The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India Iqbal Singh Sevea Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00886-1 - The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India Iqbal Singh Sevea Index More information

Index

Acton, Lord, 183, 183n100 on Pan-Islamism, 205–206 opposition to nationalism, 131 on political participation of Muslims, 21 adab, 177 on the resumption of waqf by the Afghanistan, 172 colonial state, 51 Aga Khan, 121, 149, 190, 192 Ali, Chaudhari Rahmat, 36, 36n3, 197, debate with Lajpat Rai, 190 207. See also Continent of Dinia Aghnides, Nicolas Prodromou, 68 Pak Plan Ahl-i-Hadith, 5, 6 adoption of modern political Ahl-i-Sunnat wa Jamaat. see Barelwi categories, 136 Ahmad, Aziz, 25, 35n2, 38n17, 62n3 on nationhood, 136 Ahmad, Basheer, 135 on the need for nation-states, 196 Ahmad, Imtiaz, 39 position in the Pakistan narrative, 208 Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam, 6, 7, 124, 125 Ali, Chiragh, 4, 4n9, 8, 52, 54, 55, 56, 134, Ahmadiyya, 5, 24, 69 141, 205 accusations of British patronage for, 169 no Islamic socio-political structure, 59, emergence of movement, 6–7 132–133 Iqbal’s critique of, 95, 120–125, 149, Ali, Jamaat, 90 171–172 Ali, Maulvi Muhammad, 53, 61 Iqbal’s equation of Ahmadiyya with Ali, Muhammad, 11, 61 acceptance of nationalism, 138–139 on Iqbal’s revolutionary poetry, 200 Lahore faction, 7, 53 Islam and Christianity, 116 opposition to, 7, 7n20, 24n86 on Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s interpretation Qadian faction, 7, 121 of Islam, 101 Ahmed, Ghulam, 53 Ali, Riza, 80 Ajmal, 190 Ali, Shaukat, 11, 61 Akbar, 167, 168 alienation: lack of vision/knowledge of the akhlaqi literature, 43, 44 self, 81–84, 166–172, 176–177 Ali, Abdullah Yusuf, 56, 60 Aligarh, Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Ali, Ameer, 21, 21n75, 51, 54, 56, 57, 58, College, 8, 18, 19, 45, 62, 73, 99, 100, 128, 134 147, 173, 175, 176 defining ‘Muslim’,69 aims, 174 exchange with Badruddin Tyabji, 67 Iqbal’s critique of, 80–81, 177–178 on impact of British rule on Muslims, 70 Aligarh Scientific Society, 7, 46

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228 Index

All-India Kashmir Committee, 14, 17 ba’ya, 6, 55, 55n95 All-India Khilafat Committee, 11, 190 Babur, 167 All-India Muslim Conference, 29, 181, 182 Bacon, Francis, 47 Iqbal’s 1932 Presidential Address, 126, Baha’ism, 121, 122 172, 188 Bal-i-Jibril, 23, 83 All-India Muslim League, 10, 12, 14, Bandagi Nama, 80 29, 38, 48, 91, 149, 165, 181, 182, Bang-i-Dara, 23 190, 209 Barelwi, 5, 6 British Committee of the All-India Bari, Abdul, 12, 48 Muslim League, 21 Bashiruddin, 54, 57 Iqbal’s 1930 Presidential Address, 14, Bavaria: as a model for federal 30, 160, 162, 182–183, 188 states, 190, 192 position on Statutory Commission, 185 bekhudi, 28, 29, 110 relations with the Congress, 11, 14, Bengal, 8, 70, 152, 182, 184, 185 37, 184 Bergson, Henri-Louis, 123 All-India Nationalist Muslim Party, 181 bida, 6, 58 Allah, Haji Shariat, 8 bildung, 177 Allahabad University, 19, 21 Buddhism, 33, 94, 110 Allahabadi, Akbar, 108, 108n68 Bukhsh, Salahuddin Khuda, 2, 2n4, 39, 58 Ambala, 194, 195 Burney, Sayyid Muzaffar Hussein, 26 American Presbyterian Church, 22 Anderson, Benedict, 42, 43 caliph, 4, 11, 61 Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam, 14, 22, 100 caliphate, 44, 50, 51, 164 Anjuman-i-Islam, 20 Chaldean religions, 110 Anjuman-i-Khuddam-i-Kaaba, 11 Chatterjee, Partha, 43, 83, 133 Anjuman-i-Punjab, 75, 75n59, 175 Chirol, Valentine, 101 Anjuman Kashmiri Musalmanan, 17 Christianity, 110, 132. See also Friedrich Ansari, Mukhtar Ahmed, 14, 181, Nietzsche: critique of Christianity 186, 187 public-private dichotomy in, 115, Antlov, Hans, 42 141–142, 144, 145, 147 Aristotle, 111 colonialism: as a totalitarian exercise Armughan-i-Hijaz, 23 of power, 63, 80, 81–82, 92, 117, Arnold, Matthew, 77, 102, 104 127, 200 Arnold, Thomas Walker, 19, 178 impact of the colonial state, 49 Arya Samaj, 22, 190 Muslim responses to the colonial state, Asad, Talal, 96n7, 101 3–12, 66–73 Asar-i Jadid, 45 communism, 57, 117 ashraf, ix, 38 as a basis for socio-political Ashraf, K. M., 196 organisation, 118–119 Asrar-al-Sanadid, 152 as a weapon against colonising powers, Asrar-i-Khudi, 23, 29, 108 117–118, 203 development of the individual and Comrade, 12, 206 society, 140–141 Confederacy of India. 192, 193n141 Aurangzeb, 167, 168 Connor, Walker, 127 Azad, Abul Kalam, 22, 22n79, 48, 50, Continent of Dinia, 196 92, 181 Corbett, Geoffrey, 195 Islamic response to democracy and Covenant of Medina, 157, 158 socialism, 118 portrayal as a Muslim nationalist. dar-ul-aman, 9 26–27, 27n96 dar-ul-harb, 8, 9, 50 Azad, Muhammad Hussain, 75, 75n59, 76 Dar-ul-Ishaat Hind, 48, 61 al-Azhar, 179 dar-ul-Islam, 8, 9, 49, 50

Index 229

dar-ul-zimma, 9 al-Ghazzali, Muhammad, 47, dars-i-nizami, 5, 173 53, 106 Delhi Urdu Akhbar, 44 Ghulam-us-Saqlain, 45, 47 Deoband, 65, 73, 134 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 20, 77, Department of Ifta, 48n68 104, 177 emergence of madrasa and Government College, 19, 21 movement, 6 Gramsci, Antonio, 13, 63 Iqbal’s critique of education on ideological hegemony, 63 provided, 178 shaping an Islamic education, 173 hadith, 6, 49, 91, 155, 159 ulama grappling with new political debate over authenticity of, 53–54, structures, 134–135 204–205 derivative discourse, 3, 54, 136 methodology, 6 dhimmi, ix, 37 socio-political prescriptions, 49, 53, din, 41, 125, 148, 156, 157, 196 54, 158 Din-i-Ilahi, 168 study of, 4–5, 173 Durrani, F. K. K., 136, 137 Hafiz, 140. See also Sufism Haiy, Abdul, 8 East India Company, 3 Hali, Khwaja Altaf Hussain, 73, 73n52, education. See also Ali, Riza; Aligarh; 74, 78 Deoband; dars-i-nizami; Farangi shaping a reformed Urdu Mahal; Nadwatul Ulama; Sayyid literature, 75 Ahmad Khan Halqa-i-Mashaikh, 107 Iqbal on womens’, 180–181 Hamdard, 12 Muslim responses to modern education, Hanafis, 5, 6, 8 71–73, 72n47 Harris, Moinuddin, 189 shaping a Muslim character through, Hasan, Mehmood, 81, 176 172–181 Hasan, Mir, 18, 19, 121 Ehsaan, 157, 158 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 20, 83, Eickelman, Dale, 39 118, 143, 149, 150, 167, 206 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 77 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 42, Enayat, Hamid, 43 166, 177 Engels, Friedrich, 102 al-Hidaya, 67 Hindu Mahasabha, 187 Faiz, Faiz Ahmad, 24n85 Hobbes, Thomas, 47 Fanon, Frantz, 63, 79, 81, 197, 198, 202 Hughes, Thomas Patrick, 40 al-Farabi, Abu Nasr, 47, 53 Hunter, William Wilson, 69, 70 Faraizi movement, 8 huriyyat, 56, 56n98 Farangi Mahal, 8, 12. See also Bari, Hussain, Haji Hakim Nadir, 61 Abdul Hussain, Riaz, 26 Iqbal’s critique of type of education Hussain, Wahed, 60 provided, 178 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 41 Ibn al-Mawardi, Abu al-Hasan Ali, 56 fiqh,9 , 88, 148 Ibn Arabi. See also Sufism socio-political prescriptions, 49 wahdat-al-wujud, 108 study of, 5, 173 Ibn Khaldun, 123 Foucault, Michel, 101 Ibn Rushd, 54 French Revolution, 45 Ibn Taymiyya, 106 Fyzee, Asaf Ali Asghar, 60 ideology: conceptions of, 113–114 Islam as an, 112–120, 113n94, 133–134, Geertz, Clifford, 113 138–139, 145–146 Gellner, Ernest, 41 ijma, 38, 38n17

230 Index

ijtihad, 88, 100, 123, 148, 205 Joint Committee on Indian Constitution modern Muslim intellectuals and, 12, 86 Reform, 186, 187 ulama disputing the right to practise Judaism, 110, 115. See also Spinoza, ijtihad, 88–90, 95 Baruch de Ilm-o-Iqthisad, 23 Jewish community Imam Ali, 35 Jung, Nawab Nizamat, 98 India Councils Act of 1909, 13, 67 al-Jurjani, Ali ibn Muhammad, 41 Indian Association, 175 Indian Councils Act of 1861, 9 kalam, 7, 178, 179 Indian National Congress, 9, 26, 67, 154, Kant, Immanuel, 41, 172 165, 184, 187, 190. See also All-India Karim, Faizul, 51 Muslim League Kedourie, Elie, 41, 42 Lucknow Pact Keith, Arthur, 130, 130n18 on separate electorates, 184 Khaksar movement, 89n129 Indian Patriotic Association, 152 Khamenei, Ali, 201 Indonesia, 25 Khan, Abdul Majid, 197 Iran, 62, 201 Khan, Aftab Ahmad, 45 Iranian Revolution, 119, 201 Khan, Hafiz Nazir Ahmad, 100 Islam, Kazi Anwarul, 209 Khan, Sayyid Ahmad, 19, 45, 46, 55, 65, Islamia College, 22 72, 95, 98, 101, 128, 134, 177 Islamists, 25, 62, 113n94, 119, 200, 201 on the causes of the mutiny, 9 Ismailis, 121, 149 critiquing the ulama, 86–87 Ittihad-i-Millat Party, 182 debate with Mohsin-ul-Mulk, 87, 99 educational reform, 72, 79–80, jadidiyyat writers, 76 173–175 Jahangir, 167 exchange with Badruddin Tyabji, 67 Jalil-ur-Rahman, Muhammad, 49 on the extension of the elective Jamaat-e-Islami, 25, 203 principle, 10 Jamaat-e-Islami Hind, 37n9 on political participation, 21, 52 Jamia Millia Islamia, 189, 189n131 portrayal as a Muslim separatist, al-Jamiyyat, 135, 154 24–25, 35 Jamiyyat-i-Ulama-i-Hind, 60, 154, 181, rationalist interpretation of Islam, 190, 197 86–87, 98–100, 205 aims, 12 response to colonial context, 7–8 on nationalism and Islam, 135 shaping a reformed Urdu literature, opposition to the Muslim League. 91, 75, 127 186, 186n116 Shariati on, 202 political programme, 185–186, 195 use of the term qawm, 152–153 publications, 90–91 Khan, Shamsoodeen, 70 reasserting authority of the ulama, 90 Khan, Zafar Ali, 22, 182 seeking to provide political leadership to on Pan-Islamism, 206 Muslims, 153–154 al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, 68 jamuriyyat, 40 Khilafat movement, 11–12 Javid Nama, 23, 30, 82 Khizr-i-Rah, 22, 23, 138 Jawab-i-Shikwa, 23 khudi, 28, 29, 109, 110, 112, 123, 140, Jawed, Mohammad Aslam, 26 141, 167 Jewish community, 169, 171. Kitabu’t-Ta‘rifat, 41, 147 See also Spinoza, Baruch de Krishak Praja Party, 182 Judaism jihad, 49, 50, 202 Lahore, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 121 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 14, 24, 30, 182, Lahore Resolution, 208 185, 203, 208, 209 Lais, Abul, 37n9

Index 231

Latif, Syed Abdul, 113n94, 191, 192n139, Minto, Lord, 10 196, 196n165 modernist: interpretations of Islam, 57 Leitner, Gottlieb Wilhelm, 75n59 Muslim intellectuals, 7, 200, 202 liberal Islam, 56 portrayal of Iqbal as a, 76, 80 Liebnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 172 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, Locke, John, 47, 96 189, 190 Lucknow Pact, 11, 184, 185, 190 Mughals, 3, 4, 38, 167 Luther, Martin, 144, 145 Muhammad, Atta, 17, 121 Muhammad, Nur, 15, 16, 19 MacColl, Malcolm, 4, 56 Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College Machiavelli, Niccolo, 47 Magazine, 46 MacTaggart, John MacTaggart Ellis, 20 Munir Commission, 7n20 Madani, Hussain Ahmad, 1, 31, 48, 49, 52, Muqaddama-i-Sher-o-Shairi, 74 95, 128 Muslim Educational Conference, 72, debate with Iqbal, 151–162 73, 149 on Islam and modern political Muslim nationalists, 25, 26, 38, 40, 151, institutions, 135 161, 197, 207 response to modern intellectuals, 89–90 Muslim separatism, 25, 26, 35, 38, 40, Madrasa-tul-Muslimeen, 22 151, 161, 197, 207 Magian, 88, 110, 122, 150 mutahida qawmiyyat, 145, 151, 153, Makhzan, 22, 23, 78, 84 157–158, 161 Malaviya, Madan Mohan, 14, 187 Mutahida Qawmiyyat aur Islam, 49, 155 Malik, Hafeez, 25, 27n96 mutiny, 3, 9, 70 manqulat, 5, 173 Mappila uprising, 124 Nabiullah, Syed, 52 maqulat, 5, 173 nabuyiyat, 115, 117 al-Maraghi, Sheikh Mustafa, 179 Nadwatul Ulama, 65 Margoliouth, David Samuel, 205 Iqbal’s critique of education Marx, Karl, 102, 183 provided, 178 Marxism, 94, 117, 143, 203 Nadwi, Suleiman, 22, 22n80, 54, 76, 91, Islam in the light of, 117–118 92, 114, 172 Marxist, 203 nala-i-jung, 77, 92, 107 maslaha, 58 Nama-i-Muqaddas Hablul Matin, 50 Masud, Ross, 88, 172 Naseem, Abdul Rasheed, 158, 158n163 Maududi, Abul A’la, 57, 57n106, 58, 60, nation, 129, 139, 165, 183, 185, 186, 89, 95, 119, 125, 133, 135, 138, 201 206, 207, 209. See also Acton, discourse on the Islamic state, 203–204 Lord; Chatterjee, Partha; Keith, on Islam and Christianity, 116 Arthur; millat; mutahida qawmiyyat; mazhab, 41, 125, 148, 153 qawm25, 28, 29, 31, 40, 128 Mehdi Ali, Mohsin-ul-Mulk, 8, 8n23, 117 attempts at defining nationhood,36 , 37 debate with Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 87, 99 discourses on national character, on Islam and science, 99–100 166–181 Mekka aur Geneva, 146 as a prestige community, 128–129 Memmi, Albert, 81 and the state, 127 Metcalf, Barbara, 5, 134 as a supra-territorial religious Mill, John Stuart, 46, 47 community, 147–151 millat, 28, 29, 40, 41, 128, 140, 148, Tagore’s warning to the ‘no-nations’ of 149, 151, 158, 161, 163, 167, 182, the East, 137 187, 198 National Pact, 187 defining, 151–152, 155, 156, 158–160 nation-state, 117, 130, 134, 139, 164. millat system, 41, 148, 183, 185 See also mutahida qawmiyyat1, 2, 27, Milton, John, 20 29, 31, 38, 44

232 Index

nation-state (cont.) Paigham, 45 as expression of modernity, 2, 28, 36, Paine, Thomas, 97, 99 131–132, 135–136 Paisa Akbar, 22 Jamiyyat-i-Ulama-i-Hind on the, Pak Plan, 136, 195–197. See also Ali, 134–135 Chaudhari Rahmat over-organising tendencies of the, conflation with Iqbal’s 1930 Presidential 143–144 Address, 207 nationalism, 133, 134, 135. See also Acton, Iqbal and the, 197 Lord; Ahmadiyya, Iqbal’s equation Pakistan, 38, 165, 196. See also Ali, of, with nationalism; Chatterjee, Chaudhari Rahmat; Pak Plan; two- Partha; Jamiyyat-i-Ulama-i-Hind; nation theory Madani, Hussain Ahmad; mutahida demand for Pakistan, 36, 37, 38 qawmiyyat; nation; nation-state; legacy of Iqbal in, 24–25, 43, 127, 208 qawm1, 2, 26, 28, 29, 31, 36, 51, 76, Pan-Islamism, 11, 27, 31, 127, 129, 113, 114, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131 130, 205 and atheism, 141–143 Parwez, Ghulam Ahmad, 125, 201 as the greatest enemy of Islam, 1, 145 on the need for an Islamic state, Jamiyyat-i-Ulama-i-Hind on, 134–135 203–204 national consciousness without, Pas Cheh Bayad Kard Ai Aqwam-i-Sharq, 187–188, 197–198 23, 29, 176 review of historiography on, 41–43 Payam-i-Mashriq, 23 as a universal process, 135–136 Pernau, Margrit, 44 as a weapon, 139, 161–162 Piscatori, James, 39, 201 as a western ideology, 137–138, Plamenatz, John, 41 144–147 Plato, 103 Naumann, Friedrich, 115 Plotinus, 108 Nawaz, Muhammad Shah, 192, 193n141 Political Islam, 31, 39, 205 Nehru Report, 33, 165, 184, 188, 189 power: Islam and power, 103–104, Iqbal’s response to the, 193–195 110–112 reactions to, 189–191, 191–197 progressive writers, 76 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 14, 24, 122, 136, 187 prophethood, finality of, 121, 123, 150. Neuberger, Benyamin, 43 See also risalat110, 115–116 Newton, Isaac, 96, 97 Punjab, 15, 182, 184, 185, 191, 195 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 20, 102, 122, 138, Punjab Legislative Council, 18 172, 205, 206 Punjab Provincial Muslim League, 14 ascetic priests, 107, 122–123 Punjab Unionist Party, 18, 182 critique of Christianity, 102–103, Punjab University College, 175 107, 138 denouncement of the state, 143 Qadir, Shaikh Abdul, 22, 23, 78 Iqbal’s critique of, 118–119 qawm, 208. See also mutahida superman, 111–112, 141 qawmiyyat28, 40, 47, 71, 73, Nizami, Hasan, 92, 106, 107 117, 128 Nomani, Mohammed, 128 ambiguity of the term, 151–153 Numani, Shibli, 8, 8n22, 19, 78, defining qawmiyyat, 155–157, 158–160 92, 168 equation with the term nation, 28, 41 on being ruled by non-Muslims, 49 Quran: as a constitution, 53 on religion and science, 99–100, 205 methodology, 6, 119–120 socio-political prescriptions, 54, 120, 134 on Pan-Islamism, 205–206 Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain, 25 Oriental College, 23 Ottoman Empire, 3, 4, 11, 41, 139, Rai, Lajpat, 190 148, 161 debate with the Aga Khan, 190

Index 233

Rashidun caliphs, 53, 56, 57, 132, Shikwa, 22, 23 134, 204 Shua-i-Umeed, 199 Reconstruction of Religious Thought in shura, 40, 55 Islam, 24, 88, 105, 150 Sialkot, 15, 16, 121 religion: definition of. 96n7 Sidgwick, Henry, 137 idea of natural religion, 96, 97, 98 Sikhs, 171, 172 Islam as a natural religion, 98–100 Simla Deputation, 10 post-Enlightenment conceptions of, Sind, 51, 182, 184 96–98, 141–142, 200 Singh Sabha, 22 Renan, Ernest, 137 al-Sirajiyya, 67 The Review of Religions, 124 Sirhindi, Sheikh Ahmad, 106 Risala Anwar-al-Sufiya, 90 Smith, Adam, 47 risalat, 122, 148, 167 Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, 60 as the basis of the Muslim nation, socialism, 18, 29, 113, 200, 203 148–149, 151 Iqbal on, 142 Round Table Conferences, 14 Soroush, Abdolkarim, 201 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 47, 144 Spengler, Oswald, 105, 150, 151 Rumi, 105, 106, 111 Spinoza, Baruch de, 171 Rumuz-i-Bekhudi, 23, 29, 130 The Spirit of Islam, 21, 134 development of the individual and Srinagar, 15, 17 society, 140–141 Statutory Commission, 189 Muslim reactions to the establishment Sabean religions, 110 of the, 191 Sa’di, 162 Statutory Commission Report, 34, 165, Safavid Empire, 3 185, 188, 189 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 81, 202 Iqbal’s response to the, 193–195 Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar, 136, 136n47 reactions to the, 191–197 Scottish Mission College, 19 Sufism, 16. See also Hafiz; Ibn Arabi, Scottish Mission School, 19 wahdat-al-wujud Seeley, John Robert, 47 Barelwis on, 6 separate electorates, 10, 189, 190, 191, 193 Deobandi opposition to the ‘excesses’ Shaikh, Farzana, 38 of, 5 sharia, 4, 6, 11, 12, 44, 106, 107, 120, 156, Iqbal’s position on, 15–16, 105–109 168, 202 neo-Sufism. 106, 106n60 codification of, in colonial period,66–67 comparison of Iqbal’s and Maududi’s tafsir, 87, 88, 89, 99, 173 approaches to, 119 study of, 5 debates over continued relevance of, in tafsir bil ray, 88, 89 modern period, 51–52 Tagore, Rabindranath, 137, 143, 207 flexibility of, in pre-modern period, taqlid, 62, 86, 86n115, 100 43–44 ulama on, 88–90 Iqbal on the importance of, in the Tarana-i-Hind, 209 modern state, 185–186 Tarana-i-Milli, 209 in the Islamic state, 204 tauhid, 122, 167 Jamiyyat-i-Ulama-i-Hind on, 135, as the basis of nationhood, 148, 151 185–186, 195 basis for the development of man and Shariati, Ali, 119, 201 society, 116–117, 120, 146–147, 198 Iqbal’s influence on, 201–203 Tehzib al-Akhlaq, 8, 71, 98 Sherwani, Haroon Khan, 47 Thompson, Edward John, 130, 130n14, Shia, 66, 159, 202 141, 170n30 attempts to overcome Shia-Sunni Timur, 167 sectarian division, 73, 149 Tipu Sultan, 50, 123

234 Index

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 183 umma, xii, 37, 139, 151, Tolstoy, Leo, 47, 102 158, 161 Tolu-e-Islam, 125, 203 uniform civil code, 60, 186 Tonnesson, Stein, 42 Usmani, Shabbir Ahmad, 90 Translation Society, 7 Utilitarianism, 46, 79, 174 Trotsky, Leon, 63 Tulu-i-Islam, 23, 150 Viswanathan, Gauri, 174 turath, 2, 55, 55n95 Turkey, 133, 164 Waliullah, Shah, 4 Tusi, Nasir al-Din, 44, 47, 53 waliyat, 115 two-nation theory, 208–209. See also All- waqf, 51n76, 51n75, 51 India Muslim League; Lahore resumption of, by the Resolution; Muslim separatism; Pak colonial state, 51 Plan35 Ward, James, 20 Tyabji, Badruddin, 67, 67n23, 68 Weber, Max, 36n5, 128, 131 exchange with Ameer Ali, 67 Wordsworth, William, 20 exchange with Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 68 World Muslim Congress, 179

ulama. See also Deoband; Farangi Mahal; Zabur-i-Ajam, 23 Nadwatul Ulama zakat, 69 adoption of printing presses, 48 and the Islamic state, 204 response to modern Muslim Zamindar, 22, 50 intellectuals, 12 Zarb-i-Kalim, 23, 180 responses to the colonial context, zaruriyyat-i-din, 6 5–6, 12 Zoroastrianism, 110