Lawrence S. Hamilton Forest and Tree Conservation Through Metaphysical Constraints

Here stands a silent grove black with the shade of oaks; at the sight of it, anyone could say, “There is a spirit here!” — Ovid (Fasti 3. 295-296)

Introduction ll cultures of which I am aware have separate, dedicated, hallowed nat- ural spaces. They may be mountain summits, caverns, headlands, springs, or pools. They are very often single trees, tree groves, or forests. Faulstich (1998) suggests that this reverence and love of natu- Aral places be called “geophilia,” and says that we need natural landscapes, not only as terrain, territory and resource, but as cognitive sustenance. Edward O. Wilson (1984) suggests the term “biophilia,” which implies that we have a genet- ic basis for a love of nature. For some traditional cultures, e.g. North American First Nations or aboriginals, all land and water are a sacred environment, as are the associated flora and fauna and the overarching sky.But even among such cul- tures there are special places or manifestations of additional significance. This paper will deal with trees and groups of trees as such manifestations or places of significance. Most people feel kindly disposed servation and preservation, rather than to, or even “love” trees, since they pro- utilization. vide them with many directly useful Trees, groves, or forests become resource products. Moreover, they are sacred through a recognition of some a habitat for desired fauna; protect kind of power that they express. This watershed lands, streamsides, and power may evoke in us attitudes of springs from erosion; provide shade worship, awe, or fear (many other for humans and their animals; and are emotive feelings have been suggested, a source of aesthetic enjoyment. A util- but these three span a spectrum which itarian attitude often results in their is sufficient for this paper). Sacred being removed in order to convert individual trees and groups of trees them into useful material. Other rela- have characterized almost every cul- tionships toward trees, however, ture and religion where trees are capa- involving respect, awe, worship or ble of growing. Even in virtually tree- fear, will be referred to as “sacred,” less deserts, the date palm became the and usually result in tree or forest con- Tree of Life to early Semites and

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 57 Forest & Tree Conservation Assyrians (Altman 1994). To our of these trees and groves. My first ancestors who lived closer to the earth encounter with sacred forests, and the than many of us do today, or to tradi- stimulus of my interest, occurred in tional societies even now, trees were Venezuela in 1974, when I encoun- often not only essential providers of tered María Lionza. She is the forest resources, but became powerful sym- goddess who is depicted astride a bols of fertility, generosity, perma- tapir, and is still worshipped and held nence, birth and growth, refuge, heal- in fear by a rather substantial number ing, strength, energy, beauty, and of Venezuelans. The forest abode of inspiration. Moreover some species María Lionza is tropical rainforest of and some individual trees or groves 40,000 ha and has not been entered were regarded as cosmic centers, the for slash and burn agriculture (conuco) abodes of gods or powerful spirits by campesinos because of the dire (such as dryads), and homes of the misfortune that befalls anyone who ancestors. These trees, groves, and cuts or burns her trees. The forest was whole forests were protected because officially gazetted in 1960 as the María of these metaphysical aspects, very Lionza National Monument and is one often to the entire exclusion of any uti- of the best protected areas in the lization. However, some were carefully Venezuelan park and reserve system used for specific purposes, such as (Hamilton 1976). What follows deals collecting medicinal plants for healing with metaphysical relationships or for repair of a temple or shrine. between people and nature. The meta- Unfortunately, these sacred trees physical constraints providing for tree have all too often been destroyed, in and forest conservation usually have as the name of religion and in the name of a result a long-term utilitarian benefit. progress, because they were consid- They often were “codes of conduct” ered primitive or pagan remnants of a towards nature—perpetuated by wise conquered culture. In Guatemala, the shamans, whether they be ancient Maya-revered kapok tree (Ceiba pen- seers or witch doctors or modern ethi- tandra) is removed in modern land cists such as John Muir. clearing or for construction, though I I contend that the more we know know of one tree which was saved due about these sacred trees, groves, and to local protest: the road makes a forests, the better can we understand strange diversion around it. In the 8th their conservation status, their likely century, the oak of the god Thor at future without intervention, and possi- Geismar was cut down by the Christ- ble methods of perpetuating their con- ian, St. Boniface; and the Grove of servation. In this process a classifica- Trminsul, or Yggdrasil, the Universal tion or typology of these would appear Tree, the most sacred place of the Sax- helpful. Such a suggested typology ons, was destroyed at the order of would include: (1) cosmic species; (2) Charlemagne (Hughes 1991). trees of unusual size, age, or species; Many legends also recount the (3) historic trees; (4) sacred groves unfortunate events that often befell and temple groves; (5) temple-support those who did not respect the sanctity forests; (6) trees and groves of malevo-

58 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation lence; (7) patterns of landscape har- And indeed today in parts of mony; (8) forests of healing or sanctu- Africa, the bodies of certain important ary; (9) restoration and dedication individuals are placed in the hol- forests. It must be noted that these are lowed-out trunk of the baobab as a not discrete classes, but grade into coffin to symbolize the communion each other, just as groves grade into between the vital forces of the plant forests. gods and the body of the departed Classification (Altman 1994). Cosmic species (trees of life). The In classifying sacred mountains, cosmology of many early cultures Bernbaum (1997a) has a category he involved a mythical tree which was the calls “mountains as centre”—for axis of the world, with branches reach- example, Kailas in Tibet and Gunung ing far into the heavens and roots pen- Agung in Bali—as representing the etrating into the underworld. An cosmic axis around which the universe excellent discussion of this topic, with is organized. Cosmic species of trees examples from Norse, Russian, Baby- have some of this same meaning. The lonian, Indian, Aztec, Mayan, Egypt- mythical Yggdrasil of the Norse was ian, Greek, Chinese, and many other an ash tree (Fraxinus excelsior), and all cultures has been presented by Alt- ash trees took on some of the awe of man (1994) in a book entitled Sacred this cosmic tree. The first tree of the Trees. He classifies cosmic trees into world to the Mayans was the Ceiba three groups: world trees, trees of life, pentandra,the silk-cotton tree, or and trees of knowledge. For the pur- bombax. There are many other well- poses of this paper these distinctions known cosmic species. One of the are not made, but a few examples will most revered is the pipal, or bo, tree serve to illustrate the metaphysical (Ficus religiosa), whereunder the Bud- relationship that resulted in the physi- dha received enlightenment; conse- cal species manifestation of these cos- quently all pipal trees are considered mic trees becoming “no” trees—so holy by Buddhists everywhere. The revered that they were strongly pro- mythic world tree of the Hindus is tected by the culture involved. The represented by a banyan (Ficus ben- life-force aspect is evocatively sum- galensis) which protected the infant moned by Mathiessen (1972) in his Lord Krishna. Even today, no Hindu book The Tree Where Man Was Born: or Buddhist shrine is complete with- out a pipal or banyan tree planted The tree where man was born, nearby. Moreover, these fine, wide- according to the Nuer, still stood within man’s memory in the west branching trees have become natural part of the south Sudan, and I assembly points for village meetings, imagine a great baobab thrust up community events, and dispensation like an old root of life in those wild of justice. All species of Ficus in South grasses that blow forever to the Asia seem to be revered because of horizons, and wild man in naked silhouette against the first blue their association with various deities sky. That bodeful man of silence (Chandrakanth and Romm 1991). It is and the past is everywhere in of interest to note that biologists have Africa.

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 59 Forest & Tree Conservation now recognized the importance of the given special meaning by virtue of its genus Ficus as a keystone mutualist of appearance, large size, and longevity. great significance to maintaining bio- Certainly today, thousands of visitors diversity (especially of frugivorous (are they “pilgrims”?) come from far insects, birds, and mammals) in tropi- distances to view the famous Curtain cal forests. Fig tree on the Atherton Tableland of Members of the genus Quercus,the Queensland, Australia, and many oaks, were trees of life to Greeks and tourists in Honolulu wander in awe early northern Europeans. This was through the aerial roots and trunks of the tree symbol of Thor, Jupiter, and the fine banyans on the grounds of the Zeus. It was believed that Zeus could `Iolani Palace. But the banyan has communicate to mortals through the other metaphysical properties that oak tree, and a sacred oracle grove was promote its conservation wherever protected at Dodona, Greece (Altman Hindus live. This is the tree of immor- 1994). Other cosmic trees have to do tality or tree of life (also of love, fertili- with knowledge or wisdom, one of the ty, protection and healing) and is pro- most well known being the one which tected throughout India, Sri Lanka stood in Christianity’s Garden of and Nepal. Eden and which bore the forbidden In the United States, very large fruit of knowledge of good and evil. It trees, such as the sequoia (Sequoiaden- is thought that the apricot, pomegran- dron giganteum), or very old trees, ate, or fig should be the representation such as the bristlecone pine (Pinus of this fruit, even though northern aristata), are given protection in many artists and writers have usually depict- places, including Sequoia National ed it as an apple. This is a vast subject, Park and the Forest of the Ancient but these few examples will have to Bristlecone Pine, respectively. Some suffice. individual trees are named (the Gener- Trees of unusual size, age; special al Sherman sequoia; The Patriarch species. Unusually powerful patterns bristlecone), and seem to command in trees, such as old, hoary, spreading- special awe to beholders, who attempt crowned trees, tall, sun-dappled to capture their “essence” on film, or woodland groves, or dense ancient who, preferably, sit and look in con- forest, have always invoked in men and templation. Hoary, wide-crowned, women (and even technologically ori- stout-branched oaks have, by virtue of ented people today) a feeling in which these characteristics, become revered their self-importance is at least tem- and protected. Perhaps for this reason, porarily shed and they feel connected and also because of its production of to some greater context in which they mistletoe the oak was adopted by the are embedded. Such trees and groves Druids as the most sacred tree. One of become objects of awe and are saved the two famous Druidic oaks (which from the axe (and nowadays from the subsequently attained Christian signif- chainsaw and bulldozer). Perhaps the icance as “Gog and Magog”) near banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis), with Glastonbury, England, was over 2,000 its strange pattern of aerial roots, is years old and 3.4 m in diameter when

60 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation

Figure 1. The Patriarch Tree, a bristlecone pine over 4,000 years old, is protected in a “Forest of the Ancient Bristlecone Pine.” (Photo Lawrence S. Hamilton.) cut down finally in 1906 (Altman man 1994). When the early European 1994). Oaks also achieved sacrality in colonists came to America, treaties other metaphysical terms, as in the and charters were signed under the oracle grove of Dodona, Greece, branches of large elms and oaks (e.g., where priests and priestesses would Treaty Elm and Charter Oak), which go to consult Zeus and hear his mes- were then preserved as trees of special sages in the rustling of the wind. significance. Their large size and his- Historic trees. Many significant torical connections made them events in history have taken place revered until their demise. It is of under the shade of specific known interest to note that their wood was trees, and these trees have taken on a often used to make objects of public symbolic affection or reverence, asso- importance, and the “power” kept ciated with the event that occurred active in this manner. Moreover, there. The North American Iroquois seedling descendants of many of these Confederacy was founded and nur- historic trees are lovingly planted in tured under a tall white pine (Pinus public and private places to keep the strobus) called the Great Tree of Peace, tree spirit alive. and the trunk symbolized the law and In Central Europe, the most vener- its branches meant shelter and protec- able oak in many towns and villages tion for the six nations, or tribes (Alt- became the site of justice where the

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 61 Forest & Tree Conservation magistrate sat when he passed judg- water for the citizens of El Hierro. ment (Altman 1994), and these trees Many other fountain trees exist were preserved as “justice trees” around the world in areas of low rain- under which many agreements were fall but having fog which is captured made, involving only the spirit of the (e.g. Chile, Peru, Oman, Cape Verde). tree rather than the presence of a Indeed, in dry country, any tree or lawyer. Altman also writes of the cane- cloud forest that supplies water should lo or cinnamon tree of the Mapuche be revered and conserved. people of Chile and Argentina, who Sacred groves and temple groves. believe that no one can tell a lie under Almost all ancient peoples of whom its shade, and all promises made there we have knowledge demarcated some must be kept. areas of forest that held special mean- Sometimes a grove or forest sym- ing as places of worship. Sir James bolizes a historic event that is hon- George Frazer in The Golden Bough ored. A treaty of brotherhood after (1935) has given an elegant account of long strife was agreed to in Sikkim in this process and of how “in them no 1463 in a forest area called Kabi- axe may be laid to any tree, no branch longchuk by the Bhutia and Lepcha broken, no firewood gathered, no peoples (Chakraborti and Bose 1995). grass burnt; and animals which have They reported that as of 1995 no taken refuge there may not be molest- felling of trees is allowed, and local ed.” In this he alluded to the Kikuyu belief is that anyone damaging trees tribe of Africa setting aside groves. will become sick. There is no grazing. Such sacred groves worldwide were Though small in size (6.5 ha), the surely our first and best biodiversity almost total protection has maintained preserves. Gods or goddesses lived a rich mix of tree and other plant therein, or could be induced to appear species, including three orchid or give messages, if the worshippers species. Each year the motivation for danced hard enough, sang well protection is strengthened by a broth- enough, or prayed enough. In the erhood ceremony in the grove. worlds of ancient Greece and Rome, In the water-scarce Canary Island these special groves (each tree with its of El Hierro, a laurel tree (Ocotea own wood nymph or dryad) were foetens) is commemorated on the coat often enclosed by stone walls that pro- of arms (and as a taxicab logo) because tected them from grazing animals, and of its long history of capturing cloud they were called temenos,a cut-off water, and is called the fountain tree, place, i.e., a sacred enclosure Garoe (Gioda et al. 1995). It was used (Skolimowski, undated). In Latin the by pre-Hispanic populations as a term was “templum,” the original root water collector until 1610 when a hur- of the word “temple.” In these open- ricane removed it. “Garoe” means air sanctuaries and places of worship, sacred or holy tree. In memory of this shrines—and, gradually, elaborate Garoe, another laurel was planted at temples—were often constructed, or the same place in 1945. Today,this is a sacred stones were contained therein. new fountain tree producing potable These gave further protection to the

62 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation surrounding trees, plants, and ani- scape, since any product removal is mals. religiously restricted (Gadgil and Var- There is indeed in Europe a strong tak 1976). In one instance, Nair and visual connection between sacred Mohanan (1981) discovered four groups of trees and temples. Evans threatened plant species in two sacred (1901), in his study of the Mycenean groves in Kerala. Pei Shengji (1993) tree and pillar cult, suggested that points out that the temple yards of wooden and stone pillars resembling Buddhist temples in Yunnan, China, tree trunks were thought to be able to maintain biodiversity of many useful harbor the souls of sacred trees and plants for ritual, edible, or ornamental the god or goddess therein. One sus- purposes, and has documented this pects that the Greek temple with its amazing variety. In the United King- myriad stone columns may have been dom, a Living Churchyard program an architectural way of symbolizing a has developed in recent years to sacred grove (Harrison 1992). Even arouse interest in nature conservation the Gothic cathedrals of Europe with in church and chapel yards and ceme- their imposing columns may have teries (numbering over 20,000 sites in symbolic (as trees) as well as architec- England alone). Since most of these tural value. And, conversely, when were carved from ancient forest and impressed with the lofty trunks of meadows, they often contain plants trees (e.g., a California redwood now locally rare, and some of the grove), people are prone to talk about largest trees in the environs may be “cathedral groves,” and experience found there. feelings akin to religious reverence. In Japan, shrine and temple groves Sponsel and Natadecha-Sponsel in both the Shinto and Buddhist faiths (1993) pointed out that Buddhist tem- are extremely common, and Oyado- ples in Thailand were often built in mari (1990) estimated that the total forests (wat pa), and by association area of shrine groves was 117,300 ha the surrounding forest became sacred as of 1980. She indicated that these space. These forest temples ranged in areas not only provide an important size from 0.5 ha to 8 or more ha. The reverential landscape for the shrines or authors suggest that there are approxi- temples, but that they are used as mately 37,000 temples in Thailand, places of festivals and community almost all of which have a sacred tree gatherings. An old Japanese proverb or a sacred forest. In some heavily says that spirits left alone cast no transformed landscapes, the few natu- curse, and hence these shrine groves ral forest areas remaining are temple were in the past seldom touched for forests, as in Lebanon, where they fear of evil spells. In the urban areas of occur within monastery walls. Else- Japan today these groves are often the where, as in the Western Ghats of only green fragment of semi-wild India, the sacred groves, although they nature in a sea of concrete and stone. may or may not have temples or In the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, shrines within, represent the last ves- where the many sacred groves appear tiges of wild biodiversity in the land- as vegetative islands in an intensively

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 63 Forest & Tree Conservation used landscape, like spiritual oases classics attest to their age and univer- (Mansberger 1991), they usually con- sality. The origin of the many sacred tain unhewn sacred stones represent- groves and holy forests scattered over ing clan or family ancestral guardian the landscape of India is well recount- deities, but sometimes contain shrines ed by Wachtel (1993), who summa- or sculptures. In most cases they are rized the story from the Ramayana. located at sites of visual prominence, They are supposedly clumps of an or the site of a spring or a traditional Himalayan mountain torn up by the trail crossing or a stream ford. Mans- monkey general Hanuman in order to berger pointed out that they are in situ bring sacred medicinal plants to the storehouses of useful plants that are wounded man-god-king Rama. In fly- otherwise rare or absent in the valley ing 3,000 km with the mountain and (150 different species representing back (after the healing plants were one-tenth of all plant species in the taken), bits of mountain and vegeta- Valley). He recognized that they are tion dropped off and became the also important as repositories for reli- sacred groves. These holy forests are gion and culture. In the Khumbu often today still a source of healing region of Nepal, sacred groves around plants. In the Coorg district of Kar- monasteries and temples are better nataka state there were at least 600 preserved than forests protected by sacred groves of various sizes, ranging the Nepali government or in Sagar- from a single tree to an area of 40 ha matha National Park (Stevens 1993). and totaling in all at least 4,050 ha Temples have, in some places, pro- (Chandrakanth and Romm 1991). moted the planting of trees around Here local people worship to appease them to enhance their spiritual integri- the local and family deities and their ty and force. This seems to be particu- ancestors. larly the case with Shinto temples, Sacred groves have been perhaps where awe-inspiring groves of Cryp- best documented and studied in the tomeria were planted (Oyadomari field in India and Nepal. Madhav 1990). These entranceway trees Gadgil has been a leader in India in induced an appropriate mood of wor- documenting the raison d’être, distri- ship in the temple visitor, even before bution, and status of the sacred groves entering the temple. Chandrakanth in several regions. He and Vartak and Romm (1991) describe how par- (1975) for instance, describe two ticular species in specific orientations groves, one of which is sacred to the to one another and to the temple are goddess Janni and the other to the planted in Karnataka state, India, as goddess Kalkai. A recently published “star,” “zodiac,” and “planet” forests. UNESCO-sponsored book, Conserv- Sacred groves, without shrines or ing the Sacred for Biodiversity Man- temples, are manifestations of the agement (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998), human spirit and human imagination contains an imposing set of descrip- as abodes of deities or ancestors in tions and case studies of sacred groves very many cultures around the world. in India (plus a few sections on groves Early Greek, Chinese, and Sanskrit elsewhere), and is a welcome and sub-

64 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation stantial addition to the literature. In of which were of the guthi type rather Nepal, Ingles (1990) has recently sum- than sacred forest where no harvesting marized much of the knowledge and went on. Products from these forests documentation of sacred groves and included wood for use in cremations, carried out extensive field study of the for idols, for temple repair, for con- present management in 26 of them. struction of orphanages or schools, One of the most interesting studies of and fuelwood for cooking in religious sacred forests has been carried out festivals. Some forests were harvested among the Dai people of Yunnan in to provide cash for funding temples, or southern China by Pei Shengji (1993). for performance rituals. The hill-top forests here are where the It is of interest to note that the gods and ancestors reside, and any Wood Committee of the International gathering, hunting, wood chopping, Council on Monuments and Sites or cultivation are strictly taboo, thus (ICOMOS) has embarked on an his- protecting essentially 1.5-2.5% of the toric forest preserves project. This total area of the prefecture of promotes the use of authentic wood Xishuangbanna. Indeed, Frazer, in his restoration in temples or other signifi- great work The Golden Bough,gives cant cultural structures, especially examples of sacred groves from every those associated with World Heritage inhabited continent. Other chapters in Sites. In order to achieve this, the proj- this volume bring into the available lit- ect seeks to identify and protect near- erature many new examples of sacred by existing groves or forests, or to groves, and moreover indicates their plant such preserves for the future. In value as reservoirs of biodiversity as many cases these will be de facto tem- well as places where traditional cultur- ple-support forests, for many of the al values are reinforced. World Heritage structures are reli- Temple-support forests. Also in a gious in nature and constructed with sense “temple groves,” but susceptible wood. to harvesting, are those which are set Trees and groves of malevolence. aside as forests dedicated to sustain a In many places trees are protected out temple nearby or its rituals. Such tem- of a fear of misfortune befalling the ple-support forests may be managed person who injures or cuts the trees, for narrowly economic objectives if the or who otherwise does not treat the temple needs money (Chandrakanth trees circumspectly. Of course, any and Romm 1991). For instance, some tree or grove that is the abode of, or is in Karnataka, India, are managed to beloved of, a deity often has penalties fund temple trusts. In Nepal, the guthi associated with any human harm to it. forest is managed to provide forest But the essence of the relationship in products to a religious center, and vil- these cases is ostensibly one of rever- lagers refrain from using the forest oth- ence or worship. erwise because it is sinful. Ingles Another class is oriented chiefly to (1990) did an interesting survey and the metaphysical influence of malevo- analysis of the management and condi- lence or punishment. The forest of tion of religious forests in Nepal, most María Lionza in Venezuela, already

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 65 Forest & Tree Conservation mentioned, seems to be less a place of posedly the tree on which Judas Iscar- worship than a place where harm iot hanged himself after betraying befalls those who disturb this forest, Jesus. The Basoga people of central where the goddess roams. Africa believe that when any tree is cut There are many examples of indi- down, the tree spirit is angered and vidual tree species being associated can cause the death of the tribe’s chief with misfortune because the spirits or a member of his family; a medicine that dwell therein are quick to anger if man appeases the tree spirit before the insulted. Of course, any sacred tree tree is felled (Altman 1994). This that was violated brought on penalties. same metaphysical relationship exist- Buddhist monks in Thailand are ed between some trees (especially cot- today taking advantage of this phe- tonwoods, Populus spp.) and several nomenon by wrapping important trees North American First Nation peoples, in their orange robes so that it is a spir- and such trees were only cut down itual crime to destroy them, thus sav- after a ceremony to appease the spirits. ing them from the axe or chainsaw— I have also heard of a tree of the rain- and with them some of the surround- forest of Ghana and neighboring ing forest (Ekachai 1990). But else- countries that has a reputation for evil where there seems to be something power because it is toxic to almost all almost like malevolence involved. In other plants (presumably through Ecuador, for instance, the compadre allelopathy) and creates a mini-desert aluvillo tree (Toxicodendron striatum) around itself. I seek confirmation of reportedly imparts a rash to anyone this and the name of the species who does not take off his or her hat in (though the one given to me was greeting when passing under the Oukoybaka aubrevillia). canopy (McComb 1998, personal Some forests have been avoided by communication). Also in Ecuador, the people due to the real or imagined Ceiba pentandra (a cosmic tree in presence of beasts, witches, or evil some places) has within it a small man spirits. While many investigators (a supi) who protects forest fauna. actively seek in remote forests a sight Hunters become confused by the of yeti (Nepal), Sasquatch (western sound of him banging the tree with his North America), a bigfoot (China), axe and begin to wander in decreasing Mapinguari (Brazil), and others such spirals toward the tree. When they creatures elsewhere, many folk shun reach the tree the supi changes to a these forests out of fear, and they snake, a boa, and the hunter is never remain safer from logging and land seen again (McComb 1998, personal clearing. Old European legends and communication). fairy tales often depicted gnarled, dark Trembling aspen trees (Populus forests where evil spirits lurked— tremuloides) have been considered haunted forests. The Grimm brothers’ bad luck trees by French-Canadian collection of fairy stories out of Ger- wood cutters. The redbuds or Judas many perpetuated for many children trees (Cercis spp.) are considered an attitude that the forest is a place of cursed by many, because it was sup- enchantment where misfortune or

66 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation misadventure are common. In Europe that these trees and forests were better these superstitions have largely disap- left alone. peared, though in remote areas one Patterns of harmony in the land- still hears stories of trespassers having scape. The human spirit is more tran- misadventures or disappearing. quil, and feelings are more kindly, In some villages of Kerala state, when there is a “fit” or harmony India, rattan (Calamus spp.) is between elements in a landscape, thought to be associated with snakes, including the relationship of human and since snakes have a strong reli- built environment to the mosaic of gious connection, locals do not har- hills and dales, fields and forests— vest the very useful rattan out of fear domesticated and wild places. Forests, (Mohanan and Muraleedharan 1988). groves, windbreaks, and even scat- They do, however, use a tribal group tered trees have important roles here called Ulladans to do the harvesting— in engendering positive feelings and suffer any evil consequences! toward the environment. Where such In Pohnpei, Micronesia, Pohn- tree elements do give harmony, in peians have an ambivalent attitude some places and times, tree landscapes about the nanwel (upper wild lands), have been conserved. In particular, the but the principal one is that of fear of placement of groves with respect to supernatural dangers from the eni wind direction, water source protec- spirits therein (Anson and Raynor tion, and aspect has given rise to what 1993). While they will enter the nan- have been termed “spiritual land- wel for short periods to extract scapes” in China. These have devel- resources, they are unwilling to live in oped using geomancy and driven by it. Even when in this forest, they do the mystical insights of feng shui, not call each other by name but shout which arose as early as the Sheng in brief animal cries, for fear that an eni dynasty, 1766-1123 BC (Rossbach may identify that person and lure him 1983). or her to some unlucky or disastrous “Feng” (wind) and “shui” (water) experience. This belief has slowed were forces to be reckoned with, and markedly the rate of conversion of this when these forces were ignored in car- upland forest to agroforestry and rying out landscape-modifying activi- cropping. ties, the human occupants or users However, just as it is with the weak- suffered, and when they were harmo- ening protection provided by worship nized, people prospered. Modern-day and reverence, fear of the mysterious soil and water conservation advocates and malevolent in nature is being dis- might think about adopting some of sipated by science and rationalism. the feng shui approach since they Allelopathy seems to be a much more often deal with wind and water ero- satisfactory explanation for sparse or sion processes and control. Lovelace no growth around some tree species (1985) described the application of than is evil emanation. And, increasing feng shui to the interpretation and technology—the power of machines— manipulation of landforms, vegeta- has overpowered the uneasy feelings tion, and hydrology to ensure the well-

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 67 Forest & Tree Conservation being of villagers in South China, and sensory pleasures (Ekachai 1990). illustrated the concept, which includ- ed the location of a tree grove with Great religious figures and philoso- respect to water source, settlement, phers have gone to the wilderness or and grave sites. In many places, these the forest, or contemplated beneath feng shui groves constituted the only great trees, in order to heal a troubled samples of the original native vegeta- spirit or to find peace and sanctuary. tion. These groves became sacred to In many cases these places have the Hakka people, and even today become sacred sites, or, as in the case both natural and human-made feng of the Buddha, all trees of the species shui forests are given the utmost pro- under which he attained enlighten- tection as the home of spirits (Ni Gen- ment have become sacred. Modern jin 1994). The Hakka also realize the urban people often find the need to importance of these forests in conserv- turn to trees and wildlands to achieve ing water and soil and in preventing respite from the noise, pollution, shallow landslips on the mountain crowds, and stresses of their lives. slopes. They believe that the trees Forests that provide refuges from the secrete natural disinfectants for dis- pressures of industrial society are eases, as well as producing rich becoming increasingly important and anions, which are a longevity element. being given protection. A Texas A&M Chandrakanth and Romm (1991) feel University environmental psycholo- that de facto feng shui patterns are at gist has found that even the sight of work in Vietnam and Nepal. Perhaps it trees (in a city) can quickly lower a is overdue in the Western world to person’s blood pressure and relax adopt concepts of landscape harmony muscle tension and brain wave pat- in the conservation of strategic trees, terns, which indicate reduced stress groves, and forests. Perhaps one even (Wexler 1998). Even in the mid- sees it in practice, for intuitive ecolog- 1800s, Henry David Thoreau fled to ical reasons, in some of the splendid Walden woods to simplify his life; forest mosaic landscapes of the United there, partly through what might be Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe. termed “forest therapy,” he developed Forests of healing and sanctu- his extremely moving philosophy. ary—wilderness.A Buddhist monk, Thoreau wrote in 1851: “From the Phra Paisal, was quoted in the forest and wilderness come the tonics Bangkok Post as saying: and barks which brace mankind” (Thoreau 1893). The forest commands a magi- cal, mind-calming power which is In all countries of the world, it is conducive to the meditation important that forest areas of healing process. Deep concentration and sanctuary be set aside and pro- becomes easier. When your mind tected from logging, clearing for con- is at peace, life becomes one with version to other uses, motorized trav- simplicity. This is the first level of the relationship between forests el, and the noise of technology. Fortu- and dhamma. Lack of inner peace nately this is being done as govern- accounts for a person’s constant ments respond to public clamor for hunger for external arousals and such places, and even the private sec-

68 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation tor has joined in. I regard all of these well as reservoirs of biological diversi- declared and protected wilderness ty and places where evolutionary areas, primitive areas, core zones of processes can continue without warp- national parks, and the like as exam- ing by human action. Currently in the ples of this class of metaphysically United States a network of enthusias- protected forest. Perhaps even the tic groups, highly motivated by “bio- nature-tourism sites, though having an philia” or “geophilia,” but firmly sci- economic role, may also have some ence-based in conservation biology, elements of re-creation as well as are attempting to enlarge and link recreation. Faulstich (1998) opines existing wild protected lands into that nature tourism (one of the fastest large wildland ecosystems and corri- growing sectors of the global econo- dors. They are united under the my), however dysfunctional, has umbrella of The Wildlands Project evolved as a means to reconnect us and are attempting an intriguing, with the sacred landscapes of our her- almost spiritual, crusade for wilder- itage. While we may dismiss the ness recovery. This includes, as an tourist experience in national parks as example, a continuous corridor from somewhat superficial, it reveals the Yellowstone National Park in power of landscape, trees, and wildlife Wyoming USA to the Yukon in Cana- to reflect the myths of who we are and da (Wild Earth, undated). This con- where we belong. cept is gradually spreading to other It is this love of nature, and the countries, as a vision of large species- desire to maintain as much of it as pos- and gene-conserving ecosystems or sible free from the major imprint of bioregions is captured by others. A human activities, that spawned the vision of a more-or-less continuous wilderness movement in the United linked series of protected areas along States. This resulted in the establish- the Andean Cordillera is being pro- ment of a National Wilderness Preser- posed by Jose Pedro de Oliveira Costa vation System in 1964. Currently, (Brazil) and Danilo Silva (Ecuador). around 5% of America’s land surface And, in their wilder moments, James is in wilderness status. This movement Thorsell (formerly IUCN’s World has spread to other countries where Heritage advisor) and the author are the history,geography,and population talking and writing about a Conserva- situation has been favorable for dedi- tion Corridor of the Americas, from cating large blocks of forest land as Tierra del Fuego to the Bering Sea. A wilderness or strict reserve (e.g., MesoAmerican Biological Corridor of Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Rus- connected wild lands has been sia). The core areas of biosphere endorsed by the seven Central Ameri- reserves around the world are also can governments, and would be an essentially dedicated to strict protec- important middle segment of this Cor- tion in order to let natural processes ridor of the Americas. function largely uninfluenced by In a paper originally entitled humans. Such areas often provide “Wilderness is Where my Genome forests of healing and sanctuary, as Lives,” but now in his book Traces of

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 69 Forest & Tree Conservation an Omnivore,Paul Sheppard suggests tree. In the United States, offspring that “although we may define our- from famous trees are perpetuated and selves in terms of culture, language, offered as planting stock for these spe- and so on, it is evident that the context cial occasions. The American Forestry of our being, now as in the past, is Association is currently offering wilderness—an environment lacking descendants of the George Washing- domestic plants and animals entirely, ton tulip tree (Liriodendron tulip- and to which, one might say,our genes ifera), for instance. look expectantly for those circum- “Forest monks” are promoting tree stances which are their optimal planting in Thailand as a mark of ambiance” (Sheppard 1996). Indeed, respect toward nature and other living our previously mentioned Thoreau things (Sponsel and Natadecha-Spon- said: “In wildness is the preservation sel 1993). Pei Shengji (1993) points of the world” (Thoreau, 1893). Even out that the taboo on tree cutting in in landscapes that have been mostly the holy hills of the Dai people in Yun- culturally altered for a long time, there nan (see above) is responsible for them are wilder places in rough topography planting trees for use at lower eleva- or inaccessible areas where a seeker tions in fuelwood forests and agro- may find relative solitude and sanctu- forests; somewhat of a “spin-off” from ary.And there are still existing some of sacred forests, yet it is reforestation the sacred groves mentioned previous- due to metaphysical constraints. ly, particularly around water-source A recent and excellent example of areas and holy wells. “sacred” reforestation in India is Spiritual restoration and dedica- described by Bernbaum (1997b), who tion. Metaphysical forces sometimes participated in developing the pro- work not only to give sacredness to gram together with two Indian scien- trees or forests, but to establish new tists (Drs. Purohit and Dhyani) and trees or forests. Some examples of this the chief priest of the Badrinath tem- may serve to provide some hope in an ple (His Holiness Sri P. Shredharan overall worrisome picture of the Namboodari) for degraded slopes and destruction of holy trees, groves, and valleys nearby. Badrinath has been a forests around the world by increas- religious site, regarded by many Hin- ingly secularized human societies. dus as the most important pilgrimage When one stops to think of it, this site in the Indian Himalaya, with very day or week many ceremonial around 450,000 pilgrims coming per trees are being planted to honor a fine year. Badrinath has its name from the person, memorialize a loved one, cele- sacred badri tree (a juniper), which brate a birth or graduation, or com- was the form that Lord Vishnu’s wife memorate some other significant per- Lakshmi took to protect him from a sonal, community, or national event. snow storm. The first tree planting In such ceremonies, cuttings (or ceremony in September 1993 resulted seedlings grown from seed) from in roughly 20,000 seedlings being already revered trees often are used to blessed by the chief priest and planted perpetuate, in a sense, the spirit of the for religious merit by pilgrims. Pil-

70 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation grims also provided donations for tree through surveys. Currently the planet care, and the many beggars who fre- is losing forest cover (i.e., totally defor- quent such a pilgrimage site received estation, not just logged and left in for- cash and food equivalent to their daily est) at an annual rate of 13.7 million ha begging earnings, plus religious merit, (FAO 1997). Some of these are sacred to care for the trees instead of begging. forests. And though not quantified, we According to Bernbaum, all agreed. are all aware of single-tree attrition as Though there were some problems, houses, roads, parking lots, industries, both physical and political, with this and so forth remove ancient and even first planting, the process has been once-revered trees in clearing for repeated and extended in 1996 to sites urban and transportation infrastruc- at Kedarnath, Tungnath, and Hanu- ture. Trees and groups of trees once manchatti, and continues today. Also, protected out of reverence, awe, fear, the idea of giving pilgrims packages of or love are being lost, and with this blessed tree seeds to take back home disappears some of our biological and and plant is being tried. Bernbaum our cultural heritage. listed the metaphysical reasons that Two major underlying forces seem various interviewees gave for planting to me to be responsible for the deteri- trees as follows: (1) re-establishment oration of sylvan sacrality and other of the ancient sacred forest of Badri- metaphysical influences conserving van; (2) sacred plants, herbs, etc., trees and forests (or, as a matter of fact, needed for religious practice; (3) wor- other sacred spaces as well). Can any- ship and service to a deity (e.g., Hanu- one doubt that there will be awesome man or Lord Vishnu); (4) religious pressures for degradation and destruc- duty (dharma); (5) selfless action tion of these sites in a world which is (karma yoga); and (6) restoration of a currently adding almost one billion healthy environment as a basis for reli- individuals every 10 years to the gious practices and goals. Perhaps this human population? Moreover, the kind of “religious merit planting” world has been in a demographic run- might be replicated in many other away situation for many decades, and areas where pilgrimage sites exist. the impact is compounded by increas- ing per capita consumption or wants, Deterioration of plus a proliferating technology. A sec- Metaphysical Protection ond major force is the more subtle cul- In view of the scope of the many tural changes taking place, largely due metaphysical influences and forces to increasing secularism, materialism, giving protection to trees, groves, and and consumerism. The traditional forests, it would seem as though the taboos and values of the elders are no world would be clothed in sacred ver- longer held as tightly by each younger dure. Not so, as we all know. The generation who have been condi- alarming rate of loss of forests world- tioned by education, advertising, and wide has been periodically document- entertainment media to put more value ed by the Food and Agricultural Orga- on physical resources and want-satis- nization of the United Nations (FAO) faction than on spiritual resources and

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 71 Forest & Tree Conservation ethical conservation. This is not true hungry villagers often exploit the for- everywhere, of course, but it is an all- est. In Nepal, the detailed study by too-common syndrome in traditional Ingles (1990) found significant modi- cultures that have long been the custo- fication and degradation of understory dians of sacred or taboo trees and vegetation and soils due to grazing , forests. even though there might still be sanc- Unfortunately, the economic devel- tions on tree cutting that limit it to reli- opment aid being extended to devel- gious purposes. The same general sit- oping countries emphasizes natural uation of deterioration comes in resource management for commodi- reports from Pacific islands, Malaysia, ties, energy intensive technology, cash Philippines, and central Africa. cropping for export earnings, privati- Governments seem to have little zation, and global markets. These concern for the conservation of these imperatives tend to ignore or ride special forests or trees, and in develop- roughshod over subtle forces that pro- ing or developed countries alike it is tect forests. In the past, proselytizing often only the confrontational actions by organized religions of the Western of concerned locals or preservation- world often resulted in so-called pagan minded nongovernmental organiza- sacred groves being deliberately tions that save them from the grind- destroyed and their metaphysical pro- stones of economic development. A tection denounced as either silly great decline in the sacred forest estate superstition or worship of false gods. took place when European colonial In a study of 660 sacred forests administrations took charge of what among the Zigna ethnic group in Tan- had been “unowned” forest land in zania, Mwihomeke et al. (1997) found spite of a long history of traditional that, on average, only 60% were intact occupancy and use. These administra- or only slightly disturbed. They found tions put forests into managed units that the main causes for destruction in for timber resource production, and the remainder were clearing for farm- sacred forests frequently lost their ing and overharvesting for building identity as they were incorporated into poles, timber, and fuelwood. They production forests or into areas ear- also found that the most numerous marked for plantation estate develop- instances of destruction occurred ment. Basically the same process where there was a high influx of immi- occurred in many newly-independent grants from outside the village area. (from colonial rule) nations, where Similarly, in the Western Ghats of governments claimed all land to which India taboos were increasingly violat- no clear private title existed. To earn ed under extreme duress, or by out- funds for their nascent economies, siders (Gadgil and Vartak 1976). In logging concessions were granted to Thailand, Taylor (1991) indicated foreign companies, and these produc- that forest monks find it necessary not tion areas ignored any special religious to wander the country, but to stay put sites in these forests. They also fos- to protect forests in the Northeast, for tered large land clearing and settle- when they are absent the resource- ment schemes that ignored sacred

72 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation trees, groves, or forests. ecologists, engineers, economists, or Even in this climate of pro-develop- earth scientists who will save our biot- ment, however, metaphysical attitudes ic component of spaceship earth, but of reverence for trees broke out in the poets, priests, artists, and philoso- many places as confrontation with phers (Hamilton 1993). It is this latter governments. One of the most inter- group that deal with the human emo- esting of these was the Chipko Move- tions, attitudes, and thoughts that ment, carried out largely by women vibrate between humans and their bio- who hugged trees in the Garhwal physical environment. In the face of Himalaya (India) to prevent their the destruction and deterioration of being commercially logged. While the the sacred trees and groups of trees most direct motivation was ecological just discussed, due partly to the and utilitarian, the movement derived changed sacrality of nature as older much of its force from spiritual lead- mores, taboos, ceremonies, and belief ers, especially from the philosopher systems increasingly lose their power, Sunderlal Bahuguna and the Chipko we need to turn to the fields of ethics, poet Ghanashyam Raturi. An account values, and religion, rather than to sci- of this interesting phenomenon, its ence and technology, for increasing evolution, and impact was given by our conservation of biodiversity. Shiva and Bandyopadhyay (1986). There are at least eight arenas of hope, This process was emulated in New or suggestions for strengthening meta- Zealand by the Native Forest Action physical tree and forest conservation. Council a few years later by conserva- 1. Let me commence with a West- tion activists, who climbed trees and ern science-dictated task: inventory. stayed aloft for days and weeks to pre- Heinen (1994) suggested locating all vent these special native old growth existing sacred forests in the mid-hills forests being harvested. Tree perching of Nepal in a geographic information and tree-top living is currently in effect system (GIS) to permit landscape- in some old- growth forests of the level analysis as to their regional extent western United States, to protect what and position with respect to each are being almost religiously called other and with other types of parks “ancient forests.” and preserves. An inventory of all sacred trees and groves in Nepal’s Biodiversity and Cultural Kathmandu Valley was conducted by Diversity Conservation: Mansberger (1991), who speculated Some Suggestions about a pilgrimage trail that might Several years ago I asserted to the even be used by ecotourists so that natural science community in the they become an economic asset to the Pacific that the application of more area as a means of increasing their pro- ecological science will not halt the tection. In addition to location and serious loss of genes, species, and mapping, inventory of their biological ecosystems; nor will more recycling or components of groves and forests application of more pollution control would reveal something of their biodi- technology and so forth. It is not the versity importance. Ingles (1990) sur-

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 73 Forest & Tree Conservation veyed 26 religious forests in central them known and listed. They may Nepal, obtaining physical, biotic, and indeed often be better protected in social information, with emphasis on strong traditional cultures if they are how they were managed to fulfill their not on a roster. Visitation by “out- various purposes. Gadgil and Vartak siders” usually accompanies the mak- (1976) and Chakraborti and Bose ing known of such revered trees, (1995) have likewise conducted groves, or forests—as has happened so focused studies in India that provide often with other kinds of sacred places information on the biological and reli- such as mountains, water bodies, or gious values of such sites. The recent the habitat of sacred animals. Such book by Ramakrishnan et al. (1998) inventory and listing may have bene- has an excellent documentation of fits, however, if a tree or forest many sacred groves, particularly in becomes threatened with destruction India, and often relates these to biodi- by outside forces that may be operat- versity conservation. ing in ignorance or in venality. It is Much more inventory and identifi- imperative that the traditional custodi- cation of sacred sites is needed so that ans of such trees or sites decide such places of in situ genetic and spir- whether or not the dangers outweigh itual conservation can be incorporated the benefits, and that no inventory and into national protected area planning. location data are obtained and used Even small groves, which have limited without their full concurrence. value in preserving biodiversity due to 2. Secular society should support the “small-island syndrome” of and reinforce the sacrality of sites species loss, can still serve as “arbore- where biodiversity and cultural diver- ta” that can maintain precious seed sity are fostered by the protection stock and germplasm of some species, afforded by metaphysical forces. In the both plant and animal, through strict case of sacred groves and forests, sure- protection or proactive conservation ly such sites should be recognized as management. Bio-inventories are to their value and be given secular needed not only in the aforemen- legal protection such as that afforded tioned sacred groves and forests but in to national parks, national monu- churchyards, monastery properties, ments, and other types of official pro- and lands associated with any other tected areas. This was exactly the pro- religious structures. This is especially cedure adopted by Venezuela in the needed in strongly transformed land- case of the sacred forest of María Lion- scapes, such as the Mediterranean za, which became a national monu- region, Western and Central Europe, ment in the country’s system of parks parts of China, and the African low- and preserves (Hamilton 1976). And lands. in 1990, the parliament of Kenya It is nevertheless extremely impor- voted to protect all of the remaining tant to recognize that many sacred kaya forests that have survived only trees, groves, and forests may be because of the beliefs of village elders “secret” sites whose spiritual meaning who respect them as sacred forests is diminished or threatened by having (Negussie 1998). Again, however,

74 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation such secular protection must be only out to “Sustainable Development.” with the concurrence of the traditional I’m still hoping that the concept of custodians. restoration will capture the imagina- 3. Contemporary societies at local, tion and support of those mysterious regional, or national levels should per- “decision-makers.”In such a program, petuate, not discourage, local folk- the metaphysical aspects of trees, songs, stories, legends, rituals, and fes- groves, and forests should play a major tivals dealing with trees and forests, to part. reinforce with younger generations 5. In the technical and financial aid their bond to the biological world, programs from the so-called devel- once strongly recognized and “lived” oped countries to the developing by the older generations. Public sup- countries, projects should be designed port of such traditions, support of folk that foster the aforementioned aspects art in nature, and other incentives can of sustainable development that sup- play a role in decreasing the rate of port or restore sacrality. At a mini- erosion of these traditional values. mum, they should be scrutinized to 4. The section of this paper on remove aspects that weaken cultural restoration and dedication suggests and religious ties to land. This has some positive actions that can result in decidedly not been the case in the new forests that can heal the earth, past. The high-tech packages, promot- providing incipient loci for both bio- ing rapid economic development, cash diversity and cultural diversity conser- agriculture, monocultures, global vation. A holy mission to establish economies, and so forth, have all tend- new groves, forests, or even individual ed to weaken the traditional cultural trees can be engendered not only by values that have promoted strong priestly blessing and urging as at nature–human relations, including Badrinath, but by laypersons imbued respect and reverence. with a zealousness for repairing 6. In the field of religious proselyti- denuded landscapes. Organizations zation, missionaries, particularly from such as Men of the Trees, books such Christian churches, have in the past as The Man Who Planted Trees, and mostly tried to root out so-called regreening programs have, largely by pagan feelings of sacrality toward inspiring ardor, resulted in countless trees, groves, and other elements of numbers of trees being planted. In this nature. Even today,absolute dominion deforested world, the healing concepts over the natural world is preached by of restoration, repair, and rehabilita- several religious groups who are tion have an emotional appeal on actively seeking conversions among which we have not yet capitalized. I the “heathen.” Fortunately, there is an suggested to the U.N. Environment encouraging movement among many Program’s executive director prior to organized religions of the world to the 1992 Earth Summit that an appro- come together in an ecumenical cam- priate theme might be the “Three R’s” paign for a gentler, healing approach of the last sentence, and the motto to nature. Fifty religious institutions “Healing the Earth.” Somehow it lost banded together and transmitted a

Volume 19 • Number 3 2002 75 Forest & Tree Conservation common proposal on respect for tions. It is based on the need to supply nature to the 1992 Earth Summit in authentic restoration for World Her- Rio de Janeiro (Hamilton 1993). Peri- itage Sites containing wood. To be odically there are ecumenical gather- authentic for repair and replacement, ings and joint statements from the the wood should be of the same world’s nine principal religions and species and with the same characteris- others, based on the St. Francis of tics as the original wood (often large, Assisi attitude toward nature, and a old-growth trees or trees of specific Summit on Religions and Conserva- shape or grain). The Historic Forest tion was held in 1995. An Alliance of Reserves project attempts to locate Religion and Conservation has grown feasible existing forests or groves that out of this; its newsletter, the first issue could supply such material for each of of which appeared in spring 1997, the World Heritage structures and give contained an article on “Saving the them whatever protection is needed, Pilgrimage Forests of Krishna.” The or to establish new forests or enrich- alliance has stimulated an exciting ment-planting forests that could sup- Sacred Land Project in the United ply material for historic wooden struc- Kingdom, the largest religious cam- tures. This intriguing program in paign on ecology ever undertaken many cases can build on existing tem- there (Sacred Land 1997). In this ple forests or temple-support forests project, ancient woodlands belonging previously described in this paper, for to historical monuments, abbeys, and some of these temples indeed are churches will be protected, managed, World Heritage Sites or potential sites. and, where necessary, replanted. But the project looks to a future where There are encouraging signs that historically correct wood may not be organized religions are taking steps to conveniently available and proposes to use their metaphysical influence to start action now. Such a program achieve forest conservation. could well be expanded beyond World Another good example was a proj- Heritage Sites so that all historically ect developed by Thai and Tibetan valuable wooden structures have a monks and Thai researchers called nearby protected source of supply “Buddhist Perception of Nature,” ini- from which authentic restoration can tiated in 1985 (Nash 1986). This proj- carried out. This is as needed in ect continues as a quiet force, assem- France or Japan as it is in Nepal or bling teachings about humankind’s Tanzania. interdependence with nature and pro- 8. Finally, a promising program has ducing educational materials that pro- developed in the U.N. Educational, mote environmental ethics and Scientific, and Cultural Organization changed attitudes about forest (UNESCO) on “Sacred Sites and destruction. Environmental Conservation.” It was 7. A hopeful sign comes from the started with a pilot project in Ghana Wood Committee of ICOMOS, and it and is being extended to other sites. could well be adopted by govern- This gives long overdue recognition ments, foundations, or other organiza- internationally to the de facto protec-

76 The George Wright FORUM Forest & Tree Conservation tion that has existed through meta- and conserve biodiversity. Foresters physical constraints or processes. and other natural scientists should not Conclusion feel embarrassed or reluctant to talk Needed in all countries of the about metaphysical matters, because world is the sense of place that brings biodiversity and cultural conservation us back into a community with trees, may be greatly enhanced by the meta- wildlife, streams, mountains—with physical. It will not be the natural sci- nature. We may call some places entists that achieve that blessed state “sacred forests,” “ancient cathedral of “forest conservation,” but the poets, groves,” “friendly retreats,” or “wild priests, artists and philosophers who sanctuaries,” or even have a favorite influence human behavior (Hamilton tree that we hug. We need these. 1993). Foresters and biologists, how- Sochaczewski (1998) calls them “life ever, must be engaged in the dialogue reserves,” and it is an apt name, for to bring sound natural science into the they can greatly enhance human life, discourse arena.

[Ed. note: This paper was originally presented at the International Symposium on Natural Sacred Sites—Cultural Diversity and Biological Diversity Conservation, 22-25 September 1998, UNESCO, Paris, and was revised in 2000.] References Altman, N. 1994. Sacred Trees. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Anson, H., and W. Raynor. 1993. Traditional resource management and the conservation of biological diversity on Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia. In Ethics, Religion, and Biodiversity.L.S. Hamilton, ed. Cambridge, U.K.: White Horse Press, 133-146. Bernbaum, E. 1997a. The spiritual and cultural significance of mountains. In Mountains of the World: A Global Priority.B.Messerli and J. Ives, eds. New York and London: Parthenon, 39-60. ———. 1997b. Pilgrimage and conservation in the Himalayas: a model for environmental action based on cultural and spiritual values. Project report. Franklin, W. Va.: The Mountain Institute. Chakraborti, D., and B. Bose. 1995. Studies on “Sacred Groves” in Bihar, Sikkim, and West Bengal. Calcutta: Jadavpur University. Chandrakanth, M.G., and J. Romm. 1991. Sacred forests, secular forest policies and people’s actions. Natural Resources Journal 31:4, 741-755. Ekachai, S. 1990. Holy war on illegal loggers. Bangkok Post, 13 August. Evans, A. 1901. Mycenaean tree and pillar cult. Journal of Hellenistic Studies 21, 1-103. FAO [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]. 1997. State of the World’s Forests 1997. Rome: FAO. Faulstich, P. 1998. Geophilia. Wild Earth 8:1, 81-89. Frazer, J. G. 1935. The Golden Bough. New York: Macmillan. Gadgil, M., and V.D. Vartak. 1975. Sacred groves of India—a plea for continued conservation. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72:2, 314-320. ———. 1976. The sacred groves of Western Ghats in India. Economic Botany 30, 152-160. Gioda, A., J. Maley, R.E. Guasp, and A.A. Baladon. 1995. Some low elevation fog forests of dry environ- ments: applications to African paleoenvironments. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests.L.S. Hamilton, J.O. Juvik, and F.N. Scatena, eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, 156-164. Hamilton, L.S. 1976. Tropical Rainforest Use and Preservation: A Study of Problems and Practices in Venezuela. San Francisco: Sierra Club. ———, ed. 1993. Ethics, Religion, and Biodiversity. Cambridge, U.K.: White Horse Press. Harrison, R.G. 1992. Forests: The Shadow of Civilization. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Heinen, J. 1994. Agenda for sacred forests. Habitat Himalaya 2:1, 2-4. Hughes, J.D. 1991. Spirit of place in the Western World. In The Power of Place.J.A. Swan, ed. Wheaton, Ill.: Quest, 15-27.

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Ingles, A.W. 1990. The Management of Religious Forests in Nepal. Department of Forestry Research Report. Canberra: Australian National University. Lovelace, G.W. 1985. Man, land and mind in early historic Hong Kong. In Cultural Values and Human Ecology in Southeast Asia. K.L. Hutterer, A.T.Rambo, and G. Lovelace, eds. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia no. 27. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 341-372. Mansberger, J.R. 1991. Ban Yatra: a biocultural survey of sacred forests in Kathmandu Valley. Ph.D. dis- sertation. University of Hawai`i, Honolulu. Mathiessen, P. 1972. The Tree Where Man Was Born: The African Experience. New York: Dutton. McComb, M. 1998. Personal communication from executive director of Maquipucuna Foundation, Quito, Ecuador. Mohanan, C., and P.K.Muraleedharan. 1988. Rattan resources in the sacred groves of Kerala, India. Rattan Information Centre Bulletin 7:3/4, 4-5. Mwihomeke, S.T., T.H. Msangi, and J. Yihaisi. 1997. Quantity, distribution and current status of sacred forests in the Ziqua ethnic group, Handeni District. The Arc Journal (Tanzania) 6, 2. Nair, N.C., and C.N. Mohanan. 1981. On the rediscovery of four threatened species from the sacred groves of Kerala. Journal of Economic Taxonomy and Botany 2, 233-235. Nash, N. 1986. Letter from Puttha Monton. Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 May, 106. Negussie, G. 1998. Sacred forests in Kenya. ArborVitae (IUCN/WWF) 6, 15. Ni Genjin. 1994. Hakka “fengshui forests”: their preservation and value. Forestry and Society Newsletter 2:2, 6. Oyadomari, M. 1990. Cultural perception of nature and its application toward preserving cultural and nat- ural heritage in Japan. Unpublished paper. Tokyo: Chiba National University. Pei Shengji. 1993. Managing for biological diversity in temple yards and holy hills: the traditional practices of the Xishuangbanna Dai community, southwest China. In Ethics, Religion, and Biodiversity.L.S. Hamilton, ed. Cambridge, U.K.: White Horse Press, 118-132. Ramakrishnan, P.S., K.G. Saxena, and U.M. Chandrashekara, eds. 1998. Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Management. Enfield, N.H.: Science Publishers. Rossback, S. 1983. Feng Shui. London: Hutchinson. Sacred Land. 1997. Issue no. 1 of The Sacred Land Project. International Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture, Manchester, U.K. Schaaf, T. 1998. Personal communication, and workshop held 24-25 September 1998 on developing an UNESCO project on Sacred Sites—Cultural Integrity and Biological Diversity, Paris. Sheppard, P. 1996. Traces of an Omnivore.Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Shiva, V., and J. Bandyopadhyay. 1986. The evolution, structure, and impact of the Chipko Movement. Mountain Research and Development 6:2, 133-142. Skolimowski, H. Undated. Forests as Sanctuaries.Eco-philosophy Publication no. 4. Ann Arbor: Eco- Philosophy Center. Sochaczewski, P. 1998. Life reserves. ArborVitae (IUCN/WWF), April, 14. Sponsel, L.E., and P.Natadecha-Sponsel. 1993. The potential contribution of Buddhism in developing an environmental ethic for the conservation of biodiversity. In Ethics, Religion, and Biodiversity. L.S. Hamilton, ed. Cambridge, U.K.: White Horse Press, 75-97. Stevens, S. 1993. Claiming the High Ground: Sherpas, Subsistence, and Environmental Change in the Highest Himalaya. Berkeley: University of California Press. Taylor, J.L. 1991. Living on the rim: ecology and forest monks in Northeast Thailand. Sojourn 6:1, 106- 123. Thoreau, H.D. 1893 [1947]. Walking. In Excursions: The Writings of Henry David Thoreau. (Riverside Edition, Boston.) As extracted in The Portable Thoreau. C. Bole, ed. New York: Viking. Wachtel, P.S. 1993. Asia’s sacred groves. International Wildlife 43:2, 24-27. Wexler, M. 1998. Money does grow on trees—and so does better health and happiness. National Wildlife 36:3, 70. Wild Earth. Undated. The Wildlands Project. Wild Earth (Special Issue). Wilson, E.O. 1984. Biophilia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Lawrence S. Hamilton, Vice-Chair (Mountains), IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, 342 Bittersweet Lane, Charlotte, Vermont 05445; hamil- [email protected] F

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