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Home , Indian Antarctic Program, Mercator Cooper

Subject : Paper: Oceanography

Topic: The Ocean

Author : Prof.A. Balasubramanian

Objectives After attending this lesson, the user would be able to understand the importance of the Antarctic ocean, its geographic setting, geological conditions, its biodiversity and the natural resources. The reasons for protecting the Antarctic as an international zone of scientific research will also be known. The unique conditions of this fourth oceanic land mass will always be an interesting topic of study to the students of oceanography.

1.0 Introduction The earth is called as a blue planet mainly due to the presence of the bluish oceanic water masses. There are two white colored zones around the poles, denoting the presence of ice covered seas and continents. One is the ocean around the and the other one is the Antarctic ocean around the . The fourth major oceanic mass of the earth in the Antarctic ocean. It is a major oceanic land mass covered with continental ice sheets. It is one of the coldest regions in the world. The Antarctic is slightly colder than the Arctic region. Many geographers say that these waters do not form a separate ocean at all. They also advocate that the Antarctic is an extension of the southern parts of the other oceans like the Atlantic, Indian, and the Pacific. The Antarctic is also referred to as the . The Southern Ocean refers to a ring of ocean that circles . In this lesson the geological geographic and oceanographic details of the Antarctic Ocean are highlighted.

2.0 The Geographic Setting The Antarctica is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole. It is the southernmost continent in world. The 66 degree 34 minutes south latitude forms the outermost boundary of the Antarctic circle. The area covered within this circle is called as the Antarctic Continent. It includes parts of the Southern ocean, surrounding seas, ice shelves, continental glaciers, plateaus and mountain ranges. The Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, possessing many unique features to learn.

2.2 Dimension The Antarctic covers more than 14 million sq. km, making it as the fifth-largest continent, in the world. The coastline measures a length of about 17,968 km. The nearest continents to the Antarctic are, the South America, New Zealand, Australia and Africa. The shortest distance lies between Cape Horn of South America and the Palmer Peninsula of the Antarctic. The is a mountainous, S- shaped finger of land that points toward South America. In fact, this peninsula forms a continuation of the Andes Mountain chain of South America.

2.3 Ice covered land About 98% of the Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 km in thickness. The name Antarctica is a Greek word. It bears a feminine meaning as "opposite to the north". It is almost like anti- arctic or opposite to arctic. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by only ice sheet, averaging at least 1.6 km in thickness. The continent has about 90% of the world's total ice. It contains about 70% of

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the world's fresh water resource. If all of this ice were melted, the global sea levels would rise to about 60 m.

2.4 Two major regions The Antarctic land mass has a stretch of mountains called as Trans-antarctic Mountains. This divides the Antarctica into two regions. The portion west of this range is called as West Antarctica and east of it is called as . Both the regions have a lot of mountains, peaks, valleys, land provinces, massifs, ice-shelves, plateaus, coasts, bays and seas.

2.5 The East Antarctica The East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Trans-antarctic Mountains. It comprises the Coats Land, the Dronning land, the Enderby Land, the Mac Robertson Land, Princess Elizabeth land, Queen Mary Land, the Wilkes Land, the Terre Addie land, the George land, the Oates land and, the . The East Antarctica faces the Atlantic and Indian oceans. It covers more than half the continent. Mountains, valleys, and glaciers mark the coast of East Antarctica. The central part of the East Antarctica is a plateau raising upto 3,000 metres above sea level.

2.6 The Western Antarctica The Western Antarctica lies nearer to the South American continent. It comprises of the Ross Ice Shelf, the Marie Byrd land, the Ellsworth Land, the Palmer Land, the Ronne Ice Shelf, the Filchner Ice Shelf and the Graham Land. The West Antarctica borders the Pacific Ocean.

2.7 Prominent Mountains of the Antarctic The Prominent Mountains of the Antarctic are the Ellsworth Mountains, the Siple Mountains, the Mount Sidley, the Mount Nansen, the Mount Elster, the Mount Markham, the Mount Kishpatrik and the Mount Barr Smith. The South Polar Plateau is located around the south pole. The West Antarctica includes several other mountain ranges and volcanoes. The Vinson Massif, the highest point in Antarctica at 5,140 metres, stands in the Ellsworth Mountains near the peninsula. Mount Erebus, Antarctica's most active volcano, lies on the island. It rises upto 3,794 metres.

2.8 Rivers of the Antarctic Most of the rivers and small streams of the Antarctic are generated due to melting of the ice-fields. The glacial melt of the mountainous peaks are responsible for the surface flows in the streams and creeks. The notable streams are Adams stream, Alph River, Onyx river, Priscu stream, and Surko Stream. Priscu stream is the longest one extending upto 3.8 km. The notable creeks are Aiken creek, Lawson Creek and Rezovski Creek. The length of the creeks range from 0.5 km to more than 1.5 km.

2.9 Seas and Bays The Seas of the Antarctic are the Weddell Sea, the Indian Ocean, the and the Bellingshausen Sea. There are some notable bays existing around the Antarctic. They are the Amundsen Bay, the Edward VIII Bay, the Mackenzie Bay, the Farr Bay, the Vincerness bay, the Kainan bay, the Sulzberger Bay, the Pine Island Bay, the Marguerite Bay, the Hope Bay and the Lutzow-Holm Bay.

2.10 Land of Ice As per the geological records, it was found that the Antarctica was an ice-free continent, many millions of years ago. Scientists have found fossils of trees and of dinosaurs and small mammals that once lived in this landmass. Glaciers began to form around the south pole about 38 million years ago. They grew rapidly about 13 million years ago and formed a very thick layer of ice and snow known as the Antarctic icecap. The icecap has buried almost all of Antarctica for the last 5 million years. The icecap Page 2 of 9

is up to 4,800 metres thick. At its highest points, over mountain ranges, the icecap rises as high as 4,100 metres above sea level.

2.11 Ice sheets Today, the Antarctic icecap forms the largest body of fresh water in the world. Its volume of 30 million cubic kilometres represents the world’s 70 per cent of fresh water resources. The weight of the icecap causes the ice to spread outward and slide toward the coasts. Ice near the coasts moves as much as 200 metres a year. In some areas, the icecap breaks and forms crevasses (cracks) that are more than 30 metres deep. The thickness of Antarctic ice is almost 1.6 km. the average rate of thickening of ice is 0.9cm per year. These are distributed as Ice Sheets, Ice-Shelves, Ice rises and glaciers.

2.12 Islands There are numerous islands around the Antarctic. The notable ones are , Balleny Is land, Scott Island, Thurston island, Peter I island, Charcot Island, Adelaide island, Biscoe island, South Shetland Island, King George Island, Elephant Island, South Orkney Island, Coronation Island, Joinville Island, James Ross Island, Hearst island, Alexander Island and Berkner Island.

2.13 Coasts of Antarctica Two large gulfs cut into Antarctica at opposite ends of the Trans-antarctic Mountains--the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. Smaller bays indent the coastline. The notable Coasts of Antarctica are Princess Martha Coast, Princess Astrid Coast, Princess Regnhild Coast, Prince Olav Coast, Kemp Coast, Mac Robertson Coast, Wilhelm Coast, Queen Mary Coast, Knox Coast, Budd Coast, Sabrina Coast, Banzare Coast, George Coast, Hobbs Coast, Walgreen Coast, Eights Coast, Robert English Coast, Luit Pold Coast and Caird Coast. Most of the coastlines are ice shelves.

2.14 Ice shelf The Ross Ice Shelf is one of the largest one in the world. It measures about 700 metres thick at the inner edge and about 200 metres thick at the outermost edge. In summer, the outer edges of the ice shelves break away and form flat icebergs. Scientists have measured and studied the Antarctic icebergs. They found that the area covered by icebergs were found to be as huge as 13,000 square kilometres. Each winter, the surface of the Antarctic Ocean freezes into a sheet of ice. In summer, this sheet break s into pieces called ice floes. Winds and waves push the floes against one another, forming thick masses known as pack ice. Some pack ice piles up in ridges against the shore. In winter, pack ice may extend as far as 1,600 kilometres from the coast inside the ocean.

3.0 Historical Expeditions Initially, Long before Antarctica was discovered, the ancient Greek philosophers believed that a continent exists around the southern end of the earth. In 1772, the English navigator, began his search for this southern continent. It was Captain James Cook, who for the first time, crossed the Antarctic Circle on the 17 January 1773. He also sailed around the Antarctic in December 1773 and again in January 1774 using his two ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure. James Cook's voyage also revealed many things about the oceanic waters and their marine life including the seals and whales. Due to this information, many hunters started moving towards the Antarctica continent. They all explored the area in detail. In 1819, a British sealer named discovered one of the islands called as the South Shetland Islands.

3.1 First sight of Antarctica Antarctica was first sighted in the year 1820, by the crews of the ships captained by three individuals. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, an Estonian-born captain in the Russian Imperial Navy, was the Page 3 of 9

first person. The second sailer was , a captain from the Royal Navy of Ireland. The other scholar was , an American sealer out of Stonington, from Connecticut. The first documented the landing on the mainland of Antarctica was made by the American sealer in the West parts of it on the 7 February 1821.

The other people who did their explorations are : -in 1823 John Biscoe - in 1831 Lt. Jules Dumont d'Urville- in 1837 - from 1839 to 1843 Mercator Cooper- in 1853 and - in 1902.

3.2 First inland exploration The first inland exploration of Antarctica took place between 1901 and 1904. The UK explorer, a captain in the Royal Navy, led a team of explorers and scientists to the Ross Sea. In November, Scott and two other men headed south across the Ross Ice Shelf. But due to illness, harsh weather, and lack of food, they could not complete it in one direction. Another group moved up a glacier through the Trans-antarctic Mountains and reached the edge of the icy inland plateau. During another expedition called as the Expedition, which was popularly known as South Pole Party, in 1907, became the first to climb the Mount Erebus and to reach the . , a member of Scott's team, returned to Antarctica in 1907. Part of his expedition headed for the south magnetic pole and reached it in January 1909.

3.3 The First Discoveries In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in Antarctica. They were the first people to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf. They were first people to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via the Beardmore Glacier). They were the first people to set their foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Ronald Amundsen, from the ship , became the first to reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911. Later, Scott reached on the 17th January , 1912, followed by Byrd by airplane in Nov. 1929. This place was called as Amundsen Scott Station.

3.4 Exploration by Air Exploration by air provided a new way to study the entire Antarctica. In 1928, the Australian explorer Sir surveyed the Antarctic Peninsula and nearby islands. It was the first aeroplane voyage over the Antarctic land. Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research. The race to trace the South Pole became one of the most famous events not only in the but also in the history of human explorations.

4.0 The Antarctic Plate The Antarctic land mass belongs to a separate plate called as Antarctic Plate. It is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica. It is extending outward under the surrounding oceans. The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate, the South American Plate, the African Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, the Pacific Plate, and, across a transform boundary, the Plate. The Antarctic plate is roughly 60.9 million square kilometers. It is the fifth biggest plate in the world.

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4.1 Geological setting The geological history of Antarctica covers the geological development of the continent through the Proterozoic Eon, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Over geological time, the Gondwana land broke apart and Antarctica was formed around 35 million years ago. The West Antarctica contains large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales were deposited. East Antarctica has shown sea-floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. Geologically, the West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes of South America. The most common rocks in the West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanic, formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also an evidence of recent volcanic activity. The East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the Precambrian, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. Beacon supergroup is one of the major geological formations in this continent. The sedimentological and palaeontological data point out that the sediments were deposited under a shallow marine depositional environment.

4.2 Circumpolar Current The Southern Ocean is facing the effects of some of the strongest winds and largest waves on the p lanet. It is also a home to the largest current in the world ocean. It is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The Circumpolar Current carries between 135 and 145 million cubic meters of water per second from west to east. It runs along a 20,000 km long path around the Antarctica. While the speed of the current is only about 0.5 m/sec, at the surface, the great depth (4 km) and breadth (100–200 km) of the current results in a massive transport of water. The flow of the Circumpolar Current is equivalent to about 150 times the flow of all the world's rivers combined.

5.0 Climatic conditions The Antarctica's climate varies from extremely cold, dry conditions on the inland plateau to milder, moister conditions along the coasts. Many people call this plateau as a "polar desert." It has only about 5 centimetres of snowfall each year. The average annual precipitation (rain and snow) on the coastal areas is about 60 centimetres. The Antarctic winter lasts from May until August. The Antarctic summer lasts from December until February. The July temperatures range from -40 °C to -70 °C inland, and from -15 °C to -30 °C on the peninsula's coast. The January temperatures range from -15 °C to -35 °C inland and reach 0 °C on the coast. In general, Antarctica is the coldest continent. The northern islands may have summer temperatures of up to 10 °C. The icy winds make the Antarctic air feel even colder. The winds that sweep downward from the plateau can average about 70 kilometres per hour. The wind gusts often reach the coast at 190 kilometres per hour.

5.1 Factors influencing climate The main factors influencing the climate of Antarctica are the waters of the Southern Ocean, the seasonal variations of sea ice, the ice sheet that covers the continent itself, and its high altitude and high (southern) latitude. There are considerable climatological differences between the sea, the coastlines, and the interior. The key points to bear in mind are that Antarctica is extremely cold, dry, and windy, with little precipitation.

5.2 The Windiest Continent Antarctica is also the windiest of the continents. Apart from global wind currents, Antarctica actually creates its own wind systems. Cold dense air essentially slides from the high interior ice fields towards the lower areas along the coasts. At the edges of the ice plateau the winds accelerate, thereby lifting and blowing clouds of snow high into the air. The strongest winds are habitually found on the long coastal slopes of the Greater Antarctica. Some coastal areas endure almost constant strong winds. Some other

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areas may be quite calm much of the time. The Antarctic experiences frequent hurricanes. These sudden and unexpected winds are called katabatic, or down slope winds.

5.3 The Driest Continent It is very interesting to note that the Antarctica is also the driest continent. By definition, most of the continent here is a desert. There is very little precipitation each year in the interior parts. The vast amounts of ice and snow which make up the polar ice caps have got accumulated over many millions of years. The mean annual accumulation for the entire continent amounts to less than five centimeters of water equivalent, which is just slightly more than the rainfall of the Sahara Desert. But some coastal areas, particularly the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula, receive much more precipitation.

6.0 The Antarctic Circle It is important to know the significance of the Antarctic Circle and its relation to the hours of daylight. As one travels farther south in the austral summer months, the days get progressively longer. The Antarctic Circle is located at about 66 degrees 33 minutes South . This circle marks the northernmost point at which the sun is visible for 24 hours a day at the summer solstice. It happens on December 21, when it is at its highest point above the horizon.

6.1 Four Different Poles There are four different poles identified in the Antarctic, They are the geographic south pole, the magnetic south pole, the geomagnetic south pole and the pole of relative inaccessibility. The South Pole is in fact the Geographical South Pole, which is the southernmost end of the earth's rotational axis . But there are three other "poles" which are of interest to scientists.

6.2 The Magnetic South Pole The Magnetic South Pole is where the lines of force of the earth's magnetic field converge. The position of this pole is constantly moving, by some 10-20 kilometers per year. It happens due to the variations in the earth's magnetic field. All the navigation officers sailing in ships in this region have to take into account of this magnetic variation when interpreting their compass readings. The magnetic south pole as found in the year 1997, is located off the Adélie Land, in the French sector of Antarctica.

6.3 The Geomagnetic South Pole The Geomagnetic South Pole is a theoretical definition used to rationalize variations in the earth's magnetic field. It is located at latitude 78 degrees 05 minutes South, longitude 111 degrees East, in the Australian sector near the Russian station.

6.4 The Pole of Relative Inaccessibility The Pole of Relative Inaccessibility is the center of the continent as measured by its distance from the coasts. It is located at latitude 82 degrees 06 minutes South, and longitude 54 degrees 58 minutes East. It is in the Australian sector.

7.0 Biodiversity The Antarctic Ocean has a unique set of biodiversity and natural resources. Only a few plants grow in the Antarctica because of the ice-covered land and typical climate. Mosses are the most common plants. Only two flowering plants grow in the Antarctica. They grow over the northern part of the Antarctic Peninsula. Simpler organisms like algae grow on the snow, in the lakes, and on the ice surrounding the continent. Black , white, and green lichens have been found to be attached to the rocks. These lichens survive by bunching together to conserve water.

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7.1 The Animal life of the Antarctic The Animal life of the Antarctic are very wonderful to see. Only a few insects and other tiny animals are found to spend their entire lives on the Antarctic mainland. The continent's largest land animal is a wingless midge, a type of fly no more than 12 millimetres long. Most of the land animals live at the edges of the continent. Very small lice, mites, and ticks live by attaching themselves with the mosses, under the fur of seals, or on the feathers of the birds.

7.2 Wildlife The Antarctic Ocean has abundant wildlife. Krill , a small, shrimplike creature that feeds on the tiny other floating organisms is the most common animal of the ocean. Many other Antarctic animals depend on the krills for food. It is a protein-rich food for the people. There are squids, which are eaten by many other Antarctic animals. About 100 kinds of fishes are found to be existing in the oceanic waters of the Antarctic. These includes Antarctic cod, icefish, and plunderfish.

7.3 Whales are the frequent visitors Whales are the frequent visitors of the Antarctic. Several kinds of whales migrate to Antarctica during the summer seasons. The notable varieties are blue whales, fin whales, humpback whales, minke whales, right whales, and sea whales. The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived with its length growing upto 30 metres. Antarctic whales that eat fish and squid include killer whales, southern bottlenose whales, southern four-tooth whales, and sperm whales. It has been observed that the Killer whales are found to be hunting the seals, penguins, and smaller whales, in the Antarctic.

7.4 Various kinds of seals It is also found from exploration reports that various kinds of seals also live in the Antarctica. They spend most of their lives in the Antarctic waters, by swimming, diving, and catching food. Most of them nest on the beautiful coasts. The largest seal in the world is the southern elephant seal, which feeds on the squids.

7.5 Penguins and other birds Whenever people talk about the Antarctic, everybody remembers the Penguins. The Penguins are the most beautiful, loveable ones that are most often associated with the Antarctica. These are basically birds. But, they cannot fly. Penguins waddle awkwardly on the land surface. They are the most skilful swimmers, in the oceanic waters. They fly through the oceanic waters for diving for fish and for other food. There are six kinds of penguins, which are native breeds of this continent. Playful Adelie penguins are the most common kind of penguins. They build their nests on the pebbles of the coasts. The tall and quiet penguins are called as the emperor penguins. They are the most spectacular birds on the globe. They grow to about 1.2 metres. The other varieties are Chinstrap penguins, gentoo penguins, king penguins, and macaroni penguins. The Rockhopper penguins are one variety which nest only on the islands north of Antarctica. It is also reported that more than 40 kinds of flying birds spend their summer seasons in the Antarctica. These birds include albatrosses, prions, and a large group of sea birds known as petrels.

7.6 Penguin island Penguin Island was sighted in January 1820 by a British expedition under Edward Bransfield. It was so named by him because the penguins have occupied the shores of the island. The island is an ice-free island. It is oval in shape measuring 1.4 km wide by 1.7 km long. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by Bird Life International. This habitat supports a wide range of seabirds including a breeding colony of over 600 pairs of Southern Giant Petrels. Page 7 of 9

8.0 Mineral resources The Antarctic is known for its mineral resources. Small copper deposits have been explored in the Antarctic Peninsula. The East Antarctica has shown traces of chromium, gold, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc. The Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of iron ore. Coal beds also lie within the Trans-antarctic Mountains. It was first recorded near the Beardmore Glacier. It is also reported that the recent scientific drilling tests have revealed the possibility of petroleum reserves in the Ross Sea and the Bransfield Strait of the Antarctic. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the oil and natural gas fields found in the Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources by signatory states is banned until 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

8.1 Scientific knowledge of Antarctica The scientific knowledge of Antarctica has increased during the last century. Antarctica has no government, although various countries claim sovereignty in certain regions. Its status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called as the . The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States.

8.2 Scientific stations on Antarctica About 12 countries have established more than 50 scientific stations on Antarctica and nearby islands. These countries were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Soviet Union, the Union of South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The United States has set up a station at the South Pole, plus five coastal stations and one other inland station. The researchers concentrate on various aspects including earthquakes, gravity, magnetism, oceans, and solar activity. The meteorologists study the weather conditions and determine the air pressure, humidity, temperature, and wind direction. Other scientists measure the thickness of the icecap and study the shape of the land masses.

9.0 The Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic treaty sets aside the Antarctica as a scientific preserve. It gives only freedom to do scientific investigation and environmental protection. In 1988, the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted. The Madrid Protocol also bans all mining activities in Antarctica. It has designated it as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science. The Antarctic Treaty also prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvers, and weapons testing.

10.0 Indian Antarctic Program The Indian Antarctic Program is a multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional program. It is a part of the control of the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, . It was initiated in the year 1981 with the first Indian expedition to Antarctica. The program gained much global acceptance after India signing the Antarctic Treaty. Subsequent to that the construction of the Antarctic research base was done in the year 1983.

10.1 Dakshin Gangotri and Bharathi Dakshin Gangotri was set up in 1984. It was buried in ice and had to be abandoned in 1990. It was then superseded by the Maitri base from 1990. Under this program, scientific studies pertaining to the atmospheric, biological, geological, chemical, and medical aspects are carried out by India. So far, it has carried out 30 scientific expeditions to the Antarctic as of 14 October 2010. India is currently Page 8 of 9

planning to build an additional research station in the region named Bharathi. Through these, India is all set to join the elite group of nine countries which have multiple bases in the Antarctica. India has demarcated an area beside Larsmann Hill at 69 degree South and 76 degrees East for its third settlement and second active research station.

10.2 Antarctica is for global studies Antarctica is important for science because of its profound effect on the Earth's climate and ocean systems. The Antarctic has a crucial role to play in our understanding of global climate change. Year round, scientists at Antarctic research bases study the impacts of the pollution caused by humans worldwide on the environment. This beautiful, icy ocean environment is also home to nearly 10,000 highly adapted species, many of which can be found nowhere else on the planet. Currently, only 0.2% of Antarctic waters are strictly protected.

Conclusion The remote, inaccessible and inhospitable Antarctica was the last continent and ocean to be discovered. A lot of scientific discoveries have been made by people from all parts of the world. A report quotes that about 61000 publications have come in the form of papers and books. The advancement of technology made everything possible today, to study the Antarctic ocean in a detailed manner. It was used for sealing, and fishing for profit, fun and adventure. There is a fear that any large-scale mining would harm the precious Polar environments of the Antarctica. The Antarctica today has more than 30 year-round scientific stations on the continent and nearby islands. The Antarctic ocean holds much scientific interest for global research projects due to a number of reasons. The Origin of continents, climate change, meteorology and pollution are some of the basic reasons for exploring this vast ocean.

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