have to her efforts in preparing the meal, of respect out Agreeing with Lureen, and symbols of tradi- most obvious lm’s of the fi L. D.—one TV. off the shuts Jack and the room crosses attitudes—stops carving the turkey, patriarchal tional up boy to grow your want that “You admonishing on, TV back turns the Now more agitated, football.” watch ya? Boys should to be a man, don’t stone of “family values”—in fact every heterosexual family unit in the fi lm in the fi family unit fact every heterosexual of “family values”—in stone to ultimately hostile and distant, neurotic, ways: cant in signifi is disordered of heterosex- at their version hard Alma work and its own members. Ennis unbal- is empty and their marriage but two children produce uality—they a life together is heterosexual Their because of his other desires. anced cramped crying babies, and and with sick of domestic hell, complete vision Alma and both Ennis and show Repeated scenes dingy apartments. and she to her and woods with Jack to the their apartment—he eeing from fl for tear- was also responsible desire store. Heterosexual job at the grocery After his mother and family. Ennis’s was left of the young ing apart what Ennis was raised by his sister and father were killed in a car accident, their own they acted upon him when abandoned both of whom brother, or famil- economic with no Ennis alone leaving married others, desires and are revealed parents dysfunctional own brutal and Jack’s ial resources. had told Ennis that his Jack Earlier, moments. climactic lm’s during the fi in of his efforts, and or supported any father never taught him anything nally revealed this bad father is fi When home. from away Jack effect drove off- remote as the stark cold and as and silent and is surly he onscreen, to Lureen perhaps marriage he lives. Jack’s in which farm house white be con- he tells Ennis that it could of the others, but than any better looks father Lureen’s Importantly, as effectively. equally ducted over the phone actu- would believes that L. D. Jack and for Jack, never hides his contempt Lureen. him to leave ally pay unthinkingly follow careers outlined for them by the tenets of traditional traditional tenets of by the for them outlined follow careers unthinkingly to his resigned is especially Ennis capitalism. patriarchal heteronormative he realizes it is some level on even though social structure, place in this x it … fi can’t you “If point, at one ruefully tells Jack him. As he destroying mas- his traditional part of conditioned His stoicism—a it.” gotta stand you ne him within to further confi works that in this case an attribute culinity—is loveless existence. nearly and his limited 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2059780415962612-Ch-09.indd 205 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 206

harry m. benshoff 206 overcome inorder toreach wideraudiences. The factthatsexual intercourse Ennis placesupon theirrelationship. desires, and iswillingtoaccept—however grudgingly—most ofthelimits thought tobemorefeminine:heislikely voicehisfeelingsand half oftherelationship. Conversely, Jack’s character ismarked byattributes the termsoftheirrelationship alsohelpconstruct himasthedominant tionship. Inbroader terms,Ennis’s silence, aloofness,and abilitytodictate partner. Sexually, Ennisseemstobetheactive,dominant topin therela- relationships arecomposedofone dominant partnerand one submissive erosexist assumptions about thenature ofrelationships—i.e. thatreal surface totreatone another asequals, theyrepeatedlyfallback into het- let alone tenderness and intimacy. And although theymay appearon the punching, and teasingone another, but theybarelyspeak ofdesireorlove, tive homosociality. We seethemphysically rough-housing, wrestling, and Jack mostlyexpresstheirdesiresthrough discourses ofheteronorma- mores—or inthecaseofJack not admittingtosuch knowledges—Ennis say thatitdepictshomosexual sexbetweentwoheterosexual men. must have” (Carpenter 13).Another way todecodethescenemightbe of sexthataperson who’s neithergay nor acowboyimagines gay cowboys film.” Indeed, atleastone gay criticfound theirintimacies tobe“thekind yet another moment inthefi lm thatbeliesthemoniker “gay cowboy words. Eventheirfirst sexual coupling verges on rape,not same-sexdesire, violent outbursts thatservetoexpresswhat hewillnot orcannot say with in atraditional modelofmasculinity thanisJack, isespeciallyprone to other passionately” (Thomas 98). Thus, Ennis,who ismuch moreinvested lently, eventomurder each otherbrutally, thanitisforthemtofuck each for themtocompetewitheach otherviciously, tobattereach othervio- culture’s mostrepetitivemessage tomenisthatitinfi nitely preferable violence. Asone theoristofheterosexuality hasexpressedit,“dominant from heteronormative patriarchal assumptions about competition and sexual relationship, most oftheirbehaviors and attitudesarestillderived tensions, rivalries,and thebarelycontained threatofphysical violence. sexual familiesarefarfrom ideal,but areinsteadfi lled withrarelyspoken scene, Jack assertinghisdominance through traditional patriarchal means.Inthisone out thisexchange, although Lureen’s slightsmileindicates herapproval of away shots revealthatLureenand hermotherhave remainedsilent through- Now you sitdownbeforeIknock your ignorant assinto nextweek.” Cut- down you oldson ofabitch. This ismyhouse, towards the TV settoturnitback on, Jack fi nally bellows athim,“You sit Jack again risesand shuts offthe TV. AsL.D. once again makeshisway Representing sexbetween menwasasignificant hurdle thefilm hadto In fact,not knowing anything about gay culture and itssexual Even though Ennisand Jack arequeer byreason oftheirsharedhomo- Brokeback Mountainsuggeststhatevenso-called“normal-looking” hetero- my child, and you are guest. my guest. 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 207 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM anal pleasure is the single most interdicted of those plea- of those interdicted is the single most anal pleasure is I argue, culture—and, to male bodies in our sures open If the nes homosexuality. still that defi also the “thing” it ed identity the reifi masculinity fetish, and is the Phallus for the mascu- event es, the single most unthinkable signifi (192–3) as pleasure. line is anal penetration (2007). Both fi lms are (2007). Both fi and Larry Chuck You Pronounce I Now (2006) and was “gay Mountain was “gay Brokeback or not whether the debate about In the end, (broke) back to the mainstream? back (broke) texts that are seemingly more hetero Queer theory can also illuminate Ballad of Ricky The Nights: as the mainstream hits Talladega such normative, Bobby males in heterosexual major studio Hollywood comedies aimed at young feature remarkably) both (somewhat globe—and the across multiplexes domestic partner rights. and/or marriage thematize gay and characters gay enough” or whether it pandered too much to straight sensibilities is ulti- too much it pandered or whether enough” with straight lm engages the fi been arguing, mately reductive. As I have heteronor- them. It destabilizes patriarchal to critique sensibilities in order between homo- connections the interrelated teasing out queerly mativity, In this respect, the male homosociality. and heterosexuality, sexuality, social the Childress foreman outside the ranch and scene between Jack subversive lm’s of the fi much encapsulates it and cant, is highly signifi club a lake” to on to a “cabin down Jack foreman invites effect. In it, the ranch epistemological The ya know?” some, get away, sh fi “drink a little whiskey, hetero is highly disruptive of patriarchal of this brief exchange uncertainty strictly homoso- is the invitation knowledges: and discourses normative dif- Of course, proposition? homosexual cial, or is it a not-so-thinly-veiled the as they did ways—just can read this scene in different audiences ferent lm, suggests the fi as does the entire moment, this one Yet lm as a whole. fi desire. After male homosexual and of male homosocial contiguity intimate his wife and from to get away long straight guy doesn’t “normal” all, what in the woods with his best buddy? camping a few days spend kids and Thus, if and when heteronormative patriarchy imagines anal penetration anal penetration imagines patriarchy heteronormative when if and Thus, demeans rape that gured as a violent fi always between men, it is almost intercourse of pleasurable anal masculine status. Images one’s degrades and in are almost non-existent women) men and between men (or between off-screen Ennis’s and can infer that Jack one mainstream media. Although lm itself the fi pleasurable anal intercourse, willful and includes sexuality it. from shies away between Ennis and Jack is depicted in the fi lm only once—and almost as almost as once—and only lm in the fi is depicted Jack and Ennis between sensi- to straight panders lm the fi of how an indication perhaps rape—is that has argued Yingling Thomas theorist bilities. Queer 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2079780415962612-Ch-09.indd 207 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 208

harry m. benshoff 208 page withlaughter. AsAlexDotyhasputit, use thatsituation forcomedic ends, arguably disavowing thatqueer slip- desire. However, unlikeBrokeback Mountain , thesemoremainstreamfi lms expose theslipperyslopebetweenmalehomosexual and malehomosocial that Chuck and Larryhave done thesame. American fireman who isinspiredtocomeout ofthecloset when hethinks name says itall—and FredDuncan (Ving Rhames),ahyper-macho African ing characters include Kevin“Butterfly” McDonough (Nick Swardson)—the the ratherswishy Gregory (Andy Richter). Talladega Nights,but heisalsohighlycultured,talks“funny,” and ismarriedto stereotypical touches. Forexample, JeanGirard isnot justthe“villain”of Lance Bass)and featuregay malesupportingcharacters drawn withmany Both fi lmsemploygay and lesbianactors(JaneLynch, Richard Chamberlain, James) pretending tobegay in order toreceivedomesticpartnerbenefits. message comedyabout twostraightfi remen (AdamSandler and Kevin I Now Pronounce You Chuck andLarry isasortofliberalBlack LikeMe(1964)social lenged byJeanGirard, agay French racecardriver(Sacha Baron Cohen). Cal Naughton, Jr. (JohnC.Reilly);hilarityensueswhen theyarechal- on theheterosexual buddy racecarteamofRicky Bobby(WillFerrell)and Talladega Nightssatirizesthehomosocial world ofNascarracing,centering homosexual. Atacostumeparty, Chuck isattractedtothesexybutt ofa that Chuck’s homosocial “grab-assing” inthepastmay infacthave been Chuck and Larryareouted asgay, theirfellowfiremen shun them,fearing sons betweenheterosexual homosocial love and homosexual love. When heteronormative, monogamous, and implicitlyprocreative unions. cuous and group-sex-loving Chuck) must ultimatelybecontained within wedding. Moreoutré queer sexualities (ironically embodiedbythepromis- especially ifbeinggay meansyou canstillbe macho and desirous ofa The films insistthatbeinggay isnot allthatdifferent from beingstraight, heterosexual couples, evenastheyalsoallowfor afewhomosexual ones. Both Yet, asdoesBrokeback Mountain , bothChuck andLarry and Talladega Nights More queerly however, Chuck andLarry repeatedlydraws directcompari- Chuck andLarry and Talladega Nightsdoend with theformation of (Flaming Classics81) comic pleasuresforaudiences ofallsexual identities. the factremainsthatqueerness isthesource ofmany quo), orthrough thegenre’s “itsjustajoke” escapehatch, rative closure (asitattemptstorestorethestraightstatus is ultimatelycontained orrecuperatedbytraditional nar- argue thatmostcomicgender and sexuality rule-breaking face ofstraightpatriarchal norms. Although you could breaking, risk-taking,inversions, and perversions inthe comedy isfundamentally queer since itencourages rule- Chuck andLarry’s gay malesupport- 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 209 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM anchored anchored and Larry Chuck with you,” and both men con- and in love with you,” (1961). While the fi be deliberately lm may the fi (1961). While Tiffany’s at Breakfast Director Denis Dugan invokes a great deal of (hetero)sexism, racism, racism, a great deal of (hetero)sexism, invokes Director Denis Dugan and of respect message “liberal” lm’s fi all of this is wrapped up in the Yet and general xenophobia as he attempts to keep as he attempts general xenophobia and partner- (or at least gay marriage of gay its endorsement and tolerance, realize remen soon all the bigoted fi ships). In liberal Hollywood fashion, Larry and come to support Chuck and they were being “thickheaded,” of the At the end if they are gay. remen, even good fi are nonetheless who and Chuck Fireman Fred get married while y and Butterfl gays” lm, “real fi les- valuable learned many have who as heterosexuals Larry are resituated Even Larry comes to accept his musical-the- to be gay. by pretending sons lm has the fi although And son. atre-loving, Easy-Bake-Oven-cooking of as the markers Mountain Brokeback and Michael, George Cher, referenced straight characters and with both gay lm ends the fi homosexuality, actual bunny, only to discover real-life homosocial buddy David Spade in Spade David buddy homosocial real-life to discover only bunny, Playboy responds Chuck his scheme, rst proposes fi Larry When appearance. a cameo I’m not but “I love you with the cliché courtroom other during a climactic love for the fess their (homosocial) homosexual their they are declaring else thinks everyone scene in which true than and are more trustworthy bonds homosocial Larry, love. For to marry him Chuck asks his buddy he is why which ones, heterosexual rmly part) fi both men are (for the most Although instead of a woman. Chuck two kids while has a dead wife and as heterosexual—Larry situated moment comic is one “whore”—there a heterosexual describes himself as Teresa. maid surly Larry’s sex with had three-way that suggests they have another of one put downs Larry’s and that Chuck the way is Also intriguing talk of “ass beat- is much There acts. with homosexual reveal an obsession a pole inserted having even swallowing” and “baton being a “dick,” ings,” “lollipop.” a human into turn one that would anus one’s into hetero- patriarchal white traditional structures of within the dominant remen is fi of heterosexual world macho rough-and-tumble The sexuality. thrilling montage and camerawork hand-held through constructed script The racist baseline. sexist and lm’s More disturbing is the fi sequences. beautiful women; sleeps with multiple as a lothario who Chuck constructs of his them in public in front his bed even after he demeans they fall into lm itself the fi and both Chuck Formally, adoring buddies. and approving subjective in slow motion breasts and butts repeatedly objectify women’s stereo- stupid-stoner and Latina-bitch its gratuitous aside from And shots. of the is one planner (Rob Schneider) wedding chapel lm’s types, the fi played Rooney Mickey since stereotypes most embarrassing Orientalist in Yunioshi Mr. masculinity as something in need of heterosexual white constructing his domesticated by Larry and is eventually (just as Chuck cation modifi and even celebrate its own (hetero)sexism kids), it also seems to justify and racism. 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2099780415962612-Ch-09.indd 209 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 210

harry m. benshoff 210 even asithasbeensatiricallyundermined forthepreceding90minutes. fi nal scenes.Narrativeclosure re-stabilizestraditional heteronormativity, ples united,although JeanGirard and Gregory disappearfrom thefi lm’s Chuck and Larry, thefilm ends withallheterosexual and homosexual cou- does manage tobeat Girard, and kisseshiminanextended liplock. Asin finish line,scoredtoPat Benatar’s lovesong “We Belong [Together],” Ricky superior racingskills.Ultimately, afteraclimactic slow-motion racetothe Ricky byaskingforakissassignofhishumility inthefaceofGirard’s an erection, deliberatelypanicking Ricky. Atanother point, hetaunts together holding hands asfriends/enemies, Girard announces thathehas queerness into hishomosocial relationship withRicky. When theywalk to beathimfairly inaracesothathecanretire.Girard repeatedlybrings rather beteaching Komododragons toperformHamlet,and hewants Ricky enjoys playing withRicky, not adefining masculine identity. Girard would gay husband. Girard’s interest inracingisasortofhomosocial gamehe Girard, who canseeminglyplay on bothteams—macho racecardriverand ness” intheroom, heevenblurts out “Cal,Iloveyou!” end ofone sequence, asRicky passes out from painand toomuch “gay- name MikeHoncho. (Honcho isawellknown gay porno magazine.) Atthe posed nude and “spreadhisbutt cheeks” foraporno spreadunder the sort ofthefemalehalftoRicky’s moredominant top)revealsthathehas his wife.Inothermoments thatdestabilizeheteronormativity, Cal(who is friends, eventhough heisnow livinginRicky’s house and having sexwith tionship withRicky that hecannot understand why theycannot stillbe when shedumpsthelosingRicky forCal. Yet Calissodesirous ofhisrela- woman can.Infact,Ricky’s first wifeiseventriangulatedbetweenthemen Chuck and Larry, Ricky and Calmeanmoretoone another thanany racecar driversasmuch ormorethanChuck and Larry’s firemen. Aswith arguably satirizesand/or queers itswhite lowermiddleclass homosocial promoting a(however confl icted) “gay positive”message, plify thepathological relations ofwhite patriarchal capitalism. tique ofhomophobia. And forthequeer exegete, thefilm seemstoexem- wouldn’t becaughtdeadatascreeningofBrokeback Mountain ) aliberalcri- issue—the fi lm nonetheless makesavailable toitsviewers(who probably for itsracism,sexism,verypremisethatpokes funatarealcivilrights Best Friend.” While thefilm wasfeltbymany audiences tobeoffensive— dancing toGeorge Michael’s “Freedom”and FreddyMercury’s “You’re My and examinecinematicrepresentations ofsexuality. Whether independent, Queer theoryprovides contemporary fi lm criticswiththetoolstoteaseapart conclusion Homosexual and homosocial impulsescoexistand blur togetherinJean Talladega Nightsworks insimilarfashion. Although itislessinterested in Talladega Nights 4/1/2009 10:47:11 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 211 4/1/2009 10:47:12 AM4/1/2009 10:47:12 AM , 23 TXT Newsmagazine . Edinburgh: Edinburgh Edinburgh . Edinburgh: Ultimately, queer theory rejects all either-or binaries, whether they be they all either-or binaries, whether theory rejects queer Ultimately, December 2005: 13. 1994. BasicBooks, York: 1890–1940. New World . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995. Culture Essays on Popular 3:2 (1991). of differences volume University Press, 2004. University Press, 1997. Manchester York: New and 1990. Routledge, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture and the Making of the Gay Male Urban Culture Gender, York: Gay New George. Chauncey, Lesbian, and Queer Gay, eds. Out in Culture: Doty, Alexander Corey and Creekmur, Special Sexualities.” Gay Lesbian and Theory: ed. “Queer Teresa de Lauretis, . Seattle: Bay Press, 1991. . Seattle: Bay Video Do I Look? Queer Film and ed. How Bad Object-Choices, Film. Manchester and the Horror the Closet: Homosexuality in Harry M. Monsters Benshoff, York: Identity. New of Feminism and the Subversion Trouble: Gender Judith. Butler, Other Side of the Mountain.” Dale. “The Carpenter, works cited works Cinema: A Critical Reader Queer ed. New Michele, Aaron, those used to classify sexualities or those simplistically used to judge cul- simplistically or those sexualities used to classify those years, Over the last twenty reactionary. or tural artifacts as progressive land- the cinematic in changing theory has been instrumental queer its Queer Cinema and (New standpoint a production just from scape—not In exam- standpoint. a reception also from but incarnations) more recent of cinematic discourses between connections exposing the ining and lm theory implicitly exam- fi etc., queer region, race, class sexuality, gender, as well. By in the real world structures work those exposes how ines and theory queer new ways, in all of these ideological assumptions challenging of previous critical projects the rich to expand) continues (and continues came lm theorists who LGBT fi Like the Marxist, feminist, and generations. the cinematic land- theorists are committed to changing before, queer landscapes— political the social, cultural, and by extension scape—and that are truly more egalitarian. ones into mainstream, or something queerly in between, recent American fi lms fi American recent between, in queerly something or mainstream, queer sexuality; human about ideas queer new and to feature begun have them. It allows means to understand and the ways us with theory provides a “gay more than just so much as something Mountain us to see Brokeback a funny lm with just a fi Nights as more than or Talladega cowboy movie,” something like of forthrightly dismissing stereotype. Instead homosexual theory queer homophobic, and as simplistic Larry and Chuck You Pronounce I Now that one its more complex ideological landscape, can be used to reveal racism even as it pleads for the acceptance sexism and seemingly endorses and Chuck Arguably, milieu. its patriarchal into of (male) homosexuals of patri- version love as just another homosexual Larry “celebrates” macho of the hegemony that still maintains love, a negotiation homosocial archal capitalism. patriarchal white 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2119780415962612-Ch-09.indd 211 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 212

harry m. benshoff 212 Grifﬁ n, Sean. Goodridge, Mike.“Gay and LesbianFilms:ComingOutSoon.” Gever, Martha,withJohnGreyson and PratibhaParmar, eds.QueerLooks: Sullivan, Nikki.ACriticalIntr ——. The Epistemology oftheCloset.Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990. Sedgwick, EveKosofsky. BetweenMen:EnglishLiterature andMaleHomosocialDesire Russo, Vito. Proulx, Annie.Brokeback Mountain:StorytoScreenplay . New York, Scribner, 2006. Mendelsohn, Daniel.“An AffairtoRemember.” The New York Review 23February Mayne, Judith. Directed by Dorothy Arzner. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress, Kusner, DanielA.“Marketing Brokeback .” Katz, Jonathan Ned.The InventionofHeterosexuality. New York: Dutton, 1995. Hocquenghem, Guy. Homosexual Desire . DaniellaDangoor, trans.,Durham,NC: Hanson, Ellis,ed.Out Takes: EssaysonQueer Theory andFilm.Durham,NC:Duke Groth, Lyndsey. “OnBrokeback Mountain:Why Chicks GoFor This Gay Male ——. Dyer, Richard. The Culture ofQueers. New York: Routledge, 2002. Walters, SuzannaDanuta. All The Rage: The StoryofGay Visibility inAmerica Thomas, Calvin.Straightwitha Twist: Queer Theory andtheSubjectofHeterosexuality Fuss, Diana,ed.Inside/out:Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories Foucault, Michel. The HistoryofSexuality, Vol. 1:AnIntroduction. Trans.Robert Floyd, Jacquielynn. “Brokeback Ignores PlightofSpouses.”Dallas MorningNews Farmer, Brett.SpectacularPassions: Cinema,Fantasy, GayMaleSpectatorships. Duggan, Lisa.“MakingItPerfectlyQueer.” In ——. Doty, Alexander. FlamingClassics:QueeringtheFilmCanon. Dixon, Wheeler Winston. Straight:ConstructionsofHeterosexuality intheCinema. D’Emilio, John,and EstelleB.Freedman.IntimateMatters: AHistoryofSexuality in 2 July 2004,12–14. Perspectives onLesbianandGay Visibility. New York: Routledge, 1993. 1991. New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1985. New York: Harper&Row, Publishers,1987(1981). 2006: 12–13. 1994. Duke UniversityPress,1993(1978). University Press,1999. Flick.” Unpublishedpaper. New York: New York UniversityPress,2000. 155–172. Culture, ed.LisaDugganand NanD. Hunter. New York: Routledge, 1995, Chicago: UniversityofChicago Press,2001. Chicago: UniversityofIllinois Press, 2000. University Press,2003. Hurley. New York: Vintage Books, 1990(1977). 20 January 2006:1–2B. NC: DukeUniversityPress,2000. Routledge, 2002(1993). of MinnesotaPress,1993. 2000. New York: StateUniversityofNew York Press,2003. America. New York: Harper&Row, 1988. Making Things Perfectly Queer: Interpreting MassCulture The MatterofImages: Essays onRepresentation Tinker Belles andEvilQueens: The Walt Disney CompanyFrom theInsideOut. The Celluloid Closet:Homosexuality intheMovies oduction toQueer Theory. New York: New York Dallas Voice 23December2005:37. Sex Wars: Sexual DissentandPolitical , Second Edition. New York: .University Minneapolis: . New York: Routledge, New York: Routledge, . RevisedEdition, Screen International Durham, . . . 4/1/2009 10:47:12 AM (broke) back to the mainstream 213 4/1/2009 10:47:12 AM4/1/2009 10:47:12 AM

. Ed. Thomas Thomas . Ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999. University Harvard MA: Cambridge, Studies Formations in Queer and Interdisciplinary Disciplinary Gay’90s: The Foster, Carol Siegel and Ellen E. Berry. New York: New York University Press, York New York: New Berry. Ellen E. and Siegel Carol Foster, 1997. The Trouble With Normal: Sex, Politics and the Ethics of Queer Life. the Ethics of and Politics Sex, Normal: With Trouble The Michael. Warner, 1989. Routledge, London: and Its Discontents. Sexuality Jeffrey. Weeks, 1992. Press, Beacon and Other Essays. Boston: Straight Mind The Wittig, Monique. in Lacan.” Fishy What’s the Uncanny: and E. “Homosexuality Thomas Yingling, 9780415962612-Ch-09.indd 2139780415962612-Ch-09.indd 213 demystifying deleuze

french ten philosophy

meets

contemporary

u.s. cinema*

david martin-jones

During the 1980s, French philosopher Gilles Deleuze wrote two books on cinema, Cinema 1: The Movement-Image (1983), and Cinema 2: The Time-Image (1985). For some scholars working in Anglo-American fi lm studies, Deleuze’s works appear to be throwbacks to the “bad old days” of the 1970s and early 1980s, when high theory dominated the fi eld. Deleuze’s at time dense and complicated texts are often criticized for being impenetrable, too focused on auteur cinema, and only applicable to European art fi lms. By contrast, this chapter unpacks Deleuze’s fi lm philosophy to demonstrate its usefulness for analyzing contemporary US cinema, both in its mainstream and alternative, independent forms. Firstly, the Hollywood rom-com Fifty First Dates (2004) is examined, to provide an understanding of the route into mainstream fi lms offered by Deleuze’s philosophy. Fifty First Dates falls somewhere in between Deleuze’s categories of the movement-image and the time-image. When analysed in relation to these categories it provides valuable insights into both the

* Thanks to Philip Drake for his invaluable help with my initial research into the Hollywood rom-com.

9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 214 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM development of the incredibly popular genre of the rom-com, and its ability to negotiate issues pertinent to contemporary US society. In the second half of the chapter, the very different idea of “minor cinema” is examined. The concept of minor cinema is typically used to discuss ﬁ lms from Africa, South America, or peripheral European countries. Here, however, it is applied to Gregg Araki’s The Doom Generation (1995) to illustrate how Deleuze’s philosophy offers a new approach to the analysis of alternative US cinema.

In both instances, the advantages of using Deleuze’s philosophy is that it demystifying deleuze retains the “engaged interventionist analysis” (Collins et al. 3) of ﬁ lm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, but is still applicable to these US movies of the 1990s and 2000s.

deleuze’s images

Deleuze’s philosophical project is complex and sophisticated, and for the purposes of this discussion it is not necessary to understand its every detail. Rather I will explore the broad distinction Deleuze draws between movement-image and time-image. Deleuze’s discussion of the movement-image in Cinema 1 initially draws on a number of European fi lm movements, before concluding with a discussion of the movement-image in Hollywood. Thus the epitome of the movement-image is found in Hollywood’s classical narrative form, that which Deleuze calls the “action-image” (Cinema 1 141). The movement-image, and in particular the action-image, is characterized by the unbroken sensory-motor continuity of its protagonists. In other words, in the movement-image characters are able to act in order to infl uence their situation, usually to their advantage. Accordingly, the time of the narrative is edited around the actions of the protagonist. As all moviegoers know, in mainstream fi lms, events taking place in days, weeks, months or even years are compressed in this way. No matter how many different locations a fi lm visits, continuity is created by the actions of characters whose stories we follow. Therefore, in the movement-image we see an indirect image of time, of time subordinate to movement. Moreover, in the movement-image time is predominantly linear, with the outcome of the narrative (the bad guy dies, the world is saved, the couple get together) coherent with the logic of the narrative world. Because we are following the story of a particular protagonist or protagonists, the time span of their story is also the time span of the fi lm. Therefore, in order for the fi lm to 215 fi nish, the narrative requires the characters to resolve whatever crises they face. This inevitability Deleuze described as the movement from situation, through action, to changed situation (SAS'). This formula relies entirely on the protagonist’s unbroken sensory-motor continuity, their ability to act decisively in whatever situations they may fi nd themselves in. In contrast to the movement-image there is the time-image. Most typically found in European art fi lms (for instance in the works of auteurs such as Jean-Luc Godard, Alain Resnais, Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni,

9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 215 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 216

david martin-jones 216 Indeed, inCinema2Deleuzeexpanded hisdiscussion ofthetime-image Impressionist, GermanExpressionist and Soviet montage fi lmmaking. movement-image, including not only classical Hollywood,but alsoFrench unusual number ofdifferent typesofcinemaunder theheadingof sophical approach tocinemaissofascinatingbecauseitmapstogetheran categories arepainted withverybroad strokes. Infact,Deleuze’s philo- either besubjecttoaprolonged suspension, orevenindefinitely postponed. influence theirsituation, theresolution ofthenarrativetrajectorySAS'may has beendisrupted,and theyareno longer abletoactdecisivelyinorder to movement-image. Moreover, astheprotagonist’s sensory-motor continuity events inthenarrativeworld willbeentirely coherent thanthereisinthe “untrue.” Inthetime-image, then,thereisfarlessofanexpectation that the past,makingprevious events, ormemoriesofthem,suddenlyseem ous memory. Alternatively, events inthepresent canshednewlighton change orfalsifyit,evenifonly byenablingthereconsideration ofaprevi- ters slipthrough timethereisthepossibilitythatrevisitingpastcan there isagreatersenseofthemalleabilityhistorical“truth.” Ascharac- line easily. Accordingly, inthetime-image, timeisoften labyrinthine and Mind (2004)—theviewermay ormay not beabletoreconstruct this time- fifrom lms from different periodsin time(past,present, future),and—as isthecasein a character toprovide uswithalineartemporalfocus. These spacesmay be of events, asdisconnected spacespassbeforeour eyeswithout theagency of editing becomesdiscontinuous, and doesnot provide alogicalprogression witness acharacter’s virtual movement withintime.Intheseinstances, slips into reminiscence about thepast.Herememory plays akeyrole aswe contrast, disruptivemovements occurwithintime,oftenwhen acharacter of timeisexperienced initsownright.Inthefilms ofFelliniorResnaisby moving character toguidetheviewer’s gaze. This ensuresthatthepassing take. Forinstance, thecameramay lingeroverlandscapes, without a Antonioni orAngelopoulos thetime-image emerges intheextended long movement-image. indirect viewoftime(timespatializedbycharacter movement) seeninthe see adirectimage oftime,time’s virtual movement, ratherthanthe image, and the“seers”of time-image (2).Inthetime-image, then,we protagonists ofthesetwotypescinemasasthe“doers”movement- within time.Hence inCinema2 Deleuzebroadly differentiated betweenthe goal. Indeed, itisnot unusual forthetime-image’s seerstomovevirtually in thetime-image begin towander without adefinite senseofpurposeor physically reacttoevents inorder toinfluence theirsituation, protagonists by adisruption oftheprotagonist’s sensory-motor continuity. Unableto Andrei Tarkovsky or Theo Angelopoulos), thetime-image ischaracterized For thepurposesofthisdiscussion, thesedefinitions ofDeleuze’s image This directimage oftimeusually takesone oftwoforms.Inthefilms of L’année dernière àMarienbad(1961)to Eternal SunshineoftheSpotless 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM demystifying deleuze 217 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM om countries om countries (2004) fty rstfi dates fi is a romantic-comedy. Historically one of the most popu- Historically one Dates is a romantic-comedy. Fifty First (1993), Virginia Wright Wexman charts the develop- charts Wright Wexman Virginia the Couple (1993), Creating as far afi eld as Senegal and Brazil. Even so, reading the two cinema books it cinema books the two so, reading Even Brazil. and as Senegal eld afi as far as a “classi- of the movement-image Deleuze conceived that becomes clear post- cinemas of the “modern” innovative, the seemingly more cal” foil to the time-image in which Waves), New the various war era (essentially the around mainstream cinemas 2000s, however, 1990s and In the emerged. of hybrids speaking, lms that are, broadly fi to produce begun have world often more elsewhere, As has been noted categories. two image Deleuze’s aspects of incorporated have which movement-images these are than not as I will now Thus, Cinema). Deleuze, (Pisters; Martin-Jones, the time-image , the status of the contemporary Dates by examining Fifty First demonstrate enable a to of reconsideration, is in need Hollywood movement-image the narrative time, and it constructs of the way understanding broader it does so. to which ends lar genres in US cinema, the rom-com actually dates back several centuries several centuries back dates actually lar genres in US cinema, the rom-com Deleyto 3). (Evans and Renaissance to pre-cinematic origins in the European In upholds manifestation contemporary that its of the genre, noting ment (13). In other identity” as a key to individual of romance “the validation goal towards is the love in the rom-com of romantic lment the fulfi words, is set in Hawaii, and is the story of Henry Roth (Adam is the story of Henry Roth and Dates is set in Hawaii, Fifty First seducing in marine wildlife and veterinarian specializing a young Sandler) he is also afraid of commitment, Although female holidaymakers. young to sail to Bristol Bay, hopes and lifestyle, of his playboy bored growing breaks apart repaired yacht his recently Alaska, to study walruses. When in a (Drew Barrymore) Whitmore Lucy during a test run, Henry runs into by on brought loss condition memory Lucy has a short-term local diner. past remember the recent cannot As a result she an automobile accident. of the acci- of the day thinking it is the morning wakes up every day and sleep, Henry is night’s by a good is wiped clean new day As each dent. the support of Lucy’s to seduce her anew every morning. With required (Sean Astin), Doug brother, younger and (Blake Clark) Marlin father, “remem- a plan to enable Lucy to live a meaningful life, and Henry hits on their relation- with him. He video records relationship ber” her ongoing cant signifi news reports of with factual ship, splicing together this footage to watch her a tape leaves and the accident, she has missed since events the videotape repeatedly restores her memories since The morning. each Lucy, lm sees Henry, of the fi the end blooms, and their romance accident, restored boat, all Henry’s on Marlin grandfather and their two children, together in Alaska. deleuze and the rom-com: deleuze and the rom-com: beyond the European new waves, to incorporate fi fr lmmakers fi to incorporate new waves, European the beyond 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2179780415962612-Ch-10.indd 217 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 218

david martin-jones 218 the time-image. motor continuity thatbegins toverge on thatofthewandering “seers” of image, astheircharacters sufferadegree ofsuspension totheir sensory- movement-images begin todisplay qualities normally found inthetime- (S-S'), which enablesthecreation ofcomedicspectacle. Inthissensethese sion betweentheinitialsituation and theeventual, changed situation In purelyformalterms,then,thereisalarge degree ofnarrativesuspen- is disrupted,ortemporarilysuspended forthemajorityoffi lm. ity through hisownactions. Inbothinstances, sensory-motorcontinuity ous comedicsituations overwhich heisunabletoassertany kind ofauthor- detour, duringwhich David isdrawn into aseriesofincreasingly humor- narrative’s progress towards resolution iseffectivelyone long circuitous riage) bytheimpetuous Susan Vance (KatharineHepburn). Hereagain the objective (therecoveryofthebrontosaurus bone and hisimminent mar- Up Baby, David Huxley(CaryGrant) isforeverbeingdistractedfrom his loss ofdirection from which each oftheirlivessuffers. Similarly, inBringing throughout which theirlack ofcontrol overtheirmovements reflects the heiress EllieAndrews (ClaudetteColbert)takeadiversionary road trip, unemployed PeterWarne (Clark Gable)and theindependently minded turn perception into meaningfulaction. InItHappenedOneNighttherecently union reliesupon thetemporarysuspension oftheprotagonist’s abilityto One Night(1934)and 136–48). SeeninaDeleuzianlight,classics ofthegenresuch as maintain audience interest intheirpotential union (Nealeand Krutnik comes together, keepingthemapartforaslong aspossibleinorder to also noted forperpetually stallingtheprocess through which thecouple which allpeoplestriveinorder tobecomecomplete.However, thegenreis for analysingthefilm. Time, forLucyatleast,isshown tobelabyrinthine. (with itsfocuson memoryand time)tobecomeaparticularly usefultool time-image thanitspredecessors,enablingDeleuze’s approach to cinema memory condition. Forthisreason FiftyFirst Datestakesastepcloser tothe self-consciously toyedwiththrough theintroduction ofLucy’s unusual fi nd in thepathofacouple on theirway toromantic fulfi lment arealso to square one. However, in FiftyFirst Dates,theobstacles that weexpectto amusing ways ofattractingLucy’s attention, and yeteach nighthereturns sensory-motor discontinuity. Each day heisforced toinvent newand tain hisownshipand takeoffforAlaska,Henryiscaughtinamoment of the sustainedsensory-motordisruption oftherom-com. Unabletocap- Henry’s various attemptstoseduceLucywitheach newday, wewitness fast inthesamedinerasLucy. Asthenarrativethen proceeds tochart ship’s wheel overboard. Duetothissetback Henrywinds uphaving break- loses control when themastbreaks,swingsacross thedeck and knocks the Henry, testingout hisnewly repairedyacht theSeaSerpent,momentarily To alarge degree thesameistrueof Bringing UpBaby (1938),theforestallingofromantic Fifty First Dates.Inanearly scene, It Happened 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM demystifying deleuze 219 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM demonstrates, the time-image does not just exist in does not the time-image Dates demonstrates, Fifty First So far this application of Deleuze’s work to the rom-com has demon- to the rom-com work of Deleuze’s So far this application tends towards resolution, resolution, towards Dates tends Fifty First of arc Ultimately the narrative , together with this restoration of identity, comes the reso- of identity, Dates, together with this restoration Fifty First strated both its usefulness for examining US popular genre fi lms, and and lms, US popular genre fi strated both its usefulness for examining As this brief analysis conclusions. of Deleuze’s of the drawbacks one indeed, of of to those narratives different art cinemas that construct European exists as part of a dynamic interplay the time-image Hollywood. Rather, has always that to some extent an interplay with the movement-image, Hollywood genres, like the rom-com. been a part of certain classical in time is constructed of how to this understanding in addition Moreover, understand can also help us to categories image Dates, Deleuze’s Fifty First as is typical of the movement-image. After all, its protagonists are eventu- all, its protagonists After as is typical of the movement-image. giving Henry, decisive action. through their situation ally able to overcome captain. Lucy an effective ship’s becomes lifestyle for Lucy, up his playboy becomes a and of her life restored to her, for her part has the continuity of its comedy, Dates derives much Fifty First the way along However, mother. pause it creates between the extended suspense, from romantic indeed, and way, Put another l them. their ability to fulfi desires and its characters’ time-image aspects of the see how terms it is possible to using Deleuze’s far more literal Dates, rendering in Fifty First the movement-image invade been a generic that has of sensory-motor disruption the process than usual . To Bringing up Baby It Happened One Night and since of rom-coms characteristic of “the validation the rom-com in quote, return to Wright Wexman’s are characters ensures that the identity,” individual as a key to romance with another. involvement romantic through lment fulfi nd fi able to only In time is effec- In the interim, the movement-image. lm into of the fi lution respective can be “cured” of their both characters until tively suspended lm, time is of the fi for the duration Thus, love. by romantic shortcomings for the only control, takes momentarily as the time-image distended resolution. to reinsert itself with the narrative’s movement-image Each day her life is literally reinvented, rendering the events of the previ- events the rendering literally reinvented, her life is day Each perception to extend her unable leaves of mind state Lucy’s “untrue.” day ous as she remains continuity), her sensory-motor (to restore action into of the course the entire Thus in perpetuity. the same day trapped repeating of this the culmination to away, attempts to sail initial Henry’s lm, from fi narrative the diversionary provides in Alaska, moments nal fi desire in the but form of the movement-image, particular of the rom-com’s we expect The the time-image. on verges in time which moment is also a suspended in between movement- is caught somewhere Dates narrative of Fifty First for the most part, charac- where, moment in a suspended time-image, and in for the better as they would a situation are unable to change ters’ actions as incapacitated being as entirely their yet without the movement-image, in the time-image. characters 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2199780415962612-Ch-10.indd 219 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 220

david martin-jones 220 deleuze andhistory and Lucywander isdeployedtonegotiate national identity. how thetemporallyinterrupted narrativemalaisethrough which Henry temporal hiatusevident inFiftyFirst Dates,again takingtoitstemporallimits (Andie MacDowell).Inthisway Groundhog Daycreatesthesamesenseof life, reconstruct hismasculinity, and wintheloveoffemalecolleague Rita live out thesameday inPunxsutawney until hecanreconsider hisselfish Frank Capra’s It’s a Wonderful Life (1946).Connors isdoomedtorepeatedly in Punxsutawney, asmallAmericantownreminiscent ofBedford Fallsin weatherman PhilConnors (BillMurray) who becomesmagically trapped edly infl uenced FiftyFirst Dates. sis on the“com”than“rom”), thenarrativeof predecessor, Groundhog Day(1993). example ofthisprocess, letusbriefly consider under thecover ofanotherwiseinnocent looking plot(7–9).Asaconcrete or disguiseddiscussion ofcontemporary events, smuggling politicsin Jr (2000),itisnot unusual foraHollywoodfilm toprovide averyoblique, John Davies and Paul Wells note in 9/11. Yet,although Management, afeelgoodrom-com setinHawaii hasverylittletodowith given forimmediatelythinkingthat,unliketheNew York basedAnger express theirpent-up rage and frustration. Admittedly, one mightbefor- in thecontext ofpost9/11 New York where theinhabitants struggledto explored theemotional torment ofitsprotagonist Dave Buznik(Sandler) least ofthesewastheAdamSandler comedyAnger Management (2003),which trend ofUSfilms thatattempttomakesenseofevents following9/11.Not twenty-fi rst century. struction inthewakeofaphysical trauma,duringtheearly yearsofthe little moreabout why FiftyFirst Dateschooses toexplorememoryrecon- economic independence. To begin with,then, weneedtounderstand a respectively negotiated increasing divorce ratesand burgeoning female ous” and neo-conservative romances ofthe1970sand 1980s,asthey ties thrown into thepublic eyebythedepression—or thesocalled“nerv- combined romance and comedytoexamineclass and economic inequali- moments asthe1930s—when screwballcomedieslikeItHappenedOneNight centuries. This process ismostobvious insuch turbulent historical response tochanging social conditions inthetwentieth and twenty-fi rst matically consistent, hasemerged inanumber ofdifferent guisesin the cinematicrom-com hasbeenexaminedasagenrethat,whilst the- From SteveNealeand FrankKrutnikin1990toCelestino Deleytoin2003, Another extremelypopularrom-com (although withagreaterempha- One way ofanalysingFiftyFirst istoposition Dates itwithinabroader Fifty First Datesdoesnot explicitlymention 9/11,asPhilip Groundhog Day’s storyconcerns cynical American FilmandPolitics from ReagantoBush Fifty First Dates’s mostobvious Groundhog Dayundoubt- 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM demystifying deleuze 221 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM Groundhog Groundhog Produced after the 1992 Los Angeles riots, they leave intact, intact, riots, they leave the 1992 Los Angeles after Produced of crisis discourse patriarchal to, a white add strength and take the moment Day Groundhog and itself. Both Falling Down to a male responses narrativize and of crisis for granted, of crisis As a result, the construction historical moment. as something that lm in either fi itself is rarely presented (229) can be contested. does not seem to have any- seem to have Day does not Groundhog rst glance Dates, at fi Fifty First (1993), Jude Davies Davies (1993), Jude Falling Down Day alongside Groundhog In 1995, analyzing videotape he contextual- Lucy his homemade rst plays Henry fi When , where contemporary events are again referenced in pass- referenced are again events contemporary Dates, where Fifty First Like Davies Yet, political events. contemporary about say thing meaningful to by a passing reference gured small town setting is prefi its saccharine notes, presence the increased (224) and gang warfare in California” to “continued is explicitly social problem former The in the media. violence of sex and then, during his opening weather forecast. For Davies, by Connors noted lm is posited by the fi in Punxsutawney redemption the story of Connors’ (225). cultural problems” of these social and as “some sort of resolution Day Groundhog harsh social realities, from divorced apparently Although with them, in spite of its utopian setting. In fact, engages obliquely argued that: argued of major a brief montage narrative through romantic izes their personal a US perspective) that she has missed (major at least from historical events Dogg Doggy Snoop everything from include These her accident. since of as Governor election Schwarzenegger’s y giving up weed to Arnold briefl of the statue of is a shot these images of California. Noticeably the second being hauled down by the US Baghdad, Square, Saddam Hussein in Firdos this about to note points cant are two signifi There military in April 2003. the US y encapsulates that very briefl image Firstly this is an iconic image. of 9/11, an image it is not in Iraq after 9/11. Secondly, involvement military’s of the 2000s. We political event for the US was the most important which culty diffi has no nation, like the presume, therefore, that Lucy, must the genre’s technique of stalling the inevitable moment of narrative and and of narrative moment the inevitable of stalling technique the genre’s resolution. romantic small town past facilitates an exami- of the US’s a fantasy escape into Day’s crisis whilst national to a perceived cultural solutions of possible nation class and (227) considerations” “economic sidestepping the conveniently Thus as urban gang warfare. issues such accompany that actually concerns white of normative lost authority gured as that of the the crisis is reconfi a more sensitive as reconstruction Connors’ masculinity in the 1990s, and Something extremely similar occurs “New Man” is offered as the solution. in to offered as a solution in Hawaii events seemingly unconnected ing, and these problems. 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2219780415962612-Ch-10.indd 221 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 222

david martin-jones 222 emphasis on cinema’s ability torecord an“accurate”account ofhistoryis saved from themalaiseofinaction illustrated bythetime-image. This mate forminwhich thetruthofpastcanberetainedand thenation the movement-image—the dominant formofUScinema—astheulti- bered and reconstructed. The linearnarrativeofthetapespecifically posits for continued watchfulness overtheway theimmediatepastisremem- the nation canrebuild. 9/11, asonly thisnarrativeofprogression canprovide aplatformon which Fifty First Datesadvocatestheneedtobeconstantly reminded ofevents since Hawaiian setting suggests, theequivalent ofastateperpetual vacation— Rather thanwakingeverynewday and forgetting thereisacrisis—asthe nation, and therebyensuretheconsistency ofidentity neededtoact. This returntodecisiveaction necessitatesaconscious willtorepairthe or else,likeLucy, thenation willfaceaneternityinsensory-motorlimbo. nation’s day today lifeinthewakeofacrisislike9/11must berejuvenated, rative restoredtoher. The time-image isused,then,toillustrate how a image (thevideotape’s narrativeofevents afterheraccident) isLucy’s nar- Only through thecontinuous narrativeconstructed bythemovement- sensory-motor suspension likethe incapacitated seerofthe time-image. to resolveherownpersonal narrative, sheinhabitsaprolonged moment of and needsHenry’s assistance tofreeherself.Foreverunableactinorder although unlikeConnors sheisunaware thatsheistrappedinthisway, Like Connors inGroundhog Day,sheisdoomedtoliveone day repeatedly, past and physically unabletomoveon, Lucylivesaperpetual time-image. states ofbeingarerendered usingthetwodifferent images. Stalledinthe preting thissituation is again apparent. Itisnoticeable thatLucy’s two return toDeleuze’s image categories atthispoint theirusefulnessforinter- her personal narrativeinthewake ofbothherpersonal crisisand 9/11.Ifwe the videotapeheisabletoconstruct, almostinthemannerofanewsreel, remains lostinthepastuntil Henryarrives. Through thevisual mediumof to illustrate thatthenation hasmovedon since thecrisis.Lucy, however, national crisis. personal traumastanding inforthenation’s traumainthewakeof as anattempttoobliquely engage withthecrisisfollowing9/11,Lucy’s utopian context isHawaii. Itisthereforepossibletoconsider This time,however, ratherthanafantasy ofsmalltownlifeintheUS, creating acomedicand romantic response toit,setinautopiancontext. the moment ofcrisisforgranted,” and likeGroundhog Day,focusesinsteadon Hussein. Thus,like the aftermathofcrisisisevident inthefallofstatueSaddam moment ofnational crisisof9/11isleftunspoken and unseen,eventhough remembering thisparticulartraumaticevent. In Through thevideotapeFiftyFirst Datesalsoobliquely points totheneed In thevideotape,majorhistoricalevents thatfollowed9/11areevoked Falling Down andGroundhog Day, FiftyFirst Datesalso“takes Fifty First Dates,the Fifty First Dates 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM demystifying deleuze 223 4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM4/1/2009 10:47:24 AM The Sixth Sense is a The a videotape Sixth Sense The ’s construction of a construction Dates’s Fifty First in which are several other ways There The legitimacy of the movement-image as the only real cure for this as the only of the movement-image legitimacy The in the wake of 9/11, ref- events seeking to understand a nation for Thus, ghost story about a child psychologist, Dr Malcolm Crowe (Bruce Willis) Dr Malcolm Crowe psychologist, a child story about ghost medium, gifted child a supernaturally realizing he is dead, haunts not who, young of a is visited by a ghost Cole When Osment). Cole Sear (Haley Joel the at murder her about the truth Cole together uncover and Crowe girl, videotape, the playing on was recorded murder This of her mother. hands mother the murderous brings justice to bear on at her funeral of which a similar fate. It also enables the remaining little sister from saves and his into Cole to grow to terms with his own demise, and to come Crowe in Thus, psychologist.” were, “ghost as, as it role this reading of the enhances model of time suggestive of the time-image play- Henry’s in malaise represented the unproductive include These lm. fi the and the water, on back to get his yacht failure boy lifestyle, his constant This breakfast in Hawaii. morning lazy Sunday of one repetition continual of a meaningfully linear existing outside bachelorhood sense of Henry’s condition, ated with Lucy’s is confl time (the time of the movement-image) state that suggesting that both their lives are an unnatural, or unhealthy lm resonates of the fi understanding This needs to be “cured” by romance. which, rom-coms, contemporary of many concerns with the broader The Sixth Sense of a videotape of The by the presence malaise is further reiterated birthday. for her father’s has bought Lucy (1999), which entirely crisis is nearly to the traumatic reality of the contemporary erence Day, this enables a seemingly Groundhog as in Yet Dates . Fifty First from absent culturally necessary factors—in of apparently examination unconnected stemming narrative national a coherent this case the need to formulate media like the movies, in order past—using visual in the recent a crisis from Iraq. seen in the war in return to action to facilitate the nation’s further emphasised in the fi lm by the privileging of the home video over video over home of the by the privileging lm fi in the emphasised further up with she breaks when burns symbolically she which notebooks, Lucy’s past. Despite her from her memories of him deliberately erasing Henry, ultimately and of Henry, the memory unable to forget she is their absence, as it image his painting of her lover by obsessively record a visual returns to in replaces the journal the video her dreams. Ultimately to haunt emerges as an greater accuracy its supposedly demonstrating conclusion, lm’s the fi of the past. record informed historical the surrounding to the past (by solving the mystery restores continuity Dates. videotape does in Fifty First personal just as Lucy’s murder) little girl’s the evokes meeting with Henry daily memory of a different Lucy’s Whilst to mention not of a time-image, of time typical experience discontinuous falsify the past, the video Henry creates for her— its ability to constantly to her life, restoring her —returns continuity Sixth Sense like the video in The of the movement-image. memories by creating the linear narrative 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2239780415962612-Ch-10.indd 223 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 224

david martin-jones 224 deal tobesaidofFiftyFirst Datesifweexamineitthrough aDeleuzianfilter. urban basedrom-coms (89).Bycontrast, asIhave shown, thereisagreat to itsinabilityconform tothesameparametersasmajorityofrecent ing itwiththebriefestofpassingcomments as“rather unconvincing” due (2007), which wasunabletogetgripswiththisparticular film, dismiss- Jeffers McDonald’s recent book, RomanticComedy: Boy MeetsGirlGenre approaches toHollywoodfi lms. This wasthecase,forinstance, in Tamar like in particularbecausetheyenableustounlock layers ofmeaninginfi lms ideas, then,areapparently usefulforanalysingmainstreamgenremovies, age—enables boththecouple and thenation toattainfulfilment. Deleuze’s sion—after itsextended, comicexploration ofthemalaisetime-im- film’s genericreturnofthemovement-image toprominence initsconclu- is ittheguarantor ofthenation’s returntonormality. Forthisreason, the Much asromance isthe“keytoindividual identity” intherom-com, sotoo sider amoment ofnational crisis,areinextricablylinkedin longed narrativesuspension typicaloftherom-com and toobliquely con- time-image, bothtoconstruct thenecessarynarrativemalaiseforpro- can play inthisprocess. These twousesofatemporalmodeltypicalthe nation toreturnaction after9/11,and theintegral role thatthemovies time, however, itobliquely engages withtheperceived needfortheUS characters “cured”bythereturnofmovement-image. At thesame unlikely romance canblossom,only fornormality toberestoredand the time-image operatestocreateanHawaiian holiday inwhich amost Wizard ofOz1939)inwhich theinterplay betweenmovement-image and which accompaniestheend isSomewhere OvertheRainbowfrom offers ameaningfulsolution tothiscontemporary socialissue. movement-image, whether videotapeortherom-com moregenerally, that it isconfl ated withHenry’s bachelorhood and Lucy’s memoryloss.Itisthe of thetime-image isrendered an unnaturalorunhealthy stateofbeingwhen rupted wandering ofprotagonists caughtinthesensory-motorinterruption like to recuperatetheirproductivity withinaheterosexual couple), asseeninfi lms ety surrounds theusefulnessofmenincontemporary society(and theneed tions aredrawn from theearly twenty-first century context inwhich anxi- as though hewereasocialproblem inneedofasolution. Negra’s observa- Diane Negra hasnoted, express“anincreasing interest inthesingleman” Cinema 1enhances our understanding oftheway timeand memoryfunction By now wehave seen how Deleuze’s notion ofthemovement-image from minor u.s.cinema In conclusion, FiftyFirst isaself-conscious Dates work offantasy (thesong Fifty First Dateswhich may otherwisebepassedoverbymoretraditional Failure toLaunch (2006).Hence, from aDeleuzianperspective,theinter- Fifty First Dates. The 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM demystifying deleuze 225 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM (1975), Deleuze and (1975), Deleuze and Kafka: Towards a Minor Literature Towards Kafka: (1997), used a Deleuzian analysis to describe cer- For anyone familiar with Deleuze’s previous works, modern political modern political works, previous familiar with Deleuze’s For anyone , Deleuze introduced the term, “modern the term, “modern introduced of Cinema 2, Deleuze end the Towards cinema is immediately reminiscent of a previous idea that he developed a previous of cinema is immediately reminiscent they In a book Félix Guattari. collaborator, and time friend with his long Franz Kafka, on co-wrote literature. A minor they called a minor which a concept outlined Guattari was this language but language, literature was written using a dominant voice, to stutter, different to speak in a it began that a way (mis)used in such example because he was a stammer or wail. Kafka was their preferred during the time of the Austro- lived in Prague Jew who Czechoslovakian the dominant Kafka took Guattari, Hungarian Empire. For Deleuze and it pronounced literature, in his distinctive (German) and, imperial language in the necessarily minor then, is not language, minor A way. in a very minor a musical in as minor be understood it should Rather, sense of minority. key, it in a minor plays and language, takes a dominant work sense. A minor its estab- challenging potentially and altogether different, making it sound of modern political concept Deleuze’s accepted meanings. lished and David Accordingly, of the minor. cinema owes a great deal to this notion to Deleuze, dedicated to write a book studies scholar lm rst fi the fi Rodowick, Machine Time Gilles Deleuze’s political cinema” (218) to describe the works of fi lmmakers from countries countries lmmakers from of fi the works (218) to describe political cinema” Africa. Often in Senegal (Canada) and Egypt, Brazil, Quebec Turkey, like Youssef Güney, Yilmaz as lmmakers—such fi marginalized these were Ousmane Sembene—who Pierre Perrault and Chahine, Glauber Rocha, of the main- lms outside fi produced or who marginal, were either globally cinema was Modern political centres. distribution and stream production missing” (216). put it, “the people are with the fact that, as Deleuze concerned Hollywood classical to Soviet montage, that, in contrast By this he meant no in modern political cinema there was cinemas, classical other such and modern Often this was because of “the people.” concept existing, coherent the people of the identity where created in situations political cinema was ruled by military dictatorships, or in as in countries such was contested, were attempt- lmmakers, then, fi These countries. post-colonial emergent be politically that could of the people or create a concept ing to imagine, or reshaping a country. rebuilding effective in revolutionizing, cinema is lmmaker Ousmane Sembene—whose fi by Senegalese tain works face of post-colonial the changing questioning dedicated to exploring and or modern political, Thus, cinema” (153). of “minor Africa—as works has the ability to challenge and subversive, cinema is potentially minor in mainstream cinemas. especially as they are propagated accepted norms, in mainstream US cinema. As a contrast, I now turn to the concept of concept to the turn I now As a contrast, US cinema. in mainstream time- the on work Deleuze’s of out developed an idea that cinema, minor . in Cinema 2 image 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2259780415962612-Ch-10.indd 225 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 226

david martin-jones 226 begins hisdiscussion of modernpoliticalcinemawithanexploration of olutionary, post-colonial orthird world situations. Forinstance, Deleuze minor cinemacanalsobe appliedtoany number ofcinemasoutside ofrev- production asthird cinemadoes. Partly asaconsequence ofthis,theterm minor cinemadoesnot placeasmuch ties. However, themostcrucialdifference betweenthetwoideasisthat dominant formsofcinemarepresent political issues,and construct identi- agendas ofthefilm’s backers. artisanal way, such thatmeaningisnot pre-determinedbytheideological various alternativesources offunding, producing cinemainalowbudget, of thenation. Inorder todosoeffectively, third cinemaactivelyseeksout in acombativemanner, withpresent day issuesofrelevance tothepeople trial, oftenstatesponsored model).Insteadthird cinemadirectlyengages, the nostalgic emphasis on thepastofsecond cinema(thenational-indus- distinct from theescapistspectacles offi rst cinema(e.g.Hollywood)and opposed toemotionally—engaging modeoffi lmmaking. Itisconsidered cinema isOusmaneSembene.Inbrief,third cinemaisanintellectually—as and Willeman).Indeed, one directorveryoftendiscussedintermsofthird of South Americaand Africa(Espinosa; Solanasand Gettino; Gabriel;Pines and post-colonial cinemathatemerged inthe1960s,particularparts defi ned termwhich hasbeenusedtoreferanumber ofrevolutionary respect itmay initiallyseemsimilartotheideaof“third cinema,” abroadly a way ofunderstanding subversiveorcriticalpoliticalcinemas.Inthis structed inmainstreamfilms. the way inwhich identities, and particularly negative stereotypes,arecon- tive images but inironic quotation marks), askstheaudience toquestion at timesmakingforaratherstylizedaesthetic(asthough replaying norma- through which fictional identities arecreated. This latterpractice,although hero orcharacter type,and indeed, byexploring theartisticprocess people yettocome,eitherbyrefusingspecifi cally fi x on one preferred self-consciously plays with thepossibleidentities thatmightemerge ina cannot helpbut have publicramifications. Third and finally, minor cinema vate actions (foreverunder scrutiny bythesurveillance ofthecentre) works ofminor cinemaofteninhabitthemargins ofsociety, and theirpri- minority peoplecomeunder thesurveillance ofamajority. Charactersin spaces. Such ablurring ofpublicand privatetypicallyoccurswhen a refl ected theerasureofestablisheddivisions betweenpublicand private was theblurring orblending ofspacescreatedinthesecinemas,which manufacture asustainableidentity foracommunity ornation. The second a vision of“thepeople”thatmightfunction asafuturebasison which to of cinema. The first wastheaforementioned attempttoimagine orcreate Minor cinemasharesthird cinema’s concern overthemannerinwhich For film theory, minor cinema’s mostobvious advantage isthatitoffers For Deleuzetherewerethreeways ofidentifying thissubversivemode emphasis on anartisanalmodeof 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM demystifying deleuze 227 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM (1995) was Araki’s fi fth feature fi a budget lm. It was made on fth feature fi fi Doom Generation was Araki’s The Even so, the idea of a minor US cinema may seem a little contradictory, seem a little contradictory, US cinema may minor Even so, the idea of a of $1m, most of which came from French sources (Macnab 38). In many (Macnab 38). In many sources French came from of $1m, most of which low (1992), an earlier End Living respects it develops themes explored in The men with AIDS (King; Mills). two gay movie ($22 700) about road budget Heterosexual Doom Generation “A subtitles The Araki ironically Although the doom generation movie, set in California, road funny is an irreverently Doom Generation The White (Rose McGowan), Jordan Blue Amy slackers, teenaged three about are a Jordan and Amy Schaech). Red (Jonathan Xavier (James Duval) and to explore their sexual they begin and comes along Xavier until couple acci- spree after Xavier a murder on embark They as a threesome. potential FBI are pursued by the and Mart proprietor, kills a Korean Quickie dentally depicts the ending violent lm’s fi The ex-lovers. of Amy’s a number and Virgin by a statue of the penetration (including ag a US fl on rape of Amy shocking This his chest. on Swastika painted with a huge Mary) by a thug fol- It is shortly anthem. of the US national takes place to the sound event kills the then a bloodbath as Amy and of Jordan, lowed by the castration driving Xavier and is of Amy nal shot fi The his companions. rapist and together. away as it is often in tacit opposition to the global dominance of Hollywood that the global dominance to as it is often in tacit opposition in US cinema independent Yet is evoked. cinema of a minor the notion will forgive especially (if you to be minor, potential general does offer the in Cinema 2 majors. For instance, to the Hollywood the pun) in relation with cinema of the 1970s, African-American indie y mentions Deleuze briefl Haile Burnett, Robert Gardner, lmmakers Charles to fi passing reference explora- Butler’s Alternatively consider Lane (220). Charles Gerima, and Dash’s in Julie to diasporic identities of memory in relation of the role tion of the Dust (1993) (112–15). It is noticeable Daughters US indie, contemporary lms ensures that they fi the racial aspect of these US that in both instances demon- As I will now way. the major voice of US cinema in a minor play Doom Queer Cinema, The of New an analysis of a work strate through for a can also open the way of sexuality Generation, a cinematic examination US cinema. minor French fi lmmakers like Alain Resnais, Jean Rouch and Jean-Marie Straub. Straub. Jean-Marie and Jean Rouch Resnais, like Alain lmmakers fi French minor on work Deleuze’s of applicability, degree this greater due to Perhaps lm studies. of his ideas in fi widely applied the most currently cinema is also cinema, but African on work Rodowick’s only not include Examples lmmak- exilic fi and cinema (Butler), diasporic cinema as minor women’s cinemas small and cy), Nafi (Marks; contexts world rst of fi ing in a number (Hjort) and (Marshall), Denmark Quebec other locations, in, amongst Orphans). (Martin-Jones, Scotland 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2279780415962612-Ch-10.indd 227 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 228

david martin-jones 228 of minor cinema. genre film, The DoomGeneration clearly conforms tothethreecharacteristics potential ways ofreconsidering establishedidentities. Similarly, although a 1990s inparticularhave oftenusedthemotifoflimitlesstravel toexplore explore how apeopleofthefuturemightdevelop.Roadmoviesin missing people,puttingtogetherrandom assemblages ofcharacters to exist, post-warroad moviessince EasyRider(1969)have gone insearch ofa Night, Schaber shows how, incontrast topre-warroad movieslikeItHappenedOne since WWIIhave exploredthepossibilitiesofcreatingapeopleyettocome. used Deleuze’s concept oftheminor tonote how Americanroad movies sual either. Inhiscontribution toThe RoadMovieBook(1997),BennetSchaber Indeed, thisuseoftheroad movietoexploredifferent identities isnot unu- tinctive initsquestioning ofthepoliticsrepresenting sexual identity. in theearly 1990s,known asNewQueerCinema(Davis), amovement dis- prising, asdirectorGregg Arakibelongs toafilm movement thatemerged sexual norms canbechallenged byminor sexual practices. This is unsur- Movie byGregg Araki,” itis inactual factanexploration ofhow hetero- such conversations betweenmalecharacters in,forinstance, buddy movies, ther queering thetwo-shot convention, thehomosexual undertones of reconsolidate around the twomalecharacters. This hasthe effectoffur- frame Amy willleave thediscussion, and theconvention two-shot will more thanone occasion when thethreeareshot togetherinthesame established ways ofrepresenting heterosexual norms. Furthermore,on uses astutteredorqueered shot composition toforeground and question cally dopeyJordan disturbstheacceptedsymmetryof theshot, asAraki he—getting out ofthecar—insertshimselfinbetweenthem. The comi- Jordan’s headthenhumorously appearsinthebottomofframe,as are framedinthisconventional way, talkingheatedlyoutside Amy’s car. questions heterosexual norms. Soon afterAmy and Xavier first meetthey The DoomGenerationArakicausesthisconvention tostutter, and indoing so positional balance. Very oftenthecoupling willbeamanand awoman.In facing each otheron eithersideofthescreen,creatingasymmetricalcom- characters talkingwithinasingleframe.Usually thisconsists oftwopeople threesome), but alsointheframingofcharacters. ing and masturbating,and thefi lm’s penultimate scenebegins witha (on severaloccasions when twopeoplearefucking thethird willbewatch- only rendered inthefilm’s enthusiastic emphasis on theirsexual behaviour to stutter, theirsexual relationship becomingaménage atrois. This isnot the explosiveXavier thenorm oftheheterosexual couple suddenlybegins a newmodelforpeopleyettocome.When Amy and Jordan arejoinedby bizarre assemblage thatquestions standard norms ofbehaviour, suggesting Firstly In mainstreamHollywoodcinemaitisusual toseea“two-shot” oftwo The Wizard ofOz,orThe Grapesof (1940)whereWrath thepeoplealready The DoomGeneration’s threeteenaged loserprotagonists createa 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM demystifying deleuze 229 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM The second criteria for a work of minor cinema is also met. In the per- of minor criteria for a work second The Thus, even though Amy is ultimately victorious in her battle with the victorious is ultimately Amy though even Thus, The Doom The cinema, then, of minor rst criteria of a work fi ling the Fulfi petual movement of their travels the characters fi differ- that there is no nd fi the characters of their travels movement petual their beyond the political. Denied a home and the personal between ence end. with no a journey on are orphans the characters car, garbage-strewn her heroin father is dead and abusive are both dead, Amy’s parents Xavier’s live in parents Jordan’s whilst to Scientology, addict mother converted is with them via telephone attempt to communicate his only Seattle and inhabit a characters homeless These cut off by the answering machine. thugs, the fi nal image is of a shell-shocked Amy and Xavier driving away in driving away Xavier and Amy is of a shell-shocked nal image the fi thugs, it switches Amy anthem the national to play the radio begins As the car. as much couple of a heterosexual then, with the union lm ends, fi The off. the Here however, lm. might expect of a mainstream Hollywood fi you far how nale demonstrate of the fi the upsetting tone and preceding events posits several ending The Xavier. and this is for Amy ending a happy from future is there for alter- being, what most obvious the two open questions, can alternative how and environment, in this national native sexualities to come? in the US create a people yet identities points to a different possibility for sexuality, suggesting that a possibility for sexuality, to a different Generation points by the necessarily contained that are not exist in the future people could lm the fi Despite this, however, couple. of the heterosexual norm standard of this poten- renunciation with a nihilistic ends pessimistically somewhat to Blue and White named Red, characters—symbolically three The tial. raped, and beaten, identity—are new US national a potentially represent of the national the sounds to ag, fl a US on murdered, case in Jordan’s right wing establish- the USA’s how demonstrate Nazi thugs The anthem. In necessary. if using violence alternative potential, represses such ment the statue of the anthem) and ag (fl the symbols of the nation to addition tongue-in-cheek lm’s with the fi resonates Amy Mary used to abuse Virgin in normalizing its role in the US, and religion of established questioning with slogans resonates This couple. the heterosexual into identity sexual Soul,” Your for “Pray to Hell,” lm (“Welcome the fi seen throughout that with the recurring gag “Prepare for the Apocalypse”), which—along of the climate on costs $6.66—comment buy everything the three outlaws 1990s, as it was left reeling in the USA in the that abounded fear religious epidemic. the AIDS from suddenly coming to the fore as Jordan and Xavier continue to discuss sex to discuss continue Xavier and fore as Jordan to the coming suddenly with an actual lm climaxes fi the Ultimately present. being Amy without ling fulfi alternative sexuality of this manifestation the physical threesome, the offered throughout alternative framing offered by the the potential angle, with camera one lmed from fi predominantly threesome is The lm. fi a single shot, crammed into uncomfortably faces characters’ the three the two-shot. of the construction queering deliberately again 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2299780415962612-Ch-10.indd 229 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 230

david martin-jones 230 transformation. and theirproliferation pointing tothe potential forcontinuous identity ness undermining any legitimacy shemightpossiblyhave asa by which theyaddress hermultiply (Sunshine,Kitten, Brandy), their cute- in thisbythearmy ofex-loverstheybump into ateverystop. The names conforming totherole ofvampor constantly ambiguous, constantly transforming.Indeed, Amy, although men suggestblatant homosexual desire,ensuringthattheirsexualities are uality. Moreover, theerotically charged conversations betweenthese two by Amy. Xavier on theotherhand demonstrates analmostüber-heterosex- lished representations ofthedominant male,asheissexually dominated ambiguous malesfor“A Heterosexual RoadMovie.” Jordan debunks estab- ters aseithertypesorcounter-types. BothXavier and Jordan areextremely marks. Throughout itsnarrativeThe DoomGenerationrefusestofix itscharac- fi lm’s discourse on sexual identities, which placesitinstylisticquotation bright colours, garishmotelroom setsand soon. achieved inthefilm, through theuseofexpressionistic shadows,unusually critics have discussedindepth,therearecountless ways inwhich thisis within theinstitution ofcinemain order tochange it”(20).Astheabove representative ofAraki’s conception oftheindependent who canwork Godard. AsJamesM.Morannotes, “Godard …isperhapsthefigure most and aEuropean avant-garde sensibilitywhich Arakiclearly owestoJean-Luc excessive queer aesthetics—likethatofKennethAngerorJohnWaters— Hollywood product isplayed inaminor keyduetotheinsertion ofan is “normally” represented tothembyfi lm. InThe DoomGeneration the fictional statusofthefi lm, askingtheviewertothinkabout how theworld parency offormadoptedbyHollywood,theavant-garde foregrounds the 19–20; Mills,308–13;Hart,33;King,83and 235–6).Asopposedtothetrans- due tohisincorporation ofaspectstheavant-garde (Chang,53;Moran, numerous criticshave noted, Araki’s films stand out from themainstream the way normative queer stereotypesareconstructed inthemedia.As filmmaker, fi ctional storyand audience inorder toforce aconsideration of scious cinematicstyleisusedto insert thefi lm into adialoguebetween the publicforces ofthestaterepresentatives, thebrutalNazithugs. lence ofthefilm’s fi nale, astheirtemporarywarehouse shelterisinvaded by are monitored atalltimes.Finallytheirsexual ambiguityleadstothevio- make isshown through asecuritycamera,emphasizing theway theirlives report and anational manhunt bytheFBI.Moreover, everypurchase they Mart leadstothemurder of the proprietor, which inturnleadstoanews always political.Forinstance, not having enough money topay inaQuickie the wrecks ofothercars.Livinginaperpetually publicspacetheiractions are hinterland ofmotels,Quickie Marts,charity shops, and roads strewnwith The effectofthisstylisticexperimentation istheforegrounding ofthe Fulfiling thethird criteriaofawork ofminor cinema,Araki’s self-con- femme fatale, isperpetually undermined femme fatale, 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM demystifying deleuze 231 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM Film . Minneapolis: Groundhog and Falling Down . Eds. Jim Collins, Hilary Radner and Ava Preacher. Preacher. Ava Goes to the Movies. Eds. Jim Collins, Hilary Radner and 36.3 (1995): 214–232. Screen New York: AFI/Routledge, 1993. 1–7. AFI/Routledge, York: New Manchester: Wells. Paul and Reagan to Bush Jr. Eds. Philip John Davies University Press, 2000. 3–12. Manchester Aaron. Queer Cinema: A Critical Reader. Ed. Michele New Araki.” Gregg University Press, 2004. 53–67. Edinburgh Edinburgh: 1986. Theory Day.” University of Minnesota Press [1975] 1986. In conclusion, as these two very different examples illustrate, there is examples illustrate, as these two very different In conclusion, Perhaps the most obvious example of this use of foregrounded style in style of foregrounded this use example of obvious the most Perhaps Davies, Jude. “Gender, ethnicity and cultural crisis in and ethnicity “Gender, Jude. Davies, from American Film and Politics “Introduction.” Wells. Paul John and Philip Davies, the New Queer Director: Case Study— Queer and “Camp and Glyn. Davis, Press (1983) Athlone The . London: Movement-Image The Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: (1985) 1989. Athlone . London: ––––, Cinema Time-Image 2: The a Minor Literature Towards Kafka: Félix Guattari. Deleuze, Gilles and works cited works 2002. ower, Wallfl . London: Contested Screen The Cinema: Women’s Alison. Butler, Film Comment 30:5 (1994): 47–53. Alternative.” Chang, Chris. “Absorbing “Introduction.” Gardner. Preacher Ava Collins, Jim, Hilary Radner and much to be gained from using Deleuze’s work to examine contemporary to examine contemporary work using Deleuze’s to be gained from much of New works to independent mainstream rom-coms US movies. From ways useful and interesting various theories offer Queer Cinema, Deleuze’s the movies. of demystifying order to question established types is the dressing of Xavier in the second- in of Xavier is the dressing types established to question order is here queered American West of the icon This of a cowboy. clothes hand poly- by the sexually dress code inhabited is reduced to an ironic it when stops at experimentation sexual is a man whose Xavier Xavier. morphous he is In this respect, then, his own semen. He even enjoys eating nothing. wearing nd to fi gure we might expect fi the John Wayne from very different belt buckle novelty of a kitsch t consists of his outfi Part clothes. a cowboy’s a a cowboy on of an image bracketing in holsters, depicting two pistols In rider. its bucks is wiggled, the horse the buckle stead. Whenever bucking to permission requests desire, Jordan homosexual of blatant a moment other and at each look Xavier as he and then does so wiggle the buckle, is ren- groin to Xavier’s cowboy attached of bucking image The laugh. cinema, The of minor as a work In this way, dered—twice—in close-up. in the US case, and stereotypes (sexual, such Doom Generation presents and their normal, us to reconsider asking marks, in quotation national) of identity established norms of rendering unusual This uses. normative (witness its marks in stylistic quotation as though lm shot takes place in a fi the questioning mise-en-scène, etc), thereby doubly elaborate, expressionistic in Hollywood cinema. representation of identity norms dominant 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2319780415962612-Ch-10.indd 231 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 232

david martin-jones 232 Evans, PeterWilliamand Celestino Deleyto.“Introduction: SurvivingLove.” Espinosa, Julio Garcia. “ForanImperfectCinema.” Film Theory AnAnthology. Deleyto, Celstino. “BetweenFriends: Loveand Friendship inContemporary Gabriel, TeshomeH. Schaber, Bennet.“‘HitlerCan’t Keep‘Em That Long’: The Road, The People.” Rodowick, D.N. GillesDeleuze’s Time Machine. Durhamand London: Duke Pisters, Patricia. The Matrixof Visual Culture: Working With Deleuze inFilm Theory Pines, Jimand Paul Willeman,eds.Questionsof Third Cinema.London: BritishFilm Negra, Diane.“Where theBoysAre:Postfeminismand theNewSingleMan.” Neale, Steveand FrankKrutnik.Popular Filmand Television Comedy. London: Nafi Hamid. cy, Moran, JamesM.“Gregg Araki:GuerillaFilmmakerforaQueerGeneration.” Mills, Katie.“RevitalizingtheRoadMovie.” The RoadMovieBook.Eds. ––––, Martin-Jones, David. “Orphans,awork ofminor cinema from post- Marshall, Bill.Quebec NationalCinema.Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Senses. Durhamand London: Duke UniversityPress,2000. Marks, LauraU. The SkinoftheFilm:Intercultural Cinema,Embodimentandthe Macnab, Geoffrey. “The DoomGeneration.” SightandSound6.6(1996):37–8. King, Geoff,AmericanIndependentCinema.London: I.B. Taurus, 2005. Jeffers McDonald, Tamar. RomanticComedy: Boy MeetsGirlGenre. London: Hjort, Mette,SmallNation:GlobalCinema.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesota Hart, Kylo-Patrick R.“Auteur/Bricoleur/Provocateur: Gregg Araki Terms 287–297. Ed. RobertStamand Toby Miller. Oxford: Blackwell (1969)2000. Hollywood Romantic Comedy.” Screen, 44.2(2003):167–182. University Press,1998.1–14. Peter WilliamEvansand Celestino Deleyto,Edinburgh: Edinburgh 1997. 17–44. The RoadMovie Book.Eds.StevenCohanand InaRaeHark. London: Routledge, University Press,1997. California: Stanford UniversityPress,2003. Institute, 1991. 2008). Flow, 4.3.April142006:http://fl owtv.org/?p=223 (accessedFebruary 28 Routledge, 1990. Princeton UniversityPress,2001. Film Quarterly, 50:1(1996):18–26. Steven Cohanand InaRaeHark. London: Routledge, 1997.307–329. Press, 2006. devolutionary Scotland.” JournalofBritishCinemaand Television 1.2(2004):226–241. Press, 2001. Wallfl ower, 2007. Press, 2005. (2003): 30–40. and PostpunkStyleinThe DoomGeneration.” Michigan: AnnArbor, 1979. Deleuze, CinemaandNational Identity.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University of Endearment:Hollywood RomanticComedy ofthe1980sand1990s An AccentedCinema:ExilicandDiasporicFilmmaking.Princeton: Third Cinemainthe Third World: The AestheticsofLiberation Journal ofFilmand Video 55.1 . Eds. .

4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM demystifying deleuze 233 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM . Performance

Creating the Couple: Love, Marriage and Hollywood and Marriage Love, the Couple: Creating . Ed. Bill Nichols. Berkeley: University of California Press of California University Berkeley: Bill Nichols. . Ed. Methods and (1969) 1976. 44–64. (1969) 1976. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. University Princeton Princeton: Movies Movies Cinema.” Third a “Towards Gettino. Octavio and Fernando Solanas, Wexman, Virginia Virginia Wright. Wexman, 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 2339780415962612-Ch-10.indd 233 9780415962612-Ch-10.indd 234 4/1/2009 10:47:25 AM rethinking affects, narration,

part three fantasy, and realism

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 235 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 236 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM trauma, pleasure, and emotion

eleven in the viewing of titanic

a cognitive approach

carl plantinga

And what could be more romantic, in the dark and heart- wrenching sense of the word, than Titanic, with its stories of men and women torn from each other en masse by a cruel twist of fate, of widows scanning the faces of the few male survivors for the husbands and lovers, of the terrible loss and grief of the morning after . . . of so many hearts broken. ( James Cameron vi)

trauma and the popularity of titanic

What could be more romantic than stories of men and women torn from each other by death? What could be more wistfully beautiful than freezing and drowning in the cold North Atlantic Ocean? One initially wants to ask James Cameron, director of the blockbuster Titanic (1997), what he could possibly have been thinking when he wrote the words quoted above. When one considers it for a moment, it is surprising that such a story would

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 237 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM provide audiences pleasure at all. Yet Cameron understands something of what it takes to powerfully and pleasurably move an audience. And there is something about Titanic that attracted mass audiences, despite, or perhaps because of, its horrifi c subject matter. Cameron describes the story of the Titanic as a “canvas offering the full spectral range of human emotion,” and writes that his aim in making Titanic was to “convey the emotion of that night [of the ship’s sinking] rather than the fact of it” (vi, ix). But this also is questionable. Among the emotions of “that night” were terror, grief, fear, and an overwhelming sadness. Only a sadist would want to recreate that for an audience. My basic assumption here is that the viewing of a fi lm, even a fi lm about a horrifi c event, must offer audiences a pleasurable or otherwise rewarding experi- carl plantinga carl ence, not one, for example, of sheer terror and grief. In this essay I will show that cognitive fi lm theory can help identify the affective appeals that Titanic offers and relate those to the audience pleasures derived in its viewing. I describe and examine this fascinating paradox about the popularity of Titanic. In its popularity, at least as measured by its box offi ce take, Titanic is one of the most successful fi lms of all time on the international market, and in domestic theatrical receipts it runs second only to Gone with the Wind (1939) when the numbers are adjusted for infl ation (Box Offi ce Mojo). Unlike Gone with the Wind, however, the appeal of Titanic extended around the world, with roughly two-thirds of its box offi ce revenues being generated outside of the United States. Yet the fi lm represents traumatic events and evokes negative, and what are conventionally thought to be unpleasant, emotions. Given this, how did it attain the popularity it enjoys? What strategies does it use to manage and transform the horrifi c into the pleasing and uplifting? Titanic is the quintessentially successful example of popular art. Perhaps in addressing what might be called “the paradox of negative emotion” in Titanic, we can learn something about the psychological appeal of much popular art that elicits negative emotions.

cognitive theory and affect in the movies

Early cognitive fi lm theory concentrated on the interaction between spectator and fi lm text in two registers: fi lmic perception and narrative comprehension. To take perception fi rst, cognitive theory asked how spectators 238 make sense of moving images and offered hypotheses rooted in the fi ndings of cognitive science and philosophy. How is it that spectators see a two- dimensional visual array as a three-dimensional world of space and depth? If screened fi lm consists of the projection of 24 still frames per second, why does the spectator invariably see this as a moving image? This study of perception was accompanied by examinations of narrative comprehension that explore the mental activities the spectator undertakes to make sense of story and character (Anderson; Bordwell, Narration; Branigan).

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 238 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 239 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM ). Cognitive theorists argue that emotions are that emotions argue ). Cognitive theorists Moved and Affected A fundamental tenet of cognitive fi lm theory is a basic assumption of lm theory is a basic assumption tenet of cognitive fi A fundamental First I offer a word about a cognitive-perceptual theory of emotion theory of emotion cognitive-perceptual a about First I offer a word strictly has emotions, only lm, she not the spectator views a fi When is not perception perception is not to Titanic in with regard interested I am particularly What what I call a “conditional realism” in spectator response. The “realism” in this The realism” in spectator response. I call a “conditional what affects and the spectator has emotions the following: stems from equation (Plantinga, (Plantinga, we might call that other sorts of responses also various but considered, affects is and between emotions the differentiation Although “affects.” issues by associating affects culties, we might simplify fraught with diffi as moods, affective such or “primitive” feeling states with non-cognitive to a affect is “caught” by or transferred (by which contagion mimicry and cogni- a stronger then, have etc. Emotions, responses, viewer), autonomic are a response that is, they typically take an “object,” and tive component and line between emotion The or state(s) of affairs. to particular event(s) or to call surprise whether about disagree scholars clear; always affect is not in of clarity this lack recognize To startle, for example, affects or emotions. The however. of the categories, the legitimacy to question some cases is not affect does not and between emotion of the fuzzy boundaries recognition differenti- clearly and that there exist prototypical affect the recognition ated examples of both categories. and narrative comprehension per se, but more centrally the affective and and affective the centrally more per se, but comprehension narrative and a “cognitive-perceptual” what lm, and the fi generated by responses emotional emotional examine seriously that. One cannot us about show theory can Yet narrative comprehension. and perception considering effect without it elic- emotions and to the affects in relation Titanic on will focus this essay to elicit, as that it is intended those more precisely, or its in audiences, narration. lm’s of the fi gauged by the structuring states, differentiated mental rather structured but shapeless feelings not a and between a person relationship of by a particular kind ned defi and changes, neurological and accompanied by physiological and situation, ight in the case (fl tendencies action and feelings (subjective impressions), to cite two examples). in the case of disgust, or distancing expulsion of fear, as a “concern an emotion we can characterize essay, For the purposes of this the subject appraises arises when An emotion (Roberts). based construal” I call to her or his concerns. in relation or situation an event or perceives and of construals of particular kinds conjunction The this a construal. is in jealousy construal One common nes the emotion. defi concerns The another. on attentions lover is focusing her/his amorous that one’s amorous exclusive of the lover’s is the maintenance in jealously concern a construes one example, fear arises when take another To attentions. safety of one’s safety or the or object as threatening to one’s situation of health the maintenance is for survival and/or concern The associates. happiness. and 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2399780415962612-Ch-11.indd 239 in response to narrative events in a fi lm that suggest that she perceives and responds to a fi ctional world in some of the same ways she would perceive and respond to the actual world. This isn’t really a controversial or remarkable claim, as the consideration of a few examples will make clear. The curiosity and anticipation of the spectator about narrative events function in similar ways to the curiosity and anticipation the spectator has about actual events. Just as traveling to another country might elicit fascination in the tourist, so might being introduced to the exterior contours and inner workings of the magnifi cent ship in Titanic elicit fascination in the spectator. The qualities of character that elicit our admiration for a friend or public fi gure might also elicit admiration for a fi lmic character such as Jack or young Rose in Titanic. Similar events might elicit compas-

carl plantinga carl sion or pity for a real person or for a character; just as we might have pity on someone who dies of exposure or loses a loved one, so we have pity for Jack and Rose (for dying and for losing a loved one, respectively). The spectator’s default assumption is that fi lm characters have psychologies similar to those we attribute to actual people, and we respond to fi lm characters using a “person schema,” as though they were in some sense real (Bordwell, Making Meaning 151–57). I call this a conditional realism because it is subject to qualifi cations. The fi rst qualifi cation is the spectator’s recognition of fi ctionality. Barring a serious mental disorder, viewers understand that what they experience is a fi ction and not the actual world. Thus although structural similarities exist between fear responses to fi ctional and actual events, the fear responses to fi ctional events are characterized by an essential and additional element—an audience awareness of the imaginary nature of the events. The remarkable realism of the fi lm medium may set in motion the affective and emotional processes of spectators, yet those will be modifi ed by the background “set” that includes the basic assumption that they view a fi c- tion. The second qualifi cation to this conditional realism of response is the spectator’s recognition of mediation. Viewers understand or perceive, if only at an implicit or non-conscious level, that the narrative is a mediated construct. Thus they may be willing to experience unpleasant or negative emotions (such as pity or sadness) because, knowing that the fi lm is a product of mainstream Hollywood, they expect that a happy ending or some 240 other fortuitous outcome will provide emotional compensation for the unpleasant affect experienced during sections of the narrative. Many spectators have implicit understandings of narrative and genre conventions, and will chafe at the romantic comedy that omits the expected unifi cation of the romantic couple, or the melodrama that fails to provide suffi cient and expected admiration for the pitied protagonist, or the Western that neglects to offer the requisite violent confrontation at the fi lm’s end. Thus the responses elicited by a narrative fi lm are realistic in the sense that

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 240 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 241 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM Although audiences will respond to fi we can rightly ways, lms in various to fi will respond audiences Although Another alternative to the attempt to determine a hypothesized mass alternative to the attempt to determine a hypothesized Another The attempt to understand or predict the nature of mass spectator the nature of or predict to understand attempt The assume that certain basic elements of response will be similar for audience be similar for audience will of response assume that certain basic elements That a sympathetic viewing. allow themselves to experience members who a wholly maintain do not who “give in” to the text and is, spectators who some shared responses. to have will tend stance or oppositional distanced response is to abandon the project altogether in favor of the empirical altogether in favor the project to abandon is response can be This of individuals. responses historical of the actual investigation movie lm reviews, diaries, fi reports and to personal by looking achieved surveys. and the web, or with post-viewing questionnaires sites on chat devices that gauge galvanic skin One might even wire the spectator to might be very useful, in pulse, for example. All of this changes or response lm is of popular fi scholar The still limited to relatively few subjects. but lms fi that is, in the means by which in mass responses, also interested is ulti- response scale. Audience a grand on emotions manipulate audience that is, contextual of “conditioners,” mately determined by a combination “elicitors, or the features of the factors, and idiosyncratic individually and 24–31). style” (Feagin structure and of affect through its evocation text and make-up of the audience, psychological more similar the social and The of mass response. in the evocation elicitors become the more important the capacity lms have to assume that some fi outrageous it is not Moreover, in diverse audiences. to elicit similar responses response based on textual characteristics is of necessity somewhat specula- somewhat is of necessity characteristics textual based on response to personal in relation vary in response members audience tive. Of course, about speculations one’s One might limit differences. contextual and The theory has done. of Screen as much to an ideal spectator, response an idea is an ideal spectator because it is literally spectator of Screen theory a entity, of as a hypothetical spectator is conceived The a person. not and theories such Yet by the text. or “space” constructed “role,” “position,” terms, claiming, lms in psychological of fi describe the functions invariably is produced” of regression lm viewer” a “state the “fi for example, that in theory at (Stam et al. 147). Screen of belief is constructed” “a situation and then but blood person, and esh a fl that the spectator is not times argues to not and beings human that apply to in ways describes spectatorship implicitly Robert Stam lm theory, to fi In his introduction abstract entities. the “spectator” he distinguishes between when recognizes this problem further termi- invites this only Yet (Stam 231). spectator” the “actual and and when, in understanding further it gets us no And confusion. nological of the specta- spectators occupy the “role actual conditions, what under tor” (Prince). they mimic real-world responses, but are conditioned and altered by the altered and are conditioned but responses, mimic real-world they the movies nature of of the institutional knowledge implicit spectator’s “Film Spectatorship”). (Smith, ction fi of other institutions and 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2419780415962612-Ch-11.indd 241 Perhaps audience members have different capacities for empathizing with characters, or experience fear or pity in varying degrees or under somewhat different conditions. Yet emotions are not free-fl oating and random; emotions are structured states caused by similar circumstances. If emotions are concern based construals, as I have argued, and if Hollywood fi lms offer narratives which presume basic, easily comprehended concerns and textually-inscribe pre-focused construals (Carroll, “Film, Emotion”), then audience members will tend to share similar responses. When Jack dies in the cold North Atlantic Ocean, for example, only the most oppositional spectator will laugh at this rather than pity him. When the Titanic sinks and the passengers scream with terror, few audience members will feel jealousy or pride rather than the usual suspense, fear, and sad-

carl plantinga carl ness. For the purposes of gauging mass response, then, I will assume what could be called “cooperative spectators.” These are viewers who hold a largely positive stance toward the fi lm in the viewing and thus respond in large part in congruence with the fi lm’s intended affective trajectory. These spectators represent a signifi cant percentage of the fi lm’s overall audience. We might expect that this percentage will differ depending on the particular fi lm, audience, and viewing conditions. For some especially popular fi lms, we might expect that the percentage of cooperative spectators will be quite high.

direct and sympathetic appeals in titanic

What sort of emotions does Titanic elicit for the cooperative spectator? To answer this question, it would benefi t us to consider four basic types of emotions that fi lms elicit: (1) direct, (2) sympathetic/antipathetic, (3) artifact, and (4) meta (Plantinga, Moved and Affected). Direct emotions are responses to the narrative and its unfolding; I call these emotions “direct” because their object is the narrative and its progression and they are not necessarily bound by a concern about any particular character. Characteristic direct emotions include curiosity, suspense, anticipation, surprise, and startle. Sympathetic and antipathetic emotions, on the other hand, take as their object the concerns, goals, and well-being of fi lm characters. Examples of sympathetic emotions are compassion, pity, admiration, and happiness, and antipathetic emotions would include anger, disdain, and socio-moral 242 disgust (Plantinga, “Disgusted”). Artifact emotions such as admiration, fascination, amusement, disdain, and impatience are directed at the fi lm as an artifact. The fourth kind, meta-emotions, such as pride, guilt, shame, and disdain are aimed at the spectator’s own responses or the responses of other viewers. It is important to note that emotional responses in relation to fi lms can be mixed; I can experience more than one at a time. Thus, for example, I may simultaneously experience the sympathetic emotion of pity

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 242 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 243 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM the direct emotions fi rst. The sub- The rst. fi the direct emotions t of the fi ctional characters, many viewers are many characters, ctional t of the fi enjoyed popularity in part due to its combination of love story enjoyed popularity in part due to its combination Titanic Yet it is the direct and sympathetic emotions that I am most interested that I am most interested sympathetic emotions it is the direct and Yet The blockbuster fi lm often attempts to provide attractions for diverse attractions to provide lm often attempts fi blockbuster The (1984) and (1984) and Terminator Sarah in The Hamilton’s Linda Alien (1979) and curious about, interested in, shocked, and fascinated by the unfolding story fascinated by and in, shocked, interested about, curious to acquaint manages Cameron Thus of the sinking of this mammoth ship. itself is of strong intrinsic interest apart from apart from interest intrinsic itself is of strong ject of the sinking of the Titanic historically accurate The Cal. and Jack in the fates of Rose and the interest details of its sinking, and to the modeling of the ship, the precise attention has direct appeal to of the disaster the riveting cinematic representation a relatively accu- well presume that this is, moreover, may who audiences of its techni- at least in many historical event, of an actual rate reenactment cal details. Independen and disaster scenarios, since these scenarios lead to both sympathetic/ these since disaster scenarios, and Take emotions. direct and antipathetic in here. To enter this discussion, fi rst note that scholars have identifi ed identifi have that scholars rst note fi this discussion, enter To in here. of elements lm that offers a melodramatic story mixed with as a fi Titanic in trend is an example of an important Titanic lm. Moreover, the disaster fi appeal to female audi- lms: the self-conscious fi American action/adventure is partly accomplished (Krämer; Bernstein). In general terms, this ences Ripley Weaver’s as Sigourney such the use of female protagonists through in we see “young” and story, is Rose’s 2: Judgment Day (1991). Titanic Terminator of the behaviors of the exuberant in many Rose (Kate Winslett) engaging life- from corridors, jumping through running hero: action traditional DiCaprio) from (Leonardo her lover Jack saving boats, swinging axes, and as the ship to a water pipe below decks he is handcuffed when drowning she even spits. point, sinks. At one are varied, are varied, Titanic generated by emotions the pleasurable Thus audiences. becomes an lm a fi When of the types just mentioned. all four including will audiences of many responses did, the emotional as Titanic “Event,” expen- lm as “horrendously as the status of the fi artifact emotions, include is seeing,” lm everyone “the fi “the most successful movie ever made,” sive,” all generate of bad taste in popular art,” example or as the “consummate publicity cam- lm’s fi The lm itself as their object. that take the fi responses generates this sort of response. that in creating the buzz paign is essential in engages , more of the audience of Titanic lm attains the status a fi When as well, as audiences that generate meta-emotions the sort of activities others they liked it while why wonder with others, compare their reactions etc. did not, and embarrassment—a meta-emotion—that the fi me teary-eyed. lm made fi the meta-emotion—that embarrassment—a and creating ways, intriguing other in with each also interact may Emotions other, with each cases interfering effect, in other amplifying and synergy inter- psychologically aesthetically and cases creating an in yet other and esting friction. 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2439780415962612-Ch-11.indd 243 the spectator with the ship’s geography and inner workings, including the bridge, the boiler room, the engine room (in which the camera is placed directly before the gigantic whirling pistons), and the cargo hold. Moreover, those interested in scientifi c expeditions and exploration will be enthralled by the frame story, in which, as expedition leader Brock Lovett (Bill Paxton) views the sunken Titanic from his submersible, 2-and-one-half miles (3.8 km) beneath the surface, through 9-inch thick windows. Those familiar with James Cameron’s experience with deep sea exploration will be more likely to put confi dence in the fi lm to get the technological details right. The fi lm initially and throughout its duration appeals to curiosity about the design of the Titanic, an interest in the contemporary expedition to the sunken Titanic, nostalgia for the past, and anticipation of and

carl plantinga carl fascination with the details of its sinking. These are direct emotions; that is, they do not fundamentally depend on a sympathetic engagement with characters. Hollywood fi lms, however, depend on the evocation of spectator allegiances with favored characters and the generation of strong sympathetic (and antipathetic) emotions (Smith, Engaging), and Titanic does not fail to satisfy in that regard. Although the narrative takes care to elicit direct emotions, it also quickly attempts to generate the sympathetic and antipathetic emotions of melodrama, introducing the audience to Jack Dawson, the wandering artist and free spirit, and Rose DeWitt Bukater, the ingénue trapped in an engagement to a man she does not love, the wealthy and arrogant Cal Hockley (Billy Zane). The romance between Jack and Rose develops quickly, and eventually Rose strongly desires the love of Jack, desires that she escape her repressive family and fi ancé, and later desires that both Jack and herself escape death as the Titanic sinks. The viewer’s emotional responses are directed by alignment with and reaction to Rose’s desires (and to an extent, Jack’s), generating the fear, pity, and other responses that I have called sympathetic emotions. But the spectator’s sympathetic responses are not limited to Rose and Jack. James Cameron puts the love story of two individuals within the context of a disaster on a grand scale. Although the spectator grows in allegiance for both Jack and Rose, Cameron consistently relates their plight to that of the other victims and puts Jack’s eventual death into the context of the roughly 1500 other passengers who died, and thus amplifi es the sympa- 244 thetic emotions. As Cameron writes, “I wanted the audience to cry for Titanic. Which means to cry for the people on the ship, which really means to cry for any lost soul in their hour of untimely death” (Cameron). Thus in the fi lm’s second half, as the Titanic sinks, Jack and Rose’s plight is foregrounded, but the narration also carefully highlights the anguish, fear, stoic bravery, and panic of other passengers. Interspersed between shots of Jack and Rose, the narration intercuts shots of both the dead and the soon-to-be dead. We see Captain Smith as he

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 244 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 245 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM d records d records , Brock Lovett carries with him a video camera an , Brock Titanic The frame story fulfi lls a central function in the emotional appeal of in the emotional function lls a central frame story fulfi The and Jack and Rose’s brief and tragic love affair is narrated by Rose love tragic brief and Rose’s and Jack and Titanic . While much has been made of attempts of Hollywood to attract has been made of attempts much . While Titanic lm, it is just as important of the fi elements females to the action/adventure in movies, for the sentiment to avoid thought to prepare males, traditionally the expedi- by presenting frame story begins The melodrama. and romance by implying that this is a cynical, and its crew as cool, objective, and and tion of the the deck toward their part. As his submersible descends moral lapse on sunken the frame story I: the rhetoric of sincerity the rhetoric I: the frame story might be Titanic is irony, in Hollywood stance narrational dominant If one to the audience is, it invites That sincerity. called a melodrama of absolute the without and to the plight of its characters, with seriousness respond lm is set during a fi The stance. the ironic exivity that marks refl “knowing” more spe- and the sunken ship, nd to fi c expedition scientifi contemporary that is Heart of the Ocean,” “The diamond, a valuable to discover cally, cifi Brock leader, expedition The down with the ship. gone to have thought pirate, his seems to be something of a modern-day Lovett (Bill Paxton), a salvages expedition The that diamond. nd being to fi primary intention Heart of the Ocean” lies. Upon the explorers believe “The safe in which the nd do fi but diamond, no they discover opening the safe, however, the on that is broadcast woman, a drawing reclining of a nude, drawing Calvert (Gloria Stewart), an old Cut to Rose Dawson news. television this picture. “I am the recognizes sees and who wheel woman at a potter’s the dia- about know all who she tells them. Since woman in this picture,” Lovett invites the expedition, to be either dead or on are thought mond story of the sinking The she relates her story. “Old” Rose to the ship, where of own to the expedi- been fl having framed by the story of her ashback, in fl ship. tion awaits his fate on the bridge, the water breaking the glass and pouring in. pouring glass and the water breaking bridge, the the on his fate awaits certainty growing despite the to play, continue who musicians see the We An fate in the ballroom. his awaits the architect, Andrews, of their deaths. A mother come. soon will what knowing their bed, embraces on old couple frigid water rushes as the two children voice to her quavering reads with oats sus- as she fl below from girl a drowned of see a low angle shot in. We the bright owing beneath fl nightgown her diaphanous in water, pended the sinking, the camera After chandelier. Staircase’s lights of the Grand of the frigid North the surface on of bodies bobbing the hundreds displays more sadness, and pity and scenes are designed to evoke These Atlantic. noticed and of these people is shared the predicament powerfully because formed strong spectators have many for whom protagonists, by the favored sympathies. 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2459780415962612-Ch-11.indd 245 voice-over for the video he is making: “Seeing her coming out of the darkness like a ghost ship, still gets me every time.” As he continues, Lewis Bodine (Lewis Abernathy), his snickering assistant, laughs, “You are so full of shit, boss.” After Lovett switches off his camera, he says, “All right, . . . enough of this bullshit.” Lovett is in it for the money. Upon the group discovering the safe, Brock says “It’s payday, boys.” While Lovett and Bodine are jaded and mercenary, the narration takes a different perspective once the expedition explores the wreck of the Titanic. As the submersibles glide over the surface of the sunken ship, the soundtrack features the barely audible sounds of yelling voices, as though the wreck were haunted by those who perished in its 1912 sinking. As the mini- sub enters the interior of the wreck, its camera lingers on various remind-

carl plantinga carl ers of human loss: a tattered boot, spectacles, the face of a doll. The expedition may be peopled by detached observers whose motivation is the search for treasure, but the fi lm’s narration reminds the spectator of the human meaning of the wreck of the Titanic. Cynicism and crass lack of emotional involvement is represented primarily in the fi gure of Bodine, and then secondly, in Brock Lovett. After Rose Calvert telephones the expedition, Bodine is the one who is deeply suspicious of her motives. Bodine shows Rose a computer simulation of the sinking of the ship, narrating the sinking in fl ippant and insensitive terms, saying that at one point “her ass is sticking up in the air,” and “that’s a big ass—20 to 30,000 tons.” After he fi nishes he looks at his spectators, “Pretty cool, huh?” Rose calls this his “forensic analysis,” but says that her experience of it was “somewhat different.” They ask Rose to tell her story, and she does. “Titanic was called the ‘ship of dreams’,” she says, “and it was—it really was,” adding that to her, at least initially, “it was a slave ship, bringing me back to America in chains.” This frame story prepares the audience to reject the dominant trope of irony for one of sincerity and sentiment—by making irony and cynicism unattractive (Davis and Womack). In fact, the ironic, cynical perspective— most clearly exemplifi ed by overstuffed Bodine—is shown within the world of the fi lm to be morally reprehensible. Thus Titanic embraces a rhetoric of sincerity, a rhetoric designed to prepare viewers for the melodrama of romance and loss and death that is to come. The frame story functions in part to disarm the skeptical spectator who might otherwise respond 246 with a refl exive disdain, and psychologically prepares the viewer for the sympathetic emotions yet to come.

melodrama and romantic tragi-comedy: the love story

A given ﬁ lm may elicit varied and complex emotions, but the dominant emotions it evokes and its emotional tone correspond with genre conventions. Titanic combines romantic and family melodrama with a disaster

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 246 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 247 4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM4/1/2009 10:47:37 AM also exhibits the exaggerated dichotomy between good and evil between good and dichotomy also exhibits the exaggerated Titanic fi ts the category “melodrama” exceedingly well. It evokes both well. It evokes “melodrama” exceedingly ts the category fi Titanic Melodramas are thought to elicit strong sympathetic emotions, espe- sympathetic emotions, to elicit strong Melodramas are thought often characteristic of melodrama. We can see this in the depiction of Jack’s of Jack’s can see this in the depiction of melodrama. We often characteristic rich and good looking although who Cal Hockley, rival, the villainous has philistines), to moral only lm implies are important that the fi (qualities for the A good villain is essential in the remainder. qualities foul but nothing a melodrama. in such emotions unproblematic of simple and elicitation , the other passengers of the Titanic and Jack pity for the plight of Rose and for the virtu- elevation and especially for Jack, for Rose and admiration plus cing his sacrifi eventually life, and Rose’s in saving shows essness Jack selfl ous becomes an possible. Jack her in every way saved Jack own. As Rose says, as Rose’s for his qualities an object of elevation object of pity for his death and savior. cially mixtures of pity, admiration, and elevation (of which more will be (of which elevation and admiration, cially mixtures of pity, for her protagonist pity the by tears. We said below), often accompanied in the midst of trou- behavior admire her for her virtuous but tribulations, that sort of admiration just any 35–8). It isn’t “Film, Emotion” ble (Carroll, including reasons for many persons can admire melodrama elicits. We or even their taste in footwear. looks, good talents, their accomplishments, psychologist what of a particular kind, Melodramas elicit admiration Haidt writes, is the oppo- emotion, This calls “elevation.” Haidt Jonathan acts of moral are human of elevation objects The site of social disgust. in scope than as narrower we might see elevation beauty or virtue; thus makes elevation admixture of pity and This considered. broadly admiration psy- that melodrama functions by some theorists the claims problematic of the (Williams), for the suffering masochism as a form of chologically with the strongly are coupled that elicits the emotions and protagonist One might even it brings to the spectator. of elevation positive emotion as pity such emotions that the strength of negative as I do below, argue, that pleasurable emotions to the power of positive and fear contribute and , like most melodramas, elicits Titanic by its end. lm ultimately evokes the fi also elation. tears but narrative. Its most important generic structuring, however, is its uses of is its uses however, structuring, generic important Its most narrative. in not set melodrama a “sublime” albeit of melodrama, the conventions space of a often in the public more but rooms of private the antechambers term “melo- The stars. of sea and the vast expanses set against great ship by (drama) accompanied suggests a play Its etymology elusive. drama” is of elicitation boost the drama’s and used to guide ), the music (melos music lms, referring to fi term as a genre category we use the Today emotion. to do with family relation- that feature scenarios having or plays novels, etc. Melodrama loved ones, from separation marriages, forced ships, romance, of demarcations with exaggerated associated has also been traditionally antipathies sympathies and of clear evil, leading to the elicitation good and part. the spectator’s on 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2479780415962612-Ch-11.indd 247 Rooted in degrees of allegiance for various characters (Smith, Engaging), the spectator develops sympathies and antipathies that generate the concerns that in part make up emotional response. The spectator’s sympathetic emotions are elicited in relation to his or her concerns or desires for the well-being of the protagonist, and it is the villain who countermands these desires. If the spectator desires that Rose escape the oppression of her family and class, it is Cal Hockley who plans to oppress her. If the spectator desires that Rose and Jack unite in romantic union, it is Cal who opposes this. If the spectator desires that Rose and Jack escape death, it is Cal who wishes Jack, and perhaps also Rose, dead. Yet the maintenance of verisimilitude demands a believable villain, and if the spectator can’t have that, the villain should at least be fascinating, as is Hannibal Lecter (Anthony

carl plantinga carl Hopkins) in The Silence of the Lambs (1991) or Nurse Ratched (Louise Fletcher) in One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975). The depiction of Cal Hockley tends toward stereotype, and risks distancing the viewer and eliciting disdain, an artifact emotion, for the broad strokes with which he is depicted. Titanic is not merely an example of a mainstream Hollywood blockbuster, or of an American version of melodrama melded with a disaster fi lm. We might also describe the fi lm as an instance of a universal narrative structure, what Patrick Colm Hogan calls “romantic tragic-comedy.” If a narrative is the expression of a concern-based construal, as I have argued, then mainstream narratives will tend to be accessible and somewhat familiar to diverse audiences. Hogan claims that human appraisals of and responses to innumerable phenomena are “guided and organized by a limited number of standard narrative structures” (5). Two prominent structures of narrative worldwide are what he calls the “romantic tragi-comedy” and the “heroic tragi-comedy,” deriving, respectively, from prototypes for personal and social happiness. Romantic tragi-comedies take as their subject romantic union, while heroic tragi-comedies embody narratives of social/political power, including material prosperity. The most common plot structure cross-culturally, Hogan claims, is almost certainly romantic tragi-comedy. One is struck by the nearly perfect correspondence between the story of Titanic and the archetypal romantic tragic-comedy. Romantic tragi-comedies revolve around the union, separation, and eventual reunion of lovers, and typically involve a rival as well. Usually the lovers cannot be united due to some confl ict between their love and the social structure, often repre- 248 sented by parental disapproval. Most importantly for my purposes, the separation of the lovers often involves death or the imagery of death. In the end, however, the lovers are reunited, although perhaps only in the afterlife. As Hogan writes, sometimes the lovers die and are reunited only in death; sometimes there is a rumor of death or an apparent death; sometimes there is a death and resurrection; sometimes

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 248 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 249 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM right on this). This arche- This this). is right on there is a reunion in a divine world that suggests death; suggests that world a divine in is a reunion there is exten- there sometimes is a near death; there sometimes to death. (102) reference metaphorical and sive imagistic ’s status as fi ction, most viewers’ responses could hardly be char- hardly could most viewers’ responses ction, status as fi ’s Titanic Why would millions of spectators subject themselves to sadness and pity? of spectators subject themselves to sadness and millions would Why I suspect that for many spectators, the emotions are mixed, consisting are mixed, consisting spectators, the emotions I suspect that for many Hogan claims that the romantic tragi-comedy is an “absolute universal,” universal,” “absolute is an tragi-comedy the romantic that Hogan claims Assuming, for a moment, that a fi lm’s popularity depends in part on its in part on popularity depends lm’s that a fi Assuming, for a moment, acterized as grief. The experience of sadness, to whatever degree it is milder it is degree of sadness, to whatever experience The acterized as grief. still resemble the “feeling effects, may physiological in its cognitive and respects. of grief in central tone” of something like sadness mixed with the pity and elevation characteristic characteristic elevation pity and of something like sadness mixed with the than grief. Like grief, sadness of melodrama. Sadness is milder in its effects or something that one of someone the loss or unavailability results from sadness over a we might experience dear (Roberts 234–40). But while holds seem right not it would bicycle, the theft of a favorite or vacation cancelled loss typically reserve grief for the to these losses with grief. We to respond Given dear. particularly we hold (or perhaps an animal) who of a person viewing lm nature of fi of the conventional understanding the spectator’s and mixed and attenuated emotions mixed and attenuated fact about a most intriguing of spectator emotion, the standpoint From Jack that it is a narrative in which to its popularity is in relation Titanic of exuber- representative the and protagonist a most sympathetic Dawson, with 1500 other itself, dies along Life Force perhaps the and vitality, ance, Rose releases his dead hand when freezes to death, and passengers. Jack silently as it descends we see his body in a high angle shot her grip, from the deep, his arm stretched disappearing into ocean, gradually the blue into people suffer the when Typically he bids farewell. as though above him out dear to them, it becomes a life-altering event irrevocable loss of someone grief, as will that Rose will experience might expect that elicits grief. We strains the melancholy lm. Her grim face and the fi of the survivors in many suggest so. But what “My Heart Will Go On,” theme song, lm’s of the fi spectator also experi- Does the sympathetic does the spectator experience? victims? that of the other Titanic death and to Jack’s grief in relation ence that is, a narrative structure that occurs in all cultures. But that is not the But that is not occurs in all cultures. structure that that is, a narrative suspect that Hogan I here (although main issue mines narratives and in diverse frequency occurs with great typal structure the following Thus concerns. deeply-felt human and a vein of common and to the melodrama only not application will have brief analysis of Titanic of to the archetype more broadly Hollywood cinema, but to classical lms of diverse genres. fi in many that is common tragi-comedy romantic 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2499780415962612-Ch-11.indd 249 ability to offer a pleasurable affective experience, how can a fi lm like Titanic take a scenario of heartbreaking loss, separation, and death, and turn it into something that attracts one of the largest movie audiences of all time? I would give a two-part answer to this question. First, the narration of Titanic encourages a construal that both takes the unpleasant edge off of the deaths and also mixes such responses with conventionally pleasurable responses. The second part of my answer, to be described in the next section, is that Titanic contextualizes the deaths into a broader narrative that offers affective rewards for the viewer. First, how does the narration soften the impact of Jack’s death and those of the other 1500? The familiar concept of foreshadowing is important here. Foreshadowing is often discussed but its purposes and effects are often left

carl plantinga carl unexplored. It has many functions but among the most important is its use in softening the emotional impact of a negative event. The story of Jack and the ship’s sinking is Rose’s story; it is she who literally tells the story to the crew of the expedition ship. Since we learn early on that she has sur- vived, but that Jack is no longer alive and there is no record of his existence, the spectator will strongly suspect that Jack will not survive the sinking of the Titanic as Rose’s story unfolds. Foreshadowing is sometimes used to create suspense, but more often it is used to allow the spectator time to process the possibility of a negative outcome, to soften the blow when it occurs. (Note how rare it is that the death of a major character will occur without advance warning, as it does in Hitchcock’s Psycho, in which Marion Crane is surprisingly murdered just as she decides to return the money she has stolen.) Foreshadowing colors the spectator’s construal of the event, eliminating surprise in favor of a sense of fate or inevitability that facilitates coping. If the spectator expects that Jack will die, his eventual death will elicit sadness but not shock. The spectator’s construal of narrative events is often infl uenced by extra-fi lmic scenarios prevalent in culture, some of which have an affective force that strikes the spectator through association. Filmmakers draw from well-known scenarios to tap into their pre-existing emotional power. On the explicit level, the screenwriters disavow institutional Christianity by associating it with the duplicity and stuffy arrogance of Rose’s family and their ilk. At one point Jack invades and then treats lightly a religious service at which the participants appeal to God for, among other things, safety 250 for those at sea. The implication is that these prayers will be ineffective, and that at any rate, Jack has little use for them. Yet in spite of the fi lm’s explicit disavowal of religion, the fi gure of Jack is clearly used as a sacrifi cial fi gure, and his story borrows from scenarios of heroic self-sacrifi ce and especially the Christ story. It may be a cliché to refer to Jack as a kind of Christ fi gure, but upon a few moments’ refl ection, such an analogy between the one who saves Rose “in every possible way” and Jesus Christ is diffi cult to deny.

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 250 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 251 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM , arrives in New York, we York, Carpathian, arrives in New Just as we construe the deaths of soldiers in terms of the deaths of soldiers as we construe Just

Her life saved, Rose has been able to pursue her longstanding interest in interest Rose has been able to pursue her longstanding Her life saved, Many spectators will construe Jack’s death, then, in light of heroic sto- death, then, in light of heroic Jack’s spectators will construe Many Jack’s self-abnegating behavior toward Rose becomes apparent from the from apparent becomes Rose toward behavior self-abnegating Jack’s see young Rose look up as she fl towering oats beneath the statue of liberty, up as she fl Rose look see young above her. the arts; the fi rst shot of old Rose shows her working a potter’s wheel. Old wheel. a potter’s her working Rose shows of old rst shot the arts; the fi ship; she has had at the expedition daughter accompanies her to Rose’s the camera of transcendence, vision before Rose’s Just child. least one an understanding providing her nightstand, on by the photographs tracks she is photographs In those indeed. life has been fortunate that Rose’s life worth living, accord- of activities that make pursuing the kinds shown ying air- fl ideology: riding horses, bourgeois resolutely lm’s ing to the fi died globe. Jack to exotic parts of the traveling and planes, making pottery, the political death also has meaning within so that Rose might live. Jack’s to the feminist American politics, hearkening ideology of contemporary died and oppression rescued Rose from Jack civil rights movements. and uncon- ultimate value, life, takes on freedom. Her life, a woman’s for Rose’s self- threaten her freedom and that would strained by social oppression As the rescue ship, the determination. serving one’s country, thus granting their deaths a meaning that renders their deaths a meaning that renders granting thus country, serving one’s of Jack’s construal manipulates the spectator’s them less biting, Titanic meaningless; it does death is not Rose. Jack’s saves which death as one It is a good death, a or stupidity. foolishness, false bravado, result from not meaning. cial death with sacrifi ries of self-sacrifi ce such as Christian narrative (which was clearly shown to shown was clearly (which as Christian narrative ce such ries of self-sacrifi The with Mel Gibson’s audiences power for contemporary emotional have of the Christ). Passion very beginning, as he selfl essly takes as his primary interest her need for a her need interest primary takes as his essly selfl as he beginning, very committing from Rose He prevents oppression. escape from and lled life fulfi engineers sinks, Jack As the ship to live again. how her shows suicide and stern in a posi- the ship’s putting them both on more, survival once Rose’s oating a fl nding fi draft, then downward the ship’s from to emerge tion to (It is important the freezing water. Rose can escape which on headboard he is hand- life when Jack’s in saving instrumental that Rose is also note freezes As Jack goes both ways.) the saving a lower deck; cuffed to a pipe on that allowed him to embark that winning the ticket to death, he tells Rose that ever happened to me” because it was “the best thing the Titanic on his love for Rose is so deep be dying, but may Jack me to you.” “brought then turns interest of his own death. Jack’s that it trumps the importance that she’ll survive and promise he insists that she and future life, to Rose’s die an old that she’ll make lots of babies and predicts and “never let go,” later the spectator is to survive, which She promises woman warm in bed. a frozen from to retrieve a whistle her the strength led to believe provides fact, a perfect love. love is, in rescue. Jack’s effect her own body and 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2519780415962612-Ch-11.indd 251 frame story II: transcendence and elation So far I have demonstrated that Titanic is able to take the edge off the negative emotions it elicits through foreshadowing and by putting Jack’s death into the context of heroic self-sacrifi ce. In its last episodes, Titanic does much more than that. It offers a quasi-religious ritual of commemoration and celebration that not only leads to relief from strong negative emotions, but con- verts these into pleasurable emotions that depend for their strength on prior arousal. What is converted are not the emotions per se but the physiological residue of the painful emotions, which through emotional “spillover” increases the strength of the positive emotions at the fi lm’s end. How does this process work? First, the narrative of Titanic, for the sympa-

carl plantinga carl thetic spectator at least, takes this mixture of pleasure and pain of which I have spoken, and in gradual fashion, increases the pleasure and decreases the pain through a ritual of commemoration that marks the end of the fi lm. The commemoration occurs in a kind of impromptu funeral ritual, as old Rose takes the invaluable blue diamond, “The Heart of the Ocean,” and drops it into the ocean, where it descends into the deep much like Jack’s body did earlier in the fi lm. (The diamond has come to signify, in the fi lm, Jack’s life and also the love of Rose and Jack.) A funeral service functions to celebrate the lives of the dead, offer solace to the living, and facilitate the grieving process, and this scene, similarly, works to memorialize both Jack and the “Great Love” of Rose and Jack. The usual Hollywood narrative is “hyper-coherent,” that is, it compresses stories by leaving out the extraneous bits and including only those that are most salient and dramatic. In a similar fashion, the conventions of Hollywood narrative call for the experience of emotions in rapid succession, which audiences fi nd to be pleasurable and which may arguably be therapeutic. This ritualistic scene serves some of the functions that actual memorial rituals serve, but condensed and perfected by the careful delib- eration of the fi lmmaker. It does so by demonstrating the importance and effectiveness of Jack’s sacrifi ce, thus assuring the spectator that it had a purpose; Rose has led a happy and fulfi lled life. It also lays Jack to rest, so to speak, and by having old Rose drop the stone into the deep, releases the spectator from further need to pity, as though the memorial act absolves one of serious further concern and symbolically restores a sense of order. The dropping of Jack’s memorial stone into the ocean becomes a kind of 252 sacrifi ce-in-kind, its value mirroring the value of Jack’s life, just as the high angle shot of the stone descending into the ocean mirrors the earlier shot of Jack’s body descending into the deep. But the scene also elicits the emotions of elevation and admiration, for Rose’s action is not only a ritual commemoration of Jack’s life, but is also morally virtuous in that she recognizes that The Heart of the Ocean is valuable not for its monetary worth, but primarily because it represents the life

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 252 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 253 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM In what sense are the In what passengers smile and passengers smile and Titanic emotions have a marked physiological component, component, physiological a marked have emotions once more, the corroded surfaces turning polished and gleam- and surfaces turning polished more, the corroded once Titanic The sadness, fear, and pity characteristic of the earlier scenes are trans- of the earlier pity characteristic and sadness, fear, The The scene is polyvalent. Whether the spectator sees this scene as a wish, the spectator sees this scene Whether scene is polyvalent. The Near the end of the narrative comes what might be called a scene of of the narrative comes what Near the end depends on its lack of clear reality status. That is, that the scene is That reality status. clear of its lack on depends Titanic such that the physiological effects of preceding emotions can transfer to can transfer to effects of preceding emotions that the physiological such into positive emotions, rather than merely positive emotions, converted into emotions negative The them? replacing formed, for many audiences, into positive emotions—elevation, admiration, admiration, positive emotions—elevation, into audiences, formed, for many all (and of Jack commemoration a ritual exhilaration—through and hope, of transcendence. rmation an affi for) and he stands a dream, or a vision of heaven, however, it not only celebrates and com- and celebrates only it not however, of heaven, a dream, or a vision for or perhaps a belief expresses a hope but memorates their “Great Love,” loss, and that love can survive death, of love, a hope in the transcendence with or dream of a connection or wish lm offers the hope fi The separation. lms that it is similar to several other fi died. In this have who loved ones (1989), Ghost (1990), Always including in transcendence, hope offer a vague success of this scene The Sixth Sense (1999). The argue, could perhaps, one and in that it will be effective makes it more likely ways in so many interpretable been. as in fact it seems to have for a diversity of audiences, applaud. The camera has been tracking elegantly throughout, and it now it now and throughout, elegantly camera has been tracking The applaud. of light, above them to the source the embracing couple moves beyond white-bliss. undifferentiated it dissolves to a bright and where ing and the dark of the ocean becoming light. The camera tracks into the into camera tracks The of the ocean becoming light. the dark ing and lit, with brilliantly gleaming, new, Staircase, there is the Grand ship, and welcoming Rose. alive and died now to have of the people we know many down- He turns to look the landing. above on standing we see Jack, Finally, see in the we now Rose (who to welcome young his hand extending ward, as the other they kiss passionately frame), and transcendence, which adds hope and elation to the mixture of relief, admi- elation and adds hope which transcendence, scene elicits. After Rose the commemoration that elevation and ration, cabin on the sea, the scene dissolves to old Rose’s into the diamond drops dissolves to a track- shot The Rose lies in bed. old ship, where the research deep beneath the to the sunken Titanic with a rapid approach ing shot the ship. As is approaching or mind soul Rose’s though surface, as ocean’s ship, the ship becomes the the sunken deeper toward the camera tracks new of the sacrifi cial hero, and through him, the lives of those who perished perished who of those the lives him, through and cial hero, sacrifi of the in the deep it belongs stone, memorial of As a kind sank. the Titanic when for real- Rose is admired before, and had vanished years Jack ocean, where (The value. great monetary despite the stone’s it, acting on izing this and carefully showing of the sublime here, suggest elements lmmakers also fi rela- nitude of space in the infi Rose and of stars above nite number the infi memorial Jack’s Thus ocean. expanse of of the dark to the vast depths tion cance.) is given a cosmic signifi 9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 2539780415962612-Ch-11.indd 253 the experience of later emotions, because physiological effects recede slowly. Thus the “Excitation Transfer Theory” would postulate that the spectator’s response to a later scene can be affected by the residual physiological effects of an earlier scene (Zillman, “Excitation Transfer” and “Transfer of Excitation”). Thus if strong negative emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, this arousal may contribute to the strength of later positive emotions and lead to the experience of elation. Another reason for claiming the conversion or transformation rather than the mere replacement of emotions is that the concern based construals that constitute the positive emotions at the fi lm’s end incorporate what has come before. That is, the construals that lead to admiration, relief, and exhilaration take into account the terrifying and piteous events that

carl plantinga carl have come before. In both physiological and cognitive terms, then, prior emotions are not merely replaced but are incorporated into later cognitive and emotional responses. There is a sense in which the positive construals at the fi lm’s end take into account the alarming negative construals that precede them. The positive emotions gain strength from the negative emotions that were endured earlier, and the fact that they have been incorporated and transformed brings not only elation but relief. In sum, for many spectators the overall affective experience is pleasurable despite the painful negative emotions that are elicited near the fi lm’s climactic point. This is true because, as I have shown, (1) at the point of the fi lm’s most traumatic moments, painful affect is both attenuated in its effect and is mixed with pleasurable affect, and (2) through the scenes of commemoration and transcendence, negative emotions are gradually converted into positive emotions, such that by the fi lm’s end, the overall experience for many spectators is intensely pleasurable.

the power of titanic

The question of how this relates to the ideological effect of Titanic and its function as a therapeutic narrative for the masses is an interesting one. Emotions are not merely feelings, but also ways of construing the world. Emotions are fi rmly bound up with ideas, ways of seeing, and ways of valu- ing. This is in part why emotions have a powerful rhetorical force in per- suasion (Plantinga, “Disgusted”). This topic will have to be dealt with elsewhere, however. In this chapter the subject has been the emotional 254 power of Titanic as embodied in its textual strategies for eliciting emotion. As I mentioned above, the tremendous popularity of Titanic no doubt arises from a complex of factors, both textual and contextual. Some of these have not been accounted for in this chapter. Yet no account of the fi lm’s box offi ce success can be suffi cient without identifying the central affects and emotions it elicits and other pleasures Titanic offers in its viewing, and this I attempted to do here. The textual power of a movie for audiences can be

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 254 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM the viewing of titanic: a cognitive approach 255 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM . Cambridge, was not in fact was not . Madison: University of Wisconsin Wisconsin University of . Madison: Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema and Rhetoric in the Interpretation Making Meaning: Inference , though it elicits fear, sadness, and pity, gradually transforms gradually pity, sadness, and it elicits fear, , though Titanic Intense engagement refers to the ability of a movie to elicit rapt atten- refers to the ability engagement Intense MA.: Harvard University Press, 1989. MA.: Harvard 1992. Routledge, 1997. 1996. Press, 1985. . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996. Illinois Southern ory. Carbondale: 14–28. 1999. Studlar, and . Eds Sandler Anatomy of a Blockbuster Titanic: . 29 Mar. 2007. 30 Mar. 2007 . 2007

carl plantinga carl Female Audience.” Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster. Eds Sandler and Studlar, 1999. 108–31. Plantinga, Carl. “Disgusted at the Movies.” Film Studies: An International Review. 8 (Summer 2006): 81–92. ——. Moved and Affected: American Film and the Spectator’s Experience. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009. Prince, Stephen. “Psychoanalytic Film Theory and the Case of the Missing Spectator.” Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies. Eds David Bordwell and Noël Carroll. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996. 71–87. Roberts, Robert C. Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Sandler, Kevin S., and Gaylyn Studlar (eds). Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1999. Smith, Murray. Engaging Characters: Fiction, Emotion, and the Cinema. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. ——. “Film Spectatorship and the Institution of Fiction.” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 53.2 (Spring 1995): 113–27. Stam, Robert. Film Theory: An Introduction. London: Blackwell, 2000. Stam, Robert, Robert Burgoyne, and Sandy Flitterman-Lewis. New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics: Structuralism, Post-Structuralism and Beyond. New York: Routledge, 1992. Williams, Linda. “Film Bodies: Gender, Genre, and Excess.” Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. 5th edition. Eds Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen. New York: Oxford University Press. 701–715. Zillman, Dolf. “Excitation Transfer in Communication-Mediated Aggressive Behavior.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 7 (1971): 419–434. ——. “Transfer of Excitation in Emotional Behavior.” Social Psychology: A Sourcebook. Eds J.T. Capacioppo and R.E. Petty. New York: Guildford Press, 1983. 215–240. 256

9780415962612-Ch-11.indd 256 4/1/2009 10:47:38 AM mementos of contemporary american cinema

twelve identifying and responding to the

unreliable narrator in the movie

theater

volker ferenz

In episode 41 of the second season of the original Star Trek television series, fi rst aired in 1967, Captain Kirk shows us once again just how clever he is. The Enterprise has been hijacked by androids. Their strength is overwhelming, yet they have one fatal fl aw: they can only think in a strictly logical manner. To them, a statement must speak for itself and must be unequiv- ocally either true or false. Kirk then tells the androids that Commander Spock always lies. Thus, every time Spock opens his mouth the androids are profoundly confused. No matter what Spock says and how sensible this may sound to them, they tend not to believe a word he says. And so the crew of The Enterprise learns to defeat the androids by behaving irration- ally and illogically, which results in the leader of the androids having an electronic nervous breakdown. What Commander Spock represents to the androids—and what the lying Cretan constitutes for philosophers—the unreliable narrator is for those interested in narrative theory. Although there has been disagreement in fi lm narrative theory about what exactly unreliable narration in

9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 257 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 258

volker ferenz 258 forth infi lm viewers. to what emotional and cognitiveresponses unreliablenarrativesmay call theory. Inasecond step,however, Iwillalsobelooking atthequestion as narration. Myinitialfocuswill therefore beone ofcognitivenarrative cumstances viewersusually resorttotheinterpretive strategy ofunreliable of thefantasy film willleadtomoresatisfactoryreadings. such diffi culties,and concepts liketheartfi lm,theuncanny orthegenre have anadequate setofrecuperation strategies athand inorder toresolve referential problems instorytelling situations otherthanthat,wealready ble reporting,interpreting orevaluating. When facingtextual and ficient authority overtheirnarrativeand thus theblamefor theirunrelia- character-narrator whom wetreatlikeone ofusand who canbegivensuf- will viewersattribute textual incongruities and referential diffi culties toa the films but also,fi rst and foremost,theircreators.Onlyinsuch instances rators aresoinscribedin“their”fi lms astoappearnot only acreation of 1999) and Memento(Christopher Nolan,2000).Inthesecases,character-nar- filike lms then turnout tobeunreliableguidesthefictional world, asisthecasein narrators (thatis,character-narrators who “takeover”theirfi lms) who classical Hollywoodcinematradition thatfeatureso-calledpseudo-diegetic cept ofunreliablenarration ought tobereservedfor“realist”films inthe the cinemarefersto,thereisalsomoreand moreevidence thatthecon- regarding this matter: serves only one dominant function. Consider thefollowingthreeremarks ticular response or, asmore“rhetoric-oriented” writerswould putit, of thisquestion, claiming thatunreliablenarration elicits merelyone par- filmic narration? Sofar, theoristshave tended todeliverexclusive accounts upon when talkingabout thecognitive-emotional responses tounreliable retically suspect,istheresomekind of“package deal”thatcanbeagreed that unreliablenarrativesmay besaidtoprone toelicit?Although theo- Inthisessay, Iwillbeexplainingwhy only under thisspecific set ofcir- which wetend inertly torelyinmakingsenseofnewones. narrative which we have derivedfrom otherworks, and on carded thelazyassumptions and preconceptions about that wecannot gainaccesstothework until wehave dis- The whole point ofthestrategy ofunreliablenarration is ogy. .(Wall 21) foreground certainelements ofthenarrator’s psychol- the purpose,itseemstome,ofunreliablenarration, isto (Chatman, StoryandDiscourse 234) tents arelike,not thepersonality ofthenarrator. course, that is, theviewofwhat happens orwhat theexis- What preciselyisthedomainofunreliability? Itisthedis- The UsualSuspects(BryanSinger,Fight Club(David 1995), Fincher, 1 Arethereany emotional and cognitiveresponses 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 259 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM to fi lm fi responses responses 2 The assumption that we can always believe what “I” says is “I” says what believe always that we can assumption The only because the only not to renounce, hard especially is that the narrative to it seems to be alternative obvious - identifi instinctive also because our but simply nonsense, the reli- us to doubt makes it necessary for with “I” cation before we judgements and perceptions own ability of our undermines narration Unreliable the narrator’s. can doubt authority, with the narrator’s sance along suffi the reader’s is so extreme that it induces the sense of disorientation and of the few movies surprised that Detour is one is hardly one 178) dared to make use of it. (Britton have which (Edgar Ulmer, 1945), focuses on the viewers questioning their the viewers questioning 1945), focuses on Detour (Edgar Ulmer, What I have in mind, thus, is not to provide an exclusive package deal package an exclusive to provide is not thus, in mind, I have What While Seymour Chatman foregrounds the function of highlighting the of highlighting the function Chatman foregrounds Seymour While in the con- psychology at the expense of the character-narrator’s discourse does the exact Lolita (1955), Kathleen Wall novel Nabokov’s Vladimir text of novel part to her analysis of Kazuo Ishiguro’s opposite in an introductory of the in his discussion Britton, Andrew Remains of the Day (1989) and The noir to the cinema. they bring along frames of reference contextual largely I believe rst sight, these results seem rather contradictory, at fi Although, inspection closer upon necessarily so. On the contrary, that they are not we take into other when each seem to be supplementing these statements cially discussing the primary cognitive-emo- superfi that, while account seem Britton and Chatman, Wall to unreliable narration, response tional the same issue. Chatman con- and aspects of one to be answering different mastery , highlighting Nabokov’s Lolita as a production the novel on centrates construction to the character particular attention pays of the craft. Wall is redirected to attention by stating that the reader’s text within Ishiguro’s the impression focuses on Britton And mindset. the character-narrator’s of a par- reception of our in the process can leave lmic narration unreliable fi of the cognitive-emotional account an exclusive lm. In short, ticular fi particular response one isolating only unreliable narration to responses Instead highly complex question. appears to be a rather limited answer to a to unreliable narra- response the cognitive-emotional of trying to ascertain what main the often-interconnected had better ask what is, we tion can be. unreliable narration simply because the “same form or formal pattern can always serve as simply because the “same form or formal pattern can always Deals” 223), yet vice versa” (Yacobi,“Package effects, and means to different for to account dynamic enough exible and is fl deal of sorts which a package are easily elicited by which responses cognitive-emotional the various one often complement which responses These lmic narratives. unreliable fi and rstly, other are as follows: fi rather than preside over each another ctional fi on Engaging Characters seminal work Smith’s referring to Murray 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2599780415962612-Ch-12.indd 259 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 260

volker ferenz 260 vision oftheconcept oftheunreliablenarrator. Whether writingwithina explication, theparticipants inthedebatehave always sharedacommon Although therehas been disagreement overwhich position bestmeetsits tling quality. potentially possessesaveryactivating,ormaybe, one mightargue, unset- its severalcomplexcognitive-emotional responses atthesametime,it stands today, thetermisaspopularand impreciseasever. or merging it withthenotion oftheuncanny (Liptay; Thompson). As it “second surrealism”oftheEuropean artfilm ofthe1960s(Koebner;Meder) by ultimatelyequating narratorialunreliabilitywiththeaestheticsof tological category oftheunreliablenarratorinaratherjournalistic fashion Buckland; Currie;Wilson 39–44).Againothershave interpreted thenarra- of narration thatleadstheviewertodraw incorrect inferences (Bordwell 83; narrator. Inthisrespect,unreliablenarration hasbeenapproached asakind examining instances ofunreliablenarration infilms without apersonalized writers have sought towidenthescopeofunreliablefi lmic narration by Story andDiscourse 235–37;Chatman,Comingto Terms 136;Burgoyne 8).Other image-track which provides the“correct”readingofsuch scenes(Chatman, tations ofparticularscenesare instantaneously undermined bythe tional world, and unreliablevoice-overnarratorswhose subjectiveinterpre- hear and thenturnout tobeunreliablewithregard tothefactsoffic- able character-narrators who appeartobethesource ofwhat weseeand some scholars allowedfortwoclasses ofunreliablenarratorsinfilm: unreli- eral keytextsinnarrativetheorydisplayed byanumber ofwriters.Initially, of amixedbag, which islargely duetoanunfortunateunawareness ofsev- as description and interpretation. a rich themeand situates itattheinterface ofaestheticsand ethicsaswell cable connection oftheseresponses thatmakesunreliablenarration such alone demands theviewertobehighlyalertand active,yetitistheinextri- tated bythestrategy ofunreliablenarration. Any one oftheseresponses their respectivecharacter-narrators, which is,Iwould liketoargue, facili- cism becausetheyplayfully stage theepistemiclimitations experienced by invite ustothinkabout themoderndiscourse ofepistemologicalscepti- about thetimeand age theyaresetin;and thirdly, fi lms such as unreliable fi lmic narrativesfrequently “exhibit”highlysatiricalelements them inanoften-exhaustiveand sometimes-exhaustingway; secondly, ing characters ofaspecialkind astheyrequire theviewertoengage with characters asour entry points into fiction, unreliablenarratorsareengag- ingly beingtreatedwithalittledisrespect. In fi lm narrativetheory, theconcept oftheunreliablenarratorisincreas- identifying unreliable narration inthecinema In literarynarrativetheory, no such profound confusion exists. 3 Becauseunreliablenarration often elic- 4 Infact,ithasbecomesomething 5

Memento 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 261 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM

ﬁ lm noir ﬁ of departure point point In unreliable narra- In unreliable 6 ; Olson; Phelan; Rimmon- Phelan; ; Olson; Coming to Terms to Coming the topic from a more cognitive angle emphasizing cognitive angle emphasizing a more the topic from ethical tradition and adhering to the notion of the of the to the notion adhering and tradition ethical

7 must be precise in our use of the term “unreliable narration.” use of the term “unreliable narration.” be precise in our must it refers to the actual when only It is a meaningful concept by of story “facts,” or distortion overt misrepresentation and 21) (225, note guile, naiveté, or whatever. a narrator’s Let us turn directly to a type of narrator which is quite rare in the cinema, is quite Let us turn directly to a type of narrator which It is this signifi cant discrepancy between the overall agreement in literary between the overall agreement discrepancy cant It is this signifi the “pseudo-diegetic narrator.” First captured by Gerard Genette (236–7), Genette First captured by Gerard narrator.” the “pseudo-diegetic second-degree ned as follows: “A narrative has been defi the pseudo-diegetic taken in and up to the level of the primary narrative narrative . . . brought taken up the cue has Alan Black 78). David by its narrator” (Prince, charge lm narrative narrator to fi of the pseudo-diegetic applied this category and in other words, story-within-a-story, puts it: “The (22) As Black theory. is excised; everything marks of quotation One generation becomes the story. Indemnity (Billy Double then refers to Black level.” is shifted by one beyond in examples of pseudo-diegesis the more prominent of 1944) as one Wilder, associated with the term lms commonly the fi indeed lm, and fi Is it sensible, as Chatman does, to reserve the concept of unreliable narra- the concept Is it sensible, as Chatman does, to reserve is what narrators? In other words, personalized for strongly merely tion lmic narration? the scope of unreliable fi implied author (Booth; Chatman, Chatman, (Booth; author implied more rhetorical and and rhetorical more approaching Kenan) or “Unreliable”; ning”; Jahn; Nünning, “Defi (Fludernik, of the reader the role as a char- unreliable narrator the envisage usually scholars most Zerweck), it the on commentary story and/or of the rendering “whose acter-narrator 100). suspect” (Rimmon-Kenan to reasons reader has character-narrator’s between the readers sense a discrepancy thus, tion, been. “truly” are or have as they the events and of the story events version is who the character-narrator ascribed to is consequently discrepancy This a is therefore as unreliable. Unreliable narration then described or judged the recipi- signals that allow Due to certain textual case of dramatic irony. of the knowledge the lines, s/he gains some additional to read between ent to call the character-narrator’s begins reliability and character-narrator’s unreliability is the character-narrator’s Whether question. into statements becomes or ideological nature, s/he eventually epistemological of a factual, of irony.” the “butt narrators. pseudo-diegetic most famous seem to feature some of cinema’s narrative theory and the vagueness dominating fi lm narrative theory on lm narrative theory on fi dominating vagueness the narrative theory and the provides the issue of the unreliable narrator which for the present chapter. Although overlooked for more than a decade, overlooked Although chapter. for the present use of the ationary an infl has already warned against Chatman Seymour , Chatman argues Terms in his seminal Coming to Buried in a footnote concept. that we 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2619780415962612-Ch-12.indd 261 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 262

volker ferenz 262 framing action only attheveryend. AsMiekeBalstates: condition. They thentakeovertheirnarratives,and thefilm returnstothe opens Club, goastepfurtherinreducingthemetadiegetic way station. taking pseudo-diegesis forprimaryaction. Second, otherfilms, such asFight We frequently returntotheprimarylevel,and thereisno chance ofmis- about hisinvolvement inthedrugdealthatledtofilm’s initialclimax. which Verbal Kynt, apparently alow-profi le criminal,talkstoanoffi cer acter herorhisstory, asisthecaseinafi lm such asThe UsualSuspectsin the mostcommon way todothisishave acharacter tellanother char- tor who takesoverthefunction oftheprincipal storyteller. these fiIn lms, the tribution company (20 convincingly establishapseudo-diegetic narrative.Afterthelogoofdis- how inno more thanaminute and infewerthanadozenshots afi lmcan film shallsuffi ce atthispoint. The openingshots ofthefilm between themcanthenbeattributed totheprotagonist. film isthatfi nally those levelscanbeeasilyseparatedout, and theconfusion into one image- and soundtrack. The crucialdifference totheEuropean art used quite frequently intheEuropean artfi lm.Severaldiegetic levelsfl ow (imagined) pastand (factual) present merge into one. This isatechnique the protagonist literallywalks insidehismemoriesabout hischildhood, and dering ofthestorytopersonal modeofitsmaincharacter. Very often, tion ofexactlywhen thefilm’s narration switches from theimpersonal ren- non-North Americantitle—ismoreelusive since thereisno clear demarca- Third, afi lm such as more thanaminute ofdiscourse time passes,and thestorytimecovers earlier selfinasupportgroup formenwithtesticular cancer. Therefore, little behind and flashes back toseveralmonths earlier when thenarratorfinds his straight after. Afteronly one minute, thefi lm leaves theframingaction ter-narrator setsthepaceinvoice-over, and theimage-track follows surrounding buildings, thecamerafollows suit.From thenon, thecharac- tures severalvansfullofexplosivesintheunderground parking lotsofthe seconds. The image-track thenseemstofollowhisthinking. When hepic- face ofthecharacter thatbegins speakinginthevoice-overafteronly afew (Regency) and thetitlesequence, thefilm opens withaclose-up shot ofthe Note how differently theeffectofpseudo-diegesis canbeachieved. First, A brieflook athow theset-upofapseudo-diegetic narrativecanlook ina in mediasres withtheirrespectivemaincharacters inahighlytroubled because .thentheembeddednarrativefollows.(54) a situation inwhich thenecessarychange cannot bemade, story. The primaryfabula may, forinstance, bepresented as for aperceptible, character-bound narratortonarratea Often theprimaryfabula ishardly morethantheoccasion primary narrativelevelgivesway totheembeddednarra- Spider th Century Fox),thelogoofproduction company (David Cronenberg, 2002)—toborrow from a Fight Clubshow Fight Club 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 263 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM , Branigan , Branigan Locket The noir lm fi While time in one sense is marked as discontinuous, it is also it is also as discontinuous, sense is marked time in one While discontin- sense; namely, in another continuous as marked as to charac- continuous space . . . but as to narrative uous memory will of character the time cally, . . More specifi ter. justify the telling of the story. now David Alan Black has summed up the tension created by character- has summed up the tension Alan Black David The ways in which pseudo-diegesis can be achieved are numerous, and in and are numerous, can be achieved pseudo-diegesis in which ways The Included the logos of distribution company and production company company production and company logos of distribution the Included already little less than a year. Writing on the 1946 the 1946 on Writing than a year. little less already narrators taking over a narration or a large part thereof: or a large narrators taking over a narration these cases the character-narrator in question is so inscribed in the fi lm as to in the fi is so inscribed in question these cases the character-narrator also mise en scène, fram- but sounds and images only seem the generator of not lms create the sense of character- some fi ing, editing, etc. In other words, narrator as accepts the pseudo-diegetic that the viewer strongly so narration often- An foremost, a creator. rst and fi but, a creation only if s/he were not of lack lm’s lm” has been fi fi rst-person to the idea of the “fi voiced objection narratologically nature and, Due to its technical pronoun. the personal an have lm does not fi conventions, codes and speaking, rather impersonal the case. is certainly This narrator. to the literary homodiegetic equivalent lms, some of which the fact that several fi ignore not should one However, appear narrators who above, feature pseudo-diegetic been mentioned have In these cases, we hear. the sounds we see and of the images to be in charge lm as even if the fi to a character, attributed can be clearly sounds and images powers of the to the unlimited way or later gives sooner a structural whole cinematic narrator. and the title sequence, we have taken several steps down in the hierarchy of hierarchy taken several steps down in the we have the title sequence, and of the the level time, from space of discourse short narrative levels in a rather of to the workings the creative team (historical author) and backers nancial fi some that presents (cinematic narrator) narrative instance an extradiegetic then takes over the narration which of one (character), characters ctional fi plight (external his current tells us about narrator) and (pseudo-diegetic focal- (internal earlier he experienced us to share what invites focalization), to us hallucinations even reveals some of his dreams and surface) and ization doesn’t depth). After that, the narrative as a whole focalization (internal set in place here is being forcefully what Thus, the last three domains. leave resembles that of homodi- which storytelling situation is a pseudo-diegetic between nar- distinction characteristic in literature with its narration egetic Subjective (the image-track). experiencing-I rating-I (the voice-over) and and it a character-narration, lm then render fi the entire devices throughout referential peculiarities and for ascribing textual good grounds we have lm. of the fi in charge apparently to the character-narrator abnormalities : in Fight Club at work principle narrative up the 32) sums View, of (Point 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2639780415962612-Ch-12.indd 263 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 264

volker ferenz 264 ing, westillobserveanearcloseness tothenovel’s basicnarrativesituation: Expectations, although thenotion of“first-person fi lm” appearstobemislead- Brian McFarlane hasshown inhisanalysisofDavid Lean’s adaptation of fact, what wewitnessisaproximity totheliteraryhomodiegetic narrator. As inevitably fi nd theliterarydistinction ofnarrating-Iand experiencing-I. In As Braniganindicates, incinematicpseudo-diegetic narration wewillalmost more desirable.AsEdward Branigan(Narrative Comprehension 101)argues: inherent dual agency, yetgrants thepossibilityofpseudo-diegesis isfar prevalent today. Amoremoderatestance thatacknowledges cinema’s acter-subjectivity inthecinemaisanimpossibility, anargument stillwidely throughout. However, one should not takethestance thatsustainedchar- very fewfi ction fi lms have triedtomaintain character-subjectivity sooner orlaterembeddedinthedoings ofthecinematicnarrator, and that course. Itiscommon knowledge now thatcharacter-subjectivity infilm is freedom, and canatany moment supersedeacharacter’s invoked dis- have itthatthisexternalnarrativeagency isgranted totalauthority and matic narratorand theconventions and traditions ofclassical narration and thealways extradiegetic impersonal narrator. The logicsofthecine- two narratorsatdifferent levels:thealways diegetic personal narrator way beattributed toacharacter-narrator asanunfairstrugglebetween Black describesthemechanism atwork infilm sequences thatcaninsome tion asthenovel does,but anenunciatory strategy which What Lean’s fi lm offers, then,isnot afi rst-person narra- the objectofhisorhernarration inthepresent. within astory:heorsheasanactorinpastevent becomes by thelaws ofthestoryworld) who isnow recounting astory causal chain, but asadiegetic narrator (i.e.,anarratorlimited level, no longer asanactorwho defi nes,and isdefi nedby, a character hasanewand different function inthetextatanother back ordreamsequence. Inboththesecases,however, the dramatized visually forthespectatorasinacharacter fl ash- by recounting events tosomeone. These events may evenbe Characters, ofcourse, may becomestorytellersordreamers egetic narrator?(22) [that] oftheinvoking narratororoftheintrinsic, extradi- rated sequence itselfbelongs. Is.thenarratio similarly, asanambiguitytothelevelon which thenar- now asastrugglebetweentwonarratorsatlevels;or, the film’s primaryagency on theother, canbecharacterized by acharacter on theone hand, and itsdramaticfruition by The tension ofattribution generatedbyascene’s invocation nal territory Great 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 265 4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM4/1/2009 10:47:50 AM —and let me let me Memento—and (Neil Jordan, (Neil Jordan, Affair End of the The and Fight Club and goes a long way towards ensuring parallelism between between parallelism ensuring towards way a long goes a not constitutes This knowledge. audience’s the and Pip’s the screen in terms of what an adaptation . but transfer . . in this mode, approximate ctional fi classical can, in its respect. (127) Hence, only in the case of the cinematic pseudo-narrator does the pseudo-narrator does the in the case of the cinematic only Hence, unreliable narratives on the screen: emotional roller coasters in coasters roller emotional the screen: on narratives unreliable the audience identify viewers usually c circumstances specifi what After explaining under to inspect the cognitive- an unreliable narrator in the cinema, it is worthwhile is This lm viewer. narrators often elicit in the fi these responses emotional term unreliable narrator stand on a sound narratological basis. Because basis. Because narratological a sound on stand term unreliable narrator can who we deal with a character-narrator narration in pseudo-diegetic it over her/his narrative, authority cient suffi and be given a voice, a body textual culties and diffi resolve referential in this case that we can is only as elaborated by principle to the perspectival according incongruities and of the tensions “the inferred source In these instances, Yacobi. Tamar a perspectival takes on of their reconciliation the mechanism hence observes (narrates, experiences, gure who form: the form of a limited fi is the This 118). Reliability” (“Fictional world” the represented evaluates) Usual Suspects, lms as The fi case in such Techniques such as the voice-over, subjective camera, the main charac- camera, the main subjective as the voice-over, such Techniques also the space, and of screen the composition omnipresence, near ter’s lm appears to be gen- to the sense that the fi score, all contribute musical erated by its protagonist. also refer to other contemporary but not strictly North American fi lms lms strictly North American fi not but also refer to other contemporary 1999), Spider, (Mary Harron, American Psycho (Brad Anderson, 2004). It is not the case in fi lms lms case in fi the 2004). It is not (Brad Anderson, Machinist The 1999) and voice-over nar- lm’s 1973) because the fi Malick, as Badlands (Terrence such It is also not storyteller. of the principal time assumes the role rator at no 1975), because the Lyndon (Stanley Kubrick, lm like Barry the case in a fi and both personality lacks usually voice-over narrator heterodiegetic lms as diverse fi in story matters. Nor is it the case in such involvement Sixth Sense (M. Night Shyamalan, (Adrian Lyne, 1990), The Ladder Jacob’s well attribute Koepp, 2004), because we may (David Window 1999) or Secret conven- or horror supernatural forces to some strong inconsistencies we face a pseudo-diegetic once However, lms. in these fi at work tions relates her/his who able character identifi narrator in the form of a clearly of narrator whom kind personalized we deal with a strongly own story, in her/his unreliable for the contradictions we can make the scapegoat narrating. 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2659780415962612-Ch-12.indd 265 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 266

volker ferenz 266 remains toberegarded “deviant.” whatever, against much ofour Western folkmodelofpsychology this constructivist terms,thismightbeconsidered justnaturalornormal or “honest” and tellthe“truth”about thestoryworld. And even though, in to besomewhat tainted, asitimpliesaninability orunwillingnesstobe burdened in reallife,theusage ofthetermunreliablenarratorcontinues him. Just asthe colloquial useoftheadjective “unreliable”isnegatively ity, wearelikelytowithdraw someofour sympatheticfeelingsforheror world. Consequently, once wediscoveracharacter-narrator’s unreliabil- torted orfalseperspectiveand construct the “right”version ofthestory the storyworld inorder toresolvethecharacter-narrator’s limited,dis- to applytheircognitiveschemata tofi nd out what “really”happenedin detect theunreliabilityofacertaincharacter-narrator, theyarethenlikely about boththefactand theextent ofherorhisunreliability. Once viewers that character-narrator hingetoalarge parton how and when wefind out the one offeredbythecharacter-narrator, our sympatheticfeelingsfor fi lmic narration therealways potentially existsanother discourse above present themselvesasvictimsorunderdogs. Butbecauseinunreliable rators, who mightnot evenbeconsciously aware oftheirshortcomings, tendency inunreliablefilmic narration, hence, thatmany unreliablenar- worthy terms,thus elicitingpositivefeelingsforthemselves.Itisacommon that particularcharacter-narrators choose tocharacterize themselves in about her-orhimself.Asaconsequence, itshouldn’t comeasasurprise like one ofus,wegrant herorhimthelibertytospeakratherpositively tor’s perspectivetoaverylarge extent, and becausewetreatthatnarrator “fringes ofsympathy” formorally highlysuspectcharacter-narrators. actively engage withthefilm inquestion because ofitspotential toevoke This kind ofresponse tounreliablenarratorsdemands theviewerto tently inthefilm and exposedonly towards theend. Becausetheclues and where thecharacter-narrator’s unreliabilityismerelyalluded tointermit- character-narrator oftenisn’t straightwithusorevenmorallysuspect. and again ormay incertaincasesevenform“perverseallegiances,” asthat ers have toinspecttheirfeelingsforaparticularcharacter-narrator time ratives areprone tobereceivedasemotional roller coasters,becauseview- largely emotional ways. Ithereforewould liketoclaim thatunreliablenar- about amixedbag offeelings—theyusually engage theviewerinahost of cinema withanairofintimacy, therevelation oftheirunreliabilitybrings who givesusaccesstotheirthoughts, subjectiveimagery charges the rich situations—we arespatiotemporallyalignedtoacharacter-narrator First ofall,becauseunreliablenarrativesinevitablycreatepsychologically the mainstreamand theartfilm and thus callforth“unusual” responses. because unreliablenarrativescanbesaidto“happen”on theborderline of Just consider thehighly charged response tothe1999fi lm, In unreliablefilmic narration, weareinvited toshareacharacter-narra- Fight Club, 8

4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 267 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM . Other than in fi lms such . Other than in fi ncerning the events of the fi c- of the fi the events ncerning American Psycho This form of engagement with an unreliable character-narrator takes with an unreliable character-narrator form of engagement This no signifi cant signs concerning signs concerning cant signifi no Fight Club or Memento, in American Psycho an even sharper turn in the fi lm an even sharper turn in the fi signals pointing to narratorial unreliability are dropped rather sparsely in sparsely in rather are dropped unreliability to narratorial pointing signals to poised necessarily viewer is not the eggs, Easter of well-hidden the form or his judgements mimetic authority, character-narrator’s the question the character- knows viewer The of other characters. his characterizations nd fi s/he will not because even amoral, but and be irrational narrator to we see of what lm, much of the fi the end unreliability until his about out a In such in retrospect. only is reassessed and unchallenged hear goes and more narrative the character-narrator to grant case, viewers are likely shown he’s “reliable” until because the guideline goes that he is authority of narrato- the revelation of postponing this kind What to be “unreliable.” then, is that viewers are facilitates, the very end rial unreliability until of the character-nar- of the reasons understanding likely to gain a deeper thanks to with him feel sympathy might not We being unreliable. rator’s under- we may but his brutal excesses, and moral values his questionable is to a with him that he agree we might even and his motivations stand his business society, himself by contemporary victimized certain extent to the us closer draw may It is this very fact which or whatever. company mode, impersonal in the if Fight Club had been rendered main character; impossible, as the depic- been virtually have would this sort of engagement pathetic than been likely to be more have would character of the main tion mode. it already is in the personal as during most of the unreliability are dropped the character-narrator’s Bateman (Christian Bale) might be an “unreliable person,” lm. Patrick fi to close only out nd that he also might be an unreliable narrator we fi but alle- our to Bateman, and we are aligned Throughout, ending. lm’s the fi of moments Occasional of complete antipathy. with him is one giance scolds a business he for instance, when, occur, him may for sympathy of Also, sporadic moments remarks. associate for making anti-Semitic we learn that he obtained his job on arise when pity for Bateman may Other than that, owning the company. due to his father’s Street only Wall abundance such for displaying anti-hero Bateman is a classical however, Co in attributes that make us dislike him. con- with a rather the viewer is in this case presented however, world, tional the end to realize towards yet we have of the story world, account sistent that everything up until might be mad and that the character-narrator either accept the possibility We of his mind. gments been fi then might have the character- exist or we ascribe this to machines cash that carnivorous notion the second Most viewers will entertain narrating activity. narrator’s seen so far might have we have of what that none to admit will have and of the character-narra- surprising discovery sudden and This been “true.” engagement an extreme case in our madness makes American Psycho tor’s 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2679780415962612-Ch-12.indd 267 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 268

volker ferenz 268 acter-narrators’ discourses infi lms such as therefore occurslargely on alevelofinterpretation and evaluation. edged, apoint thatIwillturntolaterinthischapter. This process ied bymany unreliablenarratorseitherrejectedoratleastacknowl- favour more“realist”frameworks and liketoseethe “relativism”embod- ing and makingsenseoffilms. (3)takesinto account thatmany viewers These processes thus largely happenon the levelofreading,understand- lish character coherence, aestheticcoherence and narrativecoherence. pleased viewerswillbe.(1)and (2)chiefl ydepend on our drivetoestab- narrators acton itand seektocorrecttheir“shortcomings,” themore seems initiatedbyacharacter’s development and themoreunreliable ings. Generallyspeaking,theearlier unreliabilityisrevealed,themore it it. And (3)unreliablenarratorsmay acton orindulge intheirshortcom- their characters’ developments orahighernarrativelevelmay instigate ity may beinitiatedbytheunreliablenarratorsthemselvesaspartof but not theextent ofunreliability. (2) The revelation oftheirunreliabil- the character-narrator’s unreliabilityand theymay unveil only thefact film, theymay disclose slowlythe factand only attheend theextent of reveal boththefactand theextent ofnarratorialunreliability early inthe narrators respond totheirunreliability. (1)Unreliablenarrativesmay of theirunreliabilityisrevealedtothespectatorand (3)how character- narrators aredistinguishedby(1)when and (2)how thefactand extent would have feltrepelledfarearlier. had thecharacter-narrator’s madnessbeenrevealedearlier inthefilm, we kind ofcharacter engagement seemstobelimitedunreliablenarratives: impartial insightinto theworld ofthought ofamentally illperson. This is likelytobearinmind thatweweregivenalong and attimesrather or stigmatizethecharacter-narrator aspsychologically insane;rather, s/he probable unreliabilitywillnot automaticallyleadtheviewertocondemn with thefi lm’s maincharacter. The discoveryofthecharacter-narrator’s open tothepossibilityofreform; hence, severalcriticshave takenupthe temporary societyand itsinherent areasofdifficulty. Second, weought tobe the character-narrator’s discourse of topic itselfand someindividual aspectsofitstreatment; thatis,weneedtosee assumptions. First,afilm’s treatment ofitstopicismoreimportant thanthe of thefi lm FightClub.Defenders of thefi lm usually maketwokeyethical Phelan writeswithrespecttothenovel Lolita,Iwould liketosetinthecontext ethics ofreadingand about therelation betweenaestheticand ethics.” What unreliable narrativeLolita,writesPhelan(2005102),is“ultimatelyabout the makes somepertinent points regarding thisidea. The debatearound the ers’ predispositions. InhisanalysisofNabokov’s novel Memento, itisunsurprisingthatunreliablenarrativesoftenlay baretheview- Because many viewersarelikelytobeoffended insomeway bythechar- These different ways ofour engagement withunreliablecharacter- Fight Clubinthewidercontext ofcon- Fight Club, , James Phelan Lolita, JamesPhelan American Psycho and 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 269 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM It would appear that unreliable narratives elicit several largely emo- narratives elicit several largely appear that unreliable It would tional responses that are more intense than many other narrative fi lms fi other narrative than many that are more intense responses tional is a character mode do. First, “understanding in the impersonal rendered lm is narrative fi the complexity of the least when not in itself pleasurable, both because Yet 191). (Tan of the character” development in the rooted will often unreliability of a character-narrator’s the extent the fact and their understanding etc., change, cause spectators to re-inspect, postpone, of emo- can become the source this process of that character-narrator, we detect a character- Generally speaking, the earlier frustration. tional certain onto we can “nail down” a character unreliability and narrator’s the more coherence, establish character hence traits and personality viewers will be emotionally possible, many pleased we will be. If this is not of unreliable often voiced in the reception objection frustrated and—an nally we fi when However, cheated. or even narratives—feel disappointed able to been eventually have to be unreliable and a character understand pleas- emotional cognitive and nd we will fi coherence, establish character gure in the carpet. As a result, by having unearthed the fi ure by having been able to establish aes- having thus and made sense of the character well, spectators will then feel to have as narrative coherence thetic and exhaustive and even more Second, lm as a whole. of the fi taken charge is the fact unreliable character-narrators with engagement complex in our And again. and again ourselves position to emotionally that often we have certain circumstances be frustrating as well, under this may though third, we consciously when namely, this can also become a pleasurable activity, sym- of pleasure from derive a degree and in “perverse allegiances” engage despica- nd fi we would values and norms whose pathizing with a character lm are certainly emotional unreliable narratives in fi Thus, ble in real life. moral judge- spectators ready to postpone for those coasters, and roller we use the schemata a risk-free opportunity to inspect they provide ment etc., screen charac- judging, evaluating, in making sense, understanding, people as well. real therefore, by implication, ters and as a coming-of-age story. As Phelan As Phelan story. coming-of-age Club as a Fight discussing of opportunity that aes- the principle entail of these assumptions it, “both puts succinctly to give they tend though intertwined, are inextricably ethics thetics and make lm usually to the fi objecting Those to aesthetics” (102). pride of place act of representing First, the very assumptions. ethical two oppositional or being in Fight Club as the explicit violence topics, such certain sensitive serial killer in American insane a potentially to the doings of solely aligned aspects of that some topics and for the reason , is ethically suspect, Psycho larger impair any are so offensive as to seriously their aesthetic treatments to the per- giving credence lmmakers. Second, by the fi undertaken project place. in the wrong puts the emphasis like American Psycho lm petrator in a fi pride of place is this but ethics are interconnected, Again, aesthetics and time given to ethics. 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2699780415962612-Ch-12.indd 269 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 270

volker ferenz 270 and itssa same time,place,coffee: unreliable narration infi unreliable narration ought tobedescribed as We thenarrive atanimportant theoreticalissue,and thequestion iswhether tions and, ifneed be,overrulestheunreliablecharacter-narrator’s stance. reference, itistheviewerwho, inahighlyactiveactofnaturalization, ques- more appropriately, acreativeteam. yet not necessarilyalways—an intentional actascribabletoafilmmaker or, know toowellthatthenarrativestrategy ofunreliablenarration isoften— narrator, who appearstobeincharge ofthefilm, for itsinconsistencies, we as ifitdepictedrealityand therefore,inafirst step,weblamethecharacter- express itintermsoftheaestheticparadox:while wetreat anarrativefilm viewers toarriveatanother levelofmeaninginthefi lm asawhole. To respective unreliablecharacter-narrator, someoftheseodditieswilllead discourse. While viewerswillcontinue toascribethefilm’s odditiestothe and itfallstotheviewerimplyanother levelofmeaning“above”that elements aremerelyalluded tointhediscourse ofanunreliablenarrator, tional world. Hence, veryfrequently inunreliablefilmic narration, satirical likely tonotice thelaughableorridiculous elements ofthedepictedfi c- behaviour and whose capacitiesmay bequite limited,itistheviewerwho is acter-narrator, who habitually exhibitsasomewhat deviant orerratic jected tosatire.Becausetheviewerissolelyalignedanunreliablechar- also thefi ctional world depicted inanunreliablenarrativemay besub- narrator and hisethicalorideologicalstance theobjectofsatire. differing viewsorstances couldn’t bemoredifferent, makingthecharacter- allow foroccasional reliefintheform ofindirect satire.Sometimesthesetwo perspective and theviewer’s graspon thestoryworld createsagapthatmay or latergrasp.Consequently, thiscontrast betweenthecharacter-narrator’s of thefictional world and acontrary stateofaffairs,which viewerscansooner unreliable narration involves acontrast betweenacharacter-narrator’s view because ituses,perdefi nition, themeansofstructuralordramaticirony, as I would liketocontend, isprone toberecuperatedintermsofindirect satire but not explicitlypointed out bythefilmmaker). Unreliablefi lmic narration, indirect (inwhich casethesatiricalelements aremerely“indirectly” displayed fi lmmaker addressestheaudiences moreorless“directly”)toinformal and indignation, and itcanrangefrom beingformaland direct(inwhich casethe cule and scorn.Itstone may varyfrom tolerant amusement tobitter making thatexposesthefailingsofindividuals, institutions orsocietiestoridi- in termsofsatire.Asarule,fi lmic satireisperceived tobeamodeoffi lmof theirsalient common featuresisthattheyhave oftenbeeninterpreted When surveyingtheunreliablefilmic narrativestouched upon sofar, one On thebasisofherorhisforeknowledge and alreadyexistingframesof But thereismoretoitthanthat.Notonly theunreliablenarratorbut tirical tendencies a meansofreconfirming the lm 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 271 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM this yearning for consistency and harmony, for a well-pat- harmony, and this yearning for consistency reliably be and accurately, that can clearly, terned world world of our schemata by the frames and represented will to our need for orientation, ex of our models . . . a refl domesticate the world and control thus and understand to be able to feel safe in it. (358) we live in order The naturalization of the text through the dissolution of the dissolution through of the text naturalization The of the inconsistencies created by tension the hermeneutic which of closure kind a narrative constitutes an unreliable of the narrator and over that horizon the reader’s privileges his arm- into to sink back ultimately allows the recipient cosy evening with the ideas a nice and there to spend chair terms, picture. In new historicist rmed world of his reconfi of an instrument into turn unreliable narration this would its subversive poten- ignore would and only containment 358) tial. (Antor, I would like to demonstrate this point with reference to the fi lm Fight to the fi with reference this point like to demonstrate I would But is this really a contradiction? I believe there is no need for sarcasm in need for sarcasm I believe there is no But is this really a contradiction? By evoking satire through a clash between an unreliable character-narra- between a clash satire through By evoking the “true” state of grasping their unreliability and our and discourse tor’s existing frames of rm their already rush to reconfi affairs, viewers will often as this mechanism describes sarcastically Antor reference. viewer’s world picture or as a means of challenging the viewers’ ethical and and viewers’ ethical the of challenging a means or as picture world viewer’s states: ironically, slightly writer, As one values. moral Chicago to it. First published in the Chicago some of the critical reactions Club and paradoxical effect of unre- es the somewhat review exemplifi , one Sun-Times severely subversive by displaying of being potentially lmic narration liable fi time allowing for the critic to dismiss at the same while satirical elements theorizing unreliable narration as both potentially subversive (being con- as both potentially theorizing unreliable narration of an unreliable narrator) as with the often-unsettling discourse fronted rmative (being able to dismiss the unreliable charac- affi well as potentially in our rstly, I believe that, fi ter-narrator as, well, unreliable). However, within the more importantly, and secondly and, cultural context Western lmic narration cinema, unreliable fi Hollywood the classical of tradition the viewer with it confronts because still possesses a transforming quality, the spectator to encourages thus an unreliable view of certain affairs and of unreliable In the case of the satirical elements take an ethical position. the nega- display lms may fi narratives, this means that unreliably narrated satiri- These criticized. are indirectly which tive effects of societal problems by the out down or pointed played in turn can be either cal elements the viewer to take an ethical they surely demand but viewer, individual apply her or his frames of reference. to rather consciously and stance 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2719780415962612-Ch-12.indd 271 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 272

volker ferenz 272 defending socialprovisions and thepublicgood”(33). rity, cutsinpublicspending, and thedestruction ofinstitutions capableof stantive tosay about thestructuralviolence ofunemployment, jobinsecu- it comesasno surprisethatGiroux finds that “FightClubhasnothing sub- violence intheinterests ofsocialand politicalanarchy” (Giroux, 34). Thus represents theredemption ofmasculinityrepackaged asthepromise of capitalism repackaged asthecrisisofadomesticatedmasculinity, Tyler separately: “IfJack [thefi lm’s character-narrator] represents thecrisisof and thenotion ofconsumerism which, inGiroux’s view, hadbettertreated instance, laments thefilm’s alleged conflation oftheissue ofemasculation any kind forthecrisisitscharacter-narrator faces.HenryGiroux, for academics tolament FightClub’s regressive tendencies orlack ofsolution of there hasbeenatendency withsomepolitically left-leaningreviewersand is inno way limitedtoafewright-wingcommentators. Inasimilar fashion, that thefilm isacheerful fascistvehicle. ety, heatleastweakens,ifnot effectivelycontradicts, hisinitialstatement observing thatFightClubcaneasilybereadasasatireon contemporary soci- does not, and insteadhemakesamostradicalU-turn.Afteraccurately fi lm asasatire,afteradmittingthatthispossibilityclearly exists.Buthe however, isthecritic’s conscious choice not tointerpret and evaluate the having watched ascreeningofFightClub.What ismoreimportant here, tion: vehicle while describingitasasatireculminatesinthefollowingspecula- one another up.” The fairly arbitrarymoveofbranding FightClubafascist men inbigcitiestodescend into thesecretcellarsofaFightClub and beat Tyler Durden, “ashadowy, charismatic fi gure, abletoinspirealegion of driving himcrazy,” which leadshiminto thearmsofacharacter called describes hisworld indialogueofsardonic socialsatire.Hislifeand jobare Club hasatitscorea“depressedloner fi lled uptoherewithangst.He movie since DeathWish ,” film criticRogerEbertgoeson toobservethat world picture.Afterbranding thefilm “themostcheerfully fascistbig-star reaching akind ofclosure byeventually reconfi rminganalreadyexisting these satiricalelements asmerefi gments ofanunreliablenarrator, thus This unwillingnesstoconsequently interpret FightClubasasocialsatire Clearly, thecriticfeelsforced totakeanethicalstance inthefaceof people togoalittlecrazy. (Ebert) I thinkit’s thenumbing effectofmovieslikethisthatcause day-to-day drudgerycausepeopletogoalittlecrazy.” man and what canhappen when thenumbing effectsof says itmakes“atellingpoint about thebestialnatureof losophy. Itisawarningagainst it,Iguess;one criticIlike Of course, FightClubitselfdoesnot advocateDurden’s phi- Fight 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 273 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM alter The Usual Suspects, the to The American Psycho (Brad Pitt) is also subjected (Brad Pitt) is also subjected his alter ego the same extent, To Tyler. alter ego Similar instances of satire can be attributed to most of the other unreli- of satire can be attributed Similar instances What these commentators don’t seem to be willing to acknowledge, acknowledge, willing to to be seem don’t commentators these What evidence for the claim that unreliable narration often seems to “exhibit” narration that unreliable the claim for evidence suggests that unreliable narration This of satire is overwhelming. elements theoretically this and of satirical elements, facilitates the bringing about of dramatic irony. to the notion with recourse can be underpinned claim do, we may and say the unreliable narrators see what we hear and While of as the stereotypical depiction culties such diffi resolve certain textual ned the defi a higher level of satire. Because we have on other characters able fi lmic narratives in fi lm. From lm. From narratives in fi lmic able fi are subjected to ridicule in the fi indi- lm, so is the society that produces are subjected to ridicule in the fi ego the character-narrator Everywhere like the character-narrator. viduals In his open- that escape his horizon. satirical elements nd goes, we can fi we see several employees at a photocopier, he stands ce, when plan offi sipping their Starbucks whilst making copies in the exact same manner the character-narrator we see Also, when coffee in the exact same manner. in suit perfectly blends he in his pastel-coloured desk, sitting at his work approaches his superior when ce furniture. Or, offi with his pastel-coloured by reading reduces him to his tie le, the character-narrator him with a fi for the be usual of his tie. All this may the colour of the week from the day for the it is at the same time ridiculous himself, but character-narrator to read Fight Club as a social satire con- invitations inference These viewer. in decides to visit self-help groups the character-narrator when tinue looms well-lit in the darkened ag fl for the most part, an American which, that allows invitations in inference it is this abundance And background. Fight Club as a social satire. the viewer to interpret sets out to satirize not not to satirize sets out Fight Club to which extent is the argue, well may one also the solutions lives in but the society he and its character-narrator only s character- crisis. Fight Club’ his identity up with to overcome he comes he might generate at times, might be clever Norton) narrator (Edward a sense of said to represent he might be and sympathy some spectatorial in highly hysterical pathetic in his struggle, he is also very but alienation, for in his admiration extremely laughable and dealing with other people his alternative to negative a positive nor represents to satire in that he neither a himself “builds Tyler problems. fundamental the character-narrator’s of kind the rhetoric of the 1960s [. . . ] into the anti-materialist bridge from admired” (Maslin might have Rand Ayn that project paramilitary dream of a few phrases himself, cites he has a bit of Janis Joplin about 14). In short, but— Nietzsche, or two things about one seems to know and Rand Ayn of attitudes is a patchwork character-narrator—Tyler just as the nameless most He is fully control. seem to be able to he does not which phrases, and predicament. the character-narrator’s to a credible solution certainly not his pathetic and Furthermore, just as the helpless character-narrator 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2739780415962612-Ch-12.indd 273 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 274

volker ferenz 274 often asideeffectofthenarrativestrategy ofunreliablenarration. fi lmmaker unwillingtodoso.We canthereforenow assertthatsatireis critique ofthestatusquowhen theunreliablenarratorisincapable and the tions orcontemporary society, and itistheviewerwho hastoconduct the ground and deliverindirect satiresofcertaincharacters, particularinstitu- perspective onto thestoryworld, thefi lmmaker can remainintheback- depictions. Byhaving anunreliable narratorgivingasomewhat shrewd Club ortheWall Street Yuppies inAmericanPsycho arenot entirely realistic world, theyknow thatthecharacters crowding theself-helpgroups in viewers bringwiththemtheirframesofreference and knowledge about the tort, manipulateorlimittheviewers’accesstostoryworld. And because to be,acertainextent, inthedrivingseatofnarration, s/hecandis- unreliable narratorasapseudo-diegetic character-narrator who canbesaid that viewisquickly rejectedbythemaincharacter. This ismanifestinthe (which viewersareinvited more thanonce toconclude for themselves), wasn’t diabetic,implying thatLeonard himself accidentally killedher fi lm when, forinstance, Teddy (JoePantoliano) tellsLeonard thathiswife although a“realist”view ofobjectivityisalluded toseveraltimesduringthe call theendless autobiographical dialoguewe hold withourselves. And his past.Similarly, hiscontinuous voice-overmirrors what constructivists needs inthehere-and-now, justashechooses toignore certainfactsabout Leonard activelyconstructs hismemoriesaccording tohissituation and his this fi lm iswhat theautopoietichuman beingmakesofit.Furthermore, an outer realityisdeniedatno point, yetmostofwhat wegettoknow in psychological constructivism. Withinthe fi ctional world, theexistence of main character, Leonard (GuyPearce), canberegarded asatextbook caseof roots inradicalconstructivism isstaged bythefi lm asawhole. Memento’s Memento, tives weoftenfaceonly one ortwoaspectsofthisrathercomplexissue. modernist criticism. straints imposedonto herorhim,apoint thatisoverlooked inmuch post- referred back toasubjectfrom whose perspectiveweexperience thecon- beside thepoint. The upshot ofunreliablenarration isthatwearealways modernism would deemsuch aquestion toberathernaïveand ultimately fashioned bystanding inthetradition ofliterarymodernism,since post- their thematiccores,unreliablenarrativescanbesaidtoratherold- whether “objectivetruth”iseasilyaccessible.Byhaving thisquestion at world, theytend tohave asone oftheirmajorthemes thequestion asto either cannot ordonot want totellwhat “reallyhappened”inthestory Because unreliablenarrativespresent uswithcharacter-narrators who epistemological scepticism the usual unreliable narrators and theirmainoffence: Yet epistemologicalscepticismhasmany forms, and inunreliablenarra- for instance, thecentral issueofepistemologicalscepticismwithits Fight

4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 275 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM Indeed, there seems to be an overarching there seems to be an overarching Indeed,

: I’m Leonard Shelby. I’m from San Francisco, and I’m . . . and San Francisco, I’m from Shelby. : I’m Leonard questions of how individuals seek to make meaning of individuals of how questions themselves as unique they understand their lives, both how ned defi are multiply social beings who as and individuals culture. At the and class, ethnicity, gender, by life stage, : You don’t even know who you are. you who even know don’t You : . are you who know don’t , you were you who That’s : ’s Leonard seems to be highlighting some of the diffi culties of some of the diffi seems to be highlighting Leonard Memento’s Therefore, Leonard seems to embody a radical example of what has seems to embody a radical example of what Leonard Therefore, Concerning the notion of personal identity, Mary Litch (85) has argued (85) has argued Mary Litch identity, of personal the notion Concerning LEONARD TEDDY TEDDY theme that we could call an examination of the notion of personal iden- of personal of the notion call an examination theme that we could At the beginning a claim. for such evidence the textual notice For one, tity. brief conver- the following Teddy, kills before Leonard shortly lm, of the fi place: takes sation been named narrative identity. The work in this emerging fi eld of psychology fi in this emerging work The been named narrative identity. focuses on Almost the exact same conversation resurfaces two more times, once in resurfaces two more times, once Almost the exact same conversation call the slow- would several screenwriting teachers the middle—what central lm’s the fi lm where of the fi mid-point understated paced and to that, In addition at the end. then again ected—and themes are refl sense common at times like sound his condition on comments Leonard’s memory the unreliability of everybody’s talks about he, for instance, when be said cannot that Leonard the ultimate revelation capacities. Moreover, memories ill because he is in fact capable of making new to be physically another, into condition puts his alleged manipulating old memories, and here: this is pertinent upon comment ironic Teddy’s context. broader all do it!” We with that. nothing wrong There’s to be happy. lie to yourself “So you that models. more realist identity two images that pass through Leonard’s head at that point: one shows him him shows one point: head at that Leonard’s through that pass two images his pinching him shows the other of insulin, with a dose his wife injecting two only are here given not we manner, In a rather playful thigh. wife’s a choice also asked to make but the same event, of, presumably, versions a more that is, between concepts; philosophical oppositional between two and a dose of insulin) injecting his wife with of objectivity (him realist view he thigh because wife’s his view (him pinching a radical constructivist or is it to be true). Is objectivity accessible, former version the want doesn’t by the autopoietic organism? nally perverted fi and obfuscated, distorted the former viewers are likely to choose many t of hindsight, With the benefi the embraces Leonard character ctional the fi while of the event version is, then, of a very fun- scepticism Memento stages epistemological The latter. in its to be an end is shown reasoning in that inductive nature damental own right. 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2759780415962612-Ch-12.indd 275 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 276

volker ferenz 276 line ofreasoning isbut anexcuseofsortstoremainaserialkiller. Onthe whole lineofreasoning collapses.Ontheleveloffilm’s story, Leonard’s junkie killedhiswifehasalready beenshown to beuntrue, and thus this understandable formofjustice).However, theassumption thatsome is okay forhimtohunt downthatmysterious JohnG.(asubjectively revenging herdeathisjust(itaself-righteous concept). Therefore, (c)it somebody elsekilledhiswife(asubjectiveinterpretation), hisgoalof(b) For him,because(a)insuch anobjectiveand mind-independent that world says he when like when heknocks on wood,heeventually embracesacruderealism. eyes, your close you he knows what itfeelslikewhen hegrabsanashtray and what itsounds when disappear doesn’t world when Leonard convinces himselfinthefi lm’s epiloguethattheoutside significant points inthefi lm (thebeginning, themiddle, end). Equally, no coincidence thattheaforementioned conversation takesplaceatthree sonal identity, asevidenced byhisconversations with Teddy. Itiscertainly hand, hesubscribestoasimplisticformofrealismand fixed modelof per- can belargely seenasasubjectivemeaning-makingactivity. On theother subjective habitsinto “objectivetruths,” etc.)and thatpersonal identity unreliability ofmemories,theconstructed natureofideas,theturning sophisticated levelthatheisfully aware ofconstructivist premises(the models embodiedbyLeonard. Ontheone hand, hedemonstrates on a sonal identity mightbe—in extremecases—aticking timebomb. mirror thepossibilitythatthisprocess offormingasomewhat stableper- identity” (Singer438). Thus, Leonard’s unreliablenarration appearsto provides causal,temporal,and thematiccoherence toanoverallsenseof side effectofthiscontinuous process that“yieldsalifestoryschema that into aserialkillercanbesaidtotheunfortunateand, certainly, ironical be, inhiscircumstances, understandable. That hewillinglyturnshimself else killedhiswife.According tonarrativeidentity researchers, thiswould and, inhisplight,ratherbullies himselfinto rememberingthatsomeone order toleadameaningfullife,helivesinpermanent stateofself-denial into thismodel.Heshapeshismemoriesaccording tohiscurrent goals.In cles, and outcomes” (Singer441).Itwould seemthatMemento’s Leonard fits tive memoriesthatgiveaccounts oftheindividual’s goalpursuits,obsta- knowledge. This autobiographical knowledge isexpressedthrough narra- cognitive processes tocreateagoal-basedhierarchy ofautobiographical of theselfand arecognition of“how personality processes interact with A compellingaccount ofautobiographical memorythus demands amodel cal memoryisalways inpartconstruction and not somuch reconstitution. In thecourse ofthisresearch, ithasbecomeapparent thatautobiographi- What isremarkable inthiscontext isthestruggleof two philosophical rative memoryand lifestoryconstruction. (Singer438) core oftheseeffortsatself-understanding istherole ofnar- 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 277 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM is that a Memento , another aspect in the context of epistemological of epistemological aspect in the context , another Usual Suspects The It appears that unreliable narration in fi this stage is “predestined” to lm in fi that unreliable narration It appears In a shows plot continually lm’s thread in the fi Another But it shouldn’t. struggle between constructivism and realism on the one hand, and between and hand, the one realism on and constructivism struggle between of personal understanding xed a more fi and of narrative identity the model about thing interesting The hand. the other on identity the being able to mumble survivor of the night before. After initially only level of interpretation, it is a pity for his victims that he preaches construc- preaches that he for his victims it is a pity of interpretation, level realism. yet practises tivism of underway as a sensible is presented epistemology more constructivist of easily lead to the erosion yet that it may the main character, standing as a victim describes himself again time and Leonard responsibility. personal in is merely a wheel that his “just” mission and of external circumstances ec- is a refl he lacks What control. wholly he cannot some system of thinking the causes of his suppression enable him to observe that would tive distance the possibilities of render would distance Such the outside. from as though he would and increase, would real for him, his options freedom even more for exploiting or disregarding and for his decisions assume responsibility bleak has to opt for a deterministic and therefore opportunities. Leonard and face the uncomfortable he would otherwise view of constructivism; himself as a small Presenting become a serial killer. facts of his having tragic gives be controlled that cannot of constructivism in the big machine wheel guilt. and responsibility of personal him the excuse of sidestepping the issues is led to think that a philosophical one thus, On the level of interpretation, we discover features of objective reality rather than realism of sorts, where is preferable in the real world. them, construct that is the unreliability of eye- the spotlight, and into scepticism is brought called Roger small time crook lm, an apparent In this fi witness testimony. US customs by the ambitious is interrogated (Kevin Spacey) Kint “Verbal” the heist seen in the initial about (Chazz Palminteri) Kujan detective Dave half-German, phantom-like and a mysterious to Kint, According sequence. believes his archenemy, it all, yet Kujan super villain is behind half-Turkish make the view- Several reasons to be the mastermind. the ex-cop Keaton, com- and far-fetched matter how no of the events, version ers trust Kint’s with the to be in accordance rst, they appear seem: fi ic-like they may to be shot is shown Keaton in which initial sequence seemingly impersonal ash- fl in nine long story is presented Kint’s gure; second, by a shadowy fi markers few as only trustworthy, and all seem coherent which backs alter- Kujan’s happened; third, of what accounts them as subjective render dominated by his fast-paced sequence one in only is shown native version character boyish the mild-mannered and voice-over; fourth, aggressive cynical and attract more sympathies than the hard-boiled of Kint qualities for has good grounds the audience Hence, US customs detective Kujan. its trust with the criminal. laying 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2779780415962612-Ch-12.indd 277 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 278

volker ferenz 278 into turmoil.While any one ofthecharacters justcitedisinsomeformguilty deemed unacceptable,asthey would throw thetraditional notion oftruth ticism embodiedbycharacter-narrators such as epistemology. Withinthesetraditional discourses, theepistemologicalscep- in traditional discourses ofmental health,justiceand, mostimportantly, most ofthemarediscriminatedagainst rightfrom thestartbybeingsituated (Akira Kurosawa, 1950),faceanintra-diegetic formofpersecution. Fright (AlfredHitchcock, 1950)oreverysingleone ofthe characters in ally associatedwithunreliablefilmic narration, such asthemurderer in himself intothepoliceatend ofthefilm. And alsothose characters usu- imprisonment. Trevor Reznik,thecharacter-narrator ofThe Machinist, hands the character-narrator ofmuch ofthefilm Fight Cluband AmericanPsycho would surelybenefit from psychiatric help.Kint, transferred toamental institution and hassince escaped.Bothnarratorsof tions orprisons. Memento’s unreliablenarrator, Leonard, wasatsomepoint narrators discussedsofarareinsomeformassociatedwithmental institu- unreliable filmic narrativesthemselves.Forone, almostalloftheunreliable cism and those who represent itisdealtwithinthefi ctional worlds ofthe remains anentertaining play withtheviewers’expectations. play straightdespiteposingrealistthroughout, but thefi lm certainly ventions offairplay and theviewingcontract, The UsualSuspectsmightnot admit thatthisconcern issecondary tothefilm. Inbreakingboththecon- the breakingoffundamental narrativeconventions, one mightaswell sonal inthefirst place.Eventhough, retrospectively, one could point out the accompliceofacriminal,itisthatpersonal modehasn’t beenper- the film’s character-narrator, Kint. Itisnot thatthecamerahasmadeitself truth israised,and wearelikelytoascribethisthefilmmakers and not to sonal atall. Therefore, aprofound uncertainty concerning theimagery’s that eventhisallegedly impersonal initialsequence wasinfactnot imper- committing thekillingofKeaton. Hence, weareaskedtoentertain theidea time, witnessingthekillingofKeaton from aremovedvantage point and POV shot atallbecauseKint couldn’t have beenintwoplacesatthesame Kint. However, asitturnsout attheend, thisshot couldn’t have beena as theinitialsequence contains aPOV shot which wewereabletoascribe one mightargue thatThe UsualSuspectshaslefttherulesoffairplay behind, self, oratleastaperson withfeaturesresemblingthatofKint. Atthispoint, Keaton and no phantom, but insteaditshows none otherthanKint him- after Kint hasleftthepolicebuilding close tothefilm’s ending. Itshows no describing KeyserSozetoanillustrator, who fi nishes hisillustration just Kint’s version ofthestory—aseverelywounded Hungarianskipperstarts words “KeyserSoze”—which is,ofcourse, another reason forbelieving Without beinganapologistforany ofthesecharacters, one cansay that It ishighlyintriguing tonotice how thenotion ofepistemologicalscepti- The UsualSuspects,only justescapes Memento ’s Leonard are Rashomon Stage

4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 279 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM Fight The Usual The , it is ironically , it is ironically Fight Club are wanted for laying bare the foundations bare the foundations for laying are wanted Memento or American Psycho The Usual Suspects, for example, lms reveals this. In The fi at the look A closer This again can be backed up by reference to the fi in For instance, lms. to the fi up by reference can be backed again This the cynical US customs detective Kujan snarls at the unreliable narrator at the snarls detective Kujan the cynical US customs he dislikes most Keyser Soze. What as he mythologizes several times Kint he robberies and murders the multiple so much narrative is not Kint’s about of the run-up to the the presentation but in pursuing, be interested should attentively tale. At times, Kujan initial heist in the form of some folksy fairy but narrates, Kint by what entertained he even appears to be listens to Kint, Kujan criminals. for hard-boiled to reject all this as a silly myth he is quick myths excludes which his realist epistemology, almost fanatically insists on in Similarly, the investigation. folk tales from and of realism just as much as they are pursued for being criminals. Their main Their are pursued for being criminals. as they of realism just as much scepticism. appears to be their epistemological offence of certain misdoings ranging from spying to multiple homicides, it seems homicides, to multiple spying from ranging misdoings of certain of a more foundations shaky the of exposing all, guilty are, above that they the very from prosecution By facing intra-diegetic of truth. realist notion to installed which, of poetic justice is narratives, a form of their beginning them and already” situates “always catchphrase, use a post-structuralist narra- unreliable that in many context Note in this negatively. judges them as to an extent to such neglected are regularly acts of crime tives the actual the unreliable narrators’ upon the focus centred appear side issues, with evidence the textual epistemological scepticism. Hence, forms of deviant lms as fi of such suggests that the character-narrators strongly Suspects, the suicidal Marla who laments the mental instability of the fi lm’s unrelia- lm’s instability of the fi the mental laments who the suicidal Marla com- she observes but problems,” deep emotional have “You ble narrator. and all of his other excesses. He might be handsome pletely ignores issues” make her reject him. emotional his “serious yet “spectacular in bed,” is looked Affair End of the the unreliable narrator of The In the same manner, Sarah for being obsessed with his highly sub- by the priest and down upon jeal- All of his other shortcomings—his epistemology. narrow jective and by the other temper—are easily forgiven his violent bigotry and his ousy, in this case, his stub- scepticism and, it is his epistemological but characters, persistently characters of God that the other born denial of the existence most unreliable narra- it provocatively, to put and seek to correct. Hence, coun- the worst deeds by their intra-diegetic be forgiven lm would tors in fi they let go of their epistemological scepticism to instead terparts if only embrace a more realist framework. ’s concluding sequence, Marla is poised to forgive the character-narrator character-narrator the is poised to forgive Marla sequence, concluding Club’s himself shot him devastated after having nds she fi when his bad behaviour he admits to Eventually, Other. successfully battled with his imaginary and that indicating life,” met me in a strange period of my have that “you Marla and behaviour dusted. Despite his former abusive and done this period is now 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2799780415962612-Ch-12.indd 279 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 280

volker ferenz 280 narrators usually doesn’t pay off. the epistemological“relativism”exhibitedbymostunreliablecharacter- gerous. Withintheaesthetic“realism”ofmainstreamHollywoodcinema, the unreliablecharacter-narrators isinsomeway presented as beingdan- sented asbeingmoredesirableorsuperior, astherelativismembodiedby sion overthefilm’s credits.Ineithercase,amorerealistframework ispre- deal withopenendings thatextend theprocess ofnarrativecomprehen- successful conversion doesnot occur, asinAmericanPsycho orMemento,we gle iscentral totheirnarrative.And inthose fi lms inwhich such a work usually end on apositivenote, leaving theimpression thatthisstrug- epistemological scepticismofany kind toembracingamorerealistframe- have beenproven false,hisepistemology hasbeenvindicated. myths about theshadowyKeyserSoze,an investigation isreinforced attheend ofthefilm. HehasnevertrustedKint’s phantom KeyserSoze,but heshows signsofvindication inthathisformof Along thesamelines,inThe, Kujan UsualSuspects mightnot have caughtthe his hand, indicating herwillingnesstodealwithhimnow afterhis“healing.” the mayhem hehascaused,Marla mightlook stunned,yetshedoesn’t reject to believein,Leonard writesdownthenote “Don’t believehislies”on the supposedly uncomfortable factsand aviewoftheworld hedoesn’t want egy ofunreliablenarrativesinthecinema.When confronted withsome turns out tobeapointed illustration of themostcommon viewingstrat- narrator’s behaviour inthepenultimate sequence ofthefi lm persons and themselves. Therefore, itwould appearthatthe character- not—check theirconventional framesofreference concerning film, other narration. Unreliablenarrativeswillmaketheirviewers—willinglyor ble narration such arich and diverse narrativestrategy toexplore. ratives, alloftheseresponses happenatthesametime,makingunrelia- at timescomplexenough tocopewith,but very ofteninunreliablenar- intense debatesconcerning epistemology. Any one oftheseresponses is fi ctional world, openingaPandora’s Boxofmultifaceted questions and acter-narrator who eitherobfuscates,distortsorpervertsthefactsof Due tothenatureofunreliablenarration, wearepresented withachar- elicited byfi lms considered under theheadingofunreliablenarration. model thattakesinto account someofthemajorresponses repeatedly exclusive account. Rather, Ihave triedtopropose adynamicand flexible cognitive and emotional responses isbyno meanstobeunderstood asan unreliable narrativesinthecinema.Especiallymy account ofthemain I have triedtoexplainhow fi lmviewers usually identify and respond to conclusions Thus, those films inwhich unreliablenarratorsareconverted from an Thus, thereisafundamental richness and ambiguityabout unreliable d although hisownassumptions Memento

4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 281 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM appears intensifi ed. Unreliable appears intensifi The fundamental ambiguity of unreliable narration is that it allows us is that it allows ambiguity of unreliable narration fundamental The the most common viewing viewing common in nuce the most es exemplifi sequence short This challenge our drive to coherence in making sense of drive to coherence our to both apply and challenge narrative any Of course, simultaneously. ourselves and lms, the world fi of an function yet via the intermediating a response, such lm can elicit fi unreliable narrator this cognitive response automatized sche- beliefs and the habituated ect on narratives make us refl interpretations make us often jump to conclusions, which and mata we hold us back throw unreliable narratives eventually Therefore, evaluations. and it seems to Thus, ourselves. and framework own presuppositonal our on strategy and interpretation of unreliable narration in the cinema. First, cinema. First, in the of unreliable narration interpretation and strategy ref- and for textual some unreliable narrator blame quickly viewers will pat- and of the world that threaten their view inconsistencies erential however, phase, his lies”). In a second believe terns of thinking (“Don’t Like “truth.” of “reliability” and the very concept come to doubt we may of “truth” is actually the notion whether ask ourselves we may Leonard, we an illusion is merely that concept or whether a concept, that sound (“Do I lie to myself to make sense of the world order like to believe in in ver- a radically pragmatic represents essentially to be happy?”). Leonard and for the individual, works “truth” is what In this view, of “truth.” sion kills her or him. Again, this is a thought what only “false” is ultimately we remember es. When eerily personifi of Leonard the character which that wife, and of his kill the murderer and nd to fi a mission that he is on be “subjec- himself, then the “objective truth” must out, nd is, as we fi literally kill him. Of course, it would tively false” for Leonard—because as I hope and of “truth,” notion common the to question have we don’t to unreliable narratives to several reactions with recourse shown to have will rush to and their interpretation interrupt viewers will lm, many in fi doing values—thus and realist norms rm their already existing confi does unreliable narrator Leonard unintentionally, not the, maybe what a rela- have viewers who only yes I will”). Hence, Teddy, case, (“In your a of interpretation, phase third in an optional will engage tivist tendency “the reliability of our (178) describes as questioning Britton that phase the character- can question before we judgements” and own perceptions of interpretation last phase This judgements. and perceptions narrator’s particular the on depends very much and only phase is an additional to believe in s/he wants much how vanity and folk psychological viewer’s centred, autonomous, her or his—more or less—rational, or challenge his self. of her or realist notion stable and back of the photo of Teddy, whom he believes to be an “unreliable narra- “unreliable to be an he believes whom Teddy, of photo of the back to be happy, to himself he lies whether asks himself then Leonard tor.” of reality by think- version and rm his world-view to confi before rushing yes I will.” Teddy, case, “In your ing to himself: 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2819780415962612-Ch-12.indd 281 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 282

volker ferenz 282 after what appearscoherent, meaningfuland sensibletous. preting theworld. Maybe wearenot somuch after “truth,” but more coherence asour trainimpulsewhen reading,understanding and inter- describe themasmere“organisms” emphasize quite rightlythedrivefor cognitive fi lm theoristswho likenhumans to“animalsingeneral”and ability would seemanimpossibility. Hence, maybe those down-to-earth lines ofthought. According totheseschools ofthought, completereli- ability areacceptedasnormality and realityincertain,oftenunpopular, Western context, overbearingsubjectivityand hence adegree ofunreli- liability arenot necessarilyperceived asdeviant. Onthecontrary, inour who show lessofafactual but moreofaninterpretive orevaluative unre- human condition. Itwould appearthatthose unreliablenarratorsinfilm me thatunreliablenarration turnsout tobeapowerfulmetaphor forthe 6. Booth’s original definition went likethis: “Ihave calledanarrator reliable 5. SeeHelbig’s (CameraDoesn’tLie ) collection ofarticles which perfectlyillus- 4. SeeFerenz,foradiscussion oftheconditions ofunreliablefi lmic narra- 3. SeeNünning(“Reconceptualizing”) foranelaboration on this thought. 2. SeeBläss,who discussessimilar“functions” ofunreliablenarration inlit- Onatheoreticalnote, and aswillbeobvious bynow, I do not believethat 1. notes when hespeaksfororactsinaccordance withthenorms ofthework trates thevarietyofunderstandings oftheterm. tion. erary texts. functions thatcertainfilms “exhibit.” responses which particularfi lms “elicit” ratherthanspeakofaesthetic It isforthisreason thatIprefertospeakofemotional and cognitive and tend tojumpconclusions because ofour psychological disposition. trary, wesometimesfoolourselves becausewefi ll ingapsall-tooreadily unreliable character-narrator orafi lm asawhole foolsus;on thecon- edge ratherthandecodewhat theyaregiven.Itisnot thataparticular dence thatfi lmviewersinferon thebasisoftheiralreadyexistingknowl- unreliable narrator, Ishallargue, provides anoverwhelming pieceofevi- for example,character coherence and narrativecoherence. The caseofthe actively makesuseofawidesetvarious schemata inorder toestablish, ferent kinds ofcognitive-emotional reactions. The viewertherefore 22). Inthisframework, cinematicdiscourse actsastriggersorcuesfordif- meaningfulness “asthekeydrivingforce inthereception process” (Persson driven bytheviewer’s primarilypsychological striveforcoherence and comprehension ofnarrativefi lms isessentially amatterofinference, is popular. Onthecontrary, throughout my essay Ishallbeassumingthat studies, yetthisbeliefisasproblematic and, eventually, self-defeatingasit remains hugely popularinmuch ofcurrent writinginthefi eld offi lm fi lm “railroads” theminto “identifying” withthe“ideology”ofthatfi lm The beliefthatfi lm spectatorsare“passive”receiversand thatany given characters but insteadwiththeomniscient “point ofview”thecamera. ence witnessingtheprimalsceneorthatviewersidentify not withscreen the film viewer’s relationship toasceneinmovieislikeaninfant’s experi- 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 283 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM . Ed. Journal of . Ithaca: Cornell edition. Toronto: Toronto: edition. nd 2 (1989).” Erzählen (1989).” Grotesque The , 15 October (1999). Available at: http:// , 15 October (1999). Available Sun-Times Chicago . Ed. I. Cameron. London: Studio London: Movie Book of Film Noir. Ed. I. Cameron. The Club.” Was stimmt denn jetzt? Unzuverlässiges Erzählen in Literatur und Film. Eds. Erzählen in stimmt denn jetzt? Unzuverlässiges Was Coming to Terms: The Rhetoric of Narrative in Fiction and Film. Ithaca: Cornell Rhetoric of Narrative The Terms: Coming to University Press, 1978. University Press, 1990. Aesthetics and Art Criticism 53.1 (1995): 19–29. rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19991015/REVIEWS/9 2006). (accessed 30 June 10150302/1023&template=printart University of Toronto Press, 1997. Toronto University of Angle 8.3–4 (1986): 19–26. Erzählens.” 188–203. text + kritik, 2005. edition München: Wolf. Y. and Liptay F. Publishers, 1984. Mouton Film. Berlin: 1994. 174–82. Vista, 2. Ed. E. J. volume a Pragmatics of the Audiovisual, Towards Filmic Narration.” 1995. 55–66. Münster: Nodus, Müller. 42.1 (1990): 3–16. Video Journal of Film and Narration.” Impersonal und Erzähltheorie im 20. Jahrhundert: Festschrift für Wilhelm Füger zum 65. Geburtstag Füger Wilhelm für und Erzähltheorie im 20. Jahrhundert: Festschrift (2001): 357–82. Heidelberg J. Helbig, Winter, Gothic Novel: Refl ections on Patrick McGrath’s McGrath’s Patrick on ections Gothic Novel: Refl (which is to say the implied author’s norms), unreliable when he does not” not” he does when unreliable norms), author’s the implied is to say (which author of the implied norms the found several writers But since (158–9). generally 101), or were at” (Rimmon-Kenan cult to arrive diffi “notoriously (Nünning, author of the implied with the concept unhappy to how about debate an intense there has been “Deconstructing”), the topic in general. approach in unreliable narrator the on works recent all survey who (“Unreliability”) open leave Fludernik and both Olson Although literary narrative theory. called unreliable, narrators can also be appropriately third-person whether narrators that are rst-person fi it is predominantly neither denies that Martin and See Phelan and unreliable narrators. deemed to be prototypical types of narratorial unreliability. the different ning”) on (“Defi Fludernik despi- nd fi would we whom sympathizing with a character pleasure from this matter. on (“Gangsters”) for an account cable in real life. See Smith ——. Film.” gured: Narrative in Literature and Currie, G. “Unreliability Refi Ebert, R. “Fight Wide Wide Cinema.” Level in the Fiction Film: Narrative “Genette and D.A. Black, unzuverlässigen Funktionen Skeptizismus: Bläss, R. “Satire, Sympathie und Press, 1961. University of Chicago Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: The Booth, W.C. 1985. Routledge, in the Fiction Film . London: Narration D. Bordwell, in Classical and Subjectivity of Narration Theory in the Cinema: A View of Branigan, E. Point 1992. Routledge, York: and Film. New Comprehension ——. Narrative A. “Detour.”Britton, of Unreliable a Pragmatics Towards Cognition: and “Relevance W. Buckland, of Pragmatics Logic and The Cinematic Narrator: R. “The Burgoyne, in Fiction and Film Narrative Chatman, S. Story and Discourse: Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. of Narrative. Theory to the Introduction Bal, M. Narratology: works cited works in the Postmodern the (Dis-)orientation and Narration H. “Unreliable Antor, 7. See Olson, Nünning (“Reconceptualizing”) and especially Fludernik especially Fludernik and Nünning (“Reconceptualizing”) 7. See Olson, of derive a degree cases we may means that in certain 8. “Perverse allegiances” 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2839780415962612-Ch-12.indd 283 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 284

volker ferenz 284 Persson, P. Understanding Cinema:APsychological Theory ofMovingImagery Olson, G.“Reconsidering Unreliability:Fallibleand Untrustworthy Narrators.” ——. “Reconceptualizing Unreliable Narration: Synthesizing Cognitiveand ——. “Unreliable,ComparedtoWhat? Towards aCognitive Theory of Nünning, A.“Deconstructing and Reconceptualizing theImpliedAuthor: The Meder, T. “Erzählungen mitSchwarzen Löchern.” Was stimmtdennjetzt? Maslin, J.“Such a Very Long Way from DuvetstoDanger.” The New York Times, McFarlane, B.Novel toFilm:AnIntroduction tothe Theory ofAdaptation.Oxford: Litch, M.Philosophy ThroughFilm. Liptay, F. and Y. Wolf. (eds) Was stimmtdennjetzt?Unzuverlässiges ErzähleninLiteratur Liptay, F. “Auf Abwegen, oderwohinführendieErzählstraßeninden Koebner, T. “Was stimmtdennjetzt? Jahn, M.“Package Deals,Exklusionen, Randzonen: dasPhänomen der Helbig, J.,ed.CameraDoesn’tLie. Spielarten Erzählerischer UnzuverlässigkeitimFilm Giroux, H.“BrutalisedBodies and EmasculatedPolitics:FightClub,Consumerism, Genette, G.Narrative Discourse: AnEssayinMethod. Trans. JaneE.Lewin.Ithaca: ——. “ Fludernik, M.“Deﬁning (In)sanity: The NarratorofThe Yellow Wallpaper and the Ferenz, V. “FightClubs, AmericanPsychos and Mementos: The Scopeof Cambridge UniversityPress,2003. Narrative 11.1(2003):93–109. Rabinowitz. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005.89–107. Rhetorical Strategies.” ACompaniontoNarrative Theory . Eds.J.Phelanand P.J. Grünzweig and A.Solbach. Tübingen: Narr, 1999.53–73. Narratologie imKontext. Transcending boundaries: narratology incontext Unreliable Narration: Prolegomena and Hypotheses.” Critical Phantom?” Anglistik8(1997):95–116. Resurrection ofanAnthropomorphized Passepartout ortheObituary ofa edition text+kritik, 2005.175–87. Unzuverlässiges ErzähleninLiteraturundFilm Section E,15October, 1999:14. Clarendon Press,1996. und Film.München: edition text+kritik,2005. Eds. F. Liptay and Y. Wolf. München: edition text+kritik,2005.307–23. von David Lynch.” Was stimmtdennjetzt?Unzuverlässiges ErzähleninLiteraturundFilm München: edition text+kritik.2005.19–38. denn jetzt?Unzuverlässiges ErzähleninLiteraturundFilm Ed. A.Nünning. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 1998.81–106. Theorie undPraxisUnglaubwürdigen ErzählensinderEnglischsprachigen Erzählliteratur Unverläßlichkeit indenErzählsituationen.” Unreliable Narration: Studienzur WVT, 2006. and Masculine Violence.” Third Text 53(2001):31–41. Cornell UniversityPress,1980. Y. Wolf. München: edition text+kritik,2005.39–59. Was stimmtdennjetzt?Unzuverlässiges ErzähleninLiteraturundFilm.Eds.F. Liptay and Literaturwissenschaftlichen Konzept derErzählerischen Unzuverässigkeit.” Tübingen: Narr, 1999.75–95. Transcending boundaries:narratology incontext Question ofUnreliability.” Grenzüberschreitungen: Narratologie imKontext. 133–59. Unreliable Narration inFilm.” New Review ofFilmand Television Studies3.2(2005): Unreliability vs.Discordance: Kritische Betrachtungen zum New York: Routledge, 2002. Unzuverlässiges ErzählenimFilm.” Was stimmt . Eds.F. Liptay, and Y. Wolf. München: . Eds.W. Grünzweigand A.Solbach. . Eds.F. Liptay and Y. Wolf. Grenzüberschreitungen: . Cambridge: . Eds.W. road movies . Trier: .

4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM the unreliable narrator in the movie theater 285 4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM4/1/2009 10:47:51 AM Journal of . Mahwah: . Oxford: Clarendon Clarendon . Oxford: Narratologies: New Perspectives on Perspectives New Narratologies: . Eds. C. Plantinga and and . Eds. C. Plantinga Film, Cognition, and Emotion Views: Passionate Literary Studies 3.2 (1987): 18–41. 9.2 (2001): 223–29. Narrative reliability.” Style 35.1 (2001): 151–78. in Narrative Fiction.” Discourse Cornell University Press, 2005. University Cornell Day.” Remains of the The Ethics, and Unreliability, . Ed. D. Herman. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, State University Ohio Herman. Columbus: . Ed. D. Analysis Narrative 1999. 88–109. 1987. 1983. , 72.3 (2004): 437–59. Journal of Personality An Introduction.” Press, 1995. Allegiances.” Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. 217–38. G. Smith. Baltimore: 1996. Erlbaum, Lawrence Globe. Ed. S.J. the Cinema Across Horror Frontiers. Without Fear Cinema.” Horror Press, 2003. 231–41. Godalming: FAB Schneider. , 24.1 (1994). 18–42. Technique Journal of Narrative Narration.” Hopkins University Press, 1986. (1981): 113–26. ——. “Package Deals in Fictional Narrative: The Case of the Narrator’s (Un) Narrator’s Case of the The Narrative: Deals in Fictional ——. “Package Cultural and Unreliability B. “Historicizing Unreliable Narration: Zerweck, . Ithaca: . Ithaca: Narration Ethics of Character and It: A Rhetoric About Tell to J. Living Phelan, Homodiegesis, “Weymouth”: of Lessons “The Martin. M.P. and Phelan, J. . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, University of . Lincoln: of Narratology Gerald. A Dictionary Prince, Methuen, . London: Fiction: Contemporary Poetics S. Narrative Rimmon-Kenan, the Adult Lifespan: Meaning Making Across and J. “Narrative Identity Singer, and the Cinema Fiction, Emotion, Smith, M. Engaging Characters: Smith, M. “Gangsters, Cannibals, Aesthetes, or Apparently Perverse Cannibals, Aesthetes, or Apparently Smith, M. “Gangsters, Film: Film as an Emotion Machine of Narrative E. Emotion and the Structure Tan, Polish Narrator: Subversive Storytelling in Unreliable N. “The Thompson, of Unreliable Theories its Challenges to and Remains of the Day K. “The Wall, . Baltimore: John View of in Light: Studies in Cinematic Point G. Narration Wilson, 2.2 Today Poetics Problem.” Reliability as a Communicative “Fictional T. Yacobi, Fiction.” On Interpreting Normative Patterns: ——. “Narrative and 9780415962612-Ch-12.indd 2859780415962612-Ch-12.indd 285 fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences

thirteen

martin barker

Adapted from a children’s novel by precocious teenager Christopher Paolini, this cut-and-paste “sword and sorcery” ﬁ lm [Eragon] is a painful reminder of what fantasy cinema was like before the “Lord of the Rings” trilogy re-wrote the rules. (Anon, Time Out London, December 13–20, 2006)

An interest in fantasy cinema has long been a pretty minority pursuit, looked upon with a degree of condescension. After all, are not such ﬁ lms, and their audiences, “childlike,” simplistic, and not much up to exploring “reality”? The astonishing success of The Lord of the Rings—from potential company-buster, to must-see trilogy generating nine Oscars, and a multi- billion dollar global franchise—for a while moved the axis of amusement. This was among the many reasons why in 2003–4 we mounted the largest- to-date attempt to study audience responses to a ﬁ lm. With a research base in twenty countries, and operating in fourteen languages, the international Lord of the Rings audience research project set out to explore the meaning

9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 286 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 287 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM But it is what I focus on in this chapter—in in this chapter—in I focus on But it is what 1 This discursive package is amused by fantasy at best, marginalizes it, but it, but at best, marginalizes by fantasy is amused discursive package This Up to now, there have been a number of distinctive strands of thinking strands of distinctive been a number there have Up to now, always with the possibility of pathologizing it. Fantasy on this account is this account on it. Fantasy with the possibility of pathologizing always unedifying stuff—all and uncontrolled, un-educational, undisciplined, case it is allowed to be silly fun, Perhaps it is harmless, in which negatives. to thinking “realistically” the better. back we get ourselves the sooner but Within ordinary discourse, perhaps especially in the UK which has a the UK which perhaps especially in discourse, Within ordinary forms as a ctional attitude to fi judgemental and puritanical particularly been associated in popular talk with cultural long has “fantasy” whole, stereotypically pro- so readily and and is very common, This weakness. , originally the Radio Times as an exemplar a report in the UK’s Take duced. TV”). (Anon.,“Unreality listings magazine a self-standing own, now BBC’s embodied the magazine for UK audiences, TV series Heroes the new Trailing be It must fantasy. on commentary casual of so much all the tendencies With a wry article. sense a condemnatory in any rst that this was not fi noted non- stuff and welcomed this fantasy it quite a dismissive wave, smile and lment.” “wish-fulfi and as “escapism” such sense with typical expressions required rules; normally all constraining from means a break away This a collec- and leaps of imagination ights of fancy, are “replaced by fl controls infantilism of persistent a charge there’s Then of disbelief.” tive suspension things”), childish up, or put away to grow wants no-one (“a society where nd fi (“We entered a special plea has to be in fantasy is to be found so if value are there . . . where right now in a very complicated world living ourselves ow notions these, with ease, fl very few answers that are satisfying”). From are They judgements. and critical criteria lack must audiences that fantasy men with . . . bearded of the class the back at girl at best odd folks (“the quiet of them), so beware the rest of you glasses”—geeks to the last one thick domain . . . this stuff might be contagious. a might visit such who popular discourse and signifi cance of fi lm fantasy in the lives of different kinds of viewers of kinds of different the lives in lm fantasy of fi cance signifi and been have not may ndings fi important most our Oddly, world. the around per se. “fantasy” directly about and research around fi ctional fantasy. In one chapter I cannot review these I cannot chapter In one fantasy. ctional fi around research and to I want Instead, what require. as they may like as adequately anything embeds within its con- each is the way these approaches about emphasize through and “the audience,” of conceiving nite ways theories defi cepts and to fantasy. attribute they variously the cultural roles these conceptions the teeth, as it were, of other traditions of talk about fantasy cinema which cinema which fantasy talk about of as it were, of other traditions the teeth, in embrac- is involved what in advance” to “know had a tendency long have to I want case-study, my lms as fi lm. Using Peter Jackson’s fi of ing this kind lm a fi for being audiences do people go about how the question: broach as “fantasy”? that they regard 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2879780415962612-Ch-13.indd 287 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 288

martin barker 288 genre: “we”know and compareacross thecorpusofsuch films, such that create, afi gure ofanaudience thoroughly bathedinthehistory ofthe sons. The priceisthatWorley himselfbothprojects and, ofcourse, helps to that serious fansarealways involved inmakingjudgements and compari- versions, particularly afterthe1960s. attempts toresearch and theorizethefantastic, asitemerged invarious conception has,too,castalong and complicatedshadowoverthevarious least, othermediaincluding film lack eventheseeducational features. This literature mightbe redeemedalittlebygettingtheblighterstoread,at and good)and “fantasy” (alltheoppositesofthese).And while fantasy tinction ismadebetween“imagination” (creative,structured,focusing, nected withtheriseofformaleducation withinwhich frequently adis- sphere ofpopularculture(asShiach and othershave madeclear), con- This isapackage withalong history, connected withtheriseofaseparate seriousness and hilarity, Worley responds: in heroic epicssuch asConan.Afterquoting heron thedoubling between a criticalrejoinder to Yvonne Tasker’s judgements on therole ofmyth heroic) across 100years.Alerttoacademiccommentary, Worley delivers tracks four traditions of fantasy cinema(fairytale,“magic earth,” epic,and Worley’s the “dry”approaches ofstrictlyacademiccritics.So,forinstance, Alec Bakhtin’s work, forinstance), theycannonetheless deliversharpretortsto and Grant have averyinteresting section on therelevance ofMikhail good exampleofthiskind ofwork. Byno meanssimply“fan”works (Clute Clute and Grant’s vastand comprehensive(1997) insider judgements on the relativeworthoffi lms theybringback. neglected, thelost,and therecondite, and not atallafraidofoffering loving books, generous intheirinclusiveness, consciously seekingout the books seektorecoverand cataloguetheirobjects(eg Vale etal.). These are Much asthemorecommon books on horror, oron bannedgenres,these bratory, tobefound inparticularbooks on thehistoryofgenre. The obvious fl ipsideofthissuspicious publicdiscourse istheovertlycele- afi cionado discourse Thus isanacademiccorrectedbyinsiderknowledge, reminding her Empires oftheImagination(2005),mostrecent such book, which intellectually dismissesthem.(206) of theRingsareonly received with“hilarity”when theviewer all. Serious films likeConantheBarbarian, viewers withtheirony sheimplieswemust regard them a secondary world fantasy doesnot wishtodistance its ness ofthemock mythologies” ispreciselynecessaryif What Tasker failstorecogniseisthat“the intense earnest- Excalibur and The Lord Encyclopedia ofFantasyisa 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 289 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM

(2001), [1997] as just a few). fantasy will will fantasy particular Science Fiction Film The Fifth Element The Others such as S.C. Fredericks were more Fredericks as S.C. Others such 2 [1979], think Alien [1977], think Telotte’s account, though, declines to deal with audiences at all, only at all, only audiences to deal with declines though, account, Telotte’s ending with an optimistic plea that if “we” all examine SF, we may fi nd nd fi we may plea that if “we” all examine SF, with an optimistic ending be, or is in danger as it might be, could great use in its address to the world even of hope, is a statement This it. do something about of being if we don’t is his interest In other words, a manifesto, rather than an analytic position. SF as a general pheno- of cance signifi and in the possible cultural value particular how in here to help us understand is nothing There menon. lms for their own meaningful uses, or might select some fi communities at a particular cultural rise to prominence lm might a particular fi how moment. borrowing heavily from Tzvetan Todorov’s concepts (see below), argues (see below), argues concepts Todorov’s Tzvetan from heavily borrowing primary domain) has a special that cinema (rather than literature, Suvin’s is because cinema has a strong This capacity to deal with the “marvellous.” years in particular many in recent and genre-combination, of tradition (think horror and ction fi science fantasy, melded the genres of lms have fi Star Wars a tense line builds spectacle, Cinema also, because of its capacity to deploy of special effects. the achievement with the means and between fascination sympathetic, even seeing the most interesting of it (such as Roger Zelazny’s) as Roger Zelazny’s) of it (such the most interesting sympathetic, even seeing (1978). One important magic” and of science the “antithesis as questioning has resisted other, perhaps more than any writer who, voluminous and His Telotte. dismissals is J. P. normative such the literary fantastic has blossomed to become a substantial “the fantastic” on Literary work fantasy for thinking about the main source eld—indeed, self-sustaining fi price. Nurtured by a series of international narratives overall. But at a heavy struggle for air in this vast arena. struggle for It is worth noting that alongside these rather occasional histories of cine- rather occasional these that alongside noting It is worth of studying tradition rmly-grounded there exists a more fi matic fantasy, as Extrapolation such Closely associated with journals lm. fi ction fi science each new addition can be lovingly (or maybe “hilariously”) slotted into slotted into “hilariously”) (or maybe lovingly can be new addition each for a visits which audience The array. an historical (SF) borders ction fi science policing the has tradition (1973), this parallel Science Fiction Studies and 1959) (founded between the two. maintenance boundary time to time obsessed about from writers uential it. Infl for mentioning this is perhaps the primary reason And the of SF as “the logic of nitions offered defi Suvin have as Darko such with a radical/ thus and by cognitive estrangement, possible”—marked reiterating of the impossible,” as the “logic of fantasy critical edge—and a belittling, escapist image. thus 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2899780415962612-Ch-13.indd 289 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 290

martin barker 290 . First,his“average man”who appearstobind narratorand reader:the 1. grounds: description ofaperson. Actually, thatisnot soatall,on atleastfour any actual audience members. Itis,heinsists,aposition, rather thana ate anaccount oftheimpliedreaderwholly innocent ofimplications for conferences (29 with acharacter withinthenarrative”(58).Oragain: implicit readerjudgescertainreportedevents while identifying himself “We have seenwhat dangersbesetthefantastic on afi rst level,when the “the audience.” These occuralmostinpassing,forinstance when hewrites: they areseenasentirely uncontroversial, arehisembeddedclaims about notion ofseekingsomeformaldefining featurehaspersisted. while Todorov’s specifi c criterion may largely have beendeclined, his way ortheotherrightattheirveryend donot reallymakehiscanon. But having veryfewexemplars—evenstorieswhich resolvethemselvesone ics have noted, hisaccount may have acertainprecision, but atthepriceof on whether events aretobeexplainednaturalisticallyornot. Asmany crit- point ofhesitation sustained bynarrativeswhich won’t permitadecision defi ning the“fantastic,” and found itinthenotion oftheuncanny—a with fantasy? Why isitworthit? Todorov sought aformalcriterion for the audience “figure” inthistradition ofwork: what istheaudience doing “proper” tradition. That ofcourse increases theuneasewithwhich ideasof that requires theexclusion offormulaic Fantasy works, tosafeguard a tradition, inthefaceofscepticismfrom many traditional theorists.But On theone hand thereisawishtoclaim theseriousness ofthefantasy then, ithasbecomeevident thatitiscaughtbetweenconflicting impulses. after theEnglishpublication of Todorov’s structuralistaccount. Since [founded 1990]),itspranginto prominence intheearly 1970s,inparticular problem isnot justtheobvious one oftheassumedmaleness.Itis much I cannot forebearcommenting on this. Todorov appearsheretogener- What tomy knowledge hasnot beencommented on, perhapsbecause tance inrelation totheuniverseofwork. (84) nothing prevents theactual readerfrom keepinghisdis- internal tothetext,astructuralconcomitant. Obviously, an individual psychological function: itisamechanism tic. The identification werefertomust not bemistakenfor enter asdirectlypossibleinto theuniverseoffantas- whom (almost)everyreadercanidentify himself. Thus we identifi cation, thenarratorwillbean“average man,” in “I’ belongs toeveryone. Further, inorder tofacilitatethe to identify withthecharacter, since weknow thepronoun the fi rst-person narratormostreadilypermitsthereader

by 2008)and ajournal ( Journal oftheFantasticinArts 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 291 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM is King Kong there is the diffi culty there is the diffi 3 they are distanced: “Fantasy fi lms, because of their fi “Fantasy because they are distanced: Following Todorov, a series of other literary scholars have paid tribute paid tribute have a series of other literary scholars Todorov, Following notions of narration, with a “speaker.” Only with a “speaker.” of narration, literary notions that he presumes very a formal equivalent nd to fi claimed cinema scholars have occasionally case). perhaps the most noted Nash as to this (see Mark audiences may become embroiled in books or other fi ctions or other fi in books embroiled become may audiences that real more from difference of their their awareness through, of, and because precisely doing our upon has to depend ction fi all historical about Just narrators. at. by fi relations such rules out Todorov this. how his account on conceive to It is hard of responding. world lone than literary critics. can become other of readers communities He allows anyone cation.” than via “identifi other of involvement kind conceive happens—can only so often but—as to become “distanced,” alone is not Todorov of loss of identity. as a form committed participation including accounts, many of position It is a default in this, of course. sometimes model. Only rare (and “encoding-decoding” Hall’s Stuart route. taken a different critics have Nell) eccentric—see others, and by myself been mounted now have to his ideas, but offered their own defi nitional criteria. Rosemary Jackson criteria. Rosemary Jackson nitional offered their own defi to his ideas, but either “expel” a desire to alter that fantasies nition, political defi a proposed or “tell of” organized, is currently it by putting a the world the way on heavily Drawing world. between reader and distance self-conscious theories psychoanalytic of radical politics and the peculiar combination of reference herself became a point gaining popularity at this time, Jackson their on entirely depends though, Her argument, work. for subsequent as “progressive/subversive” shall count what being some simple agreement The pause here). give “extremism” should religious debates about (current with that by comparing her argument can be indicated point of this force neatly study of cinematic monsters recent Bellin whose David of Joshua by admitting that while Bellin begins her judgements. inverts These are not, I would argue, marginal problems. Todorov does need this Todorov problems. marginal argue, I would are not, These criterion. his formal to warrant of “the audience,” embedded conception empty for no be quite would of “hesitation” that, the principle Without is a belief that of his formalist argument at back be doing it. And would one cultural tensions produced century) a particular period (in the nineteenth behaviour. expressive with such likely to accord gives lm, he also sees it as ineliminably racist—and fi his all-time favourite to argue He then proceeds why. reasons contextual and textual many cur- because it activates dangerous cinema” is the more “fantasy that such in a manner that makes them “race” in particular but about discourses rent entertaining 2. This “reader” is curiously individualistic, caught if at all in “his” if at all in caught individualistic, is curiously “reader” This 2. any 3. seem to be able to conceive does not Todorov that It is interesting that the extensive critiques : aside from cation” 4. of “identifi concept That 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2919780415962612-Ch-13.indd 291 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 292

martin barker 292 formal definition presumesamodeofreader-engagement: to emergent rationalism, thisisagain celebratory. Aswith T “the uncanny” tothe“not-expected” and “astonishment.” Seenasaresponse incorrectness without somekind ofreal-world audience test. simple oppositenessofsuch formaldeductions ofpoliticalcorrectnessor exact opposite.Itisverydifficult toseehow one mightevergetbeyond the Jackson, distancing isthemechanism ofradicalcritique; forBellin,the and may therebylend such attitudestheappearance ofthereal”(23).For permit repugnant socialattitudestooperateunder aveilofinnocence semantic opennessand apparent disconnection from socialreality, may shucking demarcate “escapist”literaturewhich stressessensations, emotions, and the Neil Cornwell’s The Literary Fantastic(1990).Cornwellfeelstheneed to circumscribe adomainofworthy writing. This drivecomestoitsheadin tionally conservative literaturedepartments, therehasbeenaneedto surely, becauseoftheembattledstatusstudy offantasy withintradi- separate “thefantastic” (approved) from “Fantasy” (dismissable).Partly, from thelack ofinterest inactual audiences, thereisapersistent willto instance, satisfyingneedsfor“teleologicalunderstanding” [170]). And thekinds ofgainshetheorisesareentirely generaland ahistorical(for oretical question—there isnot ahint ofinterest inaskingactual readers. non-realistic plotsand strangeimages?” Sadlythisis,forher, entirely athe- In herChapter8,sheasks:“Why readfantasy? What doesareadergainfrom end ofherargument, Humedoesappeartoshow aninterest inaudiences. from thelimitsofwhat isusually acceptedasrealand normal” (xii).Atthe Heaven forfend thatone should loseoneself inafantasy narrative. narrative world thatismerelythesubjectofreadingexperience” (176). literary techniques “prevent thereaderfrom suspending disbeliefinthe he distinguishesmassfrom “more educated”readers,since forthe latterthe recurs inhisdiscussion ofAlainRobbe-Grillet’s The Erasers through which pose” (59)which takesitbeyond escapism. This needtosecureserious intent in Wonderland isthearchetypal fantasy, towhich iscrediteda“serious pur- and what istobemadeofthose who respond differently. Inthis model It seemsalmostimpertinent toaskwho preciselyisincluded inthis“we,” Another important contributor, EricRabkin,shiftedtheemphasis from There aresomestrikingcontinuities across allthesedifferences. Apart Kathryn Hume,meanwhile, defined fantasy as“thedeliberatedeparture whole experience aspeopleand readers.(41) implications ofstructures,allplaying on and against our tions ofcharacters, thestatements ofnarrators,and the turn around 180°.We recognisethisreversalinthereac- when theground rulesofanarrativearesuddenlymadeto The fantastic isaquality ofastonishment which wefeel off ofresponsibilities, from thenecessary uneaseand discomfort, odorov, the Alice 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 293 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM

5 Because of its some- 4 theory, perhaps most notably via Laura Mulvey’s famous (1975) famous Mulvey’s via Laura perhaps most notably theory, Screen By the 1990s literary work on the fantastic appears to have settled into settled into appears to have the fantastic on literary work By the 1990s Psychoanalytic fi lm theory begins, almost without exception, from from exception, almost without lm theory begins, fi Psychoanalytic There is of course a long tradition of work on fi lm which wants to talk wants lm which fi on of work tradition a long is of course There a key aspect of more often, phantasy—as of fantasy—or, the role about For a time in the 1970s, it could lm theory. fi all viewing: psychoanalytic Now as a whole. lm theory, with fi almost seem as if this was co-terminous the rise of especially since more embattled enclave, a much constitutes it lm approaches. cognitive fi explicitly oppositional psychoanalysis and “phantasy” “phantasy” and psychoanalysis publishing almost entirely textual textual almost entirely publishing the JFA forms, with narrow safe but some on premised each of works, or groups particular authors analyses of in interest of lack simply the not is problem The fragment. theoretical is of what narrowness It is in the overall key concern). (my reception circulation publishing, on: work any nd impossible to fi covered. It is almost canon-formation; and archiving libraries, collections, traditions; display and reviewing practices nitions, shifting genre defi histories of critical thought, claim collections several while more. And many criteria; and evaluative and cin- for instance), Ruddick, lm as well as literature (see fi to address fantasy literary to more traditional string second play much very ematic fantasies concerns. and the “continued need for monstrous revelations” (218) which the “real” the (218) which revelations” monstrous need for the “continued and offers. fantastic times prevalence I cannot ignore psychoanalytic work. But for a number of But for a number work. psychoanalytic ignore I cannot times prevalence key The it in detail. time here examining much spend not I do reasons, excursus is that, with very few exceptions a quick such for reason Jacques Lacan’s alterations to Freud’s original account concerning the concerning original account to Freud’s alterations Lacan’s Jacques of repression processes and in particular with its mother, its relations child, Lacan’s unconscious. and of ego leading to the formation/separation at which development in a child’s point phase”—a upgrading of the “mirror other seeing him/herself as through a sense of self through s/he founds for thinking the cinema screen eyes—offered a ready metaphor people’s to cinema via ideas made their transition Lacan’s lm spectatorship. fi and 1970s (1986) edited collection, Burgin’s via a pair of books—Victor and essay, restatement Pontalis’ and manifesto-like, Laplanche frontispieced, which (1989) edited application subsequent James Donald’s ideas, and of Lacan’s (Walkerdine; Arthurs), while people working in this tradition have been have in this tradition people working while Arthurs), (Walkerdine; lm spectatorship,” speculative models of “fi large very happy to produce that these in a way been embarrassingly unwilling to formulate they have that the few occasions on And particular audiences. to any apply could has been made, the problems to a structured application close anything (see in particular Stacey). been vividly evident have 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2939780415962612-Ch-13.indd 293 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 294

martin barker 294 conflicting setofproposals. Ontheone hand Metztalksmuch interms of proposals forhow to consider audience responses. But what wegetisa of thepsychoanalytical thinkerswho comesclosest tomaking concrete given not one studyofany actualmalespectatorshadtakenplace. could thinkthatthe“malespectator”hadbeenadequately theorised, (95). Who preciselydotheythinkhasbeensopersuaded? Onlyaconvert male spectator, no comparableaccount existedforthefemalespectator” contributed toapersuasive account oftheexchange betweenfilm and the on visual pleasure:“Although bytheend ofthe1970spsychoanalysis had who comment thus on thedebateswhich followedLauraMulvey’s essay sense only toconverts. This isnicelyillustrated byLapsleyand Westlake works offantasy. Debatesinthissphere alsotend tobedoctrinal,making fi lm theoristcould The Man Who ShotLiberty Valance orSuspicionconstitute tasy” inany oftheother approach bearno similarity tothose addressedunder thebannerof“fan- lot ofpriortenets. sexual identity) canbeplayed out. And films arethatspace. where those unresolvablebut ever-active“desires”(always centred around understood asthestaging ormiseenscèneofdesire(Burgin etal.,2),aplace quences alterprettyfundamentally. “Fantasy” inthistheory-church is the impliedmotivesforparticipation and theirattendant likelyconse- ordinary words—“interest,” “curiosity,” “wish,” “fancy,” “fascination”—and larity seemstosignalsomethingprimevaland ineluctable. Substitute fact interesting toplay withthekeyword “desire,” whose objectlesssingu- lack and endless pursuit,theinitialcoreofunconscious” (3–4).Itisin persistence oftheexclusive relation tothemother, desireasapureeffectof “technique oftheimaginary” operatingon and through “subterranean the point ofemergent subjectivity. InChristian Metz’s words: cinemaisa doing isregressing indream-likemodetounresolvedissuesrepressedat even beautifulbodiesand sumptuous sets.Butno, what theyareactually delighting infilms theyarelovingacting,story, humour, cinematography, from childhood gainespecialembodiment. Audiences mightthinkthatin Cinema, apparently, isamediumthrough which unresolvedtensions writes Todd McGowan(2003),asifthisclearly hasprofound implications. able to.“Initsveryform,fi lm necessarily involves recourse tofantasy,” “institution” doingpsychic work thatalmostnothing elseappearstobe defeat me)insiston seeingcinemaassomespecialontologically-distinct have erectedaseriesoflarge claims which (forreasons which continually only resource. Those who have pursuedthisLacanianaccount ofcinema “race,” gender, etc.),forwhich, itwasbelieved, psychoanalysis wasthe ability todealwith“identities” (asagainst categorial explanations byclass, to cinema.Oneprimarymotivation herewastorecoverculturalstudies’ In factitisprobably Metz,one oftheearliest (and now heavily criticized) To belong tothischurch, you have towork hard and acceptanawful 6 Once there,thefi lms examinedinthenameofthis traditions Ihave found. Onlytoapsychoanalytic other other 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 295 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM )—may seem arbitrary. But I have chosen Todd McGowan’s McGowan’s Todd chosen But I have seem arbitrary. )—may 7 The central issue is how psychoanalytic theorists go about their business their business theorists go about psychoanalytic is how issue central The because it so overtly addresses the Lost Highway because it so overtly Lynch’s analysis of David the displays it so clearly because in its core strategies and topic of “fantasy,” lm the fi to reclaim McGowan wants I see elsewhere. tendencies central incom- it as virtually dismissed have who audiences” the “critics and from in it a deep struc- nds fi a Lacanian reading which prehensible, by proffering and like “fantasy” words works, such many of so Typical ture of meanings. object-less, content-less, unities, person-less, “desire” become strange dark [51]; “the desire . . .” and of fantasy (“the interrelations ineluctable but an interpre- If McGowan was simply proposing [52]). enigma of desire . . .” its on or fall stand then it could to adopt or no, we can choose which tation does much its scope (how and way?) lm this (is it fun to read the fi interest allegorical be said, a weird be, it must its frame?). It would in it engross - Progress Pilgrim’s to be embodiments, characters requiring interpretation, the Real). But this is the Law, (Desire, Fantasy, abstractions like, of chunky audience actual by criticising that begins all that he is doing. In an essay not of imbricated spectator. up 94 times—as some kind crops “we” rejections, “so bright we close images nding fi of things here, from do all kinds “We” (67) but to the Law” ced himself to being sure Fred has “sacrifi eyes” (51) our lm’s because of the fi successfully interpellated” “never being fully and of psychoana- become ciphers characters Typically, structure (68). unique of an embodiment lm becomes simultaneously the fi lytic tendencies, parallel somehow responses “our” and “us,” about them and truths about both Fred and turn to fantasy, the “Through of preferred characters: those lm fi The of desire.” the unbearable mystery the spectator escape from of the truths of Lacanian theory (it “reveals” becomes an embodiment a capacity to hint) with (so he wants ction—but [69]), almost a lecture via fi need to, see in our- to, but want we don’t us, to dredge that which to probe a model for into transmuted Lost Highway has somehow selves. By the close, in this mode of “Fantasy” as a whole. psyche for the human lms and all fi bearers—audiences lms its awesome fi abstraction, writing is a shuddering ections. refl its uncomprehending of analysing fi lms. Choosing one essay to exemplify a whole “school”—and “school”—and a whole to exemplify essay one lms. Choosing of analysing fi du Cinéma collective on (the Cahiers of the “classics” one even choosing not on of Evil, or Elizabeth Cowie Touch A Heath on Mr Lincoln, or Stephen Young Voyager Now, unifi ed spectatorial positions. He does at one point acknowledge that audi- that acknowledge point at one He does positions. ed spectatorial unifi why of reasons his list an invitation—but or refuse might decline ences nal recogni- in a fi Then, circumscribed. do so is very narrowly they might model as the to behave likely are not audiences empirical that actual tion completely are likely to be all responses allows simply that suggests, he and, nothing everything and allows account confused This individuated. cultural social and recognize simply does not to me, just as importantly processes. 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2959780415962612-Ch-13.indd 295 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 296

martin barker 296 genre, generally: much-cited formulation ofthedefi nitional problem thatinfectsideasof caught upinaversion oftheloopthatAndrew Tudor described,inhis but strictlyuntested imputations about “spectators.” concerns meistheirhijacking oftheword “fantasy,” and theirdeep-rooted denying itsadherents theirrightstoadoptand followthisapproach. What fantasy materials—mostly, but not only, literary. reveal thecomplexityofchildren’s encounters withdifferent kinds of to experience fantasy aspartofarich education, theseveryrecent studies to find. Motivatedbyadetermination topreservechildren’s opportunities the empiricalaudience research offantasy audiences thatIhave beenable general relations withfantasy. Infactthiswork constitutes virtually all ducing, eventhough ithardly touches films. This work examineschildren’s unexpected thingswithwhat theyarewatching. notice thatthereareotherpeoplethere,doingallkinds ofinteresting and In short, Irecommend thatfilm theorygotothemovies,but taketimeto use theterm“fantasy” inthecourse oftheirinteractions withspecific fi lms. most importantly bylooking athow audiences themselvesunderstand and they “comeclean” astotheirclaims and implications foraudiences; and “fantasy” weshould tackle itintwoways: bydemanding ofdefinitions that mata, histories,and evaluative criteria.Myproposal isthatwithregards to how readilyaudiences—professional oramateur—develop theirownsche- textual accounts. The quotation which mast-headsthischapter indicates otherwise—diffi cult, and potentially threateningtotheeasyassertions of film scholars have beenunwillingtomake,since itis—and Idonot pretend I would argue, isthecriticaltest. This istheneglected criticalmovewhich considering theirimplications foraudiences remainsundone. And this, torical approaches (asforinstance Altman,and Neale).Butthework of moved away from normative defi nitions towards, forinstance, morehis- been morenoticed thanovercome, exceptwhere genretheoristshave between approaches thereforebecomesalmostimpossible. This loophas of “fantasy,” which hardly count inanyone else’s frameofreference. Debate Critics indifferent theoreticalmodeshave theirownprivileged examples We canseefrom alltheaboveway definitions of“thefantastic” are This isfilm theoryforconverts, inallkinds ofways. Ihave no interest in One otherslowlygrowing but little-known body ofwork needsintro- Gledhill 95) fi lms themselvesaftertheyhave beenisolated.(citedin characteristics” which canonly bediscoveredfrom the But theycanonly beisolatedon thebasisof“principal must fi rst isolatethebodyoffi lms which are“westerns.’’ principal characteristics, istobeg thequestion thatwe To takeagenresuch asthe“western,’’ analyseit,and listits 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 297 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM Alexander and the Wind-up Wind-up and the Alexander which of course has no words at all). She words has no of course which Snowman The , and Hobbit The Something of the same can be said of the study by Maya Götz and Götz and Something of the same can be said of the study by Maya There is an important limitation to her work. Mikkelsen is interested in Mikkelsen is interested to her work. limitation is an important There Nina Mikkelsen’s target is those educational approaches which reduce reduce which approaches educational those is target Mikkelsen’s Nina her colleagues into children’s uses of television. A cross-cultural study A cross-cultural uses of television. children’s into her colleagues out too sets the USA, this one Korea and Israel, South between Germany, cally in this time specifi of fantasy, suspicions conventional to challenge the “burst of literacies” (175) which mark the stage in children’s lives when lives when in children’s the stage mark of literacies” (175) which the “burst of is a point This sense. literate in the broadest and they become self-aware others and teachers, she is keen that parents, and transformation personal best use of these help them to make should with children interact who we with what But because of this, she is primarily concerned resources. the imaginative nd they fi how in children, might call the point of individuation (181) of rst glimpses” “getting their fi to become full humans, resources This processes. their own growth as they go through adult understandings to report only and with small numbers, to work makes sense of her choice the worse none and as recommendation, is research This successes. on adults might it therefore is a limited model for thinking how for it—but as a purposes. Brilliant materials for more culturally-shared use fantasy for can have that fantasy force of the transformational demonstration this, ever say think she would I don’t comes after? Although what children, of fantasy work be read as suggesting that the essential Mikkelsen could this individual- lived through and experienced have children once is done real and adulthood, Now, its work.’’ It has “done ized liberatory experience. beckon. must cultural engagements children’s encounters with books to a set of fragmented, thence measura- thence of fragmented, to a set with books encounters children’s construct- fantasy; fact and between skills: telling the difference ble reading In place for instance. pictures, without reading and ing story-sequences; of small groups with detail her work describes in fascinating of these, she com- to build they were able how showing her own, including children, to these their own relations and situation, character, of plex accounts stories (including with fantasy encounters through Mouse, range of whole develop a with and work they spontaneously how shows personal/ skills: from are also human/moral/social literacy skills which socio-cultural. Fantasy, aesthetic, critical, and empathetic, to narrative, think for them, allowing them to see and is a vital resource she argues, uncer- and tensions through they can work where themselves in situations charac- characters’ they explore “passive,” Far from in their lives. tainties even gaps—and across accounts build assess situations, choices, ters and they are to stories if by their moral standards endings change and challenge “co-author” children for all this are highly charged: Her words “fair.” not do they can their accounts—and as they build the stories with the books, results are “democratic The encouragement. it better if given space and (108). “celebratory” the achievements and egalitarian,” and 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2979780415962612-Ch-13.indd 297 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 298

martin barker 298 drawing on combinations ofbiographical and mediaexperiences: mix ofmethods toexplorehow children construct make-believeworlds, relation totelevision. Their focuswason children aged 8–10,and useda the fi lm trilogywaspreparedforinpress, magazine, radio, television, and strands ofresearch: a3-month study oftheways inwhich thefinal partof to fi ll it.Lastingfor15months across 2003–4, theproject involved three knowledge. The “fantasy,” and oftheskillsrequired forenjoyingit. What thissuggests isaneedtorethinkthesingularnatureofcategory SF-readers who the way ofunderstanding thisstory—aproblem not encountered bythe ers, surprisingly, thatbeinganavid fantasy readeralmostseemedtogetin (avid, occasional, and non-readers offantasy, and SF-readers)and discov- only on theFinnishresponses, IrmaHirsjärvidistinguishesseveralgroups cultural factors.Inafi rst reporton theproject’s outcomes, and drawing responses wereexplored,forevidence oftheimpactbothindividual and Kovala and Vainikkala). UsingastorybyUrsulaLeGuin,young people’s a widerproject on young people’s reading(on thebroader project, see Baltic Seacountries, this work focusesagain on fantasy literature,aspartof becoming available inEnglish.Arisingout ofacollaboration across fi ve for adultmake-believeworlds. of imaginative childhood, itishard toseewhat theimplications mightbe gets pasttherejection ofthepopular dismissaloftelevision and celebration media materialtomeettheirneeds”(200).AswithMikkelsen,once one and thereforegirls have to“invest moreenergy thanboysinalteringthe concern thatfantasy materialsforgirlsarethinnerand moresecond-hand, Once again, thisispredominantly celebratory. Ifthereisadownside,it These fewaudience studiessimplyemphasize thesizeofgapinour The third bodyofempiricalresearch into fantasy audiences isonly now philosophical, scientific orsociologicaldilemma.(Hirsjärvi) the story, plotand characters, theyseemedtoapproach itasa trying tofind connections toreallife. Insteadofscrutinizing speculative mind-game about afi ctional society, without appeared toreadthestorymetaphorically, i.e.,toseeitasa and independence. (197) tect and beprotected; todemonstrate theirownspecialness ings ofwell-beingand thrill;tobond withothers;topro- wish foractsthatareself-empowering:toexperience feel- fantasy backdrops forplaying out theirwishestoact. They ated sources, and freelyinterweave themtocreaterich range ofsources, including theirownexperience and medi- Children build upon awealthofinformation from awide Lord oftheRings project wasasustainedattempttobegin 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 299 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM they felt the fi lm kind of story they felt the fi Here, my questions are guided very much by what by what are guided very much questions Here, my 8 of investigation and evidence may be required, we deliver the ster- we deliver the be required, may evidence and kinds of investigation The fi rst surprising discovery came from our analysis of the overall our rst surprising discovery came from fi The For purposes of this essay, two components of the questionnaire were of the questionnaire two components For purposes of this essay, At the heart of the project were three questions: (a) what does fi lm does fi (a) what three questions: were project At the heart of the data. Overall, and unsurprisingly, our research tended to recruit people tended research our unsurprisingly, data. Overall, and But there were more involvement. with overall high levels of pleasure and generic understandings for us to be able to explore which than enough to offer: Allegory, Epic, Fairytale, Fantasy, Game-world, Good vs Evil, Game-world, Epic, Fairytale, Fantasy, to offer: Allegory, Homeland, Threatened Journey, lm, Spiritual Quest, SFX fi Myth/Legend, of their own, to answer with a choice was an option (There Story. or War their own words: in asked people to say other The this.) very few took but Is there a place or a time that is Middle-Earth for you? when, and “Where, a provided think of?” Answers to these questions makes you it particularly audi- to different meant “fantasy” what for understanding resource rich Lord of the Rings . The for ences critical. One question asked people to choose up to three from a range up to three from asked people to choose critical. One question best describe the that would of twelve options I would argue is avoided in current theorising about “fantasy,” namely: in “fantasy,” theorising about in current is avoided argue I would Rings—does its “fantasy” Lord of the case The lm—in our aspects of a fi what what to them? And How does this matter nature reside for its audiences? for their understanding, does this have implications and consequences lm? the fi of evaluation and response, fantasy mean and how does it matter to different audiences across the across audiences matter to different does it how mean and fantasy by its shaped contexts in different reception lm’s was the fi (b) how world?, with Zealand lming in New celebrating its fi story, origins as a very English lm was the fi (c) how a Hollywood studio?, and from backing and money the into did this play how and contexts, country gured in different prefi strengths of the key that one argue But I would overall reception? lm’s fi was its capacity to generate materials to allow a range of of the project however project, research single no be asked. Clearly to further questions posed by all the challenges take on simultaneously could wide-reaching, be that is just the point: But may of theorizing “fantasy.” ve traditions fi my that differ- in acknowledging in refusing to deal with everything at once, ent possible. nest response the Internet as well as in marketing, publicity, and merchandising (resulting (resulting merchandising and publicity, marketing, as well as in the Internet a web question- items); gurative prefi thousand of several gathering in the measures (most importantly, qualitative and quantitative naire combining vari- themselves along people to allocate asking paired questions a series of lm] and had enjoyed the fi they much [for example, how dimensions ous in just under this meant)—resulting what own words in their then to say (in and ve months; over fi in just the world across from 25,000 responses people who with follow-up interviews countries) some of the participant analysis a preliminary from patterns that emerged appeared to exemplify this basis). 107 people on (in the UK we interviewed of the questionnaires 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 2999780415962612-Ch-13.indd 299 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 300

martin barker 300 capture thetypicalflavour ofthese responses: it appearstohave awidermeaningand charge. The following examples simply toindicate extremityofresponse. Actually, upon investigation, Importance ofSeeing. This may seemunsurprising,iftheword istaken fi lm. Ofthese,510reportedbothExtremeEnjoyment, and Maximum respondents usedtheword “fantastic” todescribetheirexperience ofthe and soapparently opposite.Withinour database,513English-speaking high. Sowhat doesour evidence revealabout thecontrasts involved here? The LordoftheRingsinthismode,pleasuresand valuations wereexceptionally either greatpleasureorvalue. Yet overall,forthose notencountering minds, “Fantasy” asasingulardescriptordoesnot seemtoassociatewith odv vl7. 12Wrsoy6. 56.1 63.4 36.4 65.9 72.0 71.2 45.3 64.5 80.3 62.5 War 74.7 story 71.6 Spiritual journey Threatened homeland Quest 61.2 SFXfilm 57.6 41.2 65.9 71.2 42.9 66.6 Myth/legend 61.8 73.8 64.3 59.2 Good vsEvil 71.0 Game-world Fantasy Fairytale Epic Allegory Table 13.1 percent asagainst Spiritual Journey’s 69.2percent). Journey’s highest93.9percent) and ExtremeImportance (Fantasy =49.8 nominating ExtremeEnjoyment (Fantasy =57.0percent asagainst Spiritual (just 309intheworld set),theyhave one ofthelowestproportions ofthose those who chose tonominate only “Fantasy.” Arelativelysmall number tion toImportance. This becomesevenmore strikingwhen weisolated Importance ofSeeing,asthefollowing Table 13.1shows. have arelatively low levelofassociation withlevels ofEnjoyment and these choices werecross-tabulated withotheranswers,itwasrevealed to their choices—second only behind “Epic” and “GoodvsEvil’)—when common choice todescribethestory(9,882out of24,739makingitone of associated withmostpleasureand involvement. So,while “Fantasy” wasa visual and sound effects and anice fantasy. ideas orconcepts ingeneral.Itwas fantastic stufftowatch intermsof towards me.Inshort itwasnot material thatmademewonder about 2. Well there arenot any deepermessages thatthismoviehasprojected did fantastic jobsportraying theirroles. though ittakesplaceinafantasy world. Alsoalltheactorsand actresses I fi nd amazingabout itisthatdealswithsomany human issueseven 1. What canIsay about thisfi lm? Itisamazing!Oneofthethingsthat One otherfigure isworthreporting,becauseitsonearly unanimous— “Fantasy” ranksseventh inrelation toEnjoyment, and eighthinrela- Relations ofKind ofWorld choices withlevelsofenjoyment and importance no motEjyImport Enjoy Import Enjoy 9 Inour audiences’ 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 301 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM couples with ideas it purveys, and makes it both couples Also particularly striking, because they match broader distinctions we distinctions broader striking, because they match Also particularly A number of themes are evidently at work in these responses. First, the in these responses. at work themes are evidently of A number 3. Wow! It was totally mind-blowing. A fantastic end to an epic story. to an end fantastic A totally mind-blowing. It was 3. Wow! down he brought cool when was so amazing. Legolas was That 4. WOW! the emotions and the relationships I liked single-handed. the Mumakil Fields was just how Pelennor sequences. action lm as well as the of the fi I’m going to see it again!!! be. Fantastic!!!!!!! it to I imagined of emotion. roller-coaster a fantastic was incredible lm the fi 5. I thought ready I wasn’t lms and rst two fi than the fi better much owed lm fl fi The for it to end. overwhelming. magical 6. Fantastical emotions ideas and The with sobs. Wracked response? 7. My emotional story were virtually adventure the guise of a fantastical put forth under had nished I felt as if a dear friend the movie fi when and overwhelming after death. still wise ed in life but satisfi passed away work. Tolkien job interpreting did a fantastic Jackson Peter 8. I thought theatrical release but make the a few scenes that didn’t there were Yes I am very eagerly I can see why. 1/2 hours given that it was already 3 and edition. the extended awaiting these Despite with are omissions. problems parts that I have only The 9. is that the Word faithful to the spirit of the book. and fantastic is ROTK take care should to 5 hours—that is going to be close Edition Extended problems. of my of any it was at a few missing scenes I thought disappointment 10. Aside from they in, they BELIEVED what drew you characters The stupendous. etc. was fantastic. were doing, the scenery costumes makeup found, are the differences between quotes 2 and 7. For the latter the 2 and between quotes are the differences found, lm fi of the force emotional passing is to be regretted. whose lm—it has become a friend, more than a fi fi lm was loved by many for its sheer sensory, narrative, and emotional emotional narrative, and for its sheer sensory, lm was loved by many fi is no This more of. to want one and experience, It was a complete overload. the frequency qualities: of the sought-after is one small matter in itself, and “awe-inspiring,” “breath-taking,” as “mind-blowing,” such words with which that quality are used is very striking. It seems that a “overwhelming” and is straight- that is in some senses associated with “fantasy” and was valued, An narrative sumptuousness. aural, and unrestrained visual, forward excess that it is this sheer capacity for sensuous can be made argument cinema, in contemporary by many is valued which is a key quality which syndrome” dismissed as the “blockbuster even if this is contemptuously critics. by many “FX domination” and 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 3019780415962612-Ch-13.indd 301 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 302

martin barker 302 from allvarietiesofrespondents, whether nominating Fantasy orno: and when isMiddle-earth?”question comewithout any differentiation with the“reality”ofMiddle-earth. The followinganswerstoour “Where and commitment tothefilm and itsmeanings,and any formalassociation commitment (see Turnbull inBarker and Mathijs). people werethemore likely tocriticizethemoretheyexpressedenjoyment and com patible withcriticism.Indeed one ofthefindings oftheproject wasthat tion, theending. None oftheseareexemptfrom complaint, but allare narrative exclusions oralterations, particularpiecesofacting,story-realiza- tionally yetbecriticalofit,simultaneously. They arecontent tocriticize acknowledge thelimitations ofacinemarelease. They canloveituncondi- can note pace,narrativeform,cinematography, etc. They canseeand work and roles ofdirector, actors,specialeffectsdevisers,and soon. They in no way diminishestheircapacitytomeasure thefilm. They canidentify the For themostenthusiastic, theirsenseofdeepenjoyment and engagement meanings orideas,itscapacitytomoveisreduced—it“nicefantasy” only. For theformer, becauseitisperceived asjustafi lm, without substantive Kind ofWorld choice: lowing adherents from criticsofThe Lordofthe It isnot thenotional location ofthefantasy world which distinguishes paralleled Middle-earthtoEurope soit’s there. Tolkien made itbecauseofthelack ofatrueEuropean fantasy sohe in Tolkien’simagination. It harkens toScottishhistoryforme.Otherwiseit’s justaplace and time It makesmethinkofpre-1000 I thinkEurope isMiddle-earth. Kind ofmedievaltimesinthisworld but forgotten legend. ethnic groups, alsogeographically. has many characteristics from historyofdifferent nations, peopleand reality exceptasabook and aproper fantasy tale.Ontheotherhand it I don’t thinkMiddle-earthexistsinour world orbelongs asitistoour It isaconstruct ofthemind. in particular(besidessomelandscapes which remind meoftheUS). It isafictitious settingfi t forthestory. Itdoesnot remind meofanything who caresgo there. No, thisispurefantasy atitsbest.Middle-earthisin themind ofanyone What washarder tofind, wasany association betweenthesekinds ofuse almost exclusively comefrom those who nominate “Fantasy” astheir AD GreatBritain. Rings. Itissomethingelse. The fol- 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 303 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM found among among found never This is a fi lm for which I had been waiting breathlessly for lm for which is a fi This body felt of the release itself my two years. On the day of Mumakil a herd where stomach (except for my numb a mixture of extreme joy I experienced were rampaging!). with sadness that the that I was going to see Return coupled All this points towards a substantial paradox: the more audience mem- paradox: the more audience a substantial towards All this points Middle-earth for me is when I fi I was 13. rst read the trilogy—when I fi is when Middle-earth for me is universal. spirituality The it is. when and where important No, it is not in time in this place at this moment another Middle-earth is simply lm to fi relate the be futuristic, I didn’t may the location Whilst world. the future. existing and there are similarities to existing places I know Not really. I do to me. Or perhaps world it really seems like a different cultures but history that is as something that was part of our to think of it WANT not helps me bear the pain of realising of it as a separate world Thinking lost. the loss are imagined). and the world though we’ve lost (even what I see mankind living in now. Middle-earth is for me the time that I am raising children things from feel about think and we live and the way and why and work we live and where relationships conducting and to having who seems a minority what threat from we do as under we do what giving us the freedom to without lifestyle are trying dictate a different explore life itself. we face everyday. challenges Middle-earth is within... it translates to the bers refer overtly to a category called “fantasy,” the more likely they are to called “fantasy,” bers refer overtly to a category with it. Committed viewers of course dissatisfaction and distance mark that is merely a means to, but that it is, in a strict sense, a fantasy, know their world. for in a project perhaps an aid to, an uninhibited participation questionnaire one from density of meanings in this quotation the Consider response: building of a personal relationship to relationship these last is the building of a personal appears to differentiate What rst read the fi “I’’ life history (when the story-world. Sometimes a personal (“spirituality humanity an appeal to a special common sometimes book), we face in culties the diffi sometimes a loose attempt to diagnose within’’), world. shared our These responses insist on the fi ctionality of Middle-earth, its safe distance its safe distance of Middle-earth, ctionality the fi on insist responses These are of response kinds following the Meanwhile us. from those who choose Fantasy, but are found with regularity among those those among with regularity are found but Fantasy, choose who those levels of pleasure with the highest ones Journey’’—the “Spiritual choosing lm: to the fi commitment and 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 3039780415962612-Ch-13.indd 303 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 304

martin barker 304 trayal of“home” and trustworthy friends which the Shireoffers. The restis important sceneasthe Scouring? The importance ofthatscene lay initspor- Mumakil—if theycould addthat,why couldn’t theyhave keptinsuch an of thechanges—for instance bytheaddition ofLegolas’ killingofthe were important asa“source” forthefi lms, and shewasirritatedatsome other “geeks”bytheirt-shirtwearing.Although not adevotee,thebooks rooms. Mollymeasuresitsinternational impactbyherabilitytorecognize lected merchandise, evengeneratingtheir own,and joinedInternet chat about thestoriesatallopportunities,saw thefilms asoftenpossible,col- immediately afterseeingthefi rst fi lm, asdidherbestfriends. They talked again when the films startedtocomeout. ShereadFellowship and alltherest I’ve everhad.” Introduced tothebooks byherDad,shediscovered them important component. because s/hehadtalkedabout “fantasy,’’ but inallcasesitproved tobean nymized cases,offour ofour 107interviewees. None wasinterviewed ticular cases?Icandono morethanillustrate thesetoobriefly infour ano- course allthelocalcircumstances withinwhich theylive. book-origins); thecallstoimaginative freedomnot oftensupported;and of to fools(but weakenedon thisoccasion byitssuccess,and thestatusofits and pressures:thepressuresofdismissivediscourse which reducesthem tasy film” such asThe LordoftheRings arecaughtwithinanetofpossibilities because themostmoved.Myargument isthatengaged viewersofa“fan- claims about “fantasy audiences.” Yet sheisarguably themostimportant, type-case ofawhole kind ofviewerwhich fi nds no placeintheexisting just ofthefi lm’s quality but ofitsmoralvalue tootherslikeher. Sheisa relation toacomplexinterpretive community, built around hersensenot “journey” alongside theevents inthetrilogy. Shealsopositions herselfin She hints atsomethingwhich thischapter cannot expand, theideaofa is no more),and thelong-term (“changed my life”) impactsofthestory. tory (“waitingbreathlessly,” “numb body”),thepresent (“sadness”thatthere insider-reference (the“herd ofMumakil”),shedepictsboththeprepara- This womanwants toshareherpassionate involvement. Withateasing For Molly, anunder-18 femaleviewer, Tolkien is“thehugest obsession How doesthismixofindividual and collectiveforces play out inpar- me arealhope forthefuture. into contact withgenerous, honourable peoplewho give and dutytotheirhearts. Through thefi lm Ihave come millions around theworld took thistaleofhonour, love around us,itwasbeautifuland upliftingtoseehow is alltooeasytobecomedisillusioned withtheworld and theInternet. Ithaschanged my life.Inatime when it me into contact withwhole communities bothinRealLife journey’s atanend. .BeingafanofLOTR hasbrought 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 305 4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM4/1/2009 10:48:05 AM can win (this is on the fi rst night.” the fi LOTR on its authenticity for her, for her, guarantees its authenticity in the fi lm and the huge fantasy it offers. it fantasy the huge lm and of participation in the fi experience Ben, an early twenties male, was introduced to the books by his father, by his father, to the books introduced male, was twenties Ben, an early For Sylda, a woman in her fi fties, it didn’t matter who she was with as she matter who fties, it didn’t For Sylda, a woman in her fi James (a married man in his forties) fi rst read the books when he was when rst read the books James (a married man in his forties) fi grand, and enjoyable, but it is just “fantasy.” And it was friendship which which it was friendship And is just “fantasy.” it but enjoyable, and grand, He friend. the perfect as Sam, chosen character: of favourite choice her drove world fantasy this huge at they look are liked because hobbits the other and Molly, For them through. carries friendship sea in it—but feel all at and within an friendship of pure enables a celebration fantasy” “huge lm’s the fi exhilarating providing a sheet-anchor for handling his feelings—things to hold onto in onto to hold his feelings—things for handling a sheet-anchor providing goes for Gimli as he and the vastness of the story, He loves world. a turbulent uses his axe . . . Ben sets himself a bit he drinks, he shouts, is “cool’’—he “hooligan,” the the “pimply,” of viewers: the “sad,” other kinds apart from the to increase with them in order still loves watching but the “purist,” him knock lm is that its scale should of the fi demand His one atmosphere. the big sound/ of it—he is into in the modernity strongly So he invests over. system to go with getting sound new DVD a “cool” big screen, he bought for him—he nitely a cultural moment But this was very defi the DVDs. “I saw to tell his grandchildren to be able wanted long as she was with someone whom she could talk to afterwards—it was talk to afterwards—it she could whom was with someone as she long ed intensifi the experience have with other people, and just good to watch the sheer the scale of the book, in her answers is on emphasis The by that. particular any rather than on it contains, events and amount of characters as long bits left out, to have So it is OK or direction. narrative organization allows it to This battles. and get both emotions lm you fi as in the resultant repeated terms. Middle- “dreams’’—frequently it is: “escapism,” be what at the can as it were squint you whence from earth is for her somewhere The ed. ed, simplifi nature clarifi human see issues about sideways, world so of fearful evil—and cations are perfect personifi just for instance, orcs, to her it is important And world. real evils in our in for the they can stand the underdog that in the story the weak can become strong, experience experience him, became a profound outran fantasy of the grandeur The he is still coming to terms with. which She makes interesting religious). not she is herself idea, but like a religious as effects- count LOTR does not of her account— in the course distinctions Gun isn’t. Top while fantasy” does—it is “genuine Star Wars whereas heavy, book-source the story’s way In a curious about 12. He is a fantasy reader, more generally, and makes connections makes connections and more generally, reader, 12. He is a fantasy about a place big in his imagination, place became The & Dragons. to Dungeons the start of a possible from He is aware again. and to go to again he wanted as it adopts a “lighter” attitude—“as long but “purist” critical position, that allows him the pleas- he is content—because across” got the key points story-world Tolkien’s of imagination ure of measuring his “very personal” entitles her participation. entitles 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 3059780415962612-Ch-13.indd 305 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 306

martin barker 306 status ofthismuch-abused tradition. ticular fantasy film areafunction ofmany things—not leasttheembattled The distributed and sharedmeanings,and thelivedresponses toany par- the fi lms’ widersignifi cance, itstoodapart.And thatisexactlythepoint. cinematic achievement, alongside inmany countries discussions around ted setofexpectant followers,withawidelycirculating senseofspecial Rings wasaspecialcase.Withlong history asabook trilogyand acommit- experience ofthefilm could awake newimaginings. Ofcourse, strained, but always withapotential foroutrunning expectations, thesheer with hopes and wishesforpersonal and socialfutures.Sometimescon- ences ofthefilm. What isinteresting ineach caseisthecoupling offantasy factors connecting recognitions of“fantasy” withdifferent livedexperi- mitment tosharingcoherent visions (on this,seeBarker, 2006). than thehistorywedohave”). The principle thatbinds alltheseisthecom- It canevenreplacetheinadequacies ofour ownworld (“moreinteresting think ofitthatdidhappen,” and “You feelthatitwasonce alivingplace”). for reality(“Itdoesremainafantasy taleand itdidn’t happenand I’d liketo keeping the“backbone” ofthestory).HepositsMiddle-earthasawished just itssizebut itscomplexityand interwoven stories(hetalksofthefilm are simplyoverwhelmed byhisloveofthescalestory’s world, not another veryrecurrent term).Hismany criticismsoftheparticularversion him isthe“completion” oftheexperience ofthestory(and “complete”is the book toseewhat somebody elsethought ofthem.” The outcome for (a repeatedexpression). “I’d justbeendyingtoactually seeafilm version of with “someone else’s interpretation,” and their“visualization” ofitall Cowie’s work doesdeserveaparticularmention asone ofthemostsophis- 7 Each yearIteach aclass on Ridley Scott’s Alien(1979)asameanstoshowing 6 See Valerie Walkerdine’s essay inDonald (ed.);and JaneArthurs. 5 This isonly apartialtruth.From theearliest days, querying voicescould be 4 Seeforinstance Smith,and Barker (2005). 3 CompareDarko Suvin’s 1978insistence on “what differentiates SFfrom the 2 Forthemainfindings oftheproject, seeBarker and Mathijs. 1 notes and role offantasy as“aprivileged terrainon which socialrealityand the ticated ofthiswhole school, and makingspecifi c claims about thenature necessary beforestudents can“hear”what is tobesaidabout thefilm. takes threetimesaslong asany other, becauseoftheamount ofpriortalk how fi lm analystswork on fi lms. Introducing thepsychoanalytic account approach. Seeforinstance theastringent comment byBuscombeetal. heard, although thesedidnot for a timecoalesceinto analternative positively not, fantasy.” Pohl’s sternstatement (1997)that“Above all,science fi ction isnot, is ‘supernatural genres’orfictional fantasy inthewidersense”withFrederick These abbreviatedaccounts canonly hint atthecomplexinterplays of The Lordofthe 4/1/2009 10:48:06 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 307 4/1/2009 10:48:06 AM4/1/2009 10:48:06 AM . Carbondale: . Carbondale: . Hemel Hempstead: http://www.timeout. Crash Cultures: Modernity, Modernity, Crash Cultures: Watching The Lord of the Rings: Tolkien’s Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings: The Watching Time Out London (December 13–20, 2006): Time Southern Illinois University Press, 2005. Illinois Southern 1986. Methuen, London: , 16:4 (1976): 119–30. Screen Film.” and Psychoanalysis “Statement: n, 1997. Griffi St Martin’s 1990. Harvester Wheatsheaf, University of Minnesota Press, 1997. University of California Press, 1976. Berkeley: and Methods. Ed. Bill Nichols. 493–529. Film Institute, 1995. com/fi 2 2008). lm/83511.html (accessed May com/fi Intellect, Bristol: Grant. Iain and Mediation and the Material. Eds. Jane Arthurs 2002. 63–78. , 20:3 (2005): 353–78. Journal of Communication European . 10:3 (December 2006): 1–25. online Journal Film/Philosophy– Project.” Peter Lang, 2008. York: . New Audiences World unconscious are engaged in a fi guring which intertwines them both” (365). them both” intertwines which guring a fi in engaged are unconscious Cowie lms, fi in are represented women which manner in the on Centered be in principle could which to make claims points at several comes close particular has to be with a cation” that “identifi notions tested. Challenging process with the narrational than we “identify” rather she argues character, as we “in as much desiring processes out we are able to play which through be in principle could claim This (149). narration” lm’s by the fi are captured tested. and operationalized of post- the name that goes under largesse to some of the theoretical Smith. and Emmison modernism—see Woodward, suggesting that plea- group, Journey” with the “Spiritual enjoyment and made an unexpected their expectations—they sures very often outran not, did group “Fantasy” lm that the in the fi discovery for themselves of it. characterization to a different leading Burgin, Victor, James Donald and Cora Kaplan (eds.). Formations of Fantasy. and James Donald Victor, Burgin, Williams. Christopher Lovell and Christine Gledhill, Alan Buscombe, Edward, York: . New of Fantasy Encyclopedia (eds.). The John Grant John and Clute, Gothic to Postmodernism Literary Fantastic: from Cornwell, Neil. The and Cinema. Minneapolis: Psychoanalysis Woman: the Cowie, Elizabeth. Representing BFI, 1989. James (ed.). Fantasy and the Cinema. London: Donald, Movies Text.” Mr Lincoln: A Collective du Cinéma. “Young Editors of Cahiers , 5:1 (1978): 33–44. Science Fiction Studies of Fantasy.” S C. “Problems Fredericks, British London: Cook. Cinema Book. Ed. Pam The Gledhill, Christine. “Genre.” (July 21–27, 2007): 12–16. (July Radio Times TV.” “Unreality Anon. of Sense.” the Boundaries Jane. “Crash: Beyond Arthurs, A Critical Encounter.” cation’: ‘Identifi and Lord of the Rings Martin. “The Barker, the Lord of the Rings from Some Lessons ‘Visualisation’: ——. “Envisaging Mathijs (eds.). Ernest Martin and Barker, Fantasy Film and Social Alienation Framing Monsters: David. Bellin, Joshua works cited works 1999. British Film Institute, . London: Film/Genre Altman, Rick. , Review of Eragon Anon. 8 by three sociological authors of the “impolite” response I am reminded 9 between importance wider discrepancy here the much It is worth noting 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 3079780415962612-Ch-13.indd 307 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 308

martin barker 308 Metz, Christian.The ImaginarySigniﬁ er: Psychoanalysis andtheCinema. ——. “Looking fortheGaze:LacanianFilm Theory and its Vicissitudes.” Cinema McGowan, Todd. “Finding Ourselveson aLostHighway:David Lynch’s Lesson in Lapsley, Robertand Michael Westlake. Film Theory: AnIntroduction. Manchester: Kovala, Urpoand Erkki Vainikkala (eds.).ReadingCulturalDifference. University Jackson, Rosemary. Fantasy:theLiterature ofSubversion. London: Methuen, 1981. Hume, Kathryn.FantasyandMimesis:ResponsestoRealityin Western Literature Hirsjärvi, Irma.“RecognisingtheFantasy Literature Genre.” Participations: online Heath, Stephen. “Filmand System.” Screen, part1,16:1(1975):7–77;2,16:2 Götz, Maya, DafnaLemish,Amy Aidmanand HyesungMoon. Mediaandthe Nell, Victor. Neale, Steven.“Melo Talk: OntheMeaningand theUseof Term Nash, Mark. “Vampyr and theFantastic.” Screen, 17:3(1976):29–67.Reprinted in Mulvey, Laura.“Visual Pleasureand NarrativeCinema.” Screen, 16:3(1975):6–18. Mikkelsen, Nina.PowerfulMagic: Learningfrom Children’s Responses to Smith, Murray. EngagingCharacters: Fiction,EmotionandtheCinema Shiach, Morag. Discourse onPopular Culture: Class, GenderandHistoryinCulturalAnalysis, Ruddick, Nicholas (ed.).StateoftheFantastic:Studiesin Theory andPracticeof Rabkin, EricS.The FantasticinLiterature . Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress Pohl, Frederick. “The Study ofScience Fiction: AModestProposal.” Science Todorov, Tzvetan. Telotte, JP. ScienceFictionFilm.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,2001. Suvin, Darko. “OnWhat Isand What IsNotanSFNarration.” Stacey, Jackie. StarGazing:Hollywood CinemaandFemaleSpectatorship. London: Journal, 42:3(2003):27–57. Fantasy.” CinemaJournal39:2(2000):51–73. Manchester UniversityPress,1988. of Jyväskylä: Research UnitforContemporary Culture,2000. New York: Methuen, 1984. issue%202%20-%20special/3_02_hirsjarvi.htm (accessedMay 22008). Journal, 3:2(November2006):http://www.participations.org/volume%203/ (1975): 91–113. Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005. Make-Believe World ofChildren: When Harry Potter MeetsPokémon inDisneyland 66–89. ‘Melodrama’ intheAmerican Trade Press.” Velvet Light Trap (Fall1993): Mark Nash,ScreenCulture Theory. Basingstoke: Macmillan,2008:28–69. Fantasy Literature.New York: Teachers College Press,2005. Britton. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,1982. 1730 tothePresent Day.Stanford: Stanford UniversityPress,1989. Press 1992. Conference on theFantastic intheArts,1990).Westport, Conn: Greenwood Fantastic Literature andFilm(SelectedEssays from theEleventh International 1976. Fiction Studies24:1(March 1997)11–16. University Press,1998. Cornell UniversityPress,1975. Studies 5:1(March 1978). Routledge, 1993. Clarendon Press, 1995. Lost InABook: The Psychology ofReadingfor Pleasure The Fantastic:AStructuralApproach toaLiteraryGenre. Ithaca: . NewHaven: Yale Trans.Celia Science Fiction . Oxford: . . 4/1/2009 10:48:06 AM fantasy audiences versus fantasy audiences 309 4/1/2009 10:48:06 AM4/1/2009 10:48:06 AM San Francisco: Re/Search Publications, 1986. Publications, Re/Search San Francisco: BFI, 1989, 166–99. London: Donald. Cinema. Ed. James of an Immodest Test Space: a Modest Postmodern and Disorientation 339–54. 51.2 (2000): of Sociology British Journal Theory.” & Co, 2005. NC: McFarland Rings. Jefferson, Lord of the The Méliès to Incredibly Strange Films. Strange Incredibly Boyd Rice. and Jim Morton Juno, Andrea Vivian, Vale, and the Fantasy Fantasy.” Films and Families, Replay: “Video Valerie. Walkerdine, Smith. “Consumerism, Philip and Emmison Michael Ian, Woodward, Georges Fantasy Cinema from of A Critical Survey of the Imagination: Empires Alec. Worley, 9780415962612-Ch-13.indd 3099780415962612-Ch-13.indd 309 “what is there really in the world?”

fourteen forms of theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11

a philosophical and

intuitionist realist approach ian aitken

This chapter will shape concepts drawn from a branch of analytical philosophy known as philosophical realism into a model of “intuitionist realism,” and apply that model to an analysis of Fahrenheit 9/11 (Michael Moore, 2004).1 Some earlier attempts have been made to apply philosophical realism to fi lm studies, most notably in Lovell’s Pictures of Reality (1980) and Allen and Gomery’s Film History: Theory and Practice (1985). However, these earlier attempts were part of more inclusive projects (in the case of Lovell, to launch a realist critique of Althuserian Marxism, and, in Allen and Gomery, to develop a general model of realist fi lm history). In addition, these earlier attempts have not been carried forward a great deal into more recent work, and, given this decidedly spare setting, the chapter offered here must be considered as necessarily conditional and exploratory in character.2 The perspective on philosophical realism offered here is founded upon three central convictions: (i) that reality exists independently of representation, (ii) that reality and representation can “converge,” and (iii) that such convergence can never be unqualifi ed and so the “danger of divergence between thought and reality can never be averted” (Papineau, quoted

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, are itself reality observable causal factors, and also the starting point for also the starting point observable causal factors, and might be) but [only] reality-as-we-picture-it” (Rescher 167), (Rescher reality-as-we-picture-it” [only] but that might be) , regrettably, unobservable, and also because observable entities also because observable entities and unobservable, , regrettably, are Any philosophical realist attempt to theorize “convergence” between attempt to theorize “convergence” realist philosophical Any A concern with empirical experience is also central to classical empiricist to classical is also central experience with empirical A concern representation and reality must pay considerable attention to the role played played to the role attention considerable pay reality must and representation consti- experience such because, realists believe, by empirical experience, to a reality, relation, circumlocutory though dependable, most tutes our conceptual our exists outside which unobservable, both observable and are the effect that “observable entities” realism holds Philosophical schemes. or that such a reality is “A world well lost” (Rorty, quoted by Putnam quoted well lost” (Rorty, world a reality is “A or that such of a mind-independ- assumption believe that “The 262), realists Human Face scheme conceptual standard of our the whole to is essential reality ent The 202). Trigg in (Rescher, communication” and relating to inquiry also appear to imply together, taken of these convictions, third and second realist philosophical However, relativism. of conceptual degree a requisite conceptual of various the institution through that, contend positions a real- conception”: a “regulative of viewing realism as by dint means, and between correspondence nitive truth,” rather than of “defi ism “of intent,” the compass of conceptual can be theorized, and representation reality and 202). Trigg in (Rescher, relativism constrained causal fac- unobservable is because such it factors; and analysis of those any tors belief in the epistemological primacy of a on is founded which philosophy, that methodo- a conviction on and the directly observable, and experience of enable interpretations analysis can inductive based on logical procedures “theory neutral” (Hesse “Duhem, are comparatively reality to arise which major a at least the 1950s, when since 209). However, in Morick Quine,” within the analytical emerged empiricist philosophy of classical critique of that tradi- within the framework writing philosophers most tradition, with the propo- themselves to be generally in concurrence found have tion rational “no and fact,” able thing as a “raw identifi such that there is no sition (Putnam Reason 127–8). “value” between “fact” and basis” for a distinction possibility of direct admit- there is no an interpretation to such According “theory neutral lan- of developing any likelihood no facts, and to the tance of empirical data are because all appropriations of observation;” guage Urry 37). In (Keat and already necessarily pre-laden with supposition empiricism, which of classical the critique with this stance, concurrence in Trigg 67). The fi rst of these convictions is fundamental to any realist to any is fundamental these convictions rst of fi The 67). Trigg in “ no there is that argue might anti-realists while and, position, (whatever un of independent, latter are so imperative (Devitt 108). observable, that the more fortunately, because are also important perspective, empirical entities a realist From make if this is the case, may and, may also be linked to reality, entities such 200). (Trigg reality accessible 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3119780415962612-Ch-14.indd 311 emerged from the 1950s onwards, in the work of Putnam, Quine, Hesse and others, rejects the idea of the “practical fact” which can be encountered in a direct way (Hesse, in Morick 211); and replaces that idea with the notion of the “theoretical fact,” which can only be encountered indirectly, from within the imprisoning framework of a conceptual scheme (Hesse, in Morick 212). The idea of the “theoretical fact” (Hesse Revolutions 86) also implies that, in contrast to orthodox empiricist tenets, empirical evidence cannot provide the fundamental grounds for proving that one theory is qualitatively superior to another, because such evidence is always appropriated by those theories from the outset (Harré 38). This notion is also associated with ian aitken another of the theoretical models to emerge from the critique of classical empiricism: the “network theory of meaning.” According to an extreme version of this theory, appropriation of empirical materials occurs because of the nature of conceptual schemes as intricate “networks” of terms and relations, which can be re-organized in order to preserve the core premises of such schemes in the face of any conceivable evidence (Hesse, in Morick 212). Such an engulfi ng outcome is also implied by another concept partly derived from the network theory: the “meaning invariance thesis,” which contends that it is possible for the same data to be explained in different ways by different theories, and that, as a consequence, “observation language” does not possess meaning invariant to its application within different theoretical networks (Hesse, “Duhem, Quine”in Morick 220–1). According to an extreme version of the network theory, therefore, it appears that conceptual schemes must be considered to enjoy a degree of hegemony and autonomy which renders them free from effective empirical challenge. Such a standpoint concerning the sovereignty of conceptual schemes, and the subsidiary or even nominal status of “facts” in relation to such schemes, will be familiar to scholars of fi lm studies, because comparable “conventionalist” arguments—and concomitant repudiations of “realism”—have generally held sway within the subject area (Lovell 79). However, it is important to understand that the critique of classical empiricism was developed neither as a deconstructive end in itself, nor as prelude to any prospective endorsement of philosophical relativism; but as a necessary foundation upon which new models of rational theory formation, and the role of empirical evidence within such formation, could be elaborated 312 (Hesse, in Morick 227). Such models address the problem of relativism raised by a strong version of the network theory by proposing less extreme versions of that theory, in order to make certain that “the fl oodgates to conventionalism” are not opened, and that a general “abandonment of empiricism” does not materialise (Hesse, in Morick 212). One model of rational theory formation which draws upon the network theory, and which attempts to accommodate the empirical in ways consonant with the latter’s freshly conceived, but now distinctly moderated

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 312 4/1/2009 10:48:18 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 313 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM This chapter has set out to explore conceptual positions drawn from phil- from drawn positions to explore conceptual has set out chapter This Putnam’s theory of internal realism is premised on the assumption the assumption is premised on realism theory of internal Putnam’s osophical realism. However, Putnam’s relationship to philosophical realism to philosophical relationship Putnam’s realism. However, osophical associated can be more clearly philosophy his early whilst and, is patchy, and of representation notions towards stance realist with a philosophical the theory of internal encompasses which his later philosophy, vergence, con (Putnam a stance of such “demise” the salutary sanctions realism, actually (Devitt 7). as a form of “anti-realism” has been characterized Reason 74), and that, within a theoretical network, warranted assertability conditions can assertability conditions warranted that, within a theoretical network, that the in order manner, be applied to observable cases in a disinterested such from radiating to the connotations relation be attuned in network in order conditions employs such be that a theory it may cases. However, ca- “effi and “coherently” observable cases “comprehensively,” to interpret than in a spirit rather terms of its own a priori understandings, in ciously” this suggests (a) that to the empirical; and in relation of self-adjustment in themselves to cient be insuffi may assertability conditions warranted of (b) that the vitality occurs, and cation qualifi that disinterested guarantee deploy to of a predisposition the adoption rests upon a guarantee such is founded a predisposition Such manner. in a qualifying conditions such princi- on that observable cases should, realist conviction the mainstay on because their to theory, ple, never be made “comprehensively” subsidiary the inherent curb upon an important is able to exercise demi-sovereignty unassailable paradigms to construct for theoretical networks propensity themselves. around epistemological status, is Hilary Putnam’s theory of “internal realism.” realism.” of “internal theory Hilary Putnam’s status, is epistemological between in adjudicating role crucial the plays which evidence it is not Here, methodo- of rational sets theories, but merits of different the respective assertabil- to as “rational refers Putnam variously which logical principles, and “canons and statements, assertability” “warranted ity” conditions, possess a principles These Many Faces 34). (Putnam of rationality” principles array potential acceptability and the remit, set limits upon logical aspect, Although outcomes. optimum lead—it is hoped—to and of interpretation, these canons cally, specifi and absolutely truth value confer they cannot area a circumscribed space,” can establish an “explanation principles and ed to be more justifi of reality can be argued accounts certain within which a theory and grounds; assertability” “warranted rational than others on other things, more if it is, amongst grounds such can be said to offer functionally and comprehensive coherent, cacious, effi “instrumentally than are competing theories (Putnam the evidence simple” in dealing with evidence of 106). Here, the importance Recent Philosophers in Passmore quoted directly, to verify or falsify theoretical interpretation in an ability resides not reservoir is believed to be a trustworthy in a capacity to establish what but can be advanta- models rational “warranted” which of materials, upon assembled. geously 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3139780415962612-Ch-14.indd 313 This anti-realist orientation leads Putnam to develop a theory of internal realism in which the idea of external reality is bracketed out, and “convergence” only refers to the competing claims of rival theories which are “internal” to a particular explanation space (Passmore Recent Philosophers 105–7). Here the “best” theory is that which interprets observable cases most effectively in terms of warranted assertability conditions: that which brings about “optimal” convergence between such cases and conditions (Putnam Reason 52). However, there are a number of problems with this position. First, if warranted assertability conditions are deployed in a “self-interested,” rather than “disinterested” manner, this might preclude even “internal” convergence, because the convergence in question would amount to an assimila- ian aitken tion of the empirical by warranted assertability conditions. Second, internal convergence might be unrealisable per se, because, whilst inferior theories may be rejected, and a degree of convergence thus effected, the eventual alpha theory does not so much bring empirical cases and warranted conditions into convergence, as uses the empirical to consolidate the theoretical network. Here, internal convergence must lead to “paradigm” formation, where theoretical networks take on increasing authority and autonomy (Kuhn xxii). Third, it is possible that a theory which did not deploy warranted assertability principles particularly well could still be nearer to the truth than others that did, because the truth might not conform to the rational character of such principles. Fourth, Putnam appears to endow warranted assertability conditions with an almost transcendent status, higher than that of empirical experience or external reality, and the problem here (aside from the overt idealism involved) is that, in general, life does not appear to conform to such conditions: is not “instrumentally effi cacious, coherent, comprehensive and functionally simple;” and so “why … [should]… we regard these as virtues?” (Passmore Recent Philosophers 106). Life, experience—and reality—is made up of the rational and the irrational, reason and the non-cognitive, and this is why philosophical and intuitionist realist positions are premised upon the conviction that an approach which deploys reason (including warranted assertability conditions), experience and intuition in tandem is more likely to converge with the truth than one which enthrones only warranted assertability conditions. It has been argued here that observable cases should never be entirely 314 appropriated within a theoretical network. However, according to the realist principle of “empirical adequacy,” such misappropriation is also unlikely to occur, because the intangible complexity which marks such cases contains the latent potential to challenge misappropriation (Devitt 123–7). For a theory to possess “empirical adequacy” that theory must engage with a substantial quantity of diverse empirical materials (Trigg xiv), and such an extensive degree of engagement is important in itself, because it brings theory formation into propitious encounter with materials which are,

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 314 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 315 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM by potentially lim- and by potentially In addition to a respect for the semi-sovereign status of observable cases, In addition It has been argued here that the network theory of meaning is not a theory of meaning is not here that the network It has been argued and a belief in the need to accommodate empirical adequacy through the through to accommodate empirical adequacy a belief in the need and realist approaches concepts, exibly general fl taut but use of both rationally of delity to the principles by a fi are also characterized to theory formation which epistemological depth. A realist theoretical network and ontological Allen and of what an account possesses epistemological depth will present described as the full range of “generative have Bhaskar, quoting Gomery, Gomery 15). Such (Allen and the observable event” that produce mechanisms par- the from a range of concepts, include necessarily, must, an account to a realist perspective, external ticular to the abstract, because, according as a “multi-tiered depth,” reality is structured in terms of “ontological homogenous doctrine, and, whilst, according to a “strong,” and, conse- and, to a “strong,” according whilst, and, doctrine, homogenous be entirely can always evidence of that theory, version “relativist,” quently, more accordingly, “softer” and, by a theoretical network; appropriated in appli- attempt to theorise how, theory, of the network “realist” versions the However, be circumvented. can requisition such cable circumstances, empirical measure also indeterminate and of empirical adequacy notions also be fore-stalled, but only not may misrequisition suggest that such measure are instituted, and adequacy such where completely thwarted, for, this and to their plenitude; cient never be fully suffi may concepts rational concepts plenitude, those such to house also suggests in turn that, in order general. exible and fl also requisitely taut, but be rationally only not must as a matter should be open to the evidence, theoretical networks Although also may networks applies, such empirical adequacy where of principle, of these notions later, but to be so. As will be argued little option have measure of empirical materials, the indeterminate empirical adequacy, facility of generalized representation, potential the and shortfall, conceptual as such aesthetic theoretical networks for understanding implications have 9/11. Fahrenheit itless measure (Hesse, in Morick 216). It is this character and measure measure and this character 216). It is in Morick itless measure (Hesse, conceptual ability to challenge empirical materials with the endows which assimilation. realists contend, linked tellingly, if indirectly, with a reality existing outside outside existing with a reality indirectly, if tellingly, linked contend, realists more likely makes it also engagement such However, schemes. conceptual theoretical within a relations terms and of conceptual that the generality of such as a result change and to evolve a tendency on will take network must concepts empirical accumulation, because, taken as an engagement, diversity and quantity nebulous and a far more extensive contain inevitably the embedded within those than relations and connotations of terms, 217). (Hesse, in Morick network of a theoretical more cognate concepts and conceptual by their determinate are fashioned latter concepts These more by characterized are concepts empirical nature, whereas rational character, unsystematic and both an indeterminate 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3159780415962612-Ch-14.indd 315 stratifi cation” (Bhaskar Possibility 16). For a theoretical network to be realist, therefore, it must reproduce the framework of ontological depth within its own epistemological perspective. In contrast to such facsimilication, however, an anti-realist approach to theory formation would circumvent the realist imperative to arrive at epistemological depth by shallowing out such compass. For example, from a realist view-point, the most abstract concepts in a theoretical network are those which refer to fundamental unobservable causal mechanisms. They are the crucial “intransitive objects of scientifi c theory” (Allen and Gomery 21), and the philosophical “crown” and most important components of any theory (Harré 168). However, avoidance of such concepts is ian aitken for the most part distinctive of American pragmatist philosophy, and its application to the study of fi lm history in the model of “middle-level” and “piecemeal” theorizing advanced by Bordwell and Carroll (332). A philosophical realist approach to the study of fi lm history, such as that attempted by Allen and Gomery, would, in contrast, reject such exclusion, and exemplify the principle of epistemological depth by embracing the full compass of abstract, intermediary and particular concepts.3 Although the deployment of abstract categories within an account founded upon epistemological depth may be appropriate to a philosophical realist approach it is not, however, suffi cient to such an approach; and what is required, in addition, is that such an account must also “be conceived to be a hypothetical mechanism which might really be responsible for the phenomena to be explained” (Harré 178). A theory may possess epistemological depth, but such depth may also be structured primarily in relation to the internal priorities of the theory, rather than an imperative to model that which is external to theory. In the latter case, such “realist” modelling would be described as “analogical.” When a realist theoretical network begins to operate it will initially depend upon a conceptual model which has been developed earlier in order to describe and explain observable entities similar to those under current analysis (Harré 178). This model is applied to the new entities under question because it appears to be “ana- logically similar” to those entities, and because, given the previous success of the model in describing and explaining comparable entities, there are grounds for believing that it will also be able to describe and explain the fresh entities plausibly well. The model is, therefore, not selected at random, 316 but because it possesses “substantive similarities” to the phenomena under investigation; and it is this similitude, as opposed to more relativist arbi- trariness, that makes analogical models structurally realist (Psillos 140). However, in addition to possessing an analogical character, a realist model must refrain from explaining the entities under observation in an uncondi- tional way, because, were this to occur, those entities would be divested of their intrinsic complexity. In order to circumvent such an outcome, a realist analogical model must, therefore, contain “negative” and “neutral,” as well

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 316 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 317 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM be considered, though in a still necessarily epigrammatic way, is way, in a still necessarily epigrammatic though can be considered, Debates concerning the possibility or impossibility of “convergence” are possibility or impossibility of “convergence” the Debates concerning One fi nal philosophical realist principle to be considered here, and one one here, and to be considered principle realist nal philosophical One fi pervasive within analytical philosophy, and associated with a variety of and pervasive within analytical philosophy, in a measured be considered debates cannot 123–7). Such (Devitt positions However, of this chapter. ambitions manner within the more constrained what can “truthfulness” and of convergence realist notions of how the question Putnam’s be applied within the aesthetic domain. For example, although philosophical, c and space is directed at scientifi the explanation of notion of convergence degree the circumscribed rather than aesthetic enquiry, applied that, when also entails puts forward the notion with “truth” which of aesthetic realism, a similar or even more circumscribed to questions implied by the realist notions of ontological and epistemological depth, is epistemological and of ontological notions implied by the realist 178). Here, the theoretical model (Harré ed” explanation that of “stratifi of causal- account generates a provisional and describes phenomenon rst fi then describe is established, the model must rst “stratum” After this fi ity. of their causality an account produce themselves, and the causal agents level one at any movement occurs, therefore, is “the (Harré 179). What of the structures to knowledge phenomena of manifest knowledge from a dia- in on rolls process This 17). generate them” (Bhaskar Possibility which and nement refi both linear inductive lectical manner that encompasses model attempts to relate an as the realist ective generality, more lateral refl categories— intermediary with empirical and preoccupation increasing ca- of stratifi process generated by the rolling unavoidably a preoccupation of the make up the centre which deep abstract categories the tion—to between formation of dialectical relationship a process model. Such also implies that a realist empirical categories and abstract, intermediary as rational as well deploy forms of intuitive, must theoretical formation realist insist- supported by the emblematic an implication understanding, neutral, as well as positive anal- and of negative the deployment upon ence of both rational to establish zones injunction by the realist ogies; and “intuitionist” This implication. areas of more connotative and explication, also establishes a link between philo- aspect of realist theory formation aesthetic “intuitionist” the model of “revelatory” and and realism sophical be discussed. will now realism which as “positive” analogies to the observable entities under investigation: there investigation: under entities the observable to analogies as “positive” dis- and analogy) (positive is similar the model in which respects be must the which also respects in and entities, analogy) to those similar (negative (neutral undecided dissimilarity remains and similarity of such extent neutral and negative of such existence The 8–9). Models analogy) (Hesse makes it theoretical model within a realist of explication “open” areas a in entities explain observable and that model to describe possible for the likelihood also increases and manner, rather than categorical provisional, convergence. and cation of both model qualifi 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3179780415962612-Ch-14.indd 317 degree of convergence might be all that is attainable. This, in turn, suggests that manifestations of “truthfulness” within the aesthetic domain must be fundamentally tenuous in temper, and, given this, it may be that works of art should not be considered as making lucid “truth claims” about a subject, but, rather, as “offer[ing] a subject” up for debate, or “show[ing] something as” (Beardsley 375). Here, the work of art shows something as like something, rather than as something; it “draws attention to” a subject, or puts a subject “up for consideration,” instead of making more precise claims. Similarly, the observer of the art object can be considered as searching for something that might be “intellectually illuminating,” rather than “true” (Passmore Serious 125). ian aitken Here, the work of art does not so much display truth but “interesting candidates for truth,” which the recipient then makes tentative judgements about (Passmore Serious 125); and, within this process of expression and reception, the role of the “vision” of the artist, and/or the formal/thematic organization of the work of art, is to provide a broad “perspective” on the subject (Passmore Serious 138). This model of aesthetic expression and reception is primarily “revelatory” and “intuitionist,” rather than cognitive and rationalist, and implies that the work of art expresses abstract, intermediary and empirical concepts in a relatively unsystematic manner, and, that such concepts are also received by the recipient in a similarly unsystematic manner (Passmore Serious 125). This model also suggests that the work of art is not best suited to the representation of either absolutes or particulars, but, rather, intermediary regions of “general experience” which are given particularized form; or particular “things in particular times and places” which are “describe[d] in general terms” (Passmore Serious 143). A work of art, such as a documentary fi lm, may suggest generalized hypotheses, but, given such generality, and the unsystematic character of aesthetic expression and reception, cannot be charged with proving such hypotheses (Beardsley 380). Works of art do not “launch an enquiry” on behalf of the spectator, but call attention to pervasive and noteworthy features of the world (Beardsley 381). All this suggests both a considerable degree of indeterminacy in the representation of the subject, and a substantial degree of inconclusiveness in any intersection with reality which the work of art might attempt to realize. Nevertheless, and as has been argued, such indeterminacy and inconclu- 318 siveness remain fully compatible with both intuitionist and revelatory aesthetic realism, and philosophical realism.

fahrenheit 9/11

The realist model of theory and evidence proposed here conceives of aesthetic objects such as documentary ﬁ lms as consisting of a network of theoretical categories which provide both descriptions of the subject as problematic

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 318 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 319 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM the co-affi exists between which rming relationship in conjunction with the co-affi sets out its initial account using relatively concise units of using relatively concise initial account its sets out 9/11 Fahrenheit such items in this section of the fi lm, is to imply, in an indicative rather in an indicative imply, lm, is to of the fi items in this section such 9/11 are wholly of Fahrenheit that the core hypotheses manner, than inclusive therefore, what ideological disposition, lm’s Despite the fi warranted. of truth mobilization rather than unequivocal appears is an impressionistic with a realist model of aes- to an extent, this does conform, and claims, also be said to embody both lm could of the fi section This thetic realism. a realist use of concepts and of “empirical adequacy,” the realist concept correlated commentary and visual material. As a picture of the subject of visual and correlated commentary in a seek to explain which rmative statements, is elaborated, affi enquiry intended by empirical images are backed-up terse, summarizing manner, impact of The statements. within those enfolded rm the assertions to reaffi as it does the weight of carrying is forceful, corroboration perceptible such as will be and of course, veracity (though and authority incontestable lm the fact that the fi stems from also credence apparent such later, argued mate- visual nor factors). Neither commentary gainsaying out many leaves of the manner at this stage protracted rial is employed in a particularly or phrased, either coherently offered are the explanations nor lm, and fi units attempt to insti- interacting Instead, the short, systematically set out. displays embodies and which evidence and of connotation tute a collage of disparate employment the impact of this and hypotheses; core lm’s the fi a wide range of from drawn information, visual and items of conceptual sources, and provisional accounts of causality. However, the initial sections of sections the initial However, causality. of accounts provisional and (the “rigged” inquiry subject of the represent so much 9/11 do not Fahrenheit par- It is not as calamitous. but as problematic election) 2000 US general terms, fundamentalist in such 9/11 begins that Fahrenheit surprising ticularly activist. as forthright and reputation established lm-maker’s fi given the demonstration of a degree of such the outset from the presence However, cult to diffi more of distinctions formulation and cation qualifi makes later of via a process accretion of knowledge also makes the process attain, and of a high degree of such presence The cult. diffi similarly cation,” “stratifi prob- lm’s the fi the onset, also means that, from partiality certainty-based understood at all, if that term is as a problematic rendered really lematic is not and quandary of uncertainty, guration of a confi the existence as indicating for provision- be accounted can only at least initially, which, indistinctness; nal, rather than provi- like a fi Moore establishes here is more What ally. carries the risk that the empirical material this and explanation, sional lm’s to the fi secondary lm will be made constitutionally employed in the fi then, at least the outset From of theoretical categories. evolving network 9/11 appears to embody Fahrenheit intentions, lm-maker’s at the level of the fi real- rather than “disinterested” anti-realist, the spirit of a “self-interested” the impact of those later, as will be argued and However, ist network. be overemphasized. not lm itself should the fi upon intentions 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3199780415962612-Ch-14.indd 319 which contain areas of connotative implication, through the deployment of negative and neutral, as well as positive analogies. The initial explanatory model put forward in Fahrenheit 9/11 is structured around three principal conceptual themes: illicit manipulation of the electoral system, institutional impasse, and tragedy. According to the fi lm, powerful fi gures close to Bush worked to ensure victory. The institutions of the media, Congress and Senate became hopelessly bewildered, and proved incapable of responding to the unfolding events in a manner con- gruent with their respective mandates. Those events also had particularly tragic consequences for African-American supporters of the Democratic Party, who, the fi lm alleges, were deliberately disenfranchised in order ian aitken to ensure a Bush victory. At this stage it is this latter theme which is pre- dominant, and the notion that the overthrow of the election has struck some of the poorest citizens of the nation gives the fi lm a poignant and moving force. However, this cogency also masks an underlying problem. According to a realist network model of meaning, an initial account of any given subject will be necessarily provisional and schematic. However, the preliminary account developed in Fahrenheit 9/11 does not have the feel of provisionality, but of fi nality, and, in addition, seems to be mainly moti- vated by a desire to institute a select version of events, rather than by the goal of achieving eventual inclusivity. This reliance upon evidently selective portrayal weakens the fi lm considerably when it attempts to portray the second of the three principal areas referred to above: that of the problems evident within the media, Senate and Congress. Here, disproportion- ate levels of selectivity over-augment the fi lm’s dominant ideology, and lead to a largely unpersuasive embellishment of events. On the other hand, Fahrenheit 9/11 does appeal to later latent qualifi cation of this initial model, and suggests (by dint of exclusion) a range of auxiliary questions concerning the reasons for the manipulation of the election result. By abridging in a one-dimensional way, therefore, Fahrenheit 9/11 suggests the subsistence of a more comprehensive causal reality, which the fi lm may turn to later, and this, in turn, brings it into closer compliance with a “stratifi cation” model of realist explanation. Here, and not for the last time, a partition appears to open up between the conceptual/ideological and non-conceptual/material structures of Fahrenheit 9/11. Fahrenheit 9/11 begins with a long “prologue.” This prologue “explains” 320 the core of the problem using theoretical categories and empirical visual materials which propose relatively unambiguous accounts of causality. The causal theoretical categories projected here consist of: (a) manipulation of the media, particularly by the Fox TV network; (b) a concomitant capitula- tion to the Fox agenda by the other networks; (c) manipulation of the election result by the Supreme Court; (d) deliberate racial disenfranchisement of the African-American electorate in order to reduce the Democrat vote; (e) manipulation of the vote counting mechanism itself; and (f ) either, or

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 320 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 321 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM also employs an exceptionally extensive range of also employs an exceptionally 9/11 Fahrenheit In addition to its deployment of causal explanatory paradigms, the pro- to its deployment In addition the irreparable of the occasion, the exceptionality of representations These Although the initial version of causality and depiction of events is refi ned is refi of events depiction and of causality the initial version Although logue of , further accentuate , further accentuate its/their irreversibility it, and ow from fl which divisions are also, , and 9/11 adopted within Fahrenheit position the fundamentalist that of the core causal concept: underlying by one generated arguably, the conse- and in America, of corporate/political misgovernance existence of the has for the weakest sections misgovernance such which quences misgovernance such explain why does not 9/11 Fahrenheit However, country. it neces- or even why the form that it did in these instances, exists, or took cause No underlying degree. an inequitable sarily affects the poor to such misgovern- such arises, that allusion a vague only is established here, and within the body politic. However, of some malaise is the consequence ance deep in more meaningful, that lies nothing and an allusion, such if it is only 9/11, deployed by Fahrenheit the abstract heart of the theoretical network conceptu- adequately explicit, nor ciently suffi is neither then that network ally abstract. para- of those to describe the manifestations information empirical visual materials employed in the pro- range of empirical visual broad The digms. celebrities and of crowds (a) images , includes 9/11 logue of Fahrenheit dent- confi of a victory; (b) images likely prematurely celebrating Gore’s of the fact foreknowledge to have it is implied, appears Bush, who, looking that his victory has been predetermined in the crucial state of Florida; (c) then convinced, seen both as, alternatively, of news broadcasters close-ups sena- and of congressmen (d) images of the electoral outcome; uncertain, in forlornly women standing and congressmen of black tors; (e) images of (f) images and Gore as he rejects their petitions; of Senate President front car with eggs. pelting Bush’s crowd an aggrieved here, these later accounts are still given without ambiguity, and this lack of this lack and ambiguity, without are still given later accounts here, these that such implication lm’s by the fi causality is reinforced concerning doubt manifesta- because one is also more or less unique, a structure of causality inau- erupt during Bush’s which protests of that structure, the street tion as the commentary exceptional, also, apparently, is ceremony, guration gives rise to two further model of causality also unequivocal This declares. that of of the prologue: nal section the fi within evident manifestations faces the as the new administration situation, of a siege-like the existence to turn the course can be done that nothing the notion wrath; and nation’s of power. of the abduction both, manipulation of the Congress and Senate, and/or the existence of an of an the existence and/or Senate, and Congress of the manipulation both, of by the failure demonstrated these bodies, within seizure institutional disenfran- to their alleged effective protest an to mount delegates black of the as President obligation, self-vanquishing by Gore’s and chisement, grounds. procedural on protests such block Senate, to 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3219780415962612-Ch-14.indd 321 As argued, the abundance of empirical materials evident here conforms to the realist concept of empirical adequacy, and provides this section of Fahrenheit 9/11 with a realist model of causality and description incorporating “negative” and “neutral” analogies which, in some cases, seem to undermine the overt positive analogies conveyed by authorial intent and commentary. As with other sections of the prologue, these disparate units of empirical material share a common structural objective to affi rm the accompanying verbal commentary. However, a considerable amount of such material is present here, and such magnitude holds open the prospect that such material might be diffi cult to organize in relation to the fi lm’s directed ideological substance, and might also work against that substance. One pos- ian aitken sible moment when this occurs concerns the representation of the “rule- bound” debates taking place in Congress. The fi lm characterizes the procedural impasse which occurs as a form of institutional obstruction, or latent jurisprudential bias within the system. However, the wide-ranging sum of visual materials present in these sequences could be read as signifying the existence of an impersonal and unprejudiced framework of historical lineage, which, though manipulated by the Bush camp in this instance, remains of intrinsic advantage. Here, the sheer assortment and quantity of empirical visual portrayals succeeds both in undercutting the commentary and authorial intentionality of Fahrenheit 9/11, and qualifying the underlying theoretical imperatives of the fi lm. In addition to these scenes, this kind of unintentional empirical qualifi cation also occurs throughout the fi nal section of the prologue of Fahrenheit 9/11, where the fi lm’s main thesis: that Bush is a “lame-duck President,” largely incompetent, and permanently on holiday, is frequently con- founded. The footage here consists of a combination of cinéma vérité-style publicity and stock interview material of Bush on vacation, and, as with other scenes, the complexity of combination favoured here has the effect of disseminating interpretation beyond the parameters of the fi lm’s intended address, to suggest other connotations. These include, for example, the notion that Bush is an “average guy” (a connotation promoted by Bush’s advisors, and which Moore’s approach is unable to undercut); or that Bush is likeable, in control of circumstances, and has his own effective (if unusually relaxed) methods of dealing with the affairs of State. Bush looks unperturbed rather than dim-witted here, and the overall indistinct- 322 ness of connotation emerging from this section of the fi lm again stems from Moore’s chosen technique—one which he is ultimately unable to wholly control—of employing a broad assortment of complex empirical images. This and other sections of Fahrenheit 9/11 also consist of two confl icting orientations. The fi rst of these is structured into the substance of the fi lm images themselves, images drawn from promotional materials released by the Bush camp, and organized according to the imperatives of that camp. The second is built upon the editing of these images and the commentary,

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 322 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 323 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM the thematic level, the The relationship of contrast perceptible between the two sequences set between the two sequences perceptible of contrast relationship The also appears to share a number of structural also appears to share a number 9/11 of Fahrenheit sequence This begins with a long prologue, which covers which prologue, with a long 9/11 begins Fahrenheit As mentioned, , namely, that of using visual images to both negate the to both negate images that of using visual 9/11, namely, Fahrenheit at the beginning of the main division of the fi lm (those of the Bush team lm (those of the fi of the main division at the beginning the twin towers) on the attack and appearances, preparing for television adopted within the remainder approach es the characteristic also exemplifi of the Bush administration, emanating from discourses and commentaries mate- Here, visual of view. point Moore’s represent which rm those affi and theoretical lm’s manner in support of aspects of the fi rial is used in a revising similarities with the fi rst part of the prologue. Atrst part of the prologue. similarities with the fi a con- appears palpable, though unfolding tragedy same sense of gradually premeditated misgovern- of between the depictions trast can still be found the more and poor in the prologue, down of the black pounding and ance events world-changing and of preening marionettes heightened portrayals an African-American also appear to have Both sections in the later section. in the later of emotion expression focus, as the locus for the most intense throwing at those in horror woman, gazing Black of a young is that section the towers. At the level of theory forma- themselves to their deaths from 9/11 also offers up of Fahrenheit this section as in the prologue, and, tion, for later explana- representations provisional and problematic similarly is as in the prologue, which, here, is evident of ambivalence A degree tion. concepts. and than language established by empirical materials, rather the period from Bush’s election victory in 2000, to just before the time of victory election Bush’s the period from September 11 2001. After the on Centre, Trade World the on the attack a series of images, with lm commences fi the main body of the prologue, up for television of the Bush team being made commentary, without and reality, remoteness from suggests a relative sequence This appearances. prevailing sheltered but within the team’s enclosure synthetic somewhat lm is then fi of the in this section ciality of mores evoked artifi The milieu. on by the attack evoked sense of dreadfulness with the genuine contrasted screen with off-screen rst, by a black fi portrayed the twin towers, an attack faces of spectators looking then the agonized of the explosions, sounds the from changes mood now The lled sky. the smoke-fi towards upward as Fahrenheit of tragedy, to one cial self-indulgence of artifi atmosphere earlier its consequence. and of the attack the magnitude 9/11 attempts to invoke both of which attempt to undermine the opposing ideological tendency tendency ideological the opposing to undermine attempt of which both images of the substance it is the However, the images. within entrenched interven- conceptual lm’s the fi here, resisting ultimately triumphs which and difference evoke of the empirical to more, the ability Once tions. , 9/11 model of Fahrenheit es the initial theoretical effectively qualifi antithesis empirical mate- non-conceptual by largely invoked equivocation, such and intuitionist revelatory and a realist model of to corresponds rials, also aesthetic experience. 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3239780415962612-Ch-14.indd 323 network which have a deconstructive function in negating antithetical points of view (i.e., those voiced by the administration); and in a confi rmatory manner in support of aspects of the network which play a legitimizing role in con- solidating the core ideological discourse of the network (i.e., that voiced by Moore, in the commentary). However, as in the prologue, Fahrenheit 9/11 is not always successful in managing and demarcating the signifying potential of its empirical visual materials in support of the fi lm’s core underlying premises here, and the attempt to orchestrate these materials within a par- tisan dialectic of repudiation and confi rmation over the major division of the fi lm also meets with similarly qualifi ed success. The key point is that this incomplete conclusion has the consequence that Fahrenheit 9/11 comes ian aitken to present a series of complex, sometimes ambivalent, rather than entirely coherent patterns of such repudiation and conformation, once more bringing the fi lm into closer correspondence with a realist model than at fi rst sight might seem to be the case. After the opening sections of the main body of the fi lm Fahrenheit 9/11 proceeds to address a range of issues. These are, in the order in which they are broached within this section of the fi lm: (a) The question of the nature of the fi nancial relationships which existed between the Bush family and Saudi dignitaries, and the role such relationships played in the decision to allow aircraft carrying the bin-Laden family to leave the US after 9/11; (b) the administration’s attempt to foster a climate of fear amongst the American public in order to garner support for the “war on terror”; (c) the question of why the attack on Afghanistan was carried out in such a “des- ultory” fashion; and (d) the institution of the Patriot Act. In these sections of the fi lm the approach to the use of commentary and visuals changes from that adopted within the prologue. Whereas, within the prologue, a range of brief units of commentary and reinforcing visuals are employed, here, each issue is addressed to a larger extent. The collage-type orientation of the prologue, with its over-abundance of concepts, and tapestry of empirical material, is forsaken here in favour of a course suggesting that a more in-depth investigation of the issues, and more sophisticated elaboration of points made earlier, is now being carried through. Nevertheless, these sections of the fi lm still embody the characteristic structural pen- chant of Fahrenheit 9/11, which is to employ visual empirical material to both negate the rationalizations of the Bush camp, and affi rm Moore’s own, 324 which, in this section of the fi lm, make the case that the Bush administration’s reasons for engaging in the “war on terror” were essentially fi nancial, and related to an aspiration to control the international supply of oil. However, one consequence of this focus is that, here at least, Fahrenheit 9/11 does not particularly address the arguably more imperative political reasons for the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, and this, in turn, gives this section of the fi lm, like those sequences set within Congress, an insub- stantial feel. Up till this point, the theoretical network of Fahrenheit 9/11 has

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 324 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 325 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM Fahrenheit 9/11 Fahrenheit , and, 9/11, and, Fahrenheit one of the one 9/11 Fahrenheit are concerned are concerned 9/11 Fahrenheit In many respects, the Iraq incursion lies at the heart of respects, the Iraq incursion In many If the opening acts of the main division of If the opening acts of the main division However, even if this argument is accepted, that which is debarred here is accepted, that which even if this argument However, with the aftermath of the attack on the World Trade Centre, the invasion the invasion Centre, Trade the World on with the aftermath of the attack various links between the Bush camp and nancial fi the of Afghanistan, and of is taken up with the invasion of that division Arab elites; the remainder rst fi The sections. four lm is also divided into nal part of the fi fi This Iraq. for the prosecution cial rationalizations caricatures offi and of these sets out of dis- the military recruitment focuses upon the second whilst of the war, then returns to the issues of cor- third The African-Americans. advantaged of the main beginning and porate sleaze addressed during the prologue played the role on this time focussing principally lm—but of the fi division a personalized on lm ends the fi Finally, corporation. by the Haliburton by the griev- undertaken rites of passage in following the emotional note, ing mother of a soldier killed in Iraq. by a discernibly lm is also marked of the fi perhaps because of this, this section least effectual within the fi lm. within the fi least effectual undercuts positive analogies already destabilized by the empirical dimen- analogies already destabilized by the positive undercuts undercut- a realist perspective, such from lm. In general, and fi of the sion of the to be a positive quality be perceived ting of positive analogies would of a diminution is that it occurs at the expense the problem lm. However, fi . In addition 9/11 of the causal models in Fahrenheit of the abstract dimension a noteworthy lm also contains of the fi this section diminution, to such rather than merely “interesting determinate “truth claims,” of number the empirical this has the effect of forcing and for truth claims,” candidates cation, fortifi ideological objectives. Such lm’s the fi materials to reinforce of absence over-certainty, taken together with the sense of exclusion, use of evidence one-dimensional abstract causal features, and important of makes this section in these sequences, apparent still seems to diminish the overall explanatory power of the causal models the overall explanatory power of the still seems to diminish perspective, this is a a realist from , and, 9/11 mobilized within Fahrenheit themselves the exclusions therefore, move. It is not, deeply regressive an already weakening upon the impact these have but are at issue, which of dimension the conceptual here, and, causal framework; extended and honed its internal causal models in the “stratifi ed” manner ed” manner in the “stratifi models causal its internal honed and extended within these to open up appears now ssure a fi However, critique. of a realist are overlooked. (political) relationships some essential models, because structural of outcome as the be regarded could breaches perceptible These 9/11 Fahrenheit in which way as emblematic of the lm, or the fi within aws fl its ideological objectives, t with fi not does that which excludes persistently On the other of the narrative. the course unfold across objectives as those intuition- to a revelatory and that, according be argued also it could hand, to be required be not 9/11 should realism, Fahrenheit ist model of aesthetic cognate enquiry. rational, in the manner of an entirely inclusive 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3259780415962612-Ch-14.indd 325 distinctive stylistic, and use of theory and evidence, dissimilar to that employed both in the prologue and beginning of the main division of the fi lm, yet including features drawn from both these subdivisions. Here, Moore attempts to use both the inexplicit and highly charged collage-like style of the prologue, and more linear approach adopted at the beginning of the major division of the fi lm; and this section of Fahrenheit 9/11 frequently alternates between these two stratagems, fi rst, by displaying a series of epigrammatic units of linked commentary and visuals which have no overall coherence, and then by engaging in more lengthy interviews and commentaries, which provide more articulate accounts of the subject. At the level of fi lm form, this fi nal segment of Fahrenheit 9/11 endows the fi lm with ian aitken an overall structural unity, as the two different strategems adopted in the prologue and beginning of the main division of the fi lm now re-appear together in concord. At the same time, this formal structural closure is accompanied by thematic closure, as the fi lm’s over-arching explanation of its problematic, namely, that the so-called “war on terror” is merely a pretext for a set of political, economic and military objectives formulated well before the events of 2000, is reasserted. Nevertheless, and as elsewhere in Fahrenheit 9/11, these aspects related to closure are also accompanied by others which tend to open up the connotation levels generated by the fi lm. This fi nal section of the fi lm also brings new levels of “stratifi ed” description and causality to bear on the subject of enquiry, and concludes with a general air of mystifi ed scepticism, rather than fi rmly stated proposition, in a manner consonant with a realist approach.

conclusions

Although Fahrenheit 9/11 is sometimes characterized as an ideologically tendentious work, the fi lm is best understood as predominantly so at the conceptual level, but less so at the more empirical, non-conceptual level. From the perspective of a philosophical realist network model of theory formation, the conceptual theoretical network of Fahrenheit 9/11 is exemplifi ed by a “self-interested,” rather than “disinterested” rationality, by a propensity to issue too many absolute, rather than “interesting candidate for” truth claims; and by an interior theoretical model containing too many “positive,” and too few “neutral” and “negative” analogies. From the perspective of an intuitionist cinematic realist model of theory formation, the 326 conceptual theoretical network of Fahrenheit 9/11 is also exemplifi ed by forms of “propaganda [rather than indeterminate realism] steeped in physical reality” (Kracauer 211); and, so, contains too many “unfortunately heavily didactic scenes” (Bazin 158). However, although a theorist of intuitionist realism such as Bazin would undoubtedly have censured Fahrenheit 9/11 as an ideologically “organized fi lm,” he might also have endorsed the auspicious role played by the

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 326 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 327 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM

Fahrenheit 9/11 Fahrenheit suffi cient to cient is suffi is considered as a divided fi lm, in which an authoritar- lm, in which as a divided fi is considered 9/11 Fahrenheit If “faults” in such organization: the “negative imprints” established by the by established imprints” the “negative organization: in such “faults” theoretical if the conceptual 162); for, (Bazin empirical base realist lm’s fi lm’s the fi of anti-realism, a spirit towards 9/11 inclines of Fahrenheit network predisposes more network empirical theoretical multifaceted extensive and level It is at this of theory formation. of a realist model the quality towards neutral and 9/11 presents model of Fahrenheit theoretical that the interior the to playing because, in addition as positive analogies; as well negative, ideological perspective, of Moore’s truth claims the of guaranteeing roles non- the made by the Bush Administration, the truth claims negating and 9/11 sometimes within Fahrenheit materials evident linguistic empirical to an Further these shaping assignments. both or muddle undercut neutral analogies manifest and the negative for most of accountability con- incongruent intermittently lm, the highly diverse and within the fi lm an 9/11 also cedes the fi in Fahrenheit of empirical materials tinuum the cially serving to legitimate superfi whilst which, “empirical adequacy,” unset- and challenges noteworthily more advanced, theoretical account materials may tenuous and these unformulated Whilst tles that account. ideology, hegemonic lm’s to topple the fi authority cient possess suffi not rather than established status, provisional, their essentially that ide- imprints”—in Bazin refers to as “negative ssures—what create fi lm. Given all this, it the fi into of equivocation ology; so inserting a degree both inscribed into that, despite the ideological intentionality can be argued theoretical network, conceptual “perspective” and its authorial ian, narrowly-focussed ideological dimension is on occasion transported occasion is on ideological dimension ian, narrowly-focussed expres- to indeterminate more inclined empirical foundation by a visual in the pro- is also most perceptible that division allusion, tentative and sion of cover the invasions lm which of the fi sections less so in those logue, and a in the prologue, is partly because, whereas, This Afghanistan. Iraq and to off-set of empirical materials tends relatively unsystematic conjoining the increasingly in these later sections, ideological discourse; undercut and per- linear and materials within a more rationalized, use of such organized underline and to re-centre tends lm-making of fi “realist” fashion ceptually are ceded accounts explanatory “self-interested” them. In these sequences, of this conceptual consequence one and a superior measure of exposition, naturalising and an ancillary empirical takes on is that the corroboration the per- revising outlook. From function, rather than more self-governing and a function such realism intuitionist and spectives of both philosophical truth because it bears self-interested as anti-realist, be characterized would so closes and for truth” claims, “candidate rather than disinterested claims to realist indispensable implication down the areas of more connotative theory formation. corresponds more closely to a realist model of theory formation than than to a realist model of theory formation more closely corresponds appear to be so. rst understanding might at fi 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3279780415962612-Ch-14.indd 327 During the period of “screen theory” styles of fi lm-making grounded in perceptual realism, or “naturalism,” were frequently criticized on the grounds of a presumed capacity to “naturalize” ideology.4This is, for example, the basis of the critique of the “classic realist text,” mounted by Colin MacCabe in his dismissal of Ken Loach’s Days of Hope (1975) as inopportunely naturalist (MacCabe 12). Today, such blanket and blinkered repudiations of naturalism have now chiefl y disappeared, perhaps because so many excellent and important “naturalist” fi lms emerged during the 1980s and 1990s, including Loach’s own The Gamekeeper (1980) and The Wind that Shakes the Barley (2006). Nevertheless, from the perspectives of philosophical and intuitionist realism, an important point remains to be clarifi ed concerning the alleged, ian aitken inexorably “naturalizing” propensity of naturalism; and this is that, whilst “naturalism” may possess a naturalizing predilection, it categorically possesses a contrary and more munifi cent representational inclination, which should bring the naturalizing function into question, and should, therefore, enable an authentically philosophical and intuitionist realist form of aesthetic expression and reception to transpire. The experience of aesthetic realism in fi lm is based upon the active con- templation of “candidate for truth claims” about the world, which are expressed within representational forms and techniques corresponding to our perception and memory, and which are assessed against the experience of the spectator. To judge that a fi lm is “realistic” is, therefore, to make a twofold judgement, the fi rst part of which concerns what it is that the fi lm depicts, and the second what life is like. Whilst the spectator is making this dual judgement the fi lm meanders onwards both synchronically and dia- chronically, and the spectator’s judgements concerning the truth or falsity of any particular truth claim are persistently deferred (Aitken European Film Theory 256). This process of realist expression and reception is both inherently indeterminate, and also grounded in the representational realist, rather than naturalizing capabilities of naturalism, because representational forms which correspond to our perception and memory provide the foundation upon which “interesting candidate for truth claims” can be assessed, and the realist double-judgement freely exercised. However, it is the naturalizing, rather than representational realist imperative which gains ascendancy in the Iraq sequences of Fahrenheit 9/11. In these sequences, the use of techniques such as linear narrative, proposi- 328 tional explication, real-time temporo-spatial continuity, and logical conceptual enlargement should, notionally, enable the realist representational imperative to come into sight. However, such an outcome does not materialize, because the naturalizing tendency of these sequences governs that imperative. Nevertheless, this is not the case with those sequences in which the empirical theoretical network of Fahrenheit 9/11 unhinges its own conceptual theoretical network, and in which, accordingly, the fi lm comes closer to meeting the demands of philosophical and intuitionist realism.

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 328 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM theory, evidence and truth in fahrenheit 9/11 329 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM . Studies . Edinburgh: . Edinburgh: . 2nd edition. edition. . 2nd Film History: Theory and Practice Theory Film History: Realist Film Theory and Cinema: The Nineteenth-Century Lukácsian and Intuitionist Nineteenth-Century The and Cinema: Theory Realist Film succeeds in throwing off the envelope of conceptual of conceptual the envelope off in throwing 9/11 succeeds Fahrenheit Edinburgh University Press, 2001. Edinburgh 2006. University Press, Manchester . Manchester: Realist Traditions 175–88. Lukács.” Georg Bazin and André John Grierson, Kracauer, Siegfried in Documentary Film 1.2 (2007): 105–22. 2006. Routledge, London: York; Documentary Film. Ed. Ian Aitken. New New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985. Alfred A. Knopf, York: New of California Press, 1967. 1981. Publishing Co, Inc, Hackett Indianapolis: as a form of anti-realism, but with a distinction which can be made between which with a distinction but as a form of anti-realism, realist approaches. philosophical and pragmatist Realist Film Theory and Cinema: the Nineteenth-Century, Lukácsian and Intuitionist Lukácsian and and Cinema: the Nineteenth-Century, Theory Realist Film See my in Film,” the Documentary and “Realism, Philosophy ; and Realist Traditions (2006). of the Documentary Film Encyclopedia Aitken (ed.) The theory associated with lm term “screen theory” refers to the body of ﬁ The introduction 1970s. (See the editor’s during the 1960s and Screen the journal for more details.) to this volume the ideas of John Grierson, Siegfried Kracauer, André Bazin and Georg Georg and Bazin André Kracauer, Siegfried the ideas of John Grierson, and Cinema: A Critical Theory Film European includes This work. Lukács, in earlier Lukácsian Nineteenth-Century, Cinema:The and Theory (2001); Realist Film Introduction Studies Tradition.” Realist European (2006); “The Traditions and Intuitionist Realist of the Empirical in Role The Reality: “Physical Cinema (2007); and in European Bazin and André John Grierson, Kracauer, of Siegfried Theory the Film Studies in Documentary Film (2007). Lukács.” Georg be classed should pragmatism or not here with whether concerned I am not works cited works A Critical Introduction and Cinema: Theory Film Aitken, Ian. European ——. Cinema 3.3 (2007): Studies in European Tradition.” Realist European ——. “The of Theory Film Role of the Empirical in the The Reality: —— “Physical 2. 3. 4. The Encyclopedia of the Encyclopedia The Film.” the Documentary and —— “Realism, Philosophy Douglas. Gomery, Allen, Robert C., and notes 1. covers a term which realism,” of “intuitionist the notion developed I have Here, Here, model, analogical impressionistic an out in setting and anti-realism, to answer that “deep- in order intuition, and both reason accommodating (Harré 178). the world?’’ is there really in what … questions, est of all taken from concepts here suggests that the analysis undertaken Finally, derived aligned with others realism can be productively philosophical suggests a way this, in turn, and realism, intuitionist “continental” from studies. for future forward Volume I. Trans. Hugh Gray. Berkeley: University University Berkeley: Hugh Gray. Trans. I. Volume is Cinema? What Bazin, André. of Criticism in the Philosophy C. Aesthetics: Problems Monroe Beardsley, 9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 3299780415962612-Ch-14.indd 329 Bhaskar, Roy. A Realist Theory of Science. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1978. —— The Possibility of Naturalism: A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences. Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1979. Bordwell, David and Carroll, Noël (eds.). Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies. Madison and London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996. Carroll, Noël. Theorising the Moving Image. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Devitt, Michael. Realism and Truth. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. Harré, Rom. The Philosophies of Science: An Introductory Survey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.

ian aitken Hesse, Mary. Models and Analogies in Science. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1966. —— Revolutions and Reconstructions in the Philosophy of Science. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1980. —— “Duhem, Quine, and a New Empiricism.” Challenges to Empiricism. Ed. Harold Morick. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company Inc., 1980. Keat, Robert and Urry, John. Social Theory as Science. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975. Kracauer, Siegfried. Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. Kuhn, Thomas. The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientiﬁ c Tradition and Change. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1977. Lovell, Terry. Pictures of Reality. London: British Film Institute, 1980. MacCabe, Colin. “Realism and the Cinema: Notes on some Brechtian Theses.” Screen 15.2 (Summer 1974): 7–27. Morick, Harold (ed.). Challenges to Empiricism. London: Methuen, 1980. Papineau, David. Reality and Representation. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987. Passmore, John. Recent Philosophers: A Supplement to A Hundred Years of Philosophy. London: Duckworth, 1985. —— Serious Art. London: Duckworth, 1991. Psillos, Stathis. Scientiﬁ c Realism: How Science Tracks Truth. London: Routledge, 1999. Putnam, Hilary. Reason, Truth and History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. —— The Many Faces of Realism. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1987. —— Realism with a Human Face. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University 330 Press, 1992. Rescher, Nicholas. Conceptual Idealism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973. Rorty, Richard. “The World Well Lost.” Journal of Philosophy 69 (1972): 649–665. Trigg, Roger. Reality at Risk: A Defence of Realism in Philosophy and the Sciences. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989.

9780415962612-Ch-14.indd 330 4/1/2009 10:48:19 AM contributors

Ian Aitken is Professor of Film Studies at Hong Kong Baptist University. He is the author of Film and Reform: John Grierson and the Documentary Film Movement (1990); The Documentary Film Movement: An Anthology (ed., 1998); Alberto Cavalcanti (2000); European Film Theory and Cine ma (2001); The Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film (ed., 2006); Realist Film Theory and Cinema (2006); and Lukacsian Film Theory and Cinema (2009). Martin Barker is Professor of Film & Television Studies at Aberystwyth University. He has researched and published in a number of fi elds, including comic books, censorship controversies, methodologies of research, fi lm analysis, and most particularly audience research. He directed the 2003–4 international project on the reception of the fi lm of The Lord of the Rings. In 2006 he directed a commissioned project for the British Board of Film Classifi cation into audience responses to screened sexual violence. His books include The Lasting of the Mohicans: History of an American Myth (with Roger Sabin, 1996); Knowing Audiences: Judge Dredd, its Friends, Fans and Foes (with Kate Brooks, 1998); From Antz to Titanic: Reinventing Film Analysis (with Thomas Austin, 2000); and The Crash Controversy: Censorship Campaigns and Film Reception (with Jane Arthurs and Ramaswami Harindranath, 2001).

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contributors 332 the UniversityofAmsterdam. Hisessays on European cinema,film history Thomas ElsaesserisEmeritusProfessor ofFilmand Television Studiesat of Sound and Vibrations Research. with Southampton University’s music facultyand physicists attheInstitute Approaches and author ofBritishFilmMusicandMusicals K.J. Donnelly isReaderinFilmattheUniversityofSouthampton. Heis and thetransformation ofpublicspace;and on genealogiesofdigitallight. for Leonardo Books atMITPress.Hiscurrent research ison publicscreens Theory (2000);The CinemaEffect (2004);and EcoMedia (2005).Heistheserieseditor Video Media asArtandCulture (1993);DigitalAesthetics (1998);SimulationandSocial Dundee. His publications include the UniversityofMelbourne, and Honorary Professor attheUniversityof Sean CubittisDirectoroftheProgram inMedia and Communications at (2009). Healsoeditsthejournal the New Review ofFilmand Television Studies. Film Spectator(1995)and PuzzleFilms:Complex Storytelling inContemporaryCinema (with ThomasElsaesser); Cinema (2006);Studying ContemporaryAmericanFilm:AGuidetoMovieAnalysis He isauthor ofDirected by Steven Spielberg: Poetics oftheContemporaryHollywood Warren Buckland isReaderinFilmStudiesatOxford Brookes University. cognitive/neuroscientific approaches tocinema. nology on fi lm inavarietyofdifferent national contexts, togetherwith British cinema,and hisresearch interests include theeffectsofdigitaltech- Andrews. Hehaspublishedwork on contemporary American,French and William Brown isa Teaching FellowinFilmStudiesattheUniversity ofSt ing fartoomuch World of Warcraft. Profi le. Enix, contributing tomany titlesincluding FinalFantasyXIIand several books and journals, and hehasalsoworked on gamesforSquare- disbelief functions inludic environments. Hiswork hasbeenpublishedin London. Heiscurrently writingaPhDfocusingon how thesuspension of Douglas Brown isavideogametheoristand lectureratBrunelUniversity, Movies (2004)and QueerImages: (2006). AHistoryofGayandLesbianFilminAmerica co-authored Monsters intheCloset:Homosexuality andtheHorror Film Hollywood LSDfilms, and The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999).Heistheauthor of lished essays on Dark Shadowsfancultures,blaxploitation horror fi lms, fi lm genres,fi lm history, fi lm theory, and multiculturalism. Hehaspub- at theUniversityofNorth Texas. Hisresearch interests include topicsin Harry M.BenshoffisanAssociateProfessor ofRadio, Television, and Film Pop MusicinBritish Cinema(2001).HealsoeditedFilmMusic:Critical His favourite gameisAlphaCentauri,but hecanusually befound play- (2001). Although amemberofthefi lm facultyhealsoworks America onFilm:Representing Race, Class, GenderandSexuality atthe The Cognitive SemioticsofFilm(2000);and editorofThe Timeshift: On Video Culture (1991);Videography: (2007);The Spectre ofSound(2005); (1997).WithSeanGriffin he Valkyrie (2002)

4/1/2009 10:48:31 AM contributors 333 4/1/2009 10:48:32 AM4/1/2009 10:48:32 AM

Rhetoric and The Last Great American Last Great The Deleuze, Cinema and National Identity Deleuze, (1999); BFI Companion to German Cinema The ) and is on the editorial boards of the editorial boards is on ) and CineAction , and Cinema Journal, Screen Cinema Futures: Cain, Abel or Cain, Abel Cinema Futures: as (co-) editor include: books Most recent (2006), has published articles in a number of international journals (includ- journals of international in a number (2006), has published articles ing Studies. Journal of Deleuzian The A/V: and Film-Philosophy Arts of Film Studies in the Communication is Professor Plantinga Carl of He is the author at Calvin College. Department Sciences and American Film and the Viewers: Moving ction Film (1997) and in Nonfi Representation and Film, Cognition, Views: co-editor of Passionate Experience (2009); and Spectator’s and Film (2008). Philosophy Companion to Routledge The Emotion (1999) and (2004). His books as (2004). His books on the Sightlines Working Harun Farocki: (2004); and Show Picture Weimar Subject (1996); Identity, Germany: History, Fassbinder’s include author Contemporary American Film (2000); Studying Metropolis Cinema and After (2000); Frühes Kino (2002); Terror, und Filmgeschichte Buckland); (2002, with Warren (2005); Cinema: Face to Face with Hollywood (2005); European Mythes et Representation and English edition (2007, with Malte Hagener; Filmheorie: eine Einfuehrung (2008). Heute Hollywood and forthcoming); Italian translation and Studies, Philosophy Theatre in has a Masters of Arts Ferenz Volker a and (2002) Germany Munich, German Literature at the University of the UK, on of Gloucestershire, the University in Film Studies from Ph.D. cinema (2005). He has publications unreliable narrator in contemporary based in now the UK. He is and theory in both Germany narrative on and lm production for a variety of fi as script consultant working Munich companies. distribution in Screen Studies at Brunel University. is Professor Krzywinska Tanya aspects of different on articles many and of several books She is the author c- in occult fi interested is particularly and fantasy and videogames, horror, and Space Invaders: Raiders of Tomb She is the co-author worlds. fantasy and tion Dancing and the Cinema (2006); A Skin for Forms and Meanings (2006); Sex Videogames co-editor ofScreenPlay: in Film (2001); and Voodoo and Possession Witchcraft, In: (2007). She con- videogame/player/text (2002); and Cinema/Videogames/Interfaces Design at Brunel and Theory in Digital Games: venes a Masters programme of the Digital Games Research is President and London, University, Association. of St lectures in Film Studies at the University Martin-Jones David of He is the author Scotland. Andrews, (1998); Cable? and media archaeology, American cinema and contemporary media theory media contemporary and cinema American archaeology, media and 200 in over published and 15 languages more than in been translated have at UC fellow research and been visiting professor He has collections. he In 2006 Yale. NYU and Aviv, Tel Institute Sackler Vienna, IFK Berkeley, in 2007 and of Stockholm at the University Professor Bergman was Ingmar Cambridge. College, at Churchill Professor Leverhulme 9780415962612-contri.indd 3339780415962612-contri.indd 333 9780415962612-contri.indd 334

contributors 334 Saša Vojkovic ture-length independent films. students innarrativeand digitalfi lmmaking, and theproduction offea- Executive DirectoroftheUTFilmInstitute,aprogram devotedtotraining Nation, Subjectivity intheNew Hollywood Cinema:Fathers, SonsandOtherGhosts Azija ( Woo Ping’s Wing Chun(2009);Filmskimedijkaotranskulturalnispektakl:Hollywood, Europa, at theHong Kong UniversityofScience and Technology. Sheisauthor ofYuen doctoral teaching fellowshipawarded bytheDepartment ofHumanities, Letters, UniversityofAmsterdam. Shealsowon a YK Pao three-yearpost- Cultural Analysis, Theory and Interpretation) awarded bytheFacultyof the recipient oftheASCAPh.D. Fellowship(Amsterdam School for of CulturalStudies,FacultyPhilosophy, UniversityofRijeka.Shewas journals, including theNew YorkTimes , theLosAngeles Times, film hasalsoappearedinnumerous magazines, newspapersand academic four-volume collection on HollywoodforRoutledge. Schatz’s writing on Era and BoomandBust:AmericanCinemainthe1940s include University of Texas, where hehasbeenon thefacultysince 1976.Hisbooks and formerChairmanoftheRadio-Television-Film Department atthe Thomas Schatz isMaryGibbsJones Centennial ChairinCommunication history. Pictures: More onFilmHistory, StyleandAnalysis (2006),plus many articles on film Style and Technology: HistoryandAnalysis (second edition, 1992);Movinginto University College and theRoyal College ofArt.Heistheauthor of grammer, and film lightingcameraman.HehastaughtattheSladeSchool, Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics and hasbeenaballetdancer, computerpro- Barry Salt isa Term Tutor attheLondon FilmSchool. HehasaB.Sc.and Filmic Mediumas[ Film Comment,Quarterly and Cineaste.Schatz isthefounder and Hollywood Genres, The GeniusoftheSystem:Hollywood FilmmakingintheStudio ´ is AssociateProfessor ofFilmand MediaattheDepartment Trans] CulturalSpectacle: Hollywood, Europe, Asia . Healsoeditedarecent (2001). ) (2008);and Premiere, Film The 4/1/2009 10:48:32 AM index

Page numbers followed by n refer to notes Aarseth, Espen 96 airbrushing 69 ABC 24 Aitken, Ian 11 Abernathy, Lewis 246 Aladdin 30 Ableton Live 105 Alexander and the Wind–up Mouse 297 Absent Ones 6 algorithms 164–5, 166, 168 absolutism 49 Alice in Wonderland 292 abstract concepts, reductiveness of 2, 3 Alien 68, 243, 306n Academy Awards (Oscars) 21, 27, 28–9, Alien series 189n 36, 38, 39, 200, 201, 286 aliens 68, 69, 73 Academy of Motion Picture Arts and allegiances 244, 248; perverse 266–7, 269 Sciences 29, 200 allegory 50–1, 57–8 Academy ratio 146–7 Allen, Cameron 122n acousmatic sound 117–18 Allen, Robert C., and Gomery, Douglas acousmonium 109 316; Film History: action, crisis of 82n Theory and Practice 310, 315 action fi lms 32, 33, 133, 243 Allen, Woody 124 action painting 159 Almodóvar, Pedro 28 action-image 215 Althusser, Louis 310 Actionists, Vienna 161 Altman, Rick 106–7, 119, 296 actor-network theory 66 Altman, Robert 161 actuality television 141 Amazon.com 44 adaptation, theories of 8, 92–6 American Beauty 200, 201 admiration 247, 252 American Cinematographer 144 Adobe Premiere editing system 145 American foreground 125 Adorno, Theodor 63 American Psycho 265, 267, 268, 269, adventure fi lms 243 273–4, 278 aesthetic approach 7, 12, 325 anachronism 161–2 aesthetic realism 328 anal sex 196, 207 affective theory 11 analogue cinema 69–70 affects 239, 254 analogy, positive and negative 316–17, Afghanistan, invasion of 324, 325, 327 322, 326–7 Africa 225, 226 analysis, formal, of fi lms 125–47 African-Americans: comedies 27; sampling methods 148 disenfranchisement of 320–1, 325; analytic philosophy 10 and expression of emotion 323; anamorphosis 57 indie fi lms 227; queer 198 Anderson, Paul Thomas 28, 39, 124 after theory 1 Anderson, Wes 28 A.I.: Artifi cial Intelligence 68 André, Carl 157, 159 AIDS 198; activist groups 197; crisis 1, 193, anempathetic music 116 200, 229; video collectives 196, 197 Angela’s Ashes 129, 137, 140, 141–2

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index 336 BAFTA awards 98 Badlands 265 backlight 142 Away From Her27 AVID 105 Average Shot Length(ASL)8,125, avant-garde cinema71,72,230 automation 168 automatic writing154 auteurs: European artfilm 214,215–16; auteurism 7,160,175,196,199,214 audience: reaction of11,144,145,290–1; Atonement 28 atmosphere sound 119 Atkins, Barry100 Atari 89 asynchrony 104 Aston MartinDB5158 Astin, Sean217 assemblages 67 assemblage art159 Assayas, Olivier177 Asian cinema176–8 Arzner, Dorothy 196 Artisan 27 “art” and “life”asprinciples 154 art films 27,28,129,144,203,214,215–16, Armageddon 52,68 Archimedes 164 Araki, Gregg 215, 227–8,230 appropriation 160 Apple 30,44 Apocalypto 27 Any Given Sunday140–1,143 Antor, H.271 Antonioni, Michelangelo 215,216 anti-realism 313–16,319,329 antagonists 33 Ansen, David 29 L’année dernière àMarienbad216 animation 27,30,31,70,71,197 Anglo-Saxon writers5 Anger Management 220 Anger, Kenneth230 Angelopoulos, Theo216 47–8, 147(Fig.6.3) 129–33, 130(Fig.6.1),145,1 indie 28,38,39,42 talking to143,seealsospectator 219, 258,260,262 Blade Runner105;game97,100 Black LikeMe208 Black, David Alan261,263–4 Bishop, Harv127 The Birds111 The Birdcage 199,200 biological essentialism 9 binary oppositions 2,8,12,49,195–6,211 bin Ladenfamily324 Big Six(studios)20,24 “Big Bang”162 Bicycle Thieves (Ladridibiciclette) 176 Bhaskar, Roy315 Bhabha, Homi12 Bewkes, Jeff40,42 Beverley, John49,51 Berney, Bob40,43 Bernard, Tom28 Benshoff, HarryM. 9 Benjamin, Walter 49,51,56–7,63,154 Benatar, Pat 210 Bellin, Joshua David 291–2 La belle etlabête76 Being JohnMalkovich 68 Beijing opera178,181,185 Beckinsale, Kate 54 Beauty andtheBeast30 beach culture158 BBC 157 Bazin, André 51,56,57,71–2,73,75,77, Bay, Michael 51 Baudelaire, Charles 154 Batman series32,40,41,87 Batman 40 Bass, Lance 208 Barthes, Roland 4,54,169 Barrymore, Drew217 Barry Lyndon265 Barron, Louis and Bebe110,115 baroque and neo-baroque 8,49,50–4 Baron Cohen,Sasha208 Barker, Michael 28 Barker, Martin11 Bardou-Jacquet, Antoine 157,158,168 Barberini family57 Bale, Christian267 Baldwin, Alec61 Bal, Mieke262 Bakshi, Ralph 95 Bakhtin, Mikhail288 78, 83n,326–7 4/1/2009 10:48:57 AM index 337 4/1/2009 10:48:57 AM4/1/2009 10:48:57 AM 227; Bodies that Matter 9 analogue 70, 77; angle 126; of 80; anthropomorphization 138–41, 139 8, 126–7, movement 78–82; 6.2); projecting (Tab. subjective 265; see also viewpoints, impossible Buddhism 178 Buddhism 228–9 movies buddy 30 Life A Bug’s Bungie 89 153, 162, 168 Buñuel, Luis Victor Burgin, 293 227 Burnett, Charles Tim 40–1 Burton, 327; family 324 320–5, W. Bush, George 9, 177, 178–80, 187, 188, 195, Judith Butler, cable TV 24 154 exquis Cadavres cinéma 7, 295 du Cahiers Calabrese, Omar 49 157 Alexander Calder, 50 Pedro Calderón de la Barca, John 35 Calley, 74–5, 80, 82; of 70–1, camera: absence James 237–8, 243–4 Cameron, Camp 199 57 Candyman Cannes Film Festival 181 Capote 192, 201 Capra, Frank 220 John 105 Carpenter, 190n Carradine, David Noël 107 Carroll, 30, 31 Cars 2 31 Cars 2, 3 Casetti, Francesco 24 Casino Royale 42 Castle Rock 61 Church Catholic causality 320–2, 326 Stanley 12n Cavell, 24 CBS Records de 9 Certeau, Michel Miguel de, Don Quixote 153 Cervantes, 225 Chahine, Youssef 162, 165–6, 168 reactions chain 208 Richard Chamberlain, theory 154 chaos 158 Chaplin, Charles 137–8, 140, 143 31, 35, 40, 42; rules 26–7, 29, 30–4, for 32–3 Noël 1, 4, 316 Classical Kristin, The Thompson, Cinema 7 Hollywood 168 263, 264 201–7, 208, 209, 211 8 Tanya Blair, Selma 118 Blair, 134, 129, 133, Project Witch Blair The 89, 95 Entertainment Blizzard 301 syndrome” “blockbuster 20, 25, 237, 243; franchise blockbusters Out 122n Blow 24, 36, 37, 43 Blu-ray 190n Blue Steel 226 of spaces blurring 175 Bogart, Humphrey Peter 127 Bogdanovich, 48, 71, 72, 77, 176, 189n David Bordwell, Carroll, and David, Bordwell, Janet, and Staiger, David, Bordwell, Luis, Garden of Forking Paths Jorge Borges, Bound 200 193 subsidiaries 200; art house boutique Boyd, Brian 1 Cry 192, 200, 201 Don’t Boys Dracula 54 Bram Stoker’s 5, 8, 11, 79–82, Branigan, Edward Gill 2 Branston, Bratz 27 TV sets 44 HD Bravia Brazil 217, 225 209 Tiffany’s at Breakfast e) 175–6 (A bout de souffl Breathless Bertolt 61 Brecht, 151 bricolage 218, 219 Bringing Up Baby 259 Andrew Britton, Mountain 9, 194, 199, 200, Brokeback 141 Palace Brokedown Hearts Club 199 Broken The Philip 109, 119 Brophy, 194 to Brother Brother Krzywinska, and Douglas, Brown, 8 William Brown, “Bubble Sort” 168 Christine 49 Buci-Glucksmann, 73, 82n, 127 Warren Buckland, 9780415962612-Index.indd 3379780415962612-Index.indd 337 9780415962612-Index.indd 338

index 338 Clute, John, and Grant, John, Encyclopedia clusters 163–6,168,170 Clouser, Charlie 104,114–16 closure 271,272,326 close-ups 137,138,141, Close Encounters ofthe Third Kind73,74 Clooney, George 29 Clément, René144 classicism 48,49,53,55 classical: and baroque 8; classic cinema23 class structure26 class divisions 26 class 3 Clark, Blake217 claims, unrealistic, fortheory2 City UniversityofNew York, American City onFire 176 cinéma vérité138,322 cine-psychoanalysis 93 Cinderella franchise 23 Church, Thomas Haden37 chronophotography 163 Christie, Julie 27; The Chronicles ofRiddick: Christianity 57,59; Chomsky, Noam4 Chion, Michel 104,109,113,116,117–18 “Chinese whispers” game154 China 186;cosmology181 children: and fantasy 296–8; Chicago Sun-Times 271 Cheung, Maggie 177–8 Cherry, Harry, andRaquel 131 Cher 209 Chatwin, Justin 73 Chatman, Seymour 258–9;Comingto Chariots ofFire 105 characters: coherence of269;as character-narrator 11,258–61,263–4, of Fantasy288 146, 262;typesof125 and post-classical 7,12 Religious Identifi cationSurvey (ARIS)57 Escape from Butcher Bay90 and narrative250,251 Freud on 293 Terms 261 see alsocharacter-narrator and spectator’s emotions 240, embodiments ofabstractions 295; 266–81; engagement with267–8 continuity: errors in79;intensified 72,77; Contact 76 consumption: conspicuous 165; consumer lifestylemarketing 60 constructivism 159,277 constructive instability154–7,162,169 constitutive outside 178,188 “conscious” and “unconscious” Connery, Sean 158 conglomerates, media20–4,91 conglomerate ownership7,19,20,41,44 Confucianism 178 conditional realism239–41 conceptual theoretical conceptual art159,161 concatenation 162,168 Conan theBarbarian288 computers: interfacing with67;killer computer-generated computer graphics (CG)27,29,30, computer gamesseegames,digital composition indepth51,52 composers 105 complexity, positiveand negative 3 Common Threads: Storiesfrom theQuilt200 commodity fetishism165 commemoration scene252–3 coming-of-age stories 269 comic books 48 comedy 50,60,208 Comcast 24 Columbus, Chris41 Columbia (Sony) 20 Columbia Pictures24,25,35 colour: bias141;useof144 collapse 156,162,167,168 Colbert, Claudette218 Cohen, Tom1 Cohen, Annabel119 cognitive-perceptual theory239 cognitive film theory10–11,176,238–42 Coen, Joeland Ethan28,39 codes, systemof3,6 Cocteau, Jean76 sensory–motor 215,218–19; patterns of88–9 of film 8 network 326–7,328 applications 171n;personal 22,43 imagery (CGI)56 32, 33,34,37 4/1/2009 10:48:57 AM index 339 4/1/2009 10:48:57 AM4/1/2009 10:48:57 AM 67 272 American Film and Politics from Reagan from American Film and Politics Day After to Bush Jr 220; The 68, 70 Tomorrow Movement-Image The 214–31; Cinema 1: 214, 215, 224; Cinema Time-Image 2: The 214, 216, 216–17, 225, 227 a Minor Towards Anti-Oedipus 67; Kafka: 225 Literature and self-sacrifi ce 250–2 self-sacrifi and cyborgs 67, 69, 72, 77 cyborgs Little Girls 27 Daddy’s 35 Dafoe, Willem 201 Stephen Daldry, 161 Dalí, Salvador 154 Damasio, Antonio Alighieri 50 Dante 52 Daredevil Dark City 129, 133, 137, 140 Dark Knight 41 The 227 Dash, Julie of the Dust 227 Daughters 221 Jude Davies, Paul, Wells, John, and Philip Davies, Josette 76 Day, Daniel 5 Dayan, Days of Hope 328 66 Manuel De Landa, 62, 176 Vittorio De Sica, death 60, 63, 248–52; fear of 59; Death Wish 66 deconstruction 49, 51, 55, 56 découpage Deep Blue Sea 129, 131, 133, 134, 137, 146 deep focus 56, 78 Deep Impact 68 23–4 strategy nancing cit-fi defi Guillermo 39–40, 41 Toro, del Deleuze, Gilles 10, 66, 82n, 86, 88, 160, Félix: Guattari, Deleuze, Gilles, and A Thousand Plateaux 220 Deleyto, Celestino 137 Demme, Ted (US) 320 Democratic Party 227 Denmark Dennett, Daniel 154 60–3 Departed The 97 Depp, Johnny eld 52 depth of fi Derailed 148–9 142 desaturation temporal and spatial 73–8, 328, spatial and temporal continuity editing, see also 105, 154; of music culture of 91, effects 107, 120; of sound and 310–11, representation reality and see also media 314, 317–18, convergence 89–90, 97 control society 160; convergence 151; 160; convergence society control 122n Conversation The Chris 201 Cooper, Copjec, Joan 9 107 Aaron Copland, 54 Ford Coppola, Francis 68 Core The 153 Wheat A Corner in Literary Fantastic 292 Cornwell, Neil, The 38 corporate authorship 50, 56–7, 57 Counter-Reformation cowboy movies 202, 231 Cowie, Elizabeth 295 crabbing 126, 140 126, 138, 140 crane movement 51 crane technologies Chris 93 Crawford, 142, 143 Crazy in Alabama creator-narrator 167 170n Etienne de Crecy, 112 Creep 39 Cronos games) (between movies and crossover 121 Crow The Russell 141 Crowe, 73 Cruise, Tom Crying Game 200 The 41 Alfonso Cuarón, Cubitt, Sean 7–8 196 George Cukor, cultural screen 188 cultural theory 12–13n of 154 nitions culture, defi 199 Culture Q Connection Cumming, Alan 76 201 Cunningham, Michael 1 Cunningham, Valentine cut scenes 87 cut-ins 143 cutting in camera 161 cutting rate 132–3, 145, 147, 148 cybernatural 58 110 organisms cybernetic sound 9780415962612-Index.indd 3399780415962612-Index.indd 339 9780415962612-Index.indd 340

index 340 Dracula 53 Double Indemnity261 Doty, Alex208 The DoomGeneration10,215,227–31 Donnie Darko112 Donnelly, K.J. 8 Donald, James293 domino topplingcontests 9,165–6,168 Domino Day 166 dolly movements 126,127,139,140 Dolby 103;multitrack 109;noise doers and seers216 documentary, fake143 “documenta” (exhibition) 159 distributors, independent 26 distancing 292 disorientation 52 Disney Channel23 Disney 20,23,24,25,26,27,28,30–1,41, disaster films 243,248,255 directors 33,39,40–1,131 direct-to-DVD films 23 direct sound 117 digitization 7,19,30,31,43,51 digital technology 22,49,69–77,105–7, digital surround 104,109 digital recording 51 digital gamesseegames, digital effects161 digital compositing51–2,55 digital audioworkstations diegetic and non-diegetic sound 8,12, Die Hard Trilogy (game)97 Die Hard53;series32 Dickens, Charles 152 DiCaprio, Leonardo 61,243 diasporic filmmaking 227 dialogue: and music 104;scenes133 Detroit Rock City129,131–3,137,141 Detour 259 detective films 34 Desperado 52 desire, asconcept 294,295 designers 50 Desert Hearts202 surroundsound 112–13 reduction 51;stereoand 42, 90,200 110, 112–13 (DAW) 105,117 106–7, 109,111,112–14,117–20,121 emotion 10,238–55; Emerson, Keith105 Elsaesser, Thomas, and Buckland, Elsaesser, Thomas9 Ellen 192 elevation (asemotion) 247,252 electronics, consumer 22,43 electronic sound 110–11,114–18 electroacoustic music 113 electoral system,US,manipulation 320 Eisner, Michael 30 Eisenstein, Sergei 47,80,122n Egypt 225 Edward II198 EDtv 141 editing 323;continuity 78,80,176,216; Eco, Umberto4,50 Ebert, Roger272 Eating Out199 Easy Rider228 Eagleton, Terry 1,12–13n dynamical systems10 Dykstra, John35,36 DVDs 28,36,52,127,128,147; Duval, James227 Dutch tilt138 Dunst, Kirsten35 Dungeons andDragons 95,305 Dugan, Denis209 Duel 73,74 Duck Soup162 Duchamp, Marcel 158,159 DS system37 drum machines 105 Dreyfuss, Richard 74 DreamWorks 30,41 dreams, logicof161 emotional responses to also unreliablenarration, cognitive– positive 253–5;typesof242–3,see and melodrama 247;negative and and sympathetic242,243,244,247; as construal 239, 242,250,254;direct Warren 82n system 145;rapid27 machines 145;non-linear (NLE) with cuts77;invisible 161; sales and rentals 199 revenue from 20,22–3,31,32; analysis offilms on 145–6; 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 341 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM fantasy 11, 224; children 11, 224; children fantasy 34; 295–8; franchises and as games 95; in literature 298; 293; scenes 142–3; as ‘phantasy’ term 296 288–9; popular on discourse 287–8; psychoanalysis on discourse 293–6 and 197 wave 268–9, 271–4, 278–80 150; semiotic 3 classical 161, 162, 163, 167, 169, 170 224 to Launch Failure 221, 222 Down Falling family 179 92 ction fan-fi 73 Fanning, Dakota 289–93; on literary work fantastic, cionado cinema 286–306; afi fantasy 192, 200, 201 Heaven Far From 177 Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Fastlane 122n Faust 152 positive 168 feedback, Fellini, Federico 215, 216 of 182 crisis femininity, feminism 9, 179, 183, 195, 204, 211; third 11 Ferenz, Volker Ferrell, Will 208 177 Feuillade, Louis 240 ctionality fi movie-game tie-ins 88 and delity, fi Fifth Element 289 The Dates 10, 214–15, 217–20, 221–4 Fifty First Figgis, Mike 83n Fight Club 8, 11, 68, 75–6, 76, 80, 258, 262–7, 47 Kong ght movie, Hong fi 2000s 19–20 in early lm industry, fi lm noir 56, 197, 259, 261, 263 fi 146–7 Technology Film Style and demise of 1–2; lm theory: apparent fi Goes to the Movies 19 Theory Film 238–9 lmic perception fi Final Fantasy 3 96 72, 90 Within Spirits The Final Fantasy: 156 markets nancial fi 51 David Fincher, Finding Nemo 30 Fine Line 26 lm 263, 264–5, 290 fi rst-person fi 159, 160, David Weiss, and Peter, Fischli, 321–2, 327 321–2, 176, 230 on and space of 183, 188 of extinction humanity, Extrapolation 289 162, 169 empirical adequacy 314–15, 319–20, 314–15, 319–20, adequacy empirical 311–15, 325 empiricist philosophy 291 encoding–decoding 265, 279 End of the Affair The n End of Days 149 166 Endemol analysis 215 interventionist engaged Enix 90 Enter the Matrix 87; (game) 90 169–70 entropy 169–70 epiphany epistemological depth 315–16 274–5, 277–80 epistemological scepticism Equalizer 122n The 286 Eragon Eraserhead 1110 27 Eros escapism 287, 292, 305 96 Eskelinen, Markku 54, 87 establishing shot (tie-in game) 89 The Extra-Terrestrial E.T. Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind 69, 216 aesthetics 269, 271 ethics and ethnicity 3 of uences cinema, infl European Eve Online 92 Event Horizon 76 95 Everquest Evil Dead 2 110 model 153–4 66; adaptationist evolution Excalibur 288 Theory” 254 Transfer “Excitation sense of 321, 324–5 exclusion, lmmaking in 227; exile: fi 59 loneliness existential eXistenZ 68 108 Exorcist The German 56, 216 Expressionism, external reality 314–16 of cinema 69–72, see also extinction: 176, 178, 184, 187, 188, 262 fabula 152 Facebook 11, 310, 315, 318–29 9/11 Fahrenheit 154, 155–6; performed 156, 161, failure 9780415962612-Index.indd 3419780415962612-Index.indd 341 9780415962612-Index.indd 342

index 342 game studies89,96 game designers152 game consoles 24,36 Gable, Clark 218 “FX domination” 301 Fuller, Samuel 177 Fujita, Toshiya180 Frithegod 5 Freud, Sigmund 154,181,182,293 French foreground 125 French cinema 216,227, Fremont Street, Las Vegas 58 freeze frames143 Freestyle 27 “Freedom” (song) 210 free association 154 Fredericks, S.C.289 Fred Ott’s Sneeze163 Frazetta, Frank48 Frankenstein 53 Franco, James35 Franco, Francisco 49 franchise mentality 30 franchise filmmaking 33,40–1 framing 5,77,87,138,141,146,262 The Fragile115 Fox-TV 20,320 Fox Searchlight 25,28,200 Foucault, Michel 66,152;The Historyof Fort, Tim 163,169 Forman, Milos137 forking paths163–6,168 foreshadowing 250 foreign market 22 foreground, French and American125 Forbidden Planet110–11,115,119 forbidden movements 71 The Fog118 focus pulls141 Focus Features25,28,203 focalization 263 Fluxus Happenings161 Florida 321 Flickr 152 Fletcher, Louise 248 flashbacks 142,143 fl âneur154 Fist of White Lotus186 see alsoNewWave Sexuality 195 Götz, Maya 297–8 Gore, Al321 Gopher, Alex170n Google 44,94,153,156 Good Machine 203 Good Luck Chuck 27 good and evil52–4,60,247 Goldwyn 27 Goldstein, Patrick 40 Goldfi nger 158 Goldeneye 00789,98–9,100 Goldeneye 99 Golden Globes200 Goldberg, Rube158,159,163,165,168; Gods andMonsters 200,201 The Godfather 48 Godard, Jean-Luc175–6,215,230 god games87 Go Fish198 globalization 7,19,20,30,31,37, Global Journey 121 Gladiator 49,50,52 Giroux, Henry272 Gilroy, Tony29 Gill, Mark 43 Gibson, Mel57,251 Giacometti, Alberto157 G.I. Jane140,190n Ghostrider 58,59 German Expressionism 56,216 German cinema(new)177,216 Gerima, Haile227 genre theory296 genre combination 289 Genette, Gerard 261 General Electric(GE)20 The General5 gender 177;notions of69,196; Geffen, David 30 Gassmann, Remi111 Gardner, Charles 227 gang warfare,urban221 games, digital151,152;fantasy 95;film The Gamekeeper328 GameCube 96 164, 165 conventions 9,163;Japaneseversion 41, 44,156,176 performativity of9,195 inspired 97 tie-in 8,34–5,48,86–100;movie- 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 343 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM institutionalized 204–5 institutionalized 24 technology attitudes to 9, 193–4; (in) changing visibility of 192, 194, see also LGBT or bisexual (lesbian, gay, cinema transgendered) 167, 170; “making of” video 158, 160, 161 lms 176 185–6; gangster fi 265, 288, 289 heteronormativity 196, 202–7 heteronormativity 193 192, heterosexism 230; 228, heterosexuality Scott 144 Hicks, 188 Hidden Fortress 23 Musical franchise High School 24, 36, 43 (HD) nition high-defi 134 Train on a Strangers Highsmith, Patricia, Hirsjärvi, Irma 298 4–5 historical research 88, 111, 118, 134, 250 Alfred Hitchcock, driven by 25, 30 lm industry hits, fi 7, 38–40, 42, 297 Hobbit The Colm 248–9 Hogan, Patrick 144 Holben, Jay Man 54 Hollow to 7 Hollywood movies, approaches Code 192 Hollywood Production 160 homage 20, 28 industries entertainment home 22, 26; 34–5; market home-video 263 narration homodiegetic 193, 197, 203, 204, 210 homophobia 12, 211, 228–9; homosexuality 206–11 homosociality 210 Honcho 158 Soichiro Honda, 158 Accord Honda 9, 157–63, Cog advertisement Honda cinema 177, 178, 179, 181, Kong: Hong 189n Cultural Center Kong Hong 248 Hopkins, Anthony Horn, Alan 40, 42 27, 52, 53, 118, 121–2, 197, lms fi horror II 27 Hostel 192, 200, 201 Hours The Hu, King 181, 183 Mulan 178 Hua Hulk 68 “Human Cog” 157 12 human/posthuman making) 37, 41 Félix Guattari, 41, 53, 60 Grace, Topher 37 Topher Grace, 98, 167 Grand Theft Auto IV 43–4 Auto Theft Grand Cary 218 Grant, Wrath 228 Grapes of The 47 novels graphic 115 Below Great The Expectations 264–5 Great lm- fi (of franchise Law Gresham’s 190n Pam Grier, 48, 100, 153 th, D.W. Griffi Day 220–1, 222, 223 Groundhog Guardian 157 Félix see Deleuze, Gilles, and Guattari, Yilmaz Güney, 225 Gyllenhaal, Jake 201, 203 97 slash” games and “hack 247 Haidt, Jonathan 23 Hairspray 291 Hall, Stuart Daniel 131 Haller, 325 corporation Halliburton Halo 89 Halo-3 43 243 Linda Hamilton, 139, 140 shooting hand-held 200 Hanks, Tom 27 N’Ever After Happily 67 Donna Haraway, 24 synergy hardware-software Harry Potter series 26, 29, 31, 38, 40, 40 Dave McNary, Dade, and Hayes, N. Katherine 67, 153 Hayles, 28, 201 Todd Haynes, HBO 24 5, 295 Heath, Stephen 199 Inch Hedwig and the Angry 59 Martin Heidegger, 39 Hellboy Pierre 111 Henry, Katharine 218 Hepburn, 121 (album) Heresy as 178, 182–3 33; women heroes (TV series) 287 Heroes 177–8 Trio Heroic The 111 Herrmann, Bernard Hesse, Mary B. 312 9780415962612-Index.indd 3439780415962612-Index.indd 343 9780415962612-Index.indd 344

index 344 Indiana Jones series41 indexicality, lossof161 independent sector20–1,25,27, 41–3, Independent 157 Independence Day68 The Incredibly True Adventure of Two Girlsin The Incredibles 30 incest taboo189n in-car scenes73–4 In &Out200 Impressionist filmmaking, French 216 immersion 49,63;allegory of52 IMAX 27 imaginary: absorption in5;and image-track 262,263 ILM 39 illusion 108;realityas69; Ignatius, St57 Iger, Bob30,42 ideology 3,60,63,187;challenged by identity-politics 202 identity 69;construction of226; identification, fantasy-based 93 I, Robot68 I Now Pronounce You Chuck andLarry 192, hypertextual navigation 49 hybridization, hybridity 67,70,72, hybrid spaces12 Hyams, Peter149n Hume, Kathryn292 human–machine symbiosis153,154–6, humanity, extinction of67–8,69,72,82 humanities, philosophy of3 200; and queer content 199 Love 199 of the294 real 9;and symbolic9;technique techniques of59 in Titanic 251,254 Fahrenheit 9/11319–28; queer theory193,196,197,211;of transformation of230 sexual 228,229,230; 275–7; national 220,222,229; identification 290–1;narrative and 294;gendered 189n;and crisis of273;culturalstudies 207–10, 211 77, 94,217 167, 169 Jameson, Fredric56,150 James, Kevin208 James Bond films 24,32, 98–9, Jakob theLiar137,140,141–2,144–5 Jacob’s Ladder265 Jackson, Rosemary291–2 Jackson, Peter38–40,41,42,89,94,100, Jackie Brown 190n It’s A Wonderful Life 220 It HappenedOneNight218,219,220,228 Ishiguro, Kazuo,The Remainsof irony, dramatic261 Irma Vep 177 Iraq, invasion of221,223,324, An InvitedGuest128 The Invisible Man53,54 intuitionist realism11,310, intertextuality 49,51,57,96 interpretation, theoryand 2 Internet 151,154,155,156,157,161;movie International MovieDatabase127–9 internal realism313–14 intermediality 151 interface 168;asconcept 166;human 169 interactive games24 interaction 176 intentionality, authorial 11 Intellectual Property (IP)38,91,92,94,95 integration strategy 25 The Insider138,140–1,141,143 inserts 126,133,134,143,145; innocence, ofcharacters 53,61 information systems155 influences 145;circularity of175–7 Infernal Affairs 62 Infamous 201 industrial–economic analysis7 individuality, illusion of59–60 individualism 60 indie divisions, conglomerate- 158, 159,168 287, 301 the Day259 325–6, 327,328 317–18, 326–9 by adults43 service providers 24;use downloads 44,199; non-diegetic 118,122n owned 20,25,28–9,41–3 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 345 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM 293–4, 295; “Field and Function of of Function and 293–4, 295; “Field 179; psychic Language” and Speech 189n elds fi 13n; of Man” conference Sciences 79, 82 language-games Robert 294 167, 170; Go”) 159–63, Things “making of” 160–1 video cinema 192–211; transgendered) festivals 197 kung-fu fi 180, 185 lms fi kung-fu Akira 188 Kurosawa, 187–8, 5, 9, 177, 178–9, 183, Lacan, Jacques 177 Lacanians, New 189n Family Yang Ladies of the Great The 180 Snowblood Lady 151 George Lakoff, Lam, Ringo 176 158 Lambert, Christopher 227 Lane, Charles Lang, Fritz 134 the Criticism and of Language “The 155 Jaron Lanier, 5 Lantfred J. B. 293–4 Pontalis, J. and Laplanche, Westlake, Robert, and Lapsley, 95 character Lara Croft 122n Las Vegas John 30 Lasseter, Latter Days 194 62 Lau, Andy Way “Der Lauf der Dinge” (“The 9, 177, 179, 187–8 “Law-of-the-Father” 264 Lean, David Léaud, Jean-Pierre 177 war 155 Lebanon–Israel Heath 201 Ledger, Lee, Ang 9, 28, 201, 203 Lee, Bruce 180 Lee, Stan 35 of China series 189n Legends LeGuin, Ursula 298 49 Vinci da Leonardo 56 Lesnie, Andrew Lévi-Strauss, Claude 151, 179 69 Lewis, Jon or bisexual LGBT (lesbian, gay, licensing 34–5 lm) 137, 140, 141, 142 (fi Life life patterns 151 179, 180–1 224 Genre Meets Girl Meets Boy Comedy: Man 61 2 Theory of a Girlhood Among Memoirs Warrior: Ghosts 183–4 Japan 47, 92, 157, 158, 163, 164–6; cinema 163, 164–6; 47, 92, 157, 158, Japan series 28, 29 Bourne Jason 48 Jaws Romantic Tamar, Jeffers McDonald, 91, 152, 167 Jenkins, Henry Jesus’ Son 128 Jobs, Steve 30, 42 119 McGraw Jones, Ben 50 Jonson, Joplin, Janis 273 Arts 290, 293 Journal of the Fantastic in the Young of the Artist as a Portrait James, Joyce, 112 Ju-On: The Grudge Gil 137, 140 Junger, Jungle Book 23 The Juno 28 54, 73, 74 Jurassic Park 96 Jesper Juul, Kafka, Franz 225 53, 66 Immanuel Kant, Boris 53 Karloff, Kassovitz, Peter 137 After Scott, Shakespeare Kastan, David Jeffrey 30 Katzenberg, 4–5 Thomas Kemper, Kidman, Nicole 201 Kill Bill 176–7, 178–81, 183–7 kinetic art 159, 163 39, 291; tie-in game 89, 99–100 King Kong 49 Kingdom of Heaven Woman The Maxine Hong, Kingston, rules of 189n marriage, kinship and 137 Kiss (band) 66 Friedrich Kittler, Klein, Norman 49, 60, 62–3 Up 23 Knocked 154 as concept knowledge, 66 knowledge/power 122n Kojak 298 Erkki Vainikkala, Kovala, Urpo and 96 Kristeva, Julia Ann 111 Kroeber, Krutnik, Frank 220 Fu (TV series) 190n Kung 9780415962612-Index.indd 3459780415962612-Index.indd 345 9780415962612-Index.indd 346

index 346 Magnolia 124,133 The Machinist 69,265,278 McQuire, Scott77 McLuhan, Marshall67 McLaren, Norman71,72 McKellen, SirIan201 McGowan, Todd 294,295 McGowan, Rose227 McFarlane, Brian264–5 MacDowell, Andie 220 MacCabe, Colin328 Lynch, Jane208 Lynch, David 111,113,295 Lye, Len71,72 ludologists 96 Lucasfilm 30,39,51 Lucas, George 41,42,48 Lovell, Terry, love stories33,243 Love Stinks142 Lost Highway295 Lost 60 Los Angeles Times 6,40 The LordoftheRingsseries31,38–9,40,41,42, The LordoftheRingsOnline87,94,95,96 The LordoftheRings(Bakshi,1978)95 The LordoftheRings11,56,70;Battlefor loops 106,117,151,170,296 Looking for Langston198 long takes56,124,131,161 long shots 137–8,141 The LongKissGoodnight190n London FilmSchool 145 locked-off camera49,56 Loach, Ken328 Llewelyn, Desmond 158 The Living End198,227 Liu, Gordon (LiuChia-hui) 185–6 Litch, Mary275 Lionsgate 27,41 The LionKing30 linguistics 151 lighting 141–2;changes 133 lifelogging 58 questionnaire on 299–306 project on 298–306, Tab. 13.1; 60, 68,87,92,94–5,286–7,288; 94, 303;The Two Towers 56,94,97 Ring 88;The ReturnoftheKing52,87, Middle-Earth 87,94;The Fellowship ofthe Pictures ofReality310 Memento 11,68,258,260,265, Melrose Place(soapopera)129,134,138 melodrama 245,246–9,255 Méliès, Georges 71,72 mediation 240–1 media industry studies19 media: consolidation 41; meaning invariance thesis312 meaning 81–2,96 The Matrix:Reloaded 90 The Matrix31,35,52,68;series41,60 The MatingHabits oftheEarthboundHuman materiality 9,12,161 master narratives198 master narrative2 masking 146 masculinity 189n,205,207;crisisand Mascelli, Joseph V., The Five C’s of Masahiko, Sato168,169 Marxism 3,10,211;Althusserian 310 Marx Brothers 152 Marvel Comics35 Martin-Jones, David 10 martial artsfilms 27,181 Mars Attacks! 68 marriage, gay 193,194,207,209 Marley, Bob158 Marcos, Imelda165 Maravall, JoséAntonio 49 Marais, Jean76 Manson, Marilyn110 Manovich, Lev72,78,81,83n Mannoni, Octave 57 Mann, Dennis74 Manichaeism 53 manga 47,91,180 Manchuria 186 The Man Who ShotLiberty Valance 294 Man ontheMoon133–4,140,142 Mambo Italiano199 male bonding 202 Mak, Alan62 Maguire, Tobey35 Magnolia Pictures27 267, 268,274–81 manipulation of320 convergence 8,30,43,44,90–1; 129, 140,142–3,144 of 176,221 redemption of272;portrayal Cinematography 125 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 347 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM Lolita 259, 268 and Narrative Cinema” 181–2 and of anempathetic 116; functions fused with lm) 107–12, 265; (in fi effects 104–5; incidental sound 120 107–8; programmatic plot of viewer and as interaction 176, see also narrative; unreliable narration 238–9; and comprehension 248; database 151; construal game 169; of 151–2; and functions 252; hyper-coherent 166; interface 151; as interactive linear 222, 223, 328; master 2; and 215; pattern- movement-image 168; based 52, 60; self-referential spatial 152; standard structures 248; therapeutic 254; 78 traditional lm 261; literary 260–1, 264 fi and personal 167; multiple 264; pseudo- impersonal 258, 261–5, 274 diegetic multiplayer games 91 multiplayer Pleasure “Visual 293, 294; Laura Mulvey, Mummy (1931) 53 The Mummy (1999) 53 The Mummy Returns 53 The 54 lms Mummy fi 152 Murnau, F.W. Bill 220 Murray, of 119; 8; affective quality music Music of the Heart 128 166 “Music in Motion” 197 musicals Musidora 178 111, 113 musique concrete 200 Wedding My Best Friend’s Idaho 198 My Own Private MySpace 152 of 288 role myth, Vladimir, Nabokov, “Name-of-the-Father” 179 263; 142–3, 152; homodiegetic narration narrative 150–3, 160; narrative theory 257; cognitive 258; narratology 150, 169 of 75; narrator: loss of identity 291 Nash, Mark Services 25 Nash Information (MGS4) 43 95 game) role-playing memory, autobiographical 276 autobiographical memory, society 224 contemporary men: in 245, 290, 294 as spectators 143 visual images, mental 183–5 mentors 112 David Burnand, and Mera, Michael, 35 merchandising 210 Freddie Mercury, 20 wave merger-and-acquisition the Patriot Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of Metal Gear Solid 98 Metz, Christian 4, 5, 294–5 154 Thomas Metzinger, Russ 131 Meyer, MGM 27, 41 24 MGM/UA 209–10 George Michael, Clayton 27, 29 Michael 36–7, 44, 89, 94 Microsoft Mikkelsen, Nina 297, 298 168 Way Milky The Frank: 300 47; Sin City 48 Miller, Mimic 39 144 137, Minghella, Anthony minimalism 161 215, 225–31 cinema, as concept minor Minus Man 129, 134, 142 The Miramax 26, 28, 38, 41, 200 293 phase mirror Bob 148 Misiorowski, series 32 Mission: Impossible online MMORPG (massively multiplayer modeling 6 Modernism 161 Molière 50 Molina, Alfred 36 Monster 199, 200 in cinema 291 monsters, Inc. 30 Monsters 121 Soul (album) Monstrous The 161, 216, 225 montage 11, 27, 319, 322–6, 327 Moore, Michael Moran, James M. 230 Hans 58 Moravec, 22, 25 (MPA) Association Picture Motion 10, 12, 215–19, 222–4 movement-image 7 Movie magazine Mui, Anita 177 system 103 multi-speaker 9780415962612-Index.indd 3479780415962612-Index.indd 347 9780415962612-Index.indd 348

index 348 NTSC recordings 146 Now, Voyager 295 Notes onaScandal201 Norton, Edward 75,273 North Korea166 Norman invasion 5 Nolan, Christopher 41,59 No Countryfor OldMen20,28,29,39,41 Nintendo 37,89,96 9/11 222,224,323–4 Nine Inch Nails 114,115 Nightmare onElmStreet fi lms 118 Nietzsche, Friedrich 273 Nicholson, Jack 60 NHK (broadcasting company) 164 Newsweek 29 News Corp20 Newell, Mike41 New York: FilmFestival36;World Trade New Waves 217 New Wave (French) 143,175,177 New Realism159 New QueerCinema192,197–201,203, New LineCinema94,200 New Line26,38–9,40,41,42 “The NewHollywood”19 neuroscience 10 network theoryofmeaning31,312–15, Netherlands 166 nervous romance 220 neo-realism 56 neo-Kantianism 4 neo-conservative romance 220 neo-baroque 47–63;ethicaluniverseof 291 Nell, Victor Neill, Sam74 Negra, Diane223–4 negative imprints 327 Neale, Steve220,296 Ndalianis, Angela48–9,54,55,58,60 NBC Universal20,28 navigation 52 Nature Recordings: Thunderstorm 121 nature, definitions of154 naturalism 328 natural sounds 109,120,121 nationality 3 Center 323,325 211, 227,228,231 319–20, 326 53; asspatialaesthetic52 Patriot Act324 patriarchalism 179,190n,194,202,204, paternalism 179,183 pastiche 160,168 The Passion oftheChrist57,251 Partizan MidiMinuit 170n Parker, Alan137 Paris isBurning198 parasitism, asterm93 Paramount Vantage 28,41 Paramount 20,25,27,41 Paradise Disowned 121 Papineau, David 310–11 Paolini, Christopher 286 Pantoliano, Joe274 Pan’s Labyrinth 39,40 panning 55,126–7,131,138–40 Panic Room8,75,76 Panavision system147 Palminteri, Chazz277 Palindromes 153 PAL television system146 paganism 58–9 over–intellectualization 2 Outbreak 68 Oudart, Jean–Pierre5 The Others 68 Otherness 175,177 Osment, HaleyJoel223 Oscars seeAcademy Awards originality 143 orientation 55,56 Open Source movement 59 118.com 157 One Flew OvertheCuckoo’s Nest248 Olympic Games166 offscreen sound 109 Office forthePropagation oftheFaith50 Oedipus complex179,183 Oddworld Inhabitants 90 Ocean’s series40,41 occult 57 observation language 311–12 observable entities 311 objectivity 274–5 The ObjectofMyAffection 200 NYPD Blue140 nudity infilms 129 206, 207,210 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 349 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM 133–4, 145 theory 195; queer 50, 274; and of 156 vocabulary 168 Saragossa 32, 34 as loners cinema 293–6 fantasy and 183, 293–6 n 306 Pohl, Frederik 9, 126, shots 87; (POV) of view point 198 Poison modern 225 political cinema, 2 theory and political correctness, 221–2, 324–5 politics 220, Sarah 27 Polley, 159 Jackson Pollock, 57 Poltergeist Pop art 159 165 Edwin Porter, J. 127 Michael Porter, 157, 158 post-Fordism 153–4, 169 condition post-human post-theory 1 8, 66–82 posthumanism realism 8 posthumanist 2, 49, postmodernity/postmodernism poststructuralism 195, 196, 279 Jan, Manuscript Found in Potocki, 57 Pozzo, Andrea 66, 316 pragmatism theme of 52 predestination, Roy 107 Prendergast, 3 present-mindedness 59 Prestige The of Persia” series 94 “Prince publishing 34–5 music and print 145 lm fi prints, 144 Christopher Probst, costs 41 production 8 hypothesis projected 106 Reason Propellerheads 328 explication propositional Vladimir Propp, 152 52 proprioception 32–3; 34; in blockbusters protagonists 107 ProTools Mountain 202–3 Annie, Brokeback Proulx, 258, 261–5, 274 pseudo-diegesis 164 Pseudo-Pythagoreans 118, 250 Psycho 3, 9, 10, 177, 196; psychoanalysis lm theory 5, 11, fi psychoanalytic 310–18, 326–9 57 and Barberini Power Providence 37, 60 10–11, 269; fantasy emotional and 299–300 and game 97, 97–8 pattern-making 60 pattern-making 244, 245 Bill Paxton, 28 Alexander Payne, Guy 274 Pearce, 131 Sam 51, Peckinpah, 117 Jerome Peignot, 226 of 225, people, concept 328 realism perceptual performativity 160, 168 7–8, 49 periodization Perrault, Pierre 225 91 S.D. Perry, 240 schema person 265 perspectival principle 23 Pan Peter Phalke, Dadasaheb 71, 72 phallus (as term) 179 Phantom of Liberty 153, 162 The Phelan, James 268–9 10 phenomenology 199–200 Philadelphia realism 11, 277, philosophical 9 philosophy 151 photography 167, 169 picaresque 39, 40, 43 28, Picturehouse 201 Kimberly Pierce, of Divine Allegory da Cortona, Pietro 295 Progress Pilgrim’s End 8 World’s at Pirates of the Caribbean: , series 29, 31–2, Pirates of the Caribbean 69 Pisters, Patricia series 90 Black Pitch Pitt, Brad 75, 273 Pixar 30–1, 41, 42 pixels 78 52 multiple planes of action, 189n Planet Hong Kong PlanetOut/Popcorn Q 199 10–11 Carl Plantinga, 161 Player The 87 agency player 36, 43–4, 90 consoles PlayStation pleasure 238, 243, 247, 252, 254; cognitive Plein soleil 144 9780415962612-Index.indd 3499780415962612-Index.indd 349 9780415962612-Index.indd 350

index 350 Reilly, JohnC. 208 Reeves, Keanu 83n redemption, allegory of52 Rear Window 114 60 reality TV reality: external314–15;posthumanist realism 51,56,57,71–7,258,268,274,277, real time,sceneshot in73 ready-mades 159 reader-reception theory95 reader-address 152 reader: engagement of292; reaction shots 53 Ray, Nicholas 177 rationality: ofcognition 12; ratings, parental guidance 33 Ratatouille 30 Rastafarians 158 Rashomon 278 Rare (videogamecompany) 98 Rand, Ayn 273 Rambo films 131 Raksin, David 108 Raimi, Sam35,39,42 Raiders oftheLostArk8;tie-ingame89 Radio Times 287 racism 210,211,291–2 Rabkin, Eric292 Rabaté, Jean-Michel 5 Quine, Willard Van Orman312 Quinceañera 194 queer theory192–3,194–7,202,204,207; Quebec 225,227 quality, and movie-gametie-ins88 Pythagoras Switch 9,164–5,168 Putnam, Hilary312,313–14,317–18 Purdue University, Indiana 163 Pulp Fiction190n psychology 10 70, 81 representational 328 philosophical 310–29; 279–80; intuitionist 310; Todorov on 290–1 disinterested 326 principles of313;self-interested and and postmodernism2; see alsoNewQueerCinema and film 9–10,196–7,211,230, Rouch, Jean227 Rossellini, Roberto62 Rorty, Richard 156,311 Rooney, Mickey 209 Romero, George A.131 Romanticism 49 Roman Empire50 rom-com (romantic comedy)214–19, rogue-cop films 34 Rodriguez, Roberto48,105 Rodowick, David 1–2,227;“Elegy for Rocky films 131 Rocha, Glauber225 Robertson, Cliff35 Robbe-Grillet, Alain,The Erasers 292 Roadside Attractions 27 Roadrunner 161 road movies227–8 risk splitting91 Rifkin, Adam137 Richter, Hans161 Richter, Andy 208 Rice, Condoleezza 155 208 Rhames, Ving Reznor, Trent115 reviewers, right-and left-wing272 reverse-shots 55 reverse anglesorscenes8,126,133,145 reverb 119 revenues, box-office 20–3,22 Revell, Graeme118,121 Resnais, Alain215,216,227 Resident Evilfranchise 91,98 Resident Evil496 Resident Evil110 Reservoir Dogs176 representational realism328 rental model22 Renoir, Jean62,77 renaissance, Hollywood28 Renaissance, European 217 remediation 89,151,160,168 religion 56–7,229; relativism 280,312 and useofemotion 250 and homosexuality 194; extremism in291; 220–1, 223–4,231 Machine 225 Theory” 3;GillesDeleuze’s Time (Tab. 1.1), 26 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 351 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM Timothy 67 Timothy see also LGBT studies of 2 of 8, 125–6, scale or closeness 134–8, 135–7 (Fig. 6.2), 145, 146; types of 125–6 paternal 179, 188; women as 187 theory 3 selectivity of portrayal 320 of portrayal selectivity 326–7 self-interest 168 self-referentiality 168 exivity self-refl Engström, Evan, and Selinger, 22 strategy “sell-through” 225, 226 Sembene, Ousmane semiotics 4, 6 217, 225 Senegal 222, 224 sensory–motor suspension of 154, 164 degrees separation, 31, 33 sequels 105–6 software sequencing series 31, 34, 49 159 Serra, Richard set-dressing 52 Se7en 51, 112 sexism 210, 211 lms) 129, 227, 228–9 activity (in fi sexual politics 10 sexual of 188, new forms sexuality: Shakespeare, William, historical 186 Shaolin Executioners 185–6 Brothers Shaw Robert 38–9, 40, 42 Shaye, Sheen, Martin 61 288 Morag Shiach, 54, 67; reverse 126; establishing shot: 48, 54, 87 shot-reverse-shot 29, 31–2, 37 Shrek franchise 20 Third the Shrek M. Night 140 Shyamalan, si fu (shi fu) 183–5, 186 27 Sicko ers 12, 52, 60, 180; signifi of 51 signs, interchangeability the Lambs 190n, 248 Silence of The cinema 165 silent Silverman, Kaja 182 in constructing cation, simplifi Sims 87 The Sin City 48 rhetoric of 245–6, 255 sincerity, 196 in the Movies Homosexuality 215, 216 situation) 328, 329n Rowling, J.K. 38 Rowling, 293 Nicholas Ruddick, 28 Rudin, Scott 155 Rumsfeld, Donald 143 O. 28, Russell, David Russian Ark 77 Closet: Celluloid The , Russo, Vito 158, 159 Charles Saatchi, 160 Saatchi & Saatchi Saddam Hussein 221, 222 Sala, Oskar 111 Salt, Barry 8–9 59 salvation 95 Julie Sanders, Adam 208, 217, 220 Sandler, 7 Sarris, Andrew SAS’ (situation–action–changed satire 270–4 37, 190n Saturday Night Fever de 4 Saussure, Ferdinand Face 194 Saving 113–18; series 104, 106, 107 Saw 27 IV Saw panning 147 scanning and 97 is Yours World Scarface: The Road Movie Book 228 Bennet, The Schaber, 227 Jonathan Schaech, Pierre 111, 117 Schaeffer, James 28, 203 Schamus, 7 Thomas Schatz, Rob 209 Schneider, Joel 41 Schumacher, 221 Arnold Schwarzenegger, of 49 art, reunion and science lm 289; literature 298 fi ction: fi science Science Fiction Studies 289 Scorsese, Martin 60, 62 227 Scotland Scott, Ridley 49, 50, 306n 182 Screen lm theory 3, 4, 7, 12n, 10, 241, 293, fi Screen screwball comedy 220 144 script construction scripted spaces 167, 169–70 167 Second Life 265 Window Secret 195 Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, 9780415962612-Index.indd 3519780415962612-Index.indd 351 9780415962612-Index.indd 352

index 352 Soviet cinema216,225 South America226 soundtrack 58;multilayered 51; soundscaping 52,121 Sounds from aDifferent Realm111 sound field, unifi ed 112 sound art120–1 sound 103–22; sorting, typesof171n Sony Screen Gems28 Sony Pictures Entertainment 24 Sony Pictures Classics25,26,28,200 Sony Logic 105 Sony Electronics 24 Sony Computer Entertainment 24 Sony 20, 24,25,35,35–7,43–4 sonic and visual space114,119 sonic artists121 “Song ofMulan”178 Sommers, Barry53,54 “Somewhere OvertheRainbow”224 Solondz, Todd153 Solid (record company) 170n Sokurov, Alexander 77 software, musical 107 Soderbergh, Steven28,29,41 social networks 9,43,152,156 Snyder, Zack 47 The Snowman 297 Snow, Michael 161 Snow FallingonCedars 134,138,140, Snoop DoggyDogg221 Smith, Murray 11; Smith, Jeff107 Smith, Chas116 small world syndrome 154 SLC Punk!129,142,143 skandalon 189n The SixthSense68,133,134,137,140,141, Situationists, Paris 154 Sirk, Douglas 177 Singer, Bryan41,76 unifi ed 113 and non-diegetic sound 106; sculptures116,seealsodiegetic 118–20; musical and non-musical 112–13; direct117;effects8,51,104, ambient 8,104;design104,111, 142, 143–4 Engaging Characters 259 143, 223,265 Strike 122n Straub, Jean-Marie227 stratification 317,320,325,326 strategy games87,91 Strangers ona Train 134 straight–gay binary195–6 straight-to-video 23,127 straight-to-DVD 193 The Storytellers 128 Stone, Oliver143 Stewart, Gloria245 Sterne, Laurence, Tristram Shandy 153 stereotyping 192,193,194,200,211,226, Steinberg Cubase105 Steenbeck editing machine 145,146 steadicam 51,61,139,140 statistical styleanalysis8–9 Starship Troopers 68 Star Wars 72;series26,31,42,60,68,188, Star Trek films 119,257 stand-ins 126 Stam, Robert92,93,95,241 staging indepth52, 161 Stage Fright278 Stacey, Jackie 293 Squaresoft 90 Splet, Alan111–12 SPK (rock group) 121 Spielberg, Steven30,39,41,48,73–4 Spider-Man 38,20,37;game36,37,97 Spider-Man 236;game90 Spider-Man, franchise 7,29,31–2,34–7,43, Spider 262,265 speech, reducedimportance of103–4 spectatorship 241;cooperative242; spectator response 239–55,296; spectacle 49;and narrative182 spatial stories152 Spain 49 Spade, David 209 Spacey, Kevin277 spaces: blurring of226;scripted167, 230, 231 289, 305;Starfi ghter90 68, 87 theory of170 spectators aspassive282n; and psychoanalysis 293–5; mass 241 historical 241;maleand female294; 169–70 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 353 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM Internet see also 141; analysing actuality 145; children programmes for 127; lms made 297–8; fi and LGBT themes in 192, 193; 26; satellite and from revenue cable 193; series 23 125–6 technical 26 from revenue and the Subject of Theory Queer 204 Heterosexuality life cycle of 1 life cycle technology, web–based 193, 193, web–based technology, 27 teen comedies 76 teleportation 131–2, 138, 151; 48, 60, 127, 129, television Science Fiction Film 289 J.P., Telotte, linear 152 temporality, 137, 140, 141 You I Hate About Things 10 40, 41 brands tentpole 243 Terminator The 2: Judgment Day 243 Terminator 68 3: Rise of the Machines Terminator cult (abstract) 2, 5–6; diffi terminology: test-run 160 134 Mabuse des Dr. Testament Das 87 Tetris 158 Margaret Thatcher, Fall 175 They Harder The theatrical release 31, 32; as loss leader 23; theatrical systems 51 and Louise 190n Thelma practical fact 311–12 theoretical and in 3; theory: contradictions 312–16, 327 rational theory formation, 311–12 “theory neutral” language Be Blood 20, 28, 39, 41 Will There 27 ThinkFilm cinema 226 third 36th Chamber of Shaolin 186 The Twist: Calvin, Straight with a Thomas, Kristin 89, 97, 176 Thompson, of Hearts 199 Three 300 8, 23, 47, 49, 53 Kings 143 Three 140 Tango to Three 3–D format 30, 71 199 Threesome 27 Yuma 3.10 to THX system 51 tilt, camera 58, 126–7, 138–40 owned 25–6, 28 owned 25–6, 143–4 intentions maker’s 140, 142, 144 structuralism 13n, 95, 290 structuralism 6 underlying structures, 20, 25 major studios, traditional 170 3, 5, 152, subject-position conglomerate- subsidiaries, in conveying 143; success: commercial Dewi 165, 168 Sukarno, Sunshine 68 146 Super 35 process . (movie) 90 Super Mario Bros Superbad 23 77–8 supercinema eld 109, 117 superfi 34, 35, 78 superheroes 41, 87 Superman series 32, 40, supernatural 56–60, 63 59 superstition Suprematism 159 lms 118 surreal fi 260 Surrealism 49, 154, 157; second 99 “survival horror” of disbelief 94 suspension suture theory 5, 6 289, 306n Suvin, Darko Swank, Hilary 201 208 Nick Swardson, 27 Todd Sweeney 124, 133 Sweet and Lowdown Swoon 198 Swordsman 2 184 Symbolic 5 178–9, 187–8 symbolic order symbolism 51 110, 115 105, synthesizers 218 situation) S–S’ (situation–changed 12, 156, 162, 166 clouds tag 134, 137, Ripley Mr. Talented The Nights 192, 207–8, 211 Talladega 178, 181 Taoism 9, 176–86 Quentin Tarantino, 216 Andrei Tarkovsky, 199 Tarnation Yvonne 288 Tasker, Modern 160 Tate 119 Sonia Tatroe, 153–4 techné sublime 49 technological 9780415962612-Index.indd 3539780415962612-Index.indd 353 9780415962612-Index.indd 354

index 354 two-shot 228–9 twist endings 69,77 Twin Peaks 60 28 DaysLater…68 20th Century Fox20,25 Turner Broadcasting 24 Turkey 225 Turbine 94 Tudor, Andrew 296 truthfulness 317–18 truth: claims to325,327,328;objective trompe l’oeil50,52,57 Travolta, John37,190n trash objects159 transmediality 8 Transformers 20,23,29,32,51 transcendence scene253–4 tragi-comedy, romantic and tragedy 323 tracking 126,131, 138–40,141,161; toys 49;film-related 27 Toy Story230 Toy Story30 A Touch ofZen181–2,183 Touch ofEvil161,295 Total Recall68 Toshiba 24 Top Gun305 Toop, David 120 Tongues United198 Tomb RaiderLegend 96 Tolstoy, Leo,War andPeace 152,167 Tolkien, J.R.R.:The Hobbit 38;The Lordofthe Todorov, Tzvetan 289,290–1,292 To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything, Julie To Live andDieinL.A.105 TLA 199 Titanic 10–11,38,237–55 tipping point 156,162 Tintin 39 Tinguely, Jean157,161 The Times ofHarvey Milk200 TimeCode 83n time-image 10,12,214–17,218–19,222–4 Time Warner 20,24,26,38–40,43,200 time, continuous and discontinuous 263 and subjective281–2 heroic 248–9,255 hand-held 139 Rings 38,94,95,302,304–6 Newmar 200 Wall, Kathleen 258–9 Wakeman, Rick 105 Vostell, Wolf 161 Vojkovic´, Saša9 voice-over 142,262,263,265,274 visualized sound 117 virtual worlds 167 Virilio, Paul 66 violence 53 villains 247–8 viewpoints, impossible70–1,74–7, videogames 27,36,43,89,151,167, video sharingsites43 video on demand (VOD) 44 video companies,mail-order 199 victim, passive77,82–3n Viacom 20 VHS system22,127,128,145 Vertov, Dziga71 “Vertigo” effect141 Verhoeven, Paul 54 Variety 29,39,40 Varela, Francisco 154 Vanilla Sky68–9 Vangelis 105 Van Sant, Gus28 Van Helsing 8,53,54–6,57 Van Damme,Jean-Claude148 Les Vampires 177–8 Vachon, Christine201 The UsualSuspects11,52,258,262,265,273, USA Films27 unreliable narration 11,257–82; Universal Pictures20,25,29,53,54, Universal Capture70–1,83n United StatesofAmerica:Congress and unconscious 3 uncanny, as concept 260,290,292 identifying 260–5 definitions of282–3n cognitive–emotional responses to 80, 82 see alsogames,digital 277–80, 279–80 56, 203 election 319,320 Court 193,320;2000general Senate 320–1,322,324;Supreme 258–60, 265–9; 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM index 355 4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM4/1/2009 10:48:58 AM ; masculinization 251, 306n; masculinization er 187; of 184–5; as signifi as spectators 3, 243, 245 Imagination 288 210 (song) Creating the Couple 217 Creating Winslet, Kate 243 Winslet, 61 Ray Winstone, 63 wireless experience 287 lment wish-fulfi 79 Ludwig Wittgenstein, of Oz 224, 228 Wizard The Video 199 Wolfe 178–88, 243, women: as characters cinema 227 women’s John 176, 177 Woo, Virginia 201 Woolf, 89, 91, 92, 95, 96 Warcraft of World of the Alec, Empires Worley, 219; Virginia Wright Wexman, writer-directors 39, 41 text 169 writerly in games 92–3 written word, wudan 181 5 Wulfstan X-2 68, 76 ghter plane 155, 170 X-29 fi Last Stand 68 The X-Men3: X-Men 53, 68 Xbox 360 37 265 Tamar Yacobi, Raj 27 Yash 41 David Yates, 58 W.B. Yeats, 177 Michelle Yeoh, yang 181 yin and 207 Thomas Yingling, 158 British Artists Young Mr Lincoln 295 Young My Best Friend” “You’re 43 U.S. market, youth 199 9, 152–70, YouTube Zane, Billy 244 Roger 289 Zelazny, 198 Patience Zero 9 Žižek, Slavoj zoom lens 131, 141 zooming 126–7, 138, 141, 161 74, 76, 80 38, 40, 41–2 156 content 27 Walsh, Fran 38, 39, 40 Fran Walsh, 114–15 James Wan, 105 Chung Wang War 324, 326 terror” “war on 73, (2005) 8, 68, Worlds of the War III 91 Warcraft Card Game 91 Trading Warcraft 29, 20, 25, 26, 27, Bros. Warner 28, 40, 43, 200 Independent Warner assertability 313–14 warranted 180–5 warriors, women as 179, Kevin 67 Warwick, 198 Woman Watermelon The John 230 Waters, 161 Wavelength 210 (Together)” Belong “We 189n, 243 Sigourney Weaver, Hugo 83n Weaving, 2.0 154, 170 Web web artists 50 websites, user-generated 6 David Weddle, & Kennedy 170n Weiden 166, 169 Productions Domino Weijers 38, 41 Harvey Bob and Weinstein, 28, 41 27, Company Weinstein Elisabeth 113 Weis, Peter see Fischli, David Weiss, 77, 161 Orson Welles, Wim 177 Wenders, 121 Hildegard Westerkamp, 27, 202, 296 Westerns Digital 39 WETA James 196, 201 Whale, 27 Did I Get Married Why widescreen format 146 James 110–11 Wierzbicki, Wii 37, 96, 97–8 Wikipedia 153, 155 Hogs 23 Wild 131 Racers Wild The Wildstorm 91 & Grace 192, 194, 200 Will 121 Williams, Brian (Lustmord) Willis, Bruce 223 328 that Shakes the Barley Wind The Sam 4 Wineburg, 9780415962612-Index.indd 3559780415962612-Index.indd 355