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The nature and scope of Eastern thought and practice in contemporary literature on American physical education and sport (1053-1989)
Shin, Hyun-Kun, iPh.D.
The Ohio State University, 1990
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Aibor, MI 48106
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF EASTERN THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
IN CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE ON AMERICAN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
(1953-1989)
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
By
Hyun Kun Shin. B.S.. M.A.
The Ohio State University
1990
Dissertation Committee; Approved
Dr. Seymour Kleinman
Dr. Melvin Adelman Advisor :hool of Health. Physical Dr. Philip L. Smith Education, and Recreation Copyright by Hyun-Kun Shin 1990 To my parents, who have never failed to support and encourage me to study
11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses sincere gratitude to Dr. Seymour Kleinman, a great scholar and master, who always understands and helps academically and personally, by his openness. The author's appreciation is also directed to Dr. Melvin Adelman and Dr. Philip L. Smith, both of whom have taught me in the warmest manner. My appreciation goes also to Dr. Richard T. Garner, who has provided me with his wisdom and kindness. I also extend my special gratitude to Dr. Young-Hwan Kim, my former adviser at Yonsei University in Korea, who initially guided me to the right way. I wish to express my thanks to Scott Duncanson, my best friend and colleague, for his thoughtful suggestions. Very special thanks go to my wife, Joo-Hee, for her love.
Ill VITA
March 14, 1959 ...... Born - Seoul, Korea
1978 -1982 ...... B.S., Yonsei University Seoul, Korea
1984 -1985 ...... M.A. Program, Yonsei University
1984 -1985 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Physical Education, Yonsei University
1987 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
1986 -1989 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, School of H.P.E.R., The Ohio State University
PUBLICATIONS
"The Somatic Body: A Dialogue Between East and West," Proceedings of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Scientific Congress, Seoul, Korea, 1988.
FIELD OF STUDY
Major Field: Physical Education
Studies in Movement Arts and in Sport Philosophy. Professor Seymour Kleinman
Studies in Sport History. Professor Melvin Adelman
Studies in Social and Educational Philosophy. Professor Philip L. Smith
Studies in Eastern Philosophy. Professor Richard T. Garner iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii
VITA ...... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ...... vil
CHAPTER PAGE
I. ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY ...... 1
Introduction ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 6 Procedure ...... 7 Organization of Materials Investigated ...... 8 Limitations ...... 9 Definitions ...... 9
II. THE NATURE OF EASTERN PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICE ...... 14
Introduction ...... 14 Buddhism ...... 14 Confucianism ...... 17 Taoism ...... 24 Zen ...... 28
III. EASTERN CONCEPTS IN AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 38
Introduction ...... 38 Acculturation Process ...... 38 The First Stage: Acquaintance! 1953-1967) ...... 41 The Second Stage: Appropriation! 1968-1982) ...... 44 The Third Stage: Transformation! 1983-1989) ...... 54
V CHAPTER PAGE
IV. THE EMERGENCE OF EASTERN THOUGHT AND PRACTICE IN THE WEST...... 69
Introduction ...... 69 The Theoretical ...... 70 The Practical ...... 76 Pedagogy ...... 76 Objectives and Curriculum ...... 82 Training Methods ...... 95 The Effect of Transformation on Eastern Forms ...... 102
V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY ...... 114
Sum m ary ...... 114 Conclusions and Speculations ...... 120 Recommendations for Further Study ...... 124
APPENDIX. A CHRONOLOGICAL LISTING OF THE EASTERN STUDY IN THE LITERATURE OF AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ...... 126
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 142
VI LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. The Tai-Chi Diagram or "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate" ...... 23
2. The Characteristics of Western, Eastern, and Transformation Approaches to Physical Education and Sport ...... 105
vn CHAPTER I
ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY
lntrc>çlviçUç>n Professional baseball and golf are now becoming popular in the Eastern countries. At the same time, Americans are taking up meditation, practicing yoga and tai chi chuan, and visiting martial arts schools. Despite Rudyard Kipling's once firm assurance that East and West would never meet, we now live in a global village in which we meet at hundreds of times and in hundreds of ways, and the "avenues of discourse and influence between East and West are many and varied." ^ Thus, it is not surprising that physical education and sports in America are being affected by ideas originated in the East. Some programs and methods in American physical education and sport reflect this. Over the past three decades. Eastern religious and philosophical ideas and practices have had a considerable impact on American culture. This "Eastern awareness" has sprung from many cultural sources. One was America's cultural and social transition in the 60s and 70s, which reflected an interest in the East.2 The Vietnam war's shock and the increased number of Eastern immigrants and students have made Americans highly aware and sensitive to Eastern societies. Also, modern technology and scientific innovation have facilitated communication between the East and the West.
1 2 Furthermore, the popularity of Eastern religious disciplines and martial arts has affected a growing number of Americans. Most recently, the Olympic Games in Japan and Korea, and increased trade between America and Far Eastern countries have captured American attention. In the academic realm, the importance and profundity of Eastern philosophical and religious thought are reflected by the increasing amount of scholarship being done in these areas. Significant contributions have been made in fields such as comparative philosophy and religion, holistic medicine, the so-called
"third force" psychology, modern dance, and m u sic.3 The field of physical education and sport is no exception to this trend. Since the appearance in 1953 of Eugen Herrigel's Zen in the Art of Archerv< in the United States, Eastern thought and practice have been emerging in American physical education and sport. At physical education conferences, an increasing number of programs are devoted to Eastern philosophical concepts and movement forms. A growing number of books, journal articles, theses, and dissertations on these topics have been appearing. As a result, physical educators, once only familiar with Western approaches, are becoming aware of alternative ways. At the same time, phenomenology, humanistic psychology and radical scientific notions which have emerged in this period have contributed to the interest in Eastern approaches to our field. This is due to some apparent similarities between these contemporary 3 Western ideas in science and philosophy, and the traditional theories
and practices of the East.5 A number of physical educators reflect this trend toward the merging of East and West. Kleinman suggests that in "North America and Europe, the study and practice of Eastern forms of meditation, martial arts, and therapeutic techniques is one of the most significant occurrences of the past twenty-five years." Siedentop also maintains that "we have much to learn from Eastern movement forms and philosophies.... and it appears that there is a growing interest among physical educators to more fully understand and incorporate these activities into physical education programs at all levels." According to Murphy, Leonard, and Ravizza, Eastern movement forms and techniques have been "improving the quality and quantity of performance in sport." Wertz also states that "the influence of Taoism and Zen on the learning of Western sport skills have been rather dramatic."^ The Eastern emergence in the field of physical education made its appearance with a specific group that might be called "Eastern theorists," who are most open to studying, relating their convictions about Eastern insights, and are borrowing from Eastern philosophies and practices. Their works vary widely in approach and subject. In general, although there is some overlap, a growing body of literature reflects the emergence of Eastern theory and practice is relevant for physical education in the areas of philosophy, pedagogy, objectives and curriculum, and training method. The core of Eastern theory and practice may be expressed by the following concepts: 1) a 4 holistic mind-body theory, 2) a way of teaching, 3) the notion of self- actualization, and 4) the concept of practice. Over the past decades, a growing number of physical educators have linked the nature, methods, and content of American physical education to these Eastern concepts and techniques. In many ways, such considerations may reflect a changing attitude, and offer an opportunity for a new paradigm of physical education in America. A specific analysis of these considerations will be discussed in Chapter IV. Philosophical theories, sport, and movement forms from other cultures often seem difficult to understand and perform. "When the sport/play form derives from a society whose cultural and philosophical traditions are far different from one's own, the difficulties are multiplied. "7 For example, Americans may not understand the true meaning of martial arts because of a difficulty in understanding the relationship between martial arts and Eastern philosophical and practical thought. Thus, a fundamental question in tracing the process of Eastern emergence in American physical education is raised. Is it possible to transmit Eastern philosophical thoughts and practices to an American physical education setting? The arrival of Eastern concept and practice did not have an immediate impact on American physical education and sport. These concepts and practices had to pass through a distinctive acculturation process. The issue of the growing Eastern emergence is not only philosophical, but also cultural. Although this process has not always occurred chronologically, three distinctive acculturation stages may be identified in the process of Eastern emergence in American physical education, between 1953 and 1989: 1) acquaintance, 2) appropriation, and 3) transformation. In the first stage. 1953 to 1967. Eastern ideas were introduced into the field of American physicai education and sport. During this time. American physical educators became acquainted with Zen. Eastern thought and practice were appropriated in the second stage. 1967 to 1982. It was in this period that concepts of traditional American physical education and sport were discussed in terms of an Eastern perspective, a perspective that was. to some extent, accepted by a growing number of American physical educators. For example, the so-called "Eastern approach" has been referred to as an alternative to the traditional approach to American physical education. The third stage began in 1983. During this period, a "transformation" begins to take place. However, this is not merely transplantation. That is. the "Americanization" of Eastern thought and practice occurs. Here, some American physical educators creatively synthesized Eastern ideas and approaches with those of American physical education for the purpose of integrating them into an American setting. The coming of Eastern philosophy and practice to American physical education shows signs of having far-reaching consequences. And Eastern thought and practice are playing a role contributing to the evolution of American physical education.
In recent years, a number of physicaleducators^ have begun to study the emergence of Eastern thought and practice in American physical education and sport. However, their concern has been 6 mainly with philosophical implications and effects. The overall impact, from a historical standpoint, has been overlooked because of two reasons. First, critics still perceive Eastern thought and practice as a passing fad, thereby minimizing their importance. Second, there has not been a sufficient number of studies published to warrant treatment of sport from the Eastern perspective, and little has been done to investigate the impact of the East on physical education and sport in the West. By identifying, analyzing and discussing those materials which have to do with Eastern studies over the past three decades, it is hoped that their impact will be revealed. It is a further goal of this study to bring to light additional information concerning Eastern thought and practice in contemporary American physical education.
Statemejit of the Problem The purpose of this study is to trace the emergence of Eastern thought and practice in contemporary American physical education during the past three decades, from 1953 to 1989. A review and analysis will be made of the contemporary literature on American physical education and sport which is related to Eastern thought and practice. The specific purposes of this study are: 1) to examine those Eastern concepts expressed in the literature of American physical education and sport published during this period, 2) to identify to what extent Eastern thought and practice have emerged in contemporary American physical 7 education and how it may affect the direction of American physical education, 3) to suggest directions in American physical education, should these Eastern forms and practices become more fully integrated.
Procedure Because this study will review and analyze the literature of the past 35 years, it is partially historical in nature. Chapter II offers an exposition of the essential nature of Eastern philosophy and practice. It provides a background to Eastern concepts in order to facilitate understanding of the process of Eastern emergence in American physical education. Divided into three acculturation stages. Chapter III traces how Eastern concepts and practices were adapted to the field of American physical education and sport over the past three decades. Investigating the literature of contemporary American physical education and sport reveals this emergence. Eastern concepts found in this review become the basis for discussion in the following chapter. Pointing toward two major aspects of education, the theoretical and the practical. Chapter IV attempts to identify the extent to which Eastern thought and practice have emerged in contemporary American physical education and sport, and to what extent they may affect the direction of American physical education. This necessitates examination of mind-body theory, pedagogy, objectives and curriculum of physical education, and training methods. A distinction will be drawn between the dominant 8 "traditional" view of American physical education and that of contemporary American physical education viewed from an Eastern perspective. The final chapter provides a summary, conclusions, some speculation, and recommendations for further study
Organization of Materials Investigated To handle the large volume of material researched, it is necessary to organize items into categories. Sources dealing with, or which had reference to. Eastern thoughts and practices were located in indexes and bibliographies under key words and phrases like "Eastern philosophy" and "Eastern movement forms," selected, and reviewed. Research based upon reliable inside sources offers the most valuable information about the Eastern emergence. Selected outside sources are also helpful in trying to reach some conclusion regarding the Eastern emergence in contemporary American physical education and sport. Sources which mentioned Eastern influence were of particular interest. They provided additional evidence of Eastern emergence in contemporary American physical education. The second step was to discuss and arrange the accumulated material into four categories: books, journal articles, proceedings, and master's theses and doctoral dissertations. These are publications which have to do with Eastern philosophical notions and practices generally and the Eastern emergence in American physical education and sport published during the years 1953 to 1989. The first category is books, which deal with Eastern philosophical thought and practice, they relate to physical education 9 and sport. Journal articles discussing the Eastern notions and practices were investigated next. They were selected mainly from the following periodicals: Quest. Tournai of Physical Education. Recreation and Dance. Tournai of the Philosophy of Soort. The Physical Educators, and Tournai of Soort Psychology. Proceedings of some physical education and sport society meetings and conferences dealing with the Eastern concepts were assigned to the third category. The fourth category covers unpublished research materials, including master's theses and doctoral dissertations. The volume of material dictated strict organization. Many works had to be reviewed to obtain even one scrap of useful information. Without an organizing principle, it is possible much material would have been overlooked.
Limitatioiig. The study is subject to two limitations: 1. The literature of physical education and sport selected for investigation is limited to largely academic materials at college level published since 1953. 2. The sources of Eastern thought and practice are limited to selected philosophical and cultural publications about China, Korea, and Japan.
D.g£initic>iis. For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined: Eastern Thought and Practice. This term includes all aspects of Eastern philosophical and religious notions derived from Buddhism, 10 Taoism, and Confucianism, and physical activities, such as martial arts, and movement forms, such as meditation, yoga, tai chi chuan, tae kwon do, judo, and karate. Eastern Approach or Perspective. This refers to an orientation which reflects, in the main, an Eastern point of view. Since an absolute distinction between East and West is not possible, the term "Eastern perspective or approach" is used here in a relative sense. Acculturation. This is a process of inter-cultural "borrowing" resulting in blended patterns. When applying this term to this study, it means a synthetic modification of theory and practice in the field of American physical education and sport resulting from contact with, and acceptance of. Eastern philosophical thought and practice. Acquaintance. This refers to the act or process of being familiar with the situation or environment. In this study, it implies the first stage of the acculturation process when tracing the emergence of Eastern thought and practice in American physical education; that is, making contact and exchanging ideas and practices for the purpose of increased understanding between Eastern and Western physical education. Appropriation. This term means making something "one's own," or converting something to one's own use. In this study, it is defined as the second stage in the acculturation process; that is, a stage accepting and adopting various Eastern ideas and practices, using them to achieve better development. Transformation. This refers to the act or process of dialectic change. In this study, this is the final process of the absorption of 11 Eastern ideas and approaches into American physical education, in both character and function. It doesn't mean the process of merely transplanting Eastern philosophical thought and practice into American physical education. "Inside" Sources. This refers to the materials written by physical educators. "Outside" Sources. This refers to materials, the principal subject matter of which comes from sources outside of physical education and sport, but which make reference to physical education and sport 12
FOOTNOTES
1 Daryl Siedentop, Physical Education: Introductory Analysis, third edition (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1980), p. 200.
2 See Charles S. Prebish, American Buddhism (North Scituate, Mass.; Duxbury Press, 1979); Rick Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narratiye History of Buddhism in America (Boulder, Colorado: Shambhala, 1981).
3 See Philosophy East and West: Tournai of Oriental and Comoaratiye Thought: Douglas Jackson and Martin E. Marty, Religion in America: 1950 to the Present (New York: Harper & Row, 1979); Eldon G. Ernst, "Dimensions of New Religion in American History," Understanding the New Religions, edited by Jacob Needle man and George Baker (New York: The Seabury Press, 1978); 34-45; Mark Wheeler, "Surface to Essence: Appropriation of the Orient by Modern Dance," (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The Ohio State Uniyersity, 1984).
4 Eugen Herrigel, Zen in the Art of Archery, translated by R. F. C. Hull (New York: Random House, 1953).
3 See Dayid, Shaner. The Body mind Experience in laoanese Buddhism: A Phenomenological Study of Kukai and Dogen (New York: SUNY Press. 1985); Steyen Heine. Existential and Ontological Dimensions of Time in Heidegger and Dogen (New York: SUNY Press. 1985); Ramakant Sinari, "The Method of Phenomenological Reduction and Yoga," Philosophy_East and West: Tournai of Oriental and Comoaratiye Thought. 15 (July- Oct. 1965): 217-228; R. Puligandla, "Phenomenological Reduction and Yogic Meditation." Philosophy East and West." 20 (Jan. 1970): 19-33; Donald Stone, "The Human Potential Moyement," The New Religious Consciousness, edited by Charles Glock and Robert Bellah (Berkely: Uniyersity of California Press. 1976); Henry Winthrop. "Indian Thought and Humanistic Psychology: Contrasts and Parallels between East and West." Philosophy East and West: journal of Oriental and Comoarative Thought. 13 (July 1963):137-154; Fritjof Caora. The Tao of Physics: 13
An Exploration of the Parallels between Modern Phvsics and Eastern Mysticism (Berkeley: Shambhala. 1975): Kenneth K. Inada and Nolan P. Jacobson (eds.) Buddhism and American Thinker (Albany, New York: SUN'f Press, 1984); Ken Wilber(ed.). The Holographic Paradigm and Other Paradoxes: Exploring the Leading Edge.of.Science (Boulder: Shambhala, 1982).
6 Seymour Kleinman. "Moving into Awareness," Abstract of Proceedings of the 88 Seoul Olympic Scientific Congress, (Cheoan, Korea: Dankuk University, 1988); Siedentop, Physical Education. 200; Michael Murphy and Rhea White, The Psvchic Side of Snorts (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978); George Leonard, The Ultimate Athlete: Revisioning Soorts. Physical Education._and_theJBody_ (New York: Viking Press, 1974); Kenneth Ravizza, "A Study of the Peak- Experience in Sport,"(Unpublished Ph.D. diss.: University of Southern California, 1973); Spencer Wertz, "Zen, Yoga, and Sport: Eastern Philosophy for Western Athletes," lournal of the Philosophy of Soort. 4 (1977), 68-82.
7 Siedentop, Physical Education, p. 200.
8 See Klaus V. Meier and William J. Morgan. Philosophic Inquiry in Soort (Champaign: Human Kinetics, 1987), p. ix ; Seymour Kleinman, "Eastern Thought, Movement Forms and Western Sport," Proceedings of the Philosophic Society for the Study of Sport Conference, The Ohio State University, Columbus, (November 1977); Spencer Wertz, "Zen, Yoga, and Sport: Eastern Philosophy for Western Athletes," lournal of the Philosophy of Soort. 4 (1977), 68-82; Ann Brunner, "A Philosophic Inquiry into a Holistic Approach to Human Movement from the Perspective of Zen," (Unpublished master's thesis. Smith College, 1975); Donald J. Charpio, "The Nature of Human Movement: A Philosophical Interpretation Delineated From Neo- confucianism," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1978). CHAPTER II
THE NATURE OF THE EASTERN PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICE
Introduction To understand the emergence of an Eastern paradigm in American physical education it is necessary to become familiar with the nature of Eastern philosophies and their historical backgrounds. This chapter offers an exposition of the essential nature of traditional Eastern philosophy and practice. Each of the Eastern philosophical schools may have its own unique perspective in relation to a world view and physical education and sport. However, the writer will not focus on such specific viewpoints, but rather will discuss them in a general sense. The following discussion examines the various central notions which are based on the so-called "three great wisdoms," Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, including Neo-Confucianism and Zen.
Buddhism Buddhism has a historical founder known as Gautama Buddha who was born and lived in the sixth century B.C. It originated in India within the religious and social context of Hinduism. It adapted many Hindu ideas but it also rejected many of them. For example, it accepted the Hindu ideas of reincarnation!samsara) and the law of
14 15 cause and effect(karma). but it rejected the doctrines of the caste system, Braman as the ultimate reality, and the substantiality of self. From the start, Buddhism was a religion of self-effort, and basically a therapeutic and individualistic philosophy. It is essentially a pragmatic thought with a psychological turn.
The Four Noble Truths The central core of Buddha is well represented in the so-called "Four Noble Truths": 1) there is suffering: 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3 ) the extinction of suffering is by the extinction of desire; and 4) the way to extinction is the "Noble Eightfold Path." This doctrine is not a theoretical but a therapeutical truth. Buddha himself demonstrated this in his preaching after the Enlightenment. To Buddha, birth, old age, sickness, death were the basic elements of the suffering of all living beings. He also included being attached to what one dislikes and being separated from one likes, and being deprived of something that one desires. All these signified suffering to the Buddha. The cause of suffering is desire for pleasures, being and power, and this desire is nothing but the ignorance of human being. The extinction of suffering is possible only by complete annihilation of desire and radical liberation from illusion of self. The path to this extinction of desire and self is called the "Noble Eightfold Path", namely. Right View, Right Determination, Right Speech. Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. This Noble Eightfold Path is called "the best of ways.' i 16 JmpÆrmflagaçg. Most Eastern philosophies do not acknowledge any fixed substances underlying the changing attributes of things. Buddhism particularly repudiates not only substance, but also unchanging forms or universals. The character of things are flow, and all is anitva. This is one of the cardinal principles of Buddhism - anitva. becoming, impermanence, change and process. According to Buddhism, impermanence is a universal, fundamental phenomena among all existing things. It is said, "all existing things are transient.' ^ All things are involved in becoming, continuation, change, and thus non-substance. Thus, there are no fixed character which can be assumed from time to time by the particular thing. Charles Hartshorne states that "one thing we need to learn from Buddhists is the importance of nonconceptual, nontheoretical apprehension of reality."3 Buddha's teaching of impermanence was intended to avoid the two extreme doctrines of realism and nihilism, the belief in being and non-being. According to him, the belief that "everything is" is one extreme view and that "everything is not" is another extreme view. Avoiding these two extremes is the doctrine of the Mean, the so-called "Middle Way." The essence of this doctrine is that everything is becoming, process, because there is no static moment in this world. In place of an individual, one can speak of only a succession of instances of consciousness. In this way, the substance of one's body and soul changes from moment to moment, and, therefore, there is no-substance in human being. 17 In summary, the notion of impermanence points to the fundamental oneness of the universe. Like the world view of "quantum physics," revealing that "the analysis of subatomic, astrophysical phenomena"^ refutes the dualistic, mechanistic paradigm of the universe and opens the mind to new possibilities, it shows a revolutionary view in shifting from a dualistic to a holistic paradigm. This Buddhist notion of world view may provide Western physical education with a new paradigm. A specific implication will be discussed in Chapter IV in relation to the theory and practice of physical education.
Confucianism Among all the philosophies of the East, Confucianism has been most important in terms of its historical and cultural impact upon society, especially in the area of education, literature, art, and even physical education. Confucianism was found by Confucius, "which is the latinization of Kung-Fu-Tzu, who lived from 551 B.C. to 479 B.C."5 His philosophical character is represented, in nature, as the importance of virtue and knowledge. His teachings were based on the so-called "Six Classics," ancient books of philosophical thought, rituals, poetry, music, and history, which represented the spiritual and cultural heritage of the sages of China's past. The time in which Confucius lived is called the "Period of the Warring States," deranged by war, greed, corruption, and moral chaos. The major question of this era was "How can people live in peace? " The answers to this question varied according to the 18 different thinkers.6 The Legalists advocated the absolute power of a ruler by a radical form of law and order, while Taoists claimed naturalistic individualism as the solution for the problem. Others like Mo Tzu advocated equal and universal love. Confucianism stood in the middle, neither extreme individualism nor extreme legalistic totalitarianism, but as a mild and moderate form of law and order philosophy with a great concern and emphasis on the well being of individuals through compassion, kindness, and justice. The overview of his idea in his teaching was ethical didacticism with the care of Jsa and Li to produce the real man known as "Chun Tzu."
£h»n-I.z» Confucius' major philosophy is summed up in the concept of Chun Tzu. who is highly learned through education. To Confucius, human nature is basically good; therefore, it is possible to be brought to a human level, namely to the level of a good citizen. Confucius was primarily concerned about the practical human problems. The ultimate solution which Confucius conceived for the troubled society was that each member of the society must become Chun Tzu, which means "superior man" or "profound man. '7 "It is not a gentleman in mere manner, but in true character and conduct.'8 He suggested several characteristics which make Chun Tzu.
Jê û The most essential characteristic of Chun Tzu is len. which means human-heartedness, deep love, or sympathy. Its literal meaning would be "ideal human relationship." According to 19 Confucius, "jen is love of man or ideal interhuman relationship."^ It is often equivalent to virtue or morality. The Lun Yu( Analects of ■Confucius) says: "artful speech and ingratiating demeanor rarely accompany Jen.' io It also states: "the firm of spirit, the resolute in character, the simple manner, and the slow speech are not far from Jen."
Li Another important aspect of Chun Tzu is Li which means propriety and ceremonies. It was a code of rules and procedures that one attempts to communicate with his ancestors through ritual. It was also a code of rules regulating and guiding the behavior of the men in their dealings with one another. Confucius emphasized the spirit of ceremonies rather than external forms. The important aspect of Li is filial piety. The following teaching in Lun Yu well expresses this view:
Mens I Tzu asked about filial piety. Confucius said: Never disobey... What does that mean? Confucius said, when parents are alive, serve them according to the rules of propriety. When they die, bury them according to the rules of propriety and sacrifice to them according to the rules of propriety. 12 Confucius stressed Li in all aspects of life; seeing, hearing, speaking, and conduct. While Jen is associated with freedom, Li is a regulatory principle of human conduct. Li has the function of deepening the sense of reverence and transcendent meaning of life beyond the present existence. 20
ï i Another essential aspect of Chun Tzu is which means righteousness or justice. Confucius emphasized this concept in one occasion: "the superior man understands righteousness; the inferior man understands profits." 13 According to Lun Yu. "Yi is involved primarily in assessments of acts and that the rightness of acts depends on their being morally fitting in the circumstance s." 14 in this manner, Yi is a behavioral guideline of superior man. Hence. Confucius taught not only love and kindness, but also righteousness and justice as an essential aspect of Chun Tzu. To summarize, the above ideas indicate that Confucius' thought was man-centered in nature and strongly of this world. His philosophy was thus a type of humanism. The main aspect of his philosophy was an attempt to achieve harmony between the idea and real, always with more emphasis on reality and man. Considering the educational objectives, he emphasizes self-realization for cultivating idealistic man. In this way, educational process seems to be achieved through one's personal or subjective experience. To know something is to set and cultivate one's own self. His philosophy would provide physical education a premise that implies self- actualization through physical activity or movement. Confucianism, as it was developed by Confucius and elucidated by Mencius and Hsun Tzu, was primarily an ethical philosophy. It especially lacked almost any totally metaphysical ideas. New generations of Confucian thinkers recognized this weakness and 21 consequently adopted certain metaphysical ideas of Buddhism introduced from India and Taoism. They satisfied the metaphysical curiosity of the Chinese mind. Since the incorporation of metaphysical ideas into Confucianism is a rather new development in the Confucian system of thought, this new type of Confucianism is called "Neo-Confucianism." 15 Therefore, the scholar gentry in "this school were equipped with traditional Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism." 16
Neo-Confucianism is a strong development that came during the Sung dynasty( 10th-13th Centuries A.D.). It is essentially a synthesis of the Buddhist and Taoist cosmologies and Confucian ethics. It attempted to interpret the movement of the universe in terms of the "Hii and Yang Principle." The Book of Changes!I-Ching) became important in Neo-Confucianism. The Neo-Confucian scholars thought that the Confucian ethics needed a firm metaphysical basis for its ethical ideas. Thus, they attempted to connect ethics with metaphysics. Another central aspect of this school is its emphasis on meditation, intuition, and the philosophy of Chi. In the following discussion, the Principle of Yin and Yang, one of the principal notions in Neo-Confucianism will be examined in relation to physical education and sport.
Thg-Principlg 9f Jin and Yans: Non-dvaüüf Generally, the tendency of Western philosophical thought is to think in terms of exclusivity, that is, to make an "either-or" classification. On the other hand, the main trend of Eastern thought 22 is to think in terms of inclusivity, that is, to make a "both-and" classification. For example, Eastern tradition typically does not sharply separate the mind from the body. This view is well illustrated in one of Newsweek‘s editors’ comment on the difference between Americans and Chinese:
Where an American thinks in terms of "I," a Chinese is apt to think of "we." Where Western logic tends to toward the absolute of either/or, Chinese reasoning is based on the more harmonious blend of both/and. 17 The basic characteristic of the Eastern thought is the inclusive way of thinking in all things. From this standpoint, the Eastern view of the world is an "organic" one. It does not accept the dichotomy that phenomena and noumena are separated each other. It is a harmonic nondualism in which there is no distinction between self and world, between body and mind. All things and phenomena we perceive with our senses are interrelated, are connected, and are but different aspects or manifestations of the same ultimate reality. This nondualistic notion is expressed clearly in the relationship between yin and yang. It is the main characteristic of all Eastern philosophical thought. The theory of yin and yang was developed as a practical way of describing and classifying the universe. Yin and yang represent complementary opposites such as day and night, male and female, and hard and soft. The nondualistic character of yin and yang is illustrated by the ancient Chinese symbol called "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate": 23
Figure 1. The Tai-Chi Diagram graphically represents the interaction of Yin and Yang.
This diagram is a symmetrical symbol of the change in which both yin(dark) and yang(light), are intertwined in harmony. It is a harmonious symmetry reflecting a nondualistic way:
The yang returns cyclically to its beginning: the yin attains its maximum and gives place to the yang.l^ The diagram attempts to illustrate that light is not absolutely light but is also dark, because the dark dot is in it. Dark is not absolutely dark, because a light dot is in it. Just as the light principle presupposes the existence of the dark, the dark principle also presupposes the existence of the light. Traditional Chinese medicine has been based on this balance of yin and yang in the human body. The body is divided into yin and yang parts. The balance between all these parts is maintained by a continuous flow of "£hi" or vital energy, along a system of meridians which contain the acupuncture points. 24 This complementary force is in a state of continual change clearly expressed in the Eastern martial arts. According to Adam Hsu, the concept of yin and yang is completely absorbed within kung-fu:
The whole body is continually moving, turning, and twisting, adjusting spontaneously to the demands of thesituation. 19 In essence, the nondualistic notion of Eastern thought merges experience into mutually inclusive categories such as subject and object, body and mind, I and world, good and bad, cause and effect, theory and practice, and philosophy and science. It indicates a model of the unbroken wholeness of the totality of existence.
Taoism Taoism as a philosophy occupies an important place in Eastern history. Its influence on the Eastern culture was not as great as Confucianism, but it contained more profound speculative and metaphysical insights with respect to the nature of reality, the universe, and man. Lao Tzu was the legendary founder of Taoism. According to legend, "he was a man of the sixth century B.C."20 Lao Tzu wrote the Tao Te ChinelThe Book of the Wav and Its Virtue), which is the bible of Taoism.
The Concept of Do(Tao) The word of Da is one of the most significant terms in Eastern philosophy. Perhaps all Eastern philosophical concepts and practices are related to the term "Do." While in Confucianism it has primarily 25 an ethical meaning, in Taoism it has primarily metaphysical significance as Absolute Truth, Ultimate Reality, or the Ground of Being. The literal and usual translation of "Do" is "way" or "path" in English. However, this is not always helpful to understanding the real meaning of Do. Tao Te Chine states as follows at the very beginning:
The name that can be named is not the eternal name. The nameless Is the origin of Heaven and Earth; The named Is the mother of all things. Therefore let there always be non-being so that we may see their subtlety.21 Classified by concept into Western philosophical categories, its meaning would be clarified. Do, taken ontologically, is supposed to denote "what there is." Holmes Welch defines Do as "the order of the
Universe" or "the law of Nature."22 However, it is described as something "that cannot be told of,"23 which is nameless and as something formlessly fashioned. Thus. Tao Te Chine says: "Its true name we do not know, Tao is the by-name that we give it."24 in this way, Do is characterized as nonconceptual reality. Interpreted epistemologically, it is taken as referring to a cognitive mode, that is, a certain method. For Chang Chung-yang, it is an experience:
What, then. Is Tao? In the traditional Chinese Interpretation, Tao Is the highest attainment of primordial Intuition. Tao Is preontologlcal experience, which Is gained through the Interpretation and Identification of the subjectivity of man and the objectivity of things.2 5 Understood ethically, it means a certain practical norm. In other words, Do is a correct way of doing. Lao Tzu is clearly using the term "Do" in an ethical or practical sense: "When the highest type 26 of man hears the Do, he practices it diligently. "26 Thus, Do means, ontologically, nonconceptualizable reality: epistemologically, nonverbalizable knowledge; and ethically, undeterminable norm. This concept of Do permeates Eastern physical education, namely, the movement forms and martial arts. They are the way based on theories and practices from Do.
Wu-Wei The virtue of Eû is expressed in Taoism in terms of Wu-Wei. which literally means "non-action " or " don t do. " is a word used for negation, and Wei means activity or action. It means that Nature is spontaneous and effortless like a river. Applied to human life, it means " don t take any action which is contrary to nature. " Positively speaking, Wu-Wei denotes spontaneous and natural action. It mvans, let Nature take its own course. Taoism emphasizes that nature is the model from which man should learn and which man should follow. Welch interprets the meaning of Wu-Wei as " avoiding the aggression. "27
The Taoist concept of wu-wei is based on the observation of the movement of Nature:
The operations of Heaven and Earth proceed with the most admirable order," the Chuang Tzu tells us, "yet they never speak. The four seasons observe clear laws, but they do not discuss them. All of nature is regulated by exact principles, but it never explains them. The sage penetrates the mystery of the order of Heaven and Earth, and comprehends the principles of nature. Thus, the perfect man does nothing, and the great sage originates nothing; that is to say, they merely contemplate the universe.28 The Taoist philosophy of life is thus opposed to any type of action or life that is a strain in any way. The Taoist simile in this 27 rase would be that of the archer, who shoots badly, because of tension and anxiety, when he strives to win, but is relaxed and effective when nothing of consequence is expected. The Taoist stresses that the highest skill operates on almost an unconscious level. This unconscious action seems to occur when the great athlete performs, but even the great athlete needs some effort to concentrate mind and strength to perform anything successfully. Taoism emphasizes the unconscious, intuitive, spontaneous, effortless flow of mind and action. Concerning the true meaning of Wu-Wei, therefore, David Loy provides the following interpretation: •
vu vei(non-duai action) is action without a distinction between subject and object, purposeless action, action in which there is no thought of the "fruit." 29 Taoism believes that wisdom is to ignore challenge and never to have aggressive attitudes toward Nature and man. According to Lao Tzu, man cannot achieve his aims by aggressive action. He says that "to yield is to be preserved whole.... Because the wise man does not contend, no one can contend against him."30 In summary, the Taoist concepts of contemplation and intuition have significance for the context of physical education due to their emphasis on meditation and intuitive wisdom, ludo. kendo and taekwondo all evolved from the same principles as tai chi, and they are also acceptable substitutes for Taoist physical training, provided that a spirit of fierce competitiveness and desire to win does not supplant the Taoist ideal of taking the rough with the smooth. The idea is not to win, but merely to do the best one can and then abide 28 tranquilly by the result of a contest. Disturbance of spirit is inimical to progress along the way.
Zen Buddhism Zen is a branch of Mahavana Buddhism, which seeks direct access to Truth or Reality through meditation. It is perhaps the best known type of Buddhism in the West, particularly in America, due to its highly mystical approach to reality. This seems to have an appeal to some who have grown tired of the rationalistic approach to life. Philip Kapleau states that "Zen is a religion with a unique method of mind-body training whose aim is satori or self-realization."31 According to legend, Zen Buddhism was founded in China in the sixth century A.D. by an Indian monk, Bodhidharma, who arrived in China in A.D. 520 and taught the principles and techniques of what at that time was called the Dhvana school, but which the Chinese later transliterated to Ch an, and the Japanese to Zen. The essence of Zen teaching was included in Buddha's teaching; but as a definite school it was founded in China and finally developed in Korea and Japan. Therefore, it is a unique "blend of the philosophies" and
"idiosyncrasies"32 reflecting Eastern philosophical ideas such as Indian philosophy, the Taoist naturalness and spontaneity, Confucian humanism, and Japanese mysticism. The central notions of Zen may be considered in four key categories: meditation(zazen). the experiential insight, wisdom of the body, and satori. 29 MfiçlitatLQ.n.(Za2gn) One aspect that traditionally has been emphasized in several Eastern systems of thought is that the degree of integration between mind and body is variable and can be developed through various methods of personal cultivation. In this respect, Zen Buddhism stresses silent meditation and intuitive wisdom, "zazen." as the only authentic path. Transcendence of ordinary rationality is the key to enlightenment. Its goal is to transform the body in order to transcend its limitations and to achieve liberation. According to Yasuo Yuasa, meditation is a "direct route by which the consciousness can contact the bodilysense." 33 Thus, in a sense, meditation may be viewed as a useful tool for integrating the physiological and intellectual, that is, body and mind. The following statement depicts the heart of zazen:
A special transmission outside the scriptures; No dependence upon words and letter: Direct pointing to the soul of man; Seeing into one's nature and attainment of Buddhahood.34 Zazen, thus, is not explainable merely by the intellectual, but also emphasizes self-effort through the direct awareness. Zazen is technically sitting meditation, although meditation may be engaged in while walking or performing some type of physical labor. In doing meditation, the individual is usually seated cross- legged on the floor. The back is straight and the eyes are directed toward the floor a short distance ahead of the body. Attention is centered in the area just below the navel. 30 Although there are some differences betweeix the Rinzai and the Soto schools, the novice at meditation is frequently advised to spend his first few sessions counting inhalations or exhalations. After he has become accustomed to the sitting, the procedure changes. According to the Rinzai sect, in this stage the practitioner works on "koan" such as, "what was your original face before?"35 in solving a koan he must reject logical reasoning and find a solution through the awakening of a deeper level of the mind beyond the discursive intellect. The solution of the koan constitutes satori and results in a new way of seeing the world, in which he is one with the universe and has an ineffable sense of happiness. Although the awakening of awareness of the essence of being is the most basic goal of zazen practice, meditation is said to improve mental and physical health, to promote improved concentration, and generally enrich the performance of skill. Most importantly, mind- body modality changes through the training of meditation.
Eipgrignlial Insisht For Eastern philosophical thought, one of the major contrasts to Western thought is that "experiential intuition" is always consistent with intellectual knowledge. Particularly for Zen Buddhism, any presupposition through theoretical explanations cannot be acknowledged to be the essence of reality. Emphasis is on the experiential nature of reality. Therefore, without experiencing, it would be impossible to understand the true meaning. From this viewpoint, all knowledge is based on experience. In other words, the 31 theory is never dualistically separated from the practice. D. T. Suzuki writes:
Personal experience is... the foundation of Buddhist philosophy. In this sense Buddhism is radical empiricism or experientialism, whatever dialectic later developed to probe the meaning of enlightenment-experience.3 6 Thus, Zen proposes that knowing the ultimate truth, not by the way of intellectual analysis or book knowledge, but by direct appeal to the facts of personal and "first hand experiences." With regard to the theory of body and mind, this experiential insight can be clearly identified. The modern Japanese philosopher Yasuo Yuasa says:
One of the characteristics of Eastern body-mind theories is the priority given to the questions, "How does the relationship between the mind and body come to be (through cultivation)? The traditional issue in western philosophy . . . is "what is the relationship between the mind-body.37 In Zen Buddhism, the mind-body oneness in religious experience is not simply theoretical speculation but it is originally a practical and lived experience, involving the mustering of one's whole mind and body. It includes experiential verification. This Eastern experiential approach to mind-body issue would offer a radical alternative to modern Western thinking, especially to the field of physical education.
Wisdom of the Bodv In much the same way as all of Eastern philosophical views, Zen Buddhism gives great attention to the body and the "wisdom of the body. " However, this does not mean that body is a physical object. Body is the embodiment of mind or consciousness. The body 32 is a means of expression of self, and it explores the world. Mind and body have been viewed as two phases of a single process, not as independent entities. Based on the concept that control of the body is directly related to control of the mind, body-control has been emphasized as the method of choice not only for mind-control, but also for control of the whole person. The Japanese expression "Taitoku." derived from the Zen concept, means "learning through the body." In particular, the proper use of the body is important in Zen. It is important to move, to work, to make, to create - in all such pursuits to be aware of one's body. Thus, many activities such as noh play(drama), sadoftea ceremony), kadolflower arrangement), and especially kendo, iudo. and karatedo were raised to the level of disciplines(study of Do) for mental self-control, self-actualization, and Satori. In these disciplines much importance was given to the control of muscular movements, and respiration in particular. The goal of these activities is considered to be the development of "control without control. " This means that self-control can be achieved when mind is regulated so as not to interfere with the natural control arising from the wisdom of the body. In summary, as far as the influence of Zen upon the Eastern culture is concerned, there is a wide recognition of its significance. It is evident in literature, drama, painting, archery, martial arts, and the tea ceremony. All Eastern arts and other cultural activities either emphasize or imply the identification of mind and object, and the harmony of mind and body. 33 S â M i The above concepts would be a path which lead the practitioner of Zen to enlightenment, called "satori." Through the practice of meditation(zazen), the individual seeks not ideas, but direct awareness - the perception of the concrete essence of reality. It is the state of extinction of the false self, awakening the true self or reality, the goal of Zen. According to Zen teaching, in the very moment of satori, old ways of illusive or dualistic thinking end and new transcendental wisdom operates serenely. One sees all things with a pure and clear mind from the standpoint of the absolute. There is no more discrimination or dualism in this state. Suzuki defines satori as "an intuitive looking into the nature of things in contradistinction to the analytical or logical understanding of it."38 More revealing than any attempt at definitions are, because of its subjective and personal characteristics, descriptions of satori as it has been experienced. According to Suzuki, the chief characteristics of satori are: 1. irrationality. 2. intuitive insight 3. authoritativeness. 4. affirm ativeness. 5. sense of the beyond. 6. im personal tone. 7. feeling of exaltation. 8. momentariness.39
Although each of those Eastern philosophical schools suggests its own unique perspective in relation to world view and physical 34 education and sport, the examination of Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen reveals the following general philosophical concepts : 1 ) nondualism, 2) impermanence and organic harmony, 3) process and becoming, 4) holistic body-mind theory, 5) importance of the body, 6) experiential and intuitive wisdom, and 7) self-actualization. Certainly, these concepts and practices may be applied to American physical education and sport as an alternative to traditional paradigms. More specific implications will be discussed in Chapter IV. 35
FOOTNOTES
1 Edward Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development (New York: Harper, 1965), p. 43.
2 Beatrice L. Suzuki, Mahavana Buddhism (New York: Collier, 1963), p. 21.
3 Charles Hartshorn, Toward a Buddhisto-Christian Religion," Buddhism and American Thinker, edited by Kenneth Inada and Nolan Jacobson (New York: SUNY Press, 1984), p. 9
4 Nolan P. Jacobson, Buddhism and the Conte moor arv World: Change and Self-Correction (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983), p. 25.
5 Fung Yu-lan, A Historv of Chinese Philosoohv. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952), Vol. I, p. 35.
6 For more social philosophy in this period. See Kung-Chuan Hsiao, A History of-Cliiae.s.e±pliliçaLTtoitght: From..BgRinninRg..tP th? Sixth Centurv A.D.. Vol 1, translated by Fredrick Mote, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1979).
7 Ibid., p. 57.
8 Ibid., pp. 57-58.
9 Kyong-tak Kim, Historv of Chinese Philosophical Thought (Seoul: Tongkuk Munhwasa, 1955), p. 5.
10 Lun Yu (Analects of Confucius), I, A Source Book in Chinese Philosoohv. translated by Wing-Tsit Chan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 24.
11 Ibid., XIII, p. 27.
12 Ibid., II, p. 5. 36
13 Ibid.. IV. p. 16.
H Ibid.. IV. p. 34.
15 See Carsung Chang. The Development of Neo-Confucian Thought (New York; Bookman Associates. 1957); John K. Shryock. The Origin and Development of the State Cult of Confucius (New York: Paragon Book. 1966).
16 H. G. Creel. Chinese Thought (New York: Mentor, 1964). p. 169.
17 See "What It Means to Be Chinese." Newsweek. (February 21, 1972): 37.
16 Joseph Needam. Science and Civilization in China. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1954). Vol. IV. p. 6.
19 Adam Hsu. "Chinese Martial Arts: Bridging the Cuitural Gap between East and West." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, edited by Seymour Klein man (Champaign. 111.: Human Kinetics. 1986). pp. 89- 95.
20 Kim. Historv of Chinese Philosophical Thought, p. 79.
21 Tao Te Ching. Ch. 1. A Source Book in Chinese Philosoohv. translated by Wing-Tsit Chan. p. 139.
22 Holmes Welch. Taoism: The Parting of the Wav (Boston: Beacon Press. 1965). p. 46
23 Ibid.. p. 47
24 Tao Te Ching. Ch.l. A Source Book in Chinese Philosoohv. translated by Wing-Tsit Chan. p. 138.
25 Chung-yang Chang. Creativitv and Taoism (New York: The Julian Press. Inc.. 1963). p. 7.
26 Tao Te Ching. Ch. 1. A Source Book in Chinese Philosoohv. translated by Wing-Tsit Chan. p. 145.
27 Welch. Taoism: The Parting of the Wav, pp. 33-34. 37
28 Creel. Chinese Thought, p. 90.
29 David Loy. "Wei-Wu-Wei: Nonduai Action." Philosophy East & West: A Quarterly oLAsian_& Comnarative .ThouRht. 35 (January 1985): 73-86.
30 Tao Te Ching. Ch.22. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. translated by Wing-Tsit Chan. p. 21.
31 Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (New York: John Weatherhill. 1965), p. xy.
32 Fritjof Capra. The Tao of Physics (New York: Bantam Books. 1976). p. 108.
33 Yasuo Yuasa. The Body: Toward an Eastern Mind-Bodv Theory (New York: State University of New York Press. 1987). p. 9.
34 D. T. Suzuki. Zen Buddhism, edited by W. Barrett (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor Books. 1956). p. 9.
35 Huston Smith. The Relisions of Man (New York: Harper and Row. 1958). p. 146.
36 John Walters. The Essence of Buddhism (New York: Crowell. 1964). p. 54.
37 Yuasa. The Bodv: Toward an Eastern MindrBodv Theory, p. 18
38 Suzuki. Zen Buddhism, p. 84.
39 Ibid.. pp.103-108. CHAPTER III
EASTERN CONCEPTS IN AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1953 - 1989
Introduction Physical activities associated with Eastern philosophy and religion have existed in the United States since the first Asian immigrants landed on the west coast of the North American continent. Yet, it was not until the publication of Zen in the Art of Archervl in 1953 that American physical educators demonstrated an interest in Eastern philosophy and practice. This chapter attempts to characterize the acculturation process when tracing the Eastern emergence in American physical education over the past three decades, and examines the major Eastern concepts to emerge in American physical education. To do this, the literature of contemporary American physical education and sport published since 1953 is reviewed and analyzed.
Acculturation Process Philosophical theories, sport, and movement forms from other cultures often seem difficult to understand and perform. "When the sport/play form derives from a society whose cultural and philosophical traditions are far different from one's own, the difficulties are multiplied. "2 For example, Americans may not
38 39 understand the true meaning of the martial arts because of the difficulty in seeing the relationship between martial art forms and Eastern philosophical thought. Eastern cultures are quite different from American culture because its concepts and approaches cannot be practiced in exactly the same way in different settings. Generally. Westerners have different ways of thinking and practicing than Easterners. For example, the Vince Lombardi's "win at all costs " attitude which permeates much of American sport stresses outcomes, rewards, goals, and winning: whereas Eastern thought and movement forms, as seen in Herrigel's book, emphasize the inner and spiritual aspects of human movement such as self-realization, spontaneity, body awareness and enlightenment. In this respect, trying to transmit Eastern thought and practice into the American physical education and sport setting has been a challenging task. Thus, a fundamental question in tracing the Eastern emergence in American physical education is raised: how may Eastern philosophical thought and practice be transmitted to an American physical education setting? In other words, can these Eastern concepts harmonize easily with American physical education concepts without conflict? Eastern concepts and practices did not have an immediate impact on American physical education and sport. They had to pass through a distinctive "acculturation process" as a result of cross- cultural phenomena. The issue of the Eastern emergence is not only philosophical, but also cultural. Historians and anthropologists define 40 "acculturation" as the ways in which some cultural aspect is taken into a culture and adjusted and fitted to it. The development of cross-cultural influence is not simple. It "involves those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups."3 Cross-cultural influence often has been described in terms of cultural developmental stages. Ways of examining the perception of a new culture vary according to different points of view, but research shows that there are distinct stages in the adjustment process of certain cultures. According to Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Asher Feldman,^ there are two stages in the cultural transmission process. The first stage is "awareness," which requires communications and experience, and the second is "acceptance." It is at the second stage that cu. '^lection may occur. From a religious standpoint, Donald Swearer points out that there are three ways in which Buddhism has influenced the West: by dialogue, appropriation, and transformation. According to him, "dialogue" refers to exchanges between Buddhists and non-Buddhists, with the interchanges sometimes resulting in the adoption by non-Buddhists of selected Buddhist practices. Next, the Buddhist presence is manifested in "appropriation" when an individual actually becomes a Buddhist, identifies himself as such, and accepts the Buddhist way of life. Finally, "transformation" takes place when the individual creatively integrates certain Buddhist concepts and practices into his 41 life, thereby changing his life. As an example of this, he explains the case of the Roman Catholic priests who have discovered, accepted,
and evolved a Zen-type meditation in the context of their re lig io n .5 Synthesizing these and other existing conceptualizations, a model of the process of Eastern emergence in contemporary American physical education is presented. Although each of the stages has not always occurred in this order, the following identification in three distinctive acculturation stages is helpful in tracing the process of Eastern emergence in American physical education during the period 1953 to 1989: 1) acquaintance, 2) appropriation, and 3) transformation. In the following discussion, a review of selected contemporary American physical education and sport literature published since 1953 will be conducted. This review is primarily descriptive, not evaluative, and offers a brief account of Eastern concepts appearing in American physical education and sport. A more specific analysis of the emergence of Eastern thought and practice will be discussed in Chapter IV.
Ih ? Eirn S.taR.g.:.,As.q.tiamtançg(l953-19^7) The first stage, "acquaintance," in which Eastern ideas were introduced into the field of American physical education and sport, may be regarded as covering the period 1953-1967. During this time, there was contact and American physical educators were introduced to the ideas and concept of the East. Perhaps for the first 42 time Zen practice was linked to the field of physical education and sport in the form of a publication in English. The appearance of Eugen Herrigel’s Zen in the Art of Archerv in the United States in 1953 stimulated this interest. Through this small book, some physical educators became acquainted with concepts such as Zen, Eastern movement and martial art forms, and their monistic view of the person. The following illustrates characteristics of this first stage, "acquaintance."
Book; Eugene Herrigel introduces an Eastern view of life, education, and sport which tends toward a spiritual emphasis and a mind-body synthesis. He suggests a way of learning with a traditional master that the balanced state of mind acquired in sedentary meditation could also be carried through into physical action, with a great achievement of precision and grace. According to Herrigel, spiritual action may be accomplished through a physical one, culminating in the two becoming one. From this viewpoint of Zen, he describes three hierarchical steps, involving the oneness of corporal body and spiritual soul, when practicing archery. First, there is the step of one's own "concentration" where body and mind are unified through only drawing of the bow. Second, there is the level where one becomes the release of the arrow, harmonizing oneself with arrow. Finally, there is the level of unifying, in a spiritual sense, oneself with the target.6 43 In spite of this good beginning, Eastern thought and practice received little consideration in our field in this period. They were dealt with in a very limited manner. Only a few of books provided brief introductions to Eastern activities from an historical perspective. Thus, most important sources about Eastern studies were received through outside materials, such writings as D. T. Suzuki's^ and Alan Watts'8 Zen series, and some original works translated into English. All such outside sources helped to make physical educators more familiar with Eastern philosophical and religious thought and practice. The real beginning of the consideration of physical education and sport from an Eastern perspective, came with the publication of Howard Slusher's Man. Existence and Soort in 1967. Slusher considers some of the characteristics of sport participation from a Western existential framework, highlighting sport as the opportunity for man to find personal meaning. He describes the relationship of sport and religion, focusing particularly on the comparison between Zen and doubt or anxiety in the sport situation. According to Slusher, the sport situation not only provides a "doubting" for the performer, but also demands it. Each movement is subject to personal doubt. He points out that the question of increasing anxiety is almost as if man were completely Zen. From the existential and Zen perspective, finally, he suggests that man must face his doubts and anxieties, and offers the lesson in such a situation of how man could well come to develop a sensitivity of his own self.9 44 In discussing the meaning of philosophic inquiry to physical education, Elwood Davis and others introduce Eastern philosophical concepts and their relationship to physical activity. According to them, the United States at mid-twentieth century has witnessed the growth of interest in the thought and value systems of Eastern philosophy and in the martial arts. Examining the teachings of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zen, they suggest that Eastern physical activities such as the kendo, archery, judo, and karate are based on the wisdom of the body derived from Eastern religions and philosophy. They conclude that there is little doubt that physical educators could learn much from study of the Eastern way. In the future, they believe, physical educators should search for the wisdom of Eastern ways.^o There are,- during this stage of acquaintance, no significant discussions, in journals, proceedings, and dissertations, relating Eastern ideas and practices to physical education.
Ihe_Second Stage: Aopropriationd 968-1982) Eastern thought and practice were appropriated in the second stage, the period 1968 to 1982. In this period the concepts of traditional American physical education and sport were discussed in terms of an Eastern perspective and to some extent accepted. For example, the so-called "Eastern approach" came to be viewed as an alternative to the traditional approach to American physical education and sport. However, the pattern is not one of wholesale adoption. Rather, the mission of American physical educators has 45 been somewhat pragmatic: they have tried to use various Eastern techniques and insights as tools and guides selectively for addressing existing issues that they were facing, i.e., as an aid to better development. In this period, a growing number of books and journal articles referred to Eastern ideas and approaches, focusing particularly on sport. The following literature reflects those of characteristics of the second stage, "appropriation."
Books The Eastern emergence in the field of physical education made its appearance through a specific group who may be called "Eastern theorists." Their works vary widely in approach and subject. The following publications, known as the so-called "inner game series," applied Eastern approaches to traditional Western activities: Golf in .theJ^mR,dpm(1972). The ultimate Athlete(1974). Powers of MintLa975l Inner game of Tennis(1976). The Psvchic Side of Sport(1978). and Inner Game of Golf(1982). Although all of these popular publications were written by authors outside the field of physical education, these titles indicate a radically different approach to American sport and physical activity from the traditional Western way. Scholars inside the field have often been followed rather than leaders in looking to outside philosophical ideas as the basis for their own theories and practices. In discussing the similarities between sport and religious practice, Michael Murphy and Rhea White point out that body and 46 mind discipline derived from Eastern spiritual and religious techniques enriches athletic training programs. Combining Western and Eastern insights, they offer the following six elements of body and mind training methods: 1) meditation, 2) biofeedback, 3) visualization, 4) dreaming, 5) sensory and kinesthetic awareness, and 6) the energy body. In addition, they suggest that these kinds of training methods need not be limited to championship athletes, but are for every individual. They can be applied easily to all sport situations. Further, they offer a specific model of a body-mind experience program for joggers and runners.n In discussing powers of the human mind, Adam Smith investigates Eastern religious notions and techniques and the attempts of Western psychology to understand it. Particularly, he tries to place such Western and Eastern techniques as biofeedback, Rolfing, progressive relaxation method, autogenic training, T.M, and yoga in a new way of learning and experiencing. Focusing on the human being's internal process, he points out that Western athletics and games are an appropriate medium for developing human mind. From this standpoint, he suggests that sport may be regarded as a
W estern y o g a .12 Robert Nideffer describes the integration of mental and physical functioning in sport, and argues that both the meaning and premise of this integration can be seen by examining the Oriental martial arts of karate and aikido. Through different training procedures in martial arts, one can learn to direct attention away from painful stimuli and to ignore them, thus increasing both his 47 pain threshold and his tolerance of pain. On the basis of this observation, Nideffer suggests that Western athletes, utilizing these techniques, in particularly in contact sports, can develop greater tolerative for pain and thus may perform at a higher level for long periods of time. 13 In discussing the metaphysical perspective of sport, Carolyn Thomas describes the relationship of the mind and body from the Zen perspective, particularly comparing it with the existential phenomenological point of view. Mind and the body from the Zen perspective are not viewed as separate but as complementary. The method for seeking self-realization implies an integration of body and mind. She states that, in much the same way as the existential phenomenologists view the body as subject, the Zen position represents an embodied entity. Thomas concludes that the body is given great attention in the Zen orientation because it is the source of experience and subsequent self-realization. 14
Terry Orlick uses Suzuki's Zen philosophy to explore a method of Zen approach to self-control and excellence in sport situations. According to his interpretation of Suzuki's notion, thinking interferes with the task at hand and one has to leave it behind. For example, a sword man must free himself from all ideas of life and death, gain and loss, right and wrong. This leads to discovery that a mind unconscious of itself fills the whole body, pervading every part of the body. In the Zen manner, Orlick suggests: "Don't try to be happy or think about being happy. Simply live and experience. The happiness will come as a by-product. In a similar vein, don't try to win or to 48 think about winning. Get absorbed in the experience. The winning will take care of itself." 15 In describing the relationship of sport to Zen, Joseph Mihalich suggests that a nonconceptual approach to sport be applied to the sporting enterprise. According to him, the substance of this approach is that properly oriented athletes can achieve successful results by eliminating the mind and ego-consciousness during performance. Using Jack Nicklaus" legendary golfing success as an example, Mihalich concludes that performance without an ego-centered mind enables athletes to play with immense powers of concentration. 16 In examining contemporary concepts and current programming trends in physical education, Daryl Siedenlop states that American physical educators have much to learn from Eastern movement forms and philosophies and that there is a growing interest among physical educators to understand more fully and incorporate these activities into physical education programs at all levels. Examining the progressive, humanistic, and phenomenological movement on American physical education, he points out that one of the important characteristics of the merging influence exerted through Eastern movement forms is the recognition of similarities among Western phenomena, such as biofeedback training, relaxation therapy, and Eastern practices such as meditation and yoga. With a brief criticism about martial arts, finally, Siedentop suggests that many Eastern approaches will be analyzed further by American physical educators. 17 49
lournal Articles Spencer Wertz discusses the aspects of "inner awareness" in the sport experience. According to him, inner awareness in the world of sport is the true benefit for athletes in terms of both quality and quantity. Raising a question of how such a desirable state is achieved and maintained or repeated and taught until lately, he suggests that Hata Yoga and Zen training offer methods and exercise to help bring about this inner awareness. Hiroshi Hamada and Patrick Tow discuss the feasibility of a university martial arts program. Like many other events in varsity sports programs, they point out that judo, karate, and kendo can play vital roles in intercollegiate athletic competition. Further, in describing the benefits gained from practicing the martial arts, Hamada and Tow list four outcomes for the student: 1 ) physical fitness, 2) weight control, 3) self-defense application, and 4)
mental/spiritual experience.!9 In discussing movement experiences in sport, dance, and exercise, Roselyn Stone points out that one may perceive the "disquiet" in performing the movement patterns of other cultures. She describes the following insights about moving found in her own experience of Zen: 1 ) the Japanese aesthetic as experienced in the Zen sesshin. 2) the discovery of pushing past pain, and 3) the clarification found in her satori experience for her ongoing investigation of the hypothesis that sport, dance, and exercise are contemplative forms. These experiences. Stone claims, provide the individual with human 50 longing and the unity within the differences of life's self-chosen endeavors.20
Proceedings In articulating an Eastern approach to motor skill acquisition and performance, Micheal Canic proposes that skill possesses quite a different meaning in the context of Zen. He states that the primary concern of the Zen disciple is spiritual cultivation for attaining enlightenment. As a Zen disciple, all living activities are directed toward this spiritual cultivation. From this standpoint, Canic concludes that skill performance is activity directed toward spiritual cultivation. The cultivative mind results in action that is spontaneous and not a product of conscious desire. Therefore, the entire context for skill acquisition is grounded in nonrational knowledge with which the learner cannot initially come to grips. Further, he suggests that a Zen approach to motor skill performance may be thought of as "meditation in movement. "21 In describing an inner experience with the body, Conry states that, through yoga meditation, one can learn to control the senses, to disengage oneself from the world, and to turn one’s mind inward toward pure embodied consciousness. She refers to this inner experience as an act of meditation or reflexive thought in contrast to referential thought. Applying Husserl's phenomenological reduction to the process of meditation, Conry suggests that the practice of yoga involves a way of being and existing in the body, and meditation is a
phenomenological approach to self-understanding .22 51 In discussing the spiritual quality of human involvement during certain movement events, C. Gazette and Margaret. Hukill, suggest that involvement in Asian-originated sports such as aikido. iaido. kendo, iudo. karate. Japanese archery, and yoga provide us with a hidden core of spirituality that offers balance and gives a deeper meaning to movement. Particularly, it exemplifies the spirit of Zen emphasizing harmony with the cosmos and achieving oneness with nature. Through extreme physical discipline and mental concentration, the Zen adherents seek spiritual enlightenment. They conclude that this dimension presented in many of the ancient sports of Eastern cultures offers a challenge to contemporary American physical educators.23
Based on Wang Yang-ming's concept of the unity of knowledge and action, Scott Duncanson offers a theoretical implication of Eastern non-dualistic insight for movement and sport. He claims that the fundamental problem in sport and movement is the relationship between polar opposites - "mind and body, thought and movement, inner perception and outer performance, or knowledge and action." In discussing the merits of Wang Yang-ming's philosophy as an answer to this problem, Duncanson calls attention to the followings: 1) the reconciliation of a polarized social or interpersonal situation, 2) the unity of disciplinary theory and professional practice, and 3) the unity of individual knowledge and action. In the world of sport and movement, he concludes, the first and last good of athletic! move ment) performance must be the unification of physical act and mental intention.24 52 Seymour Kleinman points out that the sign of the Eastern influence that the Eastern attitude toward sport and all movement forms is making an impression among Western athletes and sport participants. Examining some of the Eastern concepts based on Chinese philosophy, Buddhism, and movement forms, he suggests various implications for physical education and sport, including such concerns practice, and attitude or approach to sport, that are different from the Western point of view. Finally Kleinman points out that there are forces at work in contemporary society which promise to alter radically the Western view of sport for both spectators and participants.25 Kenneth Ravizza, in describing peak-experience in sport, attempts to describe the Oriental concept of the peak-experience. He insists that the peak-experience is common to all people in all places and times. Almost every culture and religion refer to this type of experience. The concept of "Nirvana" in Buddhism, the term "Satori" and "Kensho" in Zen, "Moksa" in Yoga, and "the absolute Tao." represent such a moment.26 In discussing the nature of Japanese martial arts, Richard Schimidt points to the emphasis on unification of body and spirit through the martial arts discipline. He describes the learning process in the martial arts and elucidates four hierarchical stages: 1 ) the gyfi(introductory), 2) shuevoithe second level of training), 3) jutsufart level), 4) 4a(the state of the artless art). Through these stages, one becomes a whole person, achieving self-realization. Finally, schimidt states that learning martial arts and ways is a 53 process of "seishin kvoiku." Mind and body undergo spiritual forging via the combative mode to foster the development of the mature and self-actualized human being at harmony with the self and the cosmos.27
Theses and Dissertations Janis Fetters, in attempting to regard the aesthetic experience of the body from the perspective of the performer, proposes that the athlete's body perceived aesthetically as an expressive form articulates his subjective, lived movement experience, transforming sensuous perception that defies complete discursive articulation into meaningful conception. According to her, prereflective consciousness of these meanings comes through a total body awareness. They are lived in the body, apprehended in a personally embodied way. She proposes that this subjective experience can be seen in the Zen approach to bodily experience that leads one to the fundamental realization of his or her own self.28 In describing the meaning of centering techniques, Ann Brunner examines the method by which training in Aikido draws one's spiritual energies. Ki. to the center of gravity, which is located in the abdominal region. According to her, this training method based on the Zen doctrine of no-mind involves developing a state of consciousness that is fully aware and alert, undistracted and responsive. From this viewpoint of the martial artist, Brunner suggests that this no-mind state of consciousness enhances one's awareness and perceptions in the direct experience of movement.29 54 Donald Charpie presents that the main idea of Neo- Confucianism yields a logical set of statements concerning the nature of human movement and produces relevant pedagogical implications for the arts and sciences of human movement. Investigating some questions addressed from metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological considerations of Neo-confucianism, he suggests that in Neo-Confucianism there is a general philosophical position which incorporates with the nature of human movement.30
The Third Stage: Transformation(1983-1989) The third stage began in 1983, in which the "Big Ten Body of Knowledge Symposium" entitled "Mind and Body: East Meets West" was held at the Ohio State University, This symposium provided a turning point, confirming the relevance of Eastern studies in American physical education and sport. Since the publication of Herrigel's Zen in the Art of Archerv. a growing body of literature and events had pushed Eastern thoughts and practices into growing prominence. This conference was in many respects the culmination, the first conference in which a significant number of physical educators examined the relevance of Eastern philosophy and movement forms to American physical education. For the first time, an entire conference was devoted to addressing the mind-body problem from both Eastern and Western perspectives. The conference pointed to the need for a synthesis of Eastern and Western views. A number of works presented in this conference were edited and appeared in the publication. Mind and Bodv: East 55 Meets West, by Seymour Kleinman, in 1986. This book can be regarded as one of the most valuable sources in investigating the emergence of Eastern thought and practices in American physical education and sport. In the preface of this book, Kleinman states:
it was heartening to see more than 100 "theoretical practitioners" come together to consider themes and issues dealing with Eastern and Western conceptions of consciousness and person, Eastern and Western movement forms, and emerging views of movement as art.31 In this stage, transformation, the pattern of perceiving the relevance of Eastern concepts and practices for American physical education seems to have somewhat changed. During this period, a "transformation" takes place, not a mere "transplantation. " That is, the "Americanization " of Eastern thought and practice occurs. Here, some American physical educators creatively synthesize Eastern ideas and approaches with those of American physical education for the purpose of integrating them into an American setting, thereby contributing to the evolution of American physical education s nature and attitude. In this respect, the emergence of Eastern thought and practice goes beyond the realm of simply being influential. It extends to the realm of theoretical development. It seems to be leading to an emergence of new theoretical orientations. This process marks a new stage of American physical education in which Eastern concepts, having been transformed, offer an alternative to the traditional Western paradigm. For example, in this period, this synthesis of East and West seems to be resulting in what may be called a "somatic physical education." It incorporates ideas such as "movement as art " 56 and the "theory of right practice." The following works reflect those characteristics of the third stage, "transformation."
Books In discussing the process of practicing, Micheal Livingston asserts that athletic training and excellence require a discipline of mind which exceeds the limits imposed by the Western deterministic view. For Livingston, one of the important discoveries is that the process of pursuing peak performance is a greater achievement than the product, and that improvement is a worthy end in itself. Then, Livingston attempts to explore the scientific disciplines of exercise physiology, neurophysiology, and quantum physics to explain the learning phenomenon. He also examines the Eastern disciplines of meditative introspection to develop a model of consciousness that is grounded in the extraordinary power of individual will. Based on these insights, Livingston offers the theory of "right practice," which is an integration of Western and Eastern perspectives.32 In discussing the skill of voluntary relaxation in a sport context, Charles Garfield introduces the notion of the reserves of human energy called Ki in Japan, Prana in India, and £hi in China, and the skills for gaining access to these physical accomplishments in judo and karate. He is particularly critical of the stereotyped attitude of the Western athlete, tight-jawed determination and dedication to the single-minded goal of beating the competition. This attitude of blind, rigid determination is not, Garfield argues, the key that allows the athlete to develop his strength and maximize his 57 potential in sport. Garfield suggests that high levels of voluntary relaxation can be gained through the practice of rather subtle methods of breath control, mental concentration, and mind-body unification based on the ancient Asian meditation techniques. In the martial arts, the discipline of Zen teaches the athlete to de-emphasize the intellect and to develop the intuition to a high degree, with the ultimate aim of freeing the athlete from anger, illusion, and false passion.33
Robert Nideffer proposes that many sport situations require the ability of focused concentration. In introducing various types of total concentration methods, he attempts to develop the concept of "focus of ki" used by masters of the Oriental martial arts. In attempting to use it effectively in Western competitive sport, Nideffer suggests the following: "The focus of ki, like the development of a broad type of concentration, requires freedom from the mental distractors that act to increase muscle tension in those muscles that are antagonistic to performance."34 In discussing relaxation and nourishing the whole athlete, Kay Porter and Judy Foster point to the Chinese movement form, "T'ai Chi Ch'uan," as a form of physical meditation. In performing this movement, the body is taught and allowed to find a quiet, rhythmic movement containing strength, balance, concentration of mind and body, and patience, which allow the athlete to be synchronized with the rhythm of his or her movement.35 One book worthy of special mention in this stage is that entitled The Bodv: Toward an Eastern Mind-Bodv Theory, written by 58 Yasuo Yuasa, the Modern Japanese philosopher. This study played a significant role in introducing an original Eastern body-mind theory, not merely by comparing the Eastern and Western approaches from the theoretical and the practical standpoints, but also by attempting to offer a newly envisioned alternative to traditional Eastern and Western approaches. This book is one of the most well organized publications concerning Eastern thought and practice since the appearance of Kleinman's Mind and Bodv: East Meets West. published in 1986. Comparing Eastern and Western theories of mind and body, Yuasa characterizes the differences in emphasis as follows:
1) the characteristic of Eastern body-mind theory is priority given to the questions, "How does the relationship between the mind and body come to be through cultivation?"
2) the traditional issue in Western philosophy is "What is the relationship between the m ind-body?"3 6 In the East, in other words, one starts from the experiential assumption, but in the West from the theoretical assumption. Examining various Eastern traditions, he points oui that the mind- body theory in the Eastern philosophy is net simply a theoretical speculation but a practical, lived experience, involving the mustering of one's whole mind and body. Yuasa finally proposes that we need a new philosophy that may be called a "phenomenology of the inner world, " which reflects the Western conceptual ideas and the Eastern practical insights.
Tournai Articles and Proceedings Seymour Kleinman proposes that the treatment of sport and physical education as science is not only inaccurate, but falls far 59 short of providing access to an understanding of human potential. He points out that people do not engage in sport and physical activity for scientific reasons. Rather, the popularity of sport is more readily understood in terms of fulfilling artistic and aesthetic needs. From this standpoint, Kleinman insists that rational explanations for sport's universality are incomplete, and reducing sport and physical education to a science dehumanizes this fundamental drive. He argues that the Far Eastern countries seem to have understood this principle intuitively and that Westerners can learn a great deal about sport and physical education from the peoples of the East, whose traditional movement forms are practiced as artfas Do).37 Chic Johnson attempts to develop a revisionist philosophy of coaching. From the Eastern perspective, he examines the following three concepts in relation to sport: 1 ) the integrated individual, 2) concentration, and, 3) no-mindedness. Then, Johnson compares the Western attitude toward sport with the Eastern. The Western attitude is primarily goal-oriented, pragmatic, and reductionist, leading to the consideration of a product rather than process, ends rather than means, and goals rather than experience. In contrast. Easterners see opposites as relational and fundamentally harmonious. They recognize no dichotomy of products and process, ends and means, or goal and experience. Finally, Johnson attempts to utilize those Eastern ideas and techniques, which challenge traditional approaches to sport, for Western athletic p u rp ose.38 In discussing the relationship between the way of practicing as a methodology and ontological commitment, Scott Watson states that 60 intention and commitment are just an important as methodology. Citing as examples of the archery master in Herrigel's Zen in the Art .Of.Af.ÇhgCZ and Gallwey in The Inner Game of Tennis, he argues that although they appear to be using the same methodological principles, both instructors do not have the same ontological commitment. From this viewpoint, Watson points out that the adoption of Eastern methods alone will not lead necessarily to the same commitment.39 In attempting to present a concept of "physical education as somatic education," Thomas Hanna states that the increasing somatic consciousness in the West has opened the eyes of Westerners to an Eastern way of thinking that has always been somatic. The Asians have always seen shades of gray in distinguishing mind and body: the human being is viewed as an integrated unity of body and mind. In contrast to this view, the Westerner has seen the human as a phantasmagoria of matter and spirit with no real connection. Hanna points out that the Eastern religions and martial arts traditions are a special gift to Western culture, because they restore to human beings their depth. This Eastern somatic tradition is a resounding confirmation of the contemporary Western somatic concept.^o Gregory Olson and Norman Comfort III state that a Japanese martial art, "aikido, " provide an excellent alternative supplement to the physical education programs of the West. The traditional Eastern approach to learning this martial art seems to be based on intuition. This abstraction of thought teaches the mind to respond through the body without evidence of conscious rational thought. What is produced in performing this activity is a heightened kinesthetic 61 sense between mind and body acting as one intuitively. Comparing this with Western view of sport, they suggest that the gap between intuitive reasoning and scientific analysis can be bridged by aikido, which allows not only a conceptual-visual analysis of the physical laws of movement, but also the opportunity for the mind to "let go" and depend on an intuitive kinesthetic sense to feel a oneness between the mind and body.'*! In describing the nature of martial arts and their change in the West, Angelika Forster attempts to explicate the inner experience and the concept of no-mind in martial arts. The quality of experience aimed for in daily exercise in the martial arts differs from the experience in sports. In martial arts, the fighter becomes completely absorbed by the movement, so that there is a congruency between intention and execution. This new quality of reality is only possible when the fighter reaches a "loss of ego." Forster suggests that this no-mind is only possible if thoughts do not plan the movements. Further, Forster claims that in practicing martial arts the student learns by limitation and observation, and has to be more self-critical, and the techniques are thereby acquired on the basis of a holistic process. Finally, he points out that practicing martial arts in the West needs, inevitably, a change of method.42
Theses and Dissertations A growing number of theses and dissertations appearing in this period have abounded in the synthesis of the Eastern and Western concepts and practices. The following works reflect such a position. 62 Candace Norton points out that contemporary American physical education has begun to borrow from the method and content of the Eastern disciplines, which have emphasized the study and expansion of consciousness and have aimed for positive realization of the body's capacities for sensory experience. She suggests several new courses, so called "somatic physical education programs" developing new ways of teaching and learning; 1 ) Hata yoga, 2) tai chi chuan, 3) aikido, 4) breathing techniques, 5) acupuncture, 6) karate, and 7) kung fu.^3 Using the phenomenological concepts of Schulz and Nishida, Junko Yamaguchi attempts to describe the body awareness in Noh performance, a Japanese movement form. Analyzing this performance, she suggests that there are four hierarchical horizons of body awareness: 1) pre-reflective awareness, 2) conscious act, 3) unified transcendental awareness, and 4) awareness of Nothingness. The order of these experiences indicates the hierarchical stage of self-realization. In addition, Yamaguchi points out that the concept of body awareness presented in previous physical education literature has not necessarily been arranged into the contexts of self- realization or self-discipline. In contrast to this, Japanese movement forms, as seen in Noh, aim at self-discipline, the ultimate goal of which is Nothingness as the highest horizon of body aw areness.^^ Based on a direction of thinking which incorporated perspectives found in yoga, Zen, and kendo literature, Claudia Coville attempts to reconceptualize of the theory of "education through the physical" fashioned in physical education literature of the past sixty 63 years. On the basis of this conceptualization, she offers a new way of thinking that the primary objective in the education through the physical curriculum would be guidance of students to a "non-relative mode of consciousness" through physical activities.45
In summary, this chapter has shown an evolving acculturation process in which Eastern thought and practice have emerged in American physical education and sport, and has traced various Eastern concepts appearing in the selected literature of American physical education and sport published since 1953. A critical assessment of these selections indicates that writers outside of physical education are in the forefront of Western knowledge of Eastern thoughts and practices. However, this is decreasingly the case, and recently physical educators have contributed more to the emergence of Eastern thought and practice. A second criticism is that the subject addressed in the literature is primarily the "what" about Eastern concept and methods, rather than "how" these ideas and practices apply to American physical education and sport. This tendency in the early stages of emergence of the holistic Eastern paradigm reflects a bias for "knowing-that" a proposition is true, rather than "knowing-how" to conduct a procedure. A third criticism is that most Western interpretations of Eastern thought and practice have attempted to understand Eastern concepts in Western terms. In effect, something has been lost in the translation, and this problem may well be unvoidable. However, it appears that when no English terminology exists that is analogous to 64 Eastern-language terminology, no place is created in Western literature for the understandable term. Perhaps increased emphasis upon learning foreign languages in American schools will alleviate this problem. In general, although there is some overlap, this growing body of literature indicates that the emergence of Eastern theory and practice is relevant for physical education in the areas of philosophy, pedagogy, objectives and curriculum, and training method. The core of Eastern theory and practice may be expressed as follows: 1 ) theory and practice are grounded on a holistic mind-body theory, 2) there is a distinctive way of teaching based on martial arts pedagogy, 3) self-actualization may be accomplished through movement forms, and 4) there is a distinctive approach toward the concept of practice in these forms which is based on meditative techniques. This review also indicates that over the past three decades, an increasing number of physical educators have given consideration to the nature, methods, and content of American physical education in connection with Eastern concepts and techniques. Such considerations will be the basis for discussion of the following chapter. 65
FOOTNOTES
1 Eugen Herrigel, Zen in the Art of Archerv (New York: Random House, 1973).
2 Daryl Siedentop, Physical Education: Introductory Analysis (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1980), p. 200.
3 Ralph Linton, Robert Redfield, and Melyille J. Herskoyits, "A Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation," American Anthropology. 26 (1953): 149-152.
4 Luigi Luca Cayalli-Sforza and Asher Feldman, Cross-Cultural Adaptation: Current Approaches (Beyerly Hills: Sage Publicallons, 1987), p. 63.
5 Donald Swearer, "Three Modes of Buddhism," (Unpublished paper, 1972).
6 Eugen Herrigel, Zen in the Art_of Archery (New York: Random House, 1973).
7 Such as those of D. T. Suzuki, Zen Buddhism(1956). The Manual of Zen Buddhism! 1960). Essays in Zen Buddhism( 1961). and The_Essence of Buddhism! 1963).
8 Such as those of Alan Watts, Zen Buddhism: A New Outline andJjitroduction! 1947). The Spirit of Zen: A way of Life. Work and ArtJnjthe Far Eastern Country! 1955). The Way of Zen! 1957). Psychotheranhy. East and West! 1961 ). and Tao: The Watercourse W ay(1975).
9 Howard S. Slusher, "Sport and Religious," Man. Snort and Existence: A Critical Analysis (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1967), pp. 121-127.
10 w. Harper, D. Miller, R. Park, and E. Dayis, "Philosophy in the Eastern World," The Philosophic Process in Physical Education. 3rd Edition, (Philadelphia : Lea & Febiger, 1977), pp. 288-297. 66
11 Michael Murphy and Rhea A. White, The Psvchic Side of Sport (Reading Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1978), pp. 151-171.
12 Adam Smith, Powers of Mind (New York: Ballentine Books, 1975).
13 Robert M. Nideffer, "Integration of Mind and Body," The Inner Athlete: Mind Plus Muscle for Winning (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976), pp. 11-44.
14 Carolyn Thomas, Soort in a Philosophic Context (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1983), pp. 24-39.
15 Terry Or lick. Pursuit of Excellence (Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1980).
16 Joseph C. Mihalich, Sport and Athletics: Philosophy in Action. (Totowa: Row man and Littlefield, 1982), pp. 71-89.
17 Siedentop, Physical Education: Introductory Analysis, pp. 198-208.
18 Spencer Wertz, "Zen, Yoga, and Sport: Eastern Philosophy for Western Athletes. " journal of Philosophy of Sport. 4 (Fall 1977): 68- 82.
19 Hiroshi Hamada and Patrick Tow, "Martial Arts: A Discussion of the Feasibility of a Uniyersity Martial Arts Program," lournal of Physical Education and Recreation. 50 (February, 1979): 47-49
20 Roselyn E. Stone, "Of Zen and the Experience of Moying, " Quest. 33 (1981): 96-107.
21 Micheal Canic, "An Eastern Approach to Motor Skill Acquisition and Performance, " Mind and Body: East Meets West. edited by Seymour Klein man (Champaign,111.: Human Kinetics, 1986), pp. 75-82.
22 Barbara Conry, " Meditation: An Inner Experience with the Body, " Being Human in Sport, edited by D. Allen and B. Fahey (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977), pp. 121-130. 67
23 C. Gazette and M. Hukill, "Spirituality and Sport," Being Human in Soort. pp. 81-86.
24 Scott Duncanson, "Unity of Knowledge and Action: The Thoughts of Wang Yang-ming," Mind and Body; East Meets West (1986), pp. 51-54.
25 Seymour Klein man, "Eastern Thought, Movement Forms and Western Sport," Proceedings of the Philosophic Society for the Study of Sport Conference, The Ohio State University, Columbus, (November 1977).
26 Kenneth Ravizza, "Potential of the Sport Experience," Being a.m an in-S.pprt (1977), pp. 61-72.
27 Richard Schimidt, "Japanese Martial Arts as Spiritual Education." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West (1986). pp. 69-74.
28 Janis. L. Fetters, "The Aesthetic Experience of the Body in Sport," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.. The Ohio State University, 1976).
29 Ann Brunner, "A Philosophic Inquiry into a Holistic Approach to Human Movement from the Perspective of Zen," (Unpublished master's thesis. Smith College, 1975).
30 Donald J. Charpio, "The Nature of Human Movement: A Philosophical Interpretation Delineated From Neo-confucianism," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1978).
31 Seymour Kleinman, Mind and Bodv: East Meets West. (Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1986), p. vi.
32 Micheal Livingston, Mental Discipline: Pursuit of Peak Performance (Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1989).
33 Charles A. Garfield, Peak Performance: Mental Training Techniques of the World's Greatest Athletes (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tar cher, 1984).
34 Robert M. Nideffer, Athletes Guide to Mental Training. (Champaign, 111.; Human Kinetics, 1985). 68
35 Kay Porter and Judy Foster. The Mental Athlete (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm, C. Brown, 1986).
36 Yuasa Yasuo, The Bodv: Toward an Eastern Mind-Bodv Theory, edited and translated by T. P. Kasulis (New York: State University of New York Press, 1987), p. 18.
37 Seymour Kleinman, "Physical Education and Sport As Art, Not Science," Proceedings in Asian Games Scientific Congress, Dankuk University, Cheoan, Korea, (1986).
38 Chic Johnson, "Toward a Revisionist Philosophy of Coaching," Mind and Bodv: East Meets West ( 1986). pp.149-156.
39 Scott B. Watson, "Is There More to Practice than the Pursuit of Perfection?" Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, pp. 131-136.
40 Thomas Hanna, "Physical Education as Somatic Education: A Scenario of the Future," Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, pp. 175- 181.
41 Gregory D. Olson and Norman D. Comfort III, "Akido: The Art of Human Movement." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, d o . 101-106.
42 Angelika Forster, "The Nature of Martial Arts and Their Change in the West," Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, pp. 83-88.
43 Candace J. Norton, "Exploring the Somatic Dimension of Physical Education," (Unpublished master's thesis. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1977).
44 Junko Yamaguchi, "A Phenomenological Inquiry into Movement Awareness Illustrated through Zeami’s Theory of Noh," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1983).
45 Claudia A. Coville, "Education Through the Physical: A Reconceptualization Based on Analysis of Yoga, Zen, and Kendo Literature," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1984). CHAPTER IV THE EMERGENCE OF EASTERN THOUGHT AND PRACTICE IN THE WEST
The previous chapter examined how Eastern concepts and practices were adapted to the field of American physical education and sport in three distinctive acculturation phases over the past three decades. It was shown that a growing number of American physical educators linked the nature, methods, and content of American physical education to various Eastern concepts and techniques. In many ways, such considerations may reflect a changing attitude, and offer an opportunity for a new paradigm of physical education in America. What do Eastern thought and practice say about American physical education and sport? Can they make any significant contribution toward the evolution of contemporary American physical education? It is with these questions that the present chapter is concerned. Pointing toward two major aspects of education, the theoretical and the practical, this chapter attempts to identify to what extent Eastern concepts and practices have emerged in contemporary American physical education and sport, and to what extent they may affect the direction of American physical education. First, the theoretical aspects of the emerging of Eastern ideas will be discussed in terms of mind-body theory. Next, the practical 69 70 aspects of the emerging view will be analyzed in relation to the pedagogy, objectives and curriculum of physical education, and training methods.
Ttig.Thg.Qr.?Uç.aI The dominant Eastern belief that mind and body are inseparable has significant implications for physical education. The mind-body issue historically has been one of the most persistent problems with which Western scholars have struggled. Seymour Kleinman points out that for the physical educator, in particular, "the questions concerning body and mind have always posed a distinct problem."! Approaches, methods, and programs of physical education have invariably depended upon the interpretation of the relationship of mind and body. Much of American physical education and sport traditionally has grounded its theoretical foundation in a dualistic or atomistic model of human nature. This "mind-body dualism" has influenced Western thought for centuries. This educational theory rests on the metaphysical notion that there is a dichotomy between mind and body. This is the major ground for the "sound mind in a sound body" view of physical education. According to Kleinman,
It is a concept of physical education which has lasted for thousands of years and it is probably the view of physical education which is predominant in the eyes of general public. . . . Our periodic emphases upon physical fitness program which occur with almost cyclic regularity is a reflection of the sensitivity our field has to the basic conviction of the population at large; that is, the underlying assumption of a mind-body dualism.2 71 Within this philosophical orientation, physical education and sport has been justified and has indeed fiourished. The mind-body dualism that underlies this approach tends to support an instrumental view of activities, where in bodily movement is a means to an end outside itself. When this dualistic orientation toward the human condition enters into scientific research and discussion of progressive educational aims, American physical education and sport reformers confronted a confiict. On the one hand there was the claim that Western sport is the epitome of character-building, whole-person experience by virtue of its power to unify body and mind through human movement. The student was considered to be functionally autonomous. On the other hand there was an overriding emphasis, among behaviorist psychologists, for example, on the external and quantifiable aspects of human performance based on the positivistic use of scientific method. The student was considered to be structually controlled by stimuli. Too often, the human is viewed as an object to be manipulated, trained, and measured through technological means. The holistic view of "progressive physical education," is based on "a metaphysical position taken by the pragmatists which rejects a dualism."3 Foilowing John Dewey's concept of the reflex arc as a continuous coordination of perception and action, it is a point of view that has greatly influenced the new direction of physical education. The Deweyan progressive physical educators contended that a mechanistic view of the mind and the body cannot account for one's 72 experience of physical activity. Daryl Siedentop describes this functionalist, autonomous view of physical education as follows:
Within the progressivist view, human being was seen as a totality, and distinctions such as those of mind and body were considered to be inappropriate. This holistic theory of physical education aimed at an education-through-the-physical and placed equal emphasis on physical, social, intellectual, and emotional objectives.'* Over a period of time, however, this holistic view of physical education has declined in influence due to its perceived overemphasis on "social and intellectual concerns" such as democratic citizenship, group cohesiveness, and personality growth. Some so- called "progressive physical educators" came to regard physical education as merely a means to sociological and psychological ends. Physical activities came to be viewed as instruments for achieving such outcomes, a trend to which Kleinman responds:
the commitment to a holistic view of the individual by the physical education theorists did not result in it's being put into practice. . . . This led to a redirection of the field away from activity. . . . 5 Although a holistic mind-body or "whole-man" concept of education has been evident as a theoretical perspective for physical education, this wisdom has not been thoroughly instituted in a practical setting. Consequently, the progressive view of physical education as holistic may be regarded as merely "theoretical." It seems that an attempt to overcome the mind-body dualism of physical education did not come to fruition in practice, due in part to the rigidity and simplicity of positivist scientific paradigm of behavior in terms of stimulus and response. 73 What the Eastern philosophy of mind-body unity offers American physical education is a metaphysical nondualism based on practical utility and experiential insight. Eastern mind-body theory can be characterized as "holistic" and "experiential," The modern Japanese philosopher Yasuo Yuasa, in his book The Bodv: Toward An Eastern Mind-Bodv Theory, characterizes the difference in emphasis between Eastern and Western theories of mind and body as follows:
One of the characteristics of Eastern body-mind theories is the priority given to the questions, "How does the relationship between the mind and body coine to be (through cultivation)?" The traditional issue in Western philosophy, on the other hand, is "What is the relationship between the mind-body in the East one starts from the experiential assumption that the mind-body modality changes through the training of the mind and body by means of cultivation(shugyo) or training(keiki). . . . That is, the mind-body issue is not simply a theoretical speculation but it is originally a practical, lived experience (taiken) involving the mustering of one's whole mind and body. The theoretical is only a reflection on this lived experience.^ In Yuasa’s account, the Eastern mind-body modality is grounded on practical value, not on a theoretical assumption. In other words, its core is not abstract intellectual conceptualization, but the wisdom derived from real practice or experience. Hence, it provides a "practice-driven theory" of mind-body unity of man and physical activity, not a "theory-driven practice" of purely intellectual origin. Eastern theories not only teach a holistic or non-dualistic view of human movement, but this view is also practiced in each of the indigenous Eastern movement forms. Within these movement forms, human movement is regarded as a display of creativity which emanates from an intuitive mode of human experience. The human being is viewed as an integrated unity of body and mind. The nearly 74 incredible demonstrations of prowess by Eastern martial artists, for example, show that the upper limits of athletic performance are expanded when external performance is wedded with internal awareness. This relatively new insight in Western sport is endorsed by Western athletes as diverse as Arnold Schwarzenegger and Bill W alton:
"The mind is the limit. We know now that it's not the body. As long as you can envision the fact that you can do something, you can doit.... It's all mind over matter." ^ In recent years, a growing number of American physical education theorists have suggested that Eastern mind-body theories based on practical insight have a great deal of potential in overcoming traditional Western dualistic habits. Some have adopted this holistic concept of mind-body to serve as the theoretical basis for understanding the nature of human movement. Robert Nideffer describes the integration of mental and physical functioning in sports, and argues that both the meaning and the premise of this integration can be seen by examining the Oriental martial arts of karate and aikido. "Through different training procedures employed in the martial arts, one can learn to direct attention away from painful stimuli and to ignore them, thus increasing both his pain threshold and his tolerance of pain. 'S On the basis of this observation, Nideffer suggests that Western athletes, particularly those who are involved in contact sports, could play for long periods of time without being aware of major injuries, and thus can perform at a higher level. 75 Based on Wang Yang-ming's concept of the unity of knowledge and action, Scott Duncanson offers a theoretical implication of Eastern non-dualistic insight for movement and sport. He claims that the fundamental problem in sport and movement is the relationship between polar opposites - "mind and body, thought and movement, inner perception and outer performance, or knowledge and action."^ In discussing the merits of Wang Yang-ming's philosophy as an answer to this problem, Duncanson calls attention to the following: 1 ) the reconciliation of a polarized social or interpersonal situation, 2) the unity of disciplinary theory and professional practice, and 3) the unity of individual knowledge and action. In the world of sport and movement, he concludes, the first and last good of athletic! move ment) performance must be the unification of physical act and mental intention. Each of these examples suggests that an appreciation of Eastern mind-body theory has opened the eyes of an increasing number of American physical educators to the holistic approach to understanding movement and sport. This point of view is also evident in Bob Case's comment:
Eastern movement forms based on holistic body-mind notion are showing Western sport that union between body and mind is possible. 10 Eastern mind-body theory derived from practical wisdom offers a valuable implications for American physical education and sport. Rejecting an objective and instrumental conception of the body, it argues for the development and expression of individual self- consciousness and for the experience and expression of self. 76 It is highly unlikely that dualistic notions of body and mind will be eliminated completely from American physical education. But it seems clear that the Eastern concept of mind-body, characterized as holistic and experiential, has played a catalytic role in American physical education, stimulating genuine inquiry and activity in reassessing the nature and value of movement and physical activity. With these insights, contemporary American physical educators have begun to appreciate the qualitative and unifying dimensions of human movement, in contrast to the quantitative and objective dimensions of movement and physical activity.
The Practical In the practical domain we find considerable evidence of emerging views of Eastern thought and practice in American physical education. Over the past three decades, a growing number of physical educators have applied Eastern concepts and techniques in the practical context of American physical education to serve as the basis for teaching, learning, and training skill and performance. This section discusses three subsections on practical aspects; pedagogy; objectives and curriculum; and training method in physical education and sport. It is assumed that these three issues are not separate, but rather closely related matters that involve each other in practice.
A. P^daRQsy The Eastern emphasis on spiritual and holistic teaching is based on a number of philosophical and religious concepts. This approach 77 has made considerable impression on Western approaches to teaching skill since the appearance of Eugene Herrigel’s Zen in the Art of Archerv. 11 The impact of Zen, in particular, on the teaching and learning of Western sport skills has been rather dramatic. A dominant Western approach to teaching a skill traditionally has been to break the skill down into smaller parts; analyze every movement based on mechanical principles and behavioral patterns; and most recently, employ the technology of video, film and computers. "Encouraged by appropriate feedback and reinforcement. the student progresses toward the total movement pattern only after repeating a number of sequentially arranged skills. Practice, demonstration, checkpoints, and progression principles are used extensively in the teaching-learning process. The role of teacher is essentially one of telling and showing the student what to do and when to make necessary adjustments."12 According to this mechanistic model, the body is viewed as being able to learn things faster if told and shown what to do. This type of teaching or learning process may be called the “dualistic model," and is based on the Newtonian and Cartesian paradigms. In contrast to this dualistic approach, the Eastern holistic teaching or learning method is perhaps best exemplified in the following quotation. In it Herrigel shares an exchange between master and pupil when teaching and learning archery:
"The right art," cried the Master, is purposeless, aimlessi The more obstinately you try to learn how to shoot the arrow for the sake of hitting the goal, the less you will succeed in the one and the further the other will recede. What stands in your way is that you have a much too willful will. 78
You think that what you do not do yourself does not happen. "What must I do then, asks the pupil? You must learn to wait properly. And how does one learn that? By letting go of yourself, leaving yourself and everything of yours behind you so decisively that nothing more Is left of you but a purposeless tension."^ 3 The way of Herrigel's teaching and learning is not only "non productive" by nature but also characterized by a de-emphasis on objective standards of performance. This does not mean that the Eastern approach never considers products or goals. Rather, it strives for a harmonious relationship in which there is no division of products and process, ends and means, or goals and experience. The teacher has a subtle role. Unlike dominant Western approaches where the teacher actively assists the student by structuring the environment, setting goals and objectives, directing attention to relevant cues, and providing feedback, the task of the teacher is simply to help the student follow the Do(way), and to realize his own true nature. The instructor teaches primarily by demonstration. This allows the student to visually interpret certain skills. A demonstration may have much more effect than a verbal dialogue between teacher and student in its ability to impart a sense of the whole movement. A prototype of Eastern ways of teaching and learning, martial arts pedagogy, is characterized by a protracted apprenticeship. Study initiates under a teacher whose function is to serve as the transmitter of the skill and philosophies of his particular art. Long and difficult hours of intense, repetitive individual practicing are routine, and prescribed movements punctuated at times by physical and verbal abuse by the teacher, is the mode of instruction. 79 Teachers in the West are more concerned with efficiency and team practicing. In martial arts pedagogy, the process of learning itself is emphasized more than any specific goal. Students progress through a sequence of techniques through the process of instruction and testing in a hierarchical belt system. The process of learning martial arts skills described by Richard Schimidt^'^ shows four stages: The Introductory Staee of Beginner Belt represents the initial level of practicing. In this stage, the student is introduced to his chosen martial art, its customs and etiquette, his teacher, and his classroom. At this level, learning is a process of trial and error. The teacher is critical of the student, and a positive attitude is needed to perform through endless repetitions of basic movement. Non-verbal communication is emphasized by the teacher, who often does not give the student any verbal instruction. Rather than speaking, describing, or explaining, he demonstrates. The Second Staee of Intermediate Belt represents a more difficult process of learning martial arts. This stage involves the student in emulating the teacher in more spiritual than mechanical practices. At this level, the student attempts to effectively reproduce the actions of the teacher. The Third Stage of Advanced Belt is the artistic level. The student has acquired a mastery of the basic skills but still senses an incompleteness in his techniques. Movements once requiring conscious thought processes are now fully internalized and executed automatically. 80 The Fourth or Final Staee is known as the "Do. " This is the state of experts. As a student transcends the outer forms, he is both a student and his own teacher. This level is the ultimate stage of self- realization in martial arts. Attainment of the "Do " represents, beyond mere perfection of motor skills, a self-perfection in which old habits of dependence upon mechanics are thrown away, and restrictive thought, or awareness of "I" or "I am doing" is lost. In recent years, a growing number of American physical educators have adopted this Eastern viewpoint to serve as a pedagogical alternative to the dominant Western approach to teaching and learning. Among these emerging theories modeled
after Eastern w o r k s15 are Chic Johnson s, Richard Schimidt's, and Scott Watson’s. Their works provide an indication of an approach to teaching and learning that is radically different from the dominant traditional Western point of view. Timothy Gallwey has developed and popularized a particular method of instruction and practice incorporating such an Eastern way of teaching. He calls this method the "inner game way of learning" and has applied it to the teaching of tennis. Gallwey, for example, tries to induce his tennis students to take their conscious, critical selves off the front lines of the game and let their inner-selves take over: 'You have to check the mind to preoccupy it, stop it from fretting. A quiet mind is the secret. Most people think concentration is fierce effort. Concentration is effortless effort, is not trying." 16 Gallwey’s teaching of tennis centers around self-discovery rather than mechanical precision. The instinctual and intuitive 81 approach to learning and practicing tennis emphasizes a unity of movement which is very compatible with Eastern views of teaching and learning. Priority is given to the meaning of the learning experience to the student rather than just the finished product. Gallwey also emphasizes mind-body unification, imagery techniques, and meditative methods. Essentially, this Eastern approach to the acquisition and performance of motor skill is also evident in the pedagogy of Micheal Canic. Skill, according to Canic, "possesses quite a different meaning in the context of Zen." 17 The primary concern of the Zen disciple is spiritual cultivation for attaining enlightenment. For a Zen disciple, all living activities are directed toward this spiritual cultivation. From this standpoint, skill performance is activity directed toward spiritual cultivation. The cultivatived mind results in action that is spontaneous rather than deliberative and instinctual rather than a product of conscious desire. The entire context for skill acquisition is, therefore, grounded in the "nonrational knowledge with which the learner cannot initially come to grips." 18 The knowledge that Canic characterizes as "nonrational" can also be understood as knowing- how, or procedural(experiential) knowledge, as distinct from knowing-that, or propositionaKquantifiable) knowledge.
We are now seeing a growing number of American physical educators applying and teaching the Eastern pedagogical ways which have been used by Eastern masters for centuries. However, the emergence of an Eastern way of teaching in contemporary American physical education is still in its infancy, and it is too early to predict 82 what its impact will be. Nonetheless, there are numerous indications that Eastern pedagogy has had an appeal for American physical educators. These techniques and the attitudes toward teaching and learning may have the potential to make a significant contribution to the pedagogical context.
B. Objectives and Curriculum In the previous section, we have discussed some differences in teaching and learning methods between the Eastern and the dominant traditional American physical education. These differences, also, reflect underlying differences in objectives and curriculum. Eastern emphasis is on self-awareness and experiential process as the proper goals of physical education. Movement forms grounded on these insights seem to have provided significant motivation to an evolving set of objectives and curriculums in American physical education over the past three decades. The objectives and curriculum of American physical education traditionally have been involved with physical concerns. Most pervasive goals of physical education did not aspire beyond such elements of physical development as, strength, stamina, endurance, and fitness. Dudley Sargent, one of the leading physical educators in nineteenth century, points to these traditional objectives:
The great aim of the gymnasium is to improve the physical condition of the mass of our students, and to give them as much health, strength, and stamina as possible, to enable to perform the duties that await them after leaving college. ^ ^ These goals were worthy, but limited, because they ignored the "self" as central to the movement experience. In practice, most physical 83 education has consisted of mechanical repetition of a prescribed set of movements, generally in conjunction with seasonal games. The games have focused on goals of skill development and winning, rather than on increasing self-awareness or developing personal meaning. These experiences frequently have resulted in students disliking physical education and formalized explorations of movement, due to perceived failure in "gym class." The progressive physical educators who attempted to avoid this pitfall fell into the "associated learnings" trap. Spokesmen for the profession like Nash, Williams, and Obertouffer abandoned the "physical" in favor of the social and psychological benefits of physical education. And later the "sub-disciplinary movement" has focused on the scholarly study of activity and sport rather championing its practice. The ultimate objective of Eastern education and the process of mental development are, on the other hand, the liberation of the self from all types of bondage. This liberation is to be achieved by each individual on his own pace and at his own initiative. The teacher in such an effort is a facilitator, a guide and more than that, a model to be emulated. The role of the teacher is highlighted by emphasizing example, rather than percept, as the true medium of communication between teacher and student. A very important task assigned to the teacher is to discover the differences among students and to design each one's course of experiencing to suit his particular traits. In the mental training of 84 Buddhism, for example, the subjects of meditation have to be hand- picked according to each student's innate and potential capacities. In this approach, learning of skills is not an end by itself; it is a process leading to self-realization, which is equated in Buddhism, with liberation. What leads a particular person to self-realization is a process of strictly "personal experience" which cannot be reproduced arbitrarily to apply to any other individual. This Eastern emphasis on self-actualization has been increasingly reflected in the literature of American physical education over the past three decades. Discussing an aesthetic experience of the body from the perspective of the performer, for example, Janis Fetters suggests that the athlete's body is perceived aesthetically as an expressive form. The athlete articulates his subjective, lived movement experience by transforming sensuous perception, which defies complete discursive articulation, into meaningful conception. She points out that "this subjective experience can be seen in the Zen approach to bodily experience that leads one to the fundamental realization of his or her own self."20
In her work, "Of Zen and the Experience of Moving, "21 Roselyn Stone points out that one may perceive the "disquiet" in performing the movement patterns of other cultures, particularly in practicing Zen. In her own experience of Zen, she describes the following insights about moving: 1) the Japanese aesthetic as experienced in the Zen sesshin. 2) the discovery of pushing past pain, and 3) the clarification of the hypothesis that sport, dance, and exercise are contemplative forms. On the basis of this Zen experience, she claims 85 that these insights provide the student with a unique conception of the experiential nature of movement as an ongoing process, or a continual investigation, rather than as a fixed end within the curriculum. A growing number doctoral dissertations appearing over the past three decades have emphasized the concept of self-actualization in physical education. Claudia Coville s w o r k ,2 2 for example, adds to this considerable body of literature. Drawing on research which incorporated the perspectives found in the literature of Yoga, Zen, and Kendo, Coville attempts to reconceptualize the theory of "education through the physical" which has been influential in the physical education literature of the past sixty years. On the basis of this Eastern reconceptualization, she offers a new way of thinking about the primary objectives in the physical education curriculum. This holistic and experiential way of thinking would incorporate guidance of students to a "non-relative mode of consciousness" through direct involvement in physical activities. The mainstream of American physical education traditionally has largely neglected the notion of self-realization through movement or physical activity. Its emphasis mainly has been on physical development. In this view, many programs in physical education have been offered primarily as instruments of physical improvement. This contrast in objectives to Eastern approaches is emphasized by Junko Yamaguchi;
the concept of body awareness presented in previous physical education literature have not necessarily been arranged into the contexts of self-realization or self-discipline. In contrast to this, 86
Japanese movement forms as seen in Noh aim at self-discipline, the ultimate goal of which is Nothingness as the highest horizon of body awareness.23 The new objectives, such as Coville s were developed and described by innovative physical educators, who have increasingly incorporated Eastern concepts of body-mind unity with Western concepts of self-actualization. Support for this emerging view of self- actualization as a curriculum objective is evident in the revised objectives proposed by some American physical educators. These objectives differ from those of traditional mainstream American physical education. Kleinman articulates well these differences:
1. To develop an awareness of bodilv being In the world. 2. To gain understanding of self and consciousness. 3. To grasp the significance of movement. 4. To become sensitive of one's encounters and acts. 5. To discover the heretofore hidden perspectives of acts and uncover the deeper meaning of one's being as it explores movement experience. 6. To enable one, ultimately, to create on his/her own experience through movement which culminates in meaningful, purposeful realization of thes e l f .24 (emphasis mine) These objectives seem to be consistent with the Eastern educational goals which emphasize self-actualization through personal experience. As a result of these differences in objectives, it is understandable that the ideas derived from Eastern religious and philosophical goals have challenged and motivated American physical educators. During the period of widespread emergence of the concept of self-actualization in physical education, developmental, medical, and health objectives, which traditionally had been emphasized, have gradually begun to include self- 87 actualization and practical whole-man development through movement and physical activity. Because physical education curricula reflect their objectives, the tendency to expand and revise objectives has directly affected physical education curricula and programs. Eastern concepts of human movement as a way to facilitate self-actualization include, but are not limited to, the instrumental use of skills to achieve physical developmental objectives. Skill learning in such a curriculum is a necessary but not sufficient condition for self-actualization. Siedentop points out:
physical education curriculum would not doubt be extended immediately to encompass Eastern movement forms which have proven to be particularly useful in achieving self-awareness and self-expression.25 American physical education curricula have frequently been concerned exclusively with physical development. In the expanded view of curriculum, movement experiences have more than instrumental value in achieving physical improvement. Movement is seen as having intrinsic value in achieving self-actualization Curricula that include Eastern movement forms and martial arts are a logical extension of such educational objectives. The techniques and discipline of such Eastern activities are structured as arts, that is, they seek to cultivate spiritual awareness of movement as an experiential process. A growing number of American physical educators over the past three decades have drawn attention to the compatibility of this artistic attitude with aims of physical education curriculum. Western theorists have also discussed the spiritual 88 quality of human involvement in sport, dance, and other movement events. C. Gazette and Margaret Hukill,26 suggest that involvement in Asian-originated sports such as aikido, kendo, judo, karate, and Japanese archery presents students with an explicit core of spirituality that is more hidden in Western sports, which offers balance and gives a deeper meaning to movement. Gazette and Hukill give, in particular, the example of Japanese sports based on the Zen philosophy which emphasizes being in harmony with the cosmos, or achieving oneness with nature. Through diligent physical discipline and mental concentration, the Zen adherent seeks spiritual enlightenment in and through movement experience. On the basis of this artistic viewpoint, they conclude that the spiritual focus at the core of sport of Eastern cultures presents a challenge to contemporary American physical educators. A great deal has been written of the so-called "centering" techniques used in Eastern movement forms and martial arts. In describing the meaning of centering techniques, Ann Brunner examines the method by which training in Aikido draws one's spiritual energies, or Ki. to the bodily center of gravity, which is located in the abdominal region. According to her, "this training method based on the Zen doctrine of no-mind involves developing a state of consciousness that is fully aware and alert, undistracted and responsive."27 From this viewpoint of the martial artists, Brunner suggests that this no-mind state of consciousness enhances one's awareness and perceptions in the direct experience of movement. 89 The popularity of martial arts programs in American physical education offers evidence to support the emergence of Eastern concepts in physical education curricula. Over the past three decades, Eastern martial arts gradually have entered and found their niche in American physical education programs, particularly on the college level. According to the report of the National College of Judo Association, in 1964 "fewer than 40 of the institutions had a judo program.“28 Eight years later, "278 colleges and 102 junior colleges reported some form of martial arts program."29 other surveys investigating Eastern martial arts yielded similar results; "in 1978, 228 colleges and 106 junior colleges reported some kind of tae kwon do or karate program."30 Why have the martial arts become so popular in American higher education? Hiroshi Hamada and Patrick Tow point out various reasons for the widespread appeal of practicing martial arts. They assert that martial arts such as judo, karate, and kendo have played vital roles in intercollegiate athletic competition. They list the following four benefits for students from practicing martial arts: 1) physical fitness, 2) weight control, 3) self-defense application, and 4) mental/spiritual experience.^ l Some of these benefits are commonly derived from traditional Western sports, and some are not. A more plausible explanation for the growing interest in martial arts may be that they offer the student an alternative experience which has been not provided by dominant traditional American physical education and sport programs. Practicing martial arts gives students a unique experience of self-actualization, which is explicitly sought by way of 90 physical and mental awareness. This view is well illustrated by Gregory Olson and Norman Comfort III who stress the value of this alternative experience:
A Japanese martial art, "Aikido," provides an excellent alternative supplement to the physical education programs of theWest.... The traditional Eastern approach to learning the martial arts seems to be based on intuitive experience. This abstraction of thought teaches the mind to respond through the body without evidence of conscious rational thought. Thus, what is produced is a heightened kinesthetic sense between mind and body acting as one intuitively.32 Most martial arts forms stress the same five factors in self- actualization: self-discipline, self-training, self-control, self-respect, and self-confidence as well as providing the basis for self-defense. In fact, many American students first take up the martial arts for reasons of self-defense or physical development. The longer they practice, however, the more they learn to appreciate the process of self-actualization through an artistic attitude toward movement experiences. The aesthetic aspect of movement may be another reason for the appeal of practicing martial arts. Among the variety of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean forms, for example, each can be practiced primarily as an art form, like a dance, or given more dynamic and functional application by its roots in actual combat. Practiced with either of these intentions, martial arts provide almost unlimited opportunity for physical self-expression. This is something which has been rare in Western physical education and sport programs. Eastern martial arts programs and movement forms have led to subsequent endeavors in the West to develop more experientially- based curricula which have their origin in a holistic Western 91 paradigm. In recent years, a number of physical educators who are Eastern-oriented practitioners have developed a so-called "somatic curriculum" which incorporates both Eastern techniques and Western methods into an educational program. In contrast to those mainstream physical education programs which emphasize physical development and skill, this curriculum focuses on self-actualization centered in personal experience of movement. These programs are based on the assumption that physical function and awareness are inter-related. Each of these programs is very compatible with the experiential emphasis of Eastern movement forms. They reflect cross-cultural developments in the methods used and the subjects researched. Scientific analysis of Eastern meditation techniques, for example, make possible an understanding of movement practices in terms familiar to Westerners. Philosophical critique of Eastern texts, similarly provide a Western interpretation of ideas that previously had been more esoteric. Both scientific and philosophical methods of cross-cultural study involve elements of transformation, as some meanings may be lost and other meanings gained in translation. Examination of titles and description of these courses appearing in the recent literature are:
Sensorv Awareness33 _ Oriented on Zen meditation techniques, this course teaches student to pay attention. Elsa Gindler and Charlotte Selver developed this technique. During a session a group might spend an hour just getting up and sitting down, noticing the sensory data present in that simple act: shift in weight, muscular tension, breathing rate, emotional reactions, the quality of surfaces 92 and atmosphere. This technique is a methodical training in how to recover the quality of immediacy we had as infants and how to use that quality in the refined way necessary for adult life.
The Alexander M eth o d 34 - This technique was developed around the turn of century by an actor. F. M. Alexander. Major principle of this method is that sensorv awareness of one's movements improves the balance, coordination and efficiency of a person's whole body. Alexander's method helps the learner become acutely aware of what his body is doing during basic movement such as sitting up, standing and walking. As the learner becomes conscious of his poor postural habits, he gradually learns to replace them with better habits. In the end, his spine is lengthened, his breathing is deeper.
The Knowing and Moving B o d v 35 - Drawn from the work of F. M. Alexander and Moshe Feldenkrais, it is grounded in movement as being the main mean for individuals to educate themselves, improve their function as human beings, enhance and realize their self image and potential. It is meditative movement in which sequences of movement are executed slowly, gently, with sharply increased awareness here/now of the step by step developmental process. Unlike many exercises which have promoted unconsciousness by rapid, repeated strenuous effort, this exercise requires full consciousness, resulting in individuals who are fully responsible for their experience. The lessons began with participants lying on the floor, scanning how they contacted the floor. They became aware that whole areas of the self were unfamiliar and unknown to them. 93 Gradually these “blanks" in the self-concept were filled in and one's experience of one's self was expanded. Body Awareness. Movine. Relaxation and Vitality36 - Fixed patterns of movement have created tension in the body/mind. This approach focuses on experiencing new ways to move with which are functional, with constant focus on breath and direct awareness of b.Qdily sgjisalm - Movement and Self Awareness37 - Using kinetic awareness, the student's natural movement vocabulary is explored and extended through movement experience designed to heighten self and social awareness: creative rather than imitative approach is used. This course focuses on relaxation, breathing, creative movement and other physical stress reduction techniques that enables the student to experience the movement process. Students explore the relationship between awareness, muscular tension, alignment and safe body movem ent.
The Innerspaces of Running: A New Approach to Runnine38 - Focused on the running experience, this course deals with the holistic method of mind/bodv development. Students are taught various running gaits and tempos, muscle/skeletal exercises, breathing techniques and philosophy and lore related to running. Special emphasis is given to guided fantasy, inner space development, and creativity in the quest for extraordinary experiences. Each person consults with the teacher on an individual basis and has the opportunity to continue towards personal goals on an ongoing basis. 94 These somatic programs employ certain elements of Eastern concepts of self-actualization and experiential insight as well as certain elements of Western methods. Practice and study of these and other similar programs represent a departure from the dominant tradition in Western physical education. The content, processes, and emphases of these programs are different from the traditional ones which consist primarily of competitive games, sport, and fitness programs. Such traditional content, emphases, and processes are frequently rooted in dualistic, mechanistic, and behavioristic approaches to curriculum. The synthesis of Eastern and Western approaches to practice, which somatic practitioners have undertaken, attempts to do without dualistic, mechanistic, and behavioristic biases. It is important to point out that most of the techniques have not been developed by professional physical educators. However, increasingly they are attracting the attention of professionals within the field. But, many of these programs are still in their early stages of development, and thus their merit and worth have not been established yet in physical education curriculum. The above-mentioned observations suggest that the concept of self-actualization and the movement practices derived from Eastern philosophical and religious goals have offered American physical education opportunities to broaden its boundary of objectives and curricula. This viewpoint is well illustrated by comments of Siedentop:
Physical education has opened its curriculum to embrace a host of new activities in recent years. Several decades ago we took in the lifetime sports movement. Activities such as golf, tennis, and 95 bowling were offered in reguiar physical education classes for the first time. The most recent entrants are in the areas of wilderness sports, and martial a r t s . 3 9 (emphasis mine)
In addition to the Eastern movement forms, other somatic programs have begun to emerge in higher education. The thousands of academies and studios for the martial arts that are located throughout the United States, plus the hundreds of colleges and universities which have incorporated Eastern movement activities into their physical education program offerings, are clear evidence to support the emergence of Eastern practices.
C. Training Method The emergence of Eastern thought and practice is also evident in the actual ways of practice in physical education and sport, that is, training methods. Interest among American physical educators and athletes in alternative ways of training has centered, in recent years, on the "Eastern ways of practice." Specifically, the following two notions have been identified and utilized by American physical educators and sport psychologists: 1 ) unified and holistic "attitude" toward practice and 2) specific meditative "techniques" derived from mind-body disciplines in the Taoist, Buddhists, and Zen traditions. The first of these notions, that is an attitude toward practice, is discussed by Terry Or lick, in Pursuit of Ezcellence.^Q In his investigation of methods of self-control and excellence in sport, Orlick arrives at the proposition that "thinking interferes with the task at hand, and one has to leave it behind.' ^i The primary focus in training is on adopting a certain attitude, not on thinking of executing 96 techniques. The entire approach to practicing is focused on the internal process of practicing, or how it is done, as opposed to the external product of practicing, or what to do. "You don't have to try to win or to think about winning to w in ,"42 according to Orlick. The athlete simply get absorbed in the experience: the winning will take care of itself. With reference to the second notion of specific methods. Eastern techniques offer a radical departure from the conventional Western training approaches based on the psychological methods of cognitive behaviorism and the anatomical paradigm of mechanism. Training programs that incorporate meditation, relayation, breathing, and centering techniques have offered a viable set of alternative practices for developing physical skill and peak performance. Several models outlining particular physical activities and sports have appeared in both scholarly and popular literature. Guiding the practice of each of these training models is the concept of the "energy body," based on a non-mechanical notion of the physical body as an accumulation of energy. John Heil describes this concept as follows:
One can concentrate in particular iocations("center"): and moving in accord with mental and physical action. The energy body is an applied anatomy, that comes to life through imagery. It permeates day to day practice and colors the language that guides instruction. An esoteric concept it is important to keep in mind the feats accomplished by its adherents.43 The concept of "centering" is based on, as we discussed in the previous section, practical techniques in the martial arts. It operates on the assumption that the abdomen functions as the energy storehouse of the body, and that movements that emanate from that 97 central locus result in the most effective and efficient way of performing. By concentrating his attention on his center and directing his intention from center, techniques that are inherent in the disciplines of Tai Chi Chuan and Aikido, the athlete achieves a freer energy flow. Meditating on and moving from center strengthens and purifies the rest of the body. Michael Murphy and Rhea White have interpreted exceptional achievements by Western athletes in terms of centering and its basis in the energy body. George Leonard provides an explanation of how the energy body can be developed for application in Western sport. An other form of mental training utilizing by Western athletes and coaches is "imagery techniques" from the martial arts. Joe
Hyams, in his book entitled Zen in the Martial A r t.^5 describes a number of imagery techniques based on training applications. The practice of breaking bricks or boards is used in Japanese martial arts forms as a confidence building technique. Hyams, on his experience of breaking, was instructed to visualize his hand passing through the brick. Concentration on the image of movement may let the body system choose the most efficient neuromuscular coordination for its maximum performance. The idea of the movement suffices to start all movement along its most suitable path. Indeed, imagery training can have a salutary effect on the learning and practicing process of new motor skills and performances. Meditation techniques based on the Hindu discipline of yoga have also received a great deal of attention in the field of sport psychology. In particular, the discipline known as transcendental 98 meditation(T.M.) has attracted a growing number of coaches and athletes. According to its proponents, T.M. "is supposed to rejuvenate and normalize the function of the nervous system, eliminate mental stress, promote clear thinking and comprehension, enrich perception, and eliminate discord."^^ The energy body is considered to be a subtler manifestation of the material physical body in this system. In a practical setting, these meditative techniques have been applied in various sport situations. In recent years, for example, several amateur and professional sport teams have incorporated Eastern movement forms and meditation techniques into their training programs. The Philadelphia Phillies and Detroit Tigers in professional baseball have received considerable publicity concerning their use of meditation techniques. According to former Philadelphia pitcher Steve Carlton, "when people ask me about my meditation program, I just tell them that it's helping me make myself a better person, and that I just feel real good about it. Once stresses are gone from the nervous system, everything just goes better. "4? Yoga is described as consisted of eight hierarchical stages, so- called "Eightfold"; y.a.ma.nivama. asanas, orana-vama. nratvahara. dharna. dhvana and samadhi.48 Yama and niyama form the ethical basis of yoga, while samadhi represents its ultimate goal, a state of spiritual enlightenment, best understood in religious terms. Asanas, which is a set of "mind-body discioline," is the various postures for sitting in meditation, the essential point being to achieve a stable, quiet body over a long duration. It is the original form of slow, gentle stretching. It incorporates a kinesthetic mental focus designed 99 to enhance body awareness, and to insure safety. Prana-yama, the practice of breath control, is useful in the modulation of arousal. The term "yama" literally means "to control." Prana is a metaphysical term translated as "energy" in an Eastern sense. Beyond philosophical meaning, it is an invisible act. Pratyahara, described as the withdrawal of the senses, includes practices useful pain control. Through training pratyahara, one can produce a state in which the sensory organs do not respond to outside stimuli. Dharana means the mental concentration on one object through a conscious effort. It aims to develop powers of concentration. Asana, pranayama, pratyahara, and dharana incorporate scores of practical techniques, intricately described, and complexly interrelated. The last stage, samadhi, is one in which ego-consciousness is eliminated, namely, one achieves the "self without self" in which the distinction between the ego and its object is eliminated. These Yogic eight hierarchical stages are not simply intellectual speculations, but arise from the experiential cultivation. Tried and tested over centuries, these are a valuable resource to the Western athlete of mental or spiritual training. Jerry Colletto's report entitled "American Football and Indian Yoga,"49 is a good example of the training alternatives that Eastern techniques, particularly Yogic breathing and relaxation methods, provide Western athletic programs. Colletto describes seven years of experimenting, studying, practicing and putting together a new concept of conditioning. According to him, the method he and his students used has proven to be very beneficial to their football 100 program, particularly for preventing frequent injuries, and also to improving themselves. Colletto's experience indicates that yoga promotes flexibility of the spine and muscles, quickness, agility, balance, mental concentration, and coordination and strength. Increasing body of literature has developed in the West around specific training methods in sport, such as relaxation, concentration and breathing. A point on which there is general agreement is that sport situations require the ability of voluntary relaxation. Charles Garfield, in his book Peak Performance.50 claims that high levels of skill in voluntary relaxation can be gained through the practice of rather subtle methods of breath control and mental concentration. The body-mind unification process of such training methods, based on Oriental meditation techniques, stands in sharp contrast to the stereotyped attitude of the Western athlete: "Tight-jawed determination and dedication to the single minded goal of beating the competition."5i This attitude of blind and rigid determination, Garfield argues, is not the key that allows the athlete to develop his greatest strength and maximize his potential in sport. Rather, the ultimate aim of sport competition is to free the participant from anger, illusion, and false fashion. Performance improves incidentally, as it were. Empirical evidence is inclusive whether these Eastern methods of training and practicing can ultimately improve athletic performance. As research continues, it seems worthy of notice that practitioners invariably have adapted traditional Eastern methods for use by Westerners. Spencer Wertz points out that the purpose of 101 teaching Eastern training techniques is to provide alternatives to established approaches, not a superior method to replace the others: "Gallwey's teaching technique of the physical skill is an important one because it offers the sport community a viable alternative to the traditional one,"52 xhe range of possible and effective approaches to practice is effectively broadened. Support for the emerging use of Eastern techniques in Western training is found in a number of empirical research projects on the effect of Eastern movement forms on athletic performance. T. Routt, A. Farrow, and J. P sech a 5 3 have shown significant improvements in speed, agility, reaction time, endurance, perception, and concentration among individuals who practice Eastern movement forms and meditation techniques. It is reasonable to conclude that through practicing yoga, meditation, and martial arts, one can improve fitness levels, body control, concentration, breathing control, and relaxation. Lacking a rational or logical mode of instruction, and esoteric to the point of complexity, the traditional modes of Eastern methods probably offer little in the way of clear guidelines for training methods for Western athletes. However, they do make interesting and challenging for those who wish to cultivate alternative ways of practing and training. Traditionally Western sport psychologists have drawn heavily on the method of cognitive behaviorism and mechanical method. Over the past three decades. Eastern esoteric disciplines and techniques have been emerged. This is particularly true of the meditative discipline of Zen, Taoism, and Yoga in which spiritual training ways have been in practice for a long time. 102 Through esoteric, they are conceptually rich and provide much to Western athletes and coaches.
D, The Effect of Transformation on Eastern Forms As chapter III argues, however, Eastern training methods were not applied without change in American physical education. In employing Eastern methods, American physical educators did not make a wholesale adoption, but a pragmatic one, attempting to integrate applications of radically different Eastern ideas with the more familiar traditional American ways of thinking and acting. The result is not merely a "transplantation, but a "transformation," resulting in the "Americanization" of Eastern thought and practice. In their selective and critical adoption of Eastern techniques, American physical educators have creatively synthesized Eastern concepts and approaches to training with those of American physical education. Integrating them into an American setting has altered, somewhat, those Eastern concepts and practices. This influx of Eastern ideas and methods has entered into the evolutionary development of attitudes and methods of American physical education. In this view, methods of training and practicing are never fixed and certain, but rather are continually evolving. Those methods expressed in the literature of American physical education and sport are not the original Eastern methods. They form, instead, a third way, or a dialectical synthesis of the Eastern and Western paradigms. This synthesis represents a new and unprecedented theoretical orientation in American physical 103 education. It is an alternative not only to the traditional Western mechanical paradigm but also to the traditional Eastern holistic paradigm. In this respect, the effect of Eastern concept and practice goes beyond simply spreading or proliferating. Emerging transformed neither replace nor merge with indigenous practices, but extend the realm of theoretical development and stimulate newly envisioned theoretical orientations. Such a third way, or synthetic approach to training methods has accelerated over the past three decades. The publication of various articles and books, such as Charles Garfield's! 1984), Robert Nideffer‘s(1985), Kay Porter and Judy Foster's! 1986), Chic
Johnson's! 1986), and Scott Watson's! 1986),54 arguing in behalf of such a synthetic approach to training method, indicates this has already begun. This approach is perhaps best exemplified in the theory of "the right practice" offered by Michael Livingston, in his book Mental Discipline: The Pursuit of Peak Performance.55 Livingston attempts to explain the process of physical and mental training by utilizing the scientific disciplines of exercise physiology, neurophysiology, and quantum physics alongside of the Eastern disciplines of meditative introspection. He develops a physiological model of consciousness that is grounded in the extraordinary power of individual will. Based on these interdisciplinary insights, he offers a theory of "right practice, " which represents an integration of Western and Eastern perspectives. Athletic training and excellence, Livingston asserts, require a "discipline of mind " which exceeds the physical limits imposed by a deterministic view. Livingston's major 104 contribution to the emerging third way of training may be his notion that practice is a pursuit of failure on the concomitant discovery that the process of pursuing peak performance is a greater achievement than quantitative product. Improvement in practice is a worthy end in itself, and not just a means to external ends, records, or rewards. In conclusion. Eastern meditative and movement insights offer a resource for a holistic approach to training. For the most part, American physical educators have reacted against Eastern approaches to training. For physical educators or athletes who are familiar with the traditional mechanical and behavioral paradigm, for example, a method of training such as those from Eastern techniques might be rejected by virtue of its spiritual, esoteric, introspective, nonrational, or nonscientific nature. By adaptations to Western context and syntheses with familiar concepts, however, those Eastern insights have encouraged Western physical educators to seek a "third way," a new theoretical orientation, that is, a bridge between the "spiritual" way of the Eastern philosophy and the "scientific" Western methodology of educational theory and practice. Eastern thoughts and practices, having emerged in American physical education, can be identified with the characteristics outlined in the following diagram, showing how Eastern views of mind-body theory, teaching method, objectives and curriculum, and training method are different than in the dominant view in American physical education and sport, as well as how these views have been transformed in the process of acculturation: 105
Categories Dominant Eastern Possible Views Views Transformation view
dualistic holistic Mind-Body theoretical practical Scientific study of Theory experiential experiential quality quantifiable qualitative of movement
behavioral spiritual Rationalization of Pedagogy analytical holistic spiritual and non rational nonrational rational elements
physical subjective Objectives & external inner Integration of Curriculum form al experiential inner & out value
mechanical intuitive Training product process Synthesis of Methods scientific spiritual product & process
Figure 2 The Characteristics of Western, Eastern, and Transformation Approaches to Physical Education and Sport.
In this chapter, an attempt has been made to identify to what extent Eastern thought and practice have emerged in contemporary American physical education and to what extent they may affect the direction of American physical education and sport. The emergence of Eastern thought and practice seems to be varied and extensive, involving a change of attitude, methods, and content of American physical education and sport. This chapter has not covered all such emerging aspects of changes, yet it is noteworthy that the observed differences in Eastern theory, pedagogy, objectives and curriculum. 106 and training have offered viable alternatives to the traditional and dominant theories and practices in American physical education and sport. Based upon the increasing body of literature and the heightened awareness and practice of Eastern movement forms in the West, it seems justifiable to state the following: 1 ) Although it is unlikely that dualistic notions of body and mind will be overcome completely in American physical education, the Eastern concept of mind-body, characterized as holistic and experiential, is serving as a catalyst in American physical education. It is stimulating genuine inquiry and activity in reassessing the nature and value of movement and physical activity. With these insights, a growing number of American physical educators are exploring human movement in terms of meaning and as a qualitative expression of wholeness. 2) Eastern ways of teaching and learning have offered an alternative to conventional Western approaches to the learning and teaching of skills and performance. In contrast to mechanistic and behavioral approaches grounded in the dualistic Newtonian and Cartesian paradigms, the Eastern holistic way - "intuitive, spiritual, process-oriented, and nonrational" - has demonstrated an appeal for American physical educators and the general public. It is clear that various techniques and attitudes of teaching and learning have the potential to make a significant contribution to the pedagogy of physical education. 3) The concept of self-actualization and the Eastern movement forms permeated by this concept have contributed to broaden to the 107 objectives and curricula of physical education, leading American physical educators increasingly to considered the subjective and qualitative dimensions of physical activity which had been neglected in dominant traditional physical education. A growing interest in martial arts and movement forms incorporating this concept have made these activities an integral and expanding part of physical education programs on all levels. The emergence and development of so-called "experientially-oriented curricula" in American physical education owes a portion of its growth to the merging of Eastern and Western ideas and concepts. In contrast to those mainstream physical education programs which emphasize physical development and skill, these curricula focus on self-actualization centered in personal experience of movement. 4) In considering what, if anything, American physical education has learned from Eastern thought and practice, two answers might be given: a particular attitude toward the process of practice, and a set of specific techniques for training. The primary focus in training is on adopting a certain attitude, not on thinking of executing techniques. The entire approach to practicing is focused on the internal process of practicing, or how it is done, as opposed to the external product of practicing, or what to do. 5) Eastern training disciplines such as meditation, relaxation, breathing, and centering techniques offer alternative mode of training methods to dominant traditional Western approaches. The concept of the "energy body" underlying these techniques expands 108 the potential for achieving peak performance beyond the range of cognitive behaviorism and the anatomical paradigm of mechanism. 6) Most importantly, the influx of Eastern ideas and methods has caused an evolution in the attitude toward and methods of athletic training. In employing Eastern methods, American physical educators have pragmatically attempted to integrate radically different Eastern ideas with basic American ways. The resulting emergence is not a simple "transplantation," but a complex "transformation," or "Americanization" of Eastern thought and practice. This dialectical synthesis has resulted in a new theoretical orientation in American physical education, which is still in its infancy, an alternative to both traditional Eastern and Western paradigms. The next chapter deals with summary, overall conclusions, and recommendations for further study based on the present study, and attempts to speculate the future for Eastern thought and practice in American physical education and sport. 109
FOOTNOTES
1 Seymour Kleinman, "Philosophy and Physical Education," Physical Education: An Interdisciplinary Approach, edited by H. N. Singer, D. R. Lamb, R. M. Malina, and S. Kleinman (New York: Macmillan, 1972), p. 322.
2 Seymour Kleinman, "Beyond the Body and the Body of Knowledge." Proceedings of the American Academy of Physical Education Conference, Milwaukee, (March 1976).
3 Ibid., p. 4
4 Daryl Siedentop. Physical Education: Introductory Analysis, third edition (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1980), p. 201.
5 Seymour Kleinman. "The Reunification of Health and Physical Education," Proceedings of the AAPE Conference, (1981).
6 Yasuo Yuasa, The Body: Toward an Eastern Mind-Body Theory, translated by T. P. Kasulis (New York: State Uniyersity of New York Press, 1987), p. 18.
7 Dayid Halberstam, The Breaks of the Game (New York: Ballantine, 1981), p. 317.
S Robert M. Nideffer, The Inner Athlete: Mind Plus Muscle for Winning (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976), pp. 11-44.
9 Scott Duncanson, "Unity of Knowledge and Action: The Thoughts of Wang Yang-ming," Mind and Body: East Meets West. edited by Seymour Kleinman (Champaign,111.: Human Kinetics, 1986), pp. 75-82.
10 Bob Case, "Eastern Thought and Moyement Forms: Possible Implications for Western Sport," The Physical Educator. 41 (December 1984), p. 172.
11 Eugen Herrigel, Zen in the Art of Archery. (New York: Random House, 1973). 110
12 Bob Case, "Eastern Thought and M ovement Forms: Possible Implications for Western Sport," The Physical Educator. 41 (December 1984), p. 173.
13 Eugen Herrigel, Zen in the Art of Archerv. (New York: Random House, 1973), p. 54.
1^ Richard Schimidt, "Japanese Martial Arts as Spiritual Education." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, pp. 69-74.
15 Chic Johnson's "Toward a Revisionist Philosophy of Coaching, "(1986): Richard Schimidt's "Japanese Martial Arts as Spiritual Education,"(1983); Scott B. Wattson's "Is there More to Practice Than the Pursuit of Perfection?"(1986).
16 Tim Gallwey, The Inner Game of Tennis (New York: Random House, 1976), p. 56.
17 Micheal Canic, "An Eastern Approach to Motor Skill Acquisition and Performance, " Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, p. 78.
18 Ibid., p. 81
19D. A. Sargent, "The System of Physical Training at the Hemenway Gymnasium," The Making of American Physical Education, edited by Arther Weston (New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1962), p. 116.
20 Janis. L. Fetters, "The Aesthetic Experience of the Body in Sport," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.. The Ohio State University, 1976).
21 Roselyn E. Stone, "Of Zen and the Experience of Moving," Quest. 33 (1981): 96-107.
22 Claudia A. Coville, "Education Through the Physical: A Reconceptualization Based on Analysis of Yoga, Zen, and Kendo Literature," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1984).
23 Junko Yamaguchi, "A Phenomenological Inquiry into Movement Awareness Illustrated through Zeami's Theory of Noh," (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1983). Ill
24 Seymour Kleinman, "The Significance of Human Movement: A Phenomenological Approach," Proceedings of NAPECW Conference, Interlochen, Michigan, 1964. ( This is also appeared in Soort and Body, edited by A. Gerber, (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1972).
25 Siedentop, Physical Education, p. 202.
26 c. Gazette and M. Hukill, "Spirituality and Sport," Being Human in Soort. edited by D. Allen and B. Fahey (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger,1977), pp. 81-86.
27 Ann Brunner, "A Philosophic Inquiry into a Holistic Approach to Human Movement from the Perspective of Zen," (Unpublished m aster's thesis. Smith College, 1975), p. 21.
28 Ken Min, reincited in National Collesigate ludo Handbook (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), pp. 35-38.
_ . reincited in National Collegigate Tae Kwon Do. Karate, and Kung-Fu Handbook (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), p. 25.
3 0 ______, "The Historical Development of Tae Kwon Do," Tae Kwon Do journal. 1 (1981), p. 32.
31 Hiroshi Hamada and Patrick Tow, "Martial Arts: A Discussion of the Feasibility of a University Martial Arts Program," Tournai of Physical Education and Recreation. 50 (February 1979): 47-49.
32 Gregory D. Olson and Norman D. Comfort III, "Aikido: The Art of Human Movement. Mind and Bodv: East Meets West, p. 101.
33 See for more specific technique and method, Don Johnson's Body (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983), p. 161.
34 See for more specific method, "A Special Feature: The Alexander Technique, " Somatics. 6 (Spring/Summer 1987): 11-26; Richard A. Brown's "The Alexander Technique: Therapy for the Whole Person. " Somatics. 3 (Autumn 1980): 25-33.
35 This is an applied somatic program.by Esalen Institute. Esalen Institute, The Esalen Catalog. (Big Sur, California: The Esalen Institute, 1977). See for more specific technique, Thomas Hanna's 112
"Moshe Feldenkrais; The Silent Heritage," Somatics. 5 (Autumn/Winter 1985): 22-30, and Thomas Hanna's "The Somatic Healers and The Somatic Educators," Somatics. 1 (Autumn 1977): 48- 52
36 S. F. Caldwell, "The Human Potential Movement: Body/Movement/Non-verbal Experiencing," The Physical Educator. 35 (March 1975), p. 36.
37 This is a somatic program which has been opened in school of H.P.E.R at the Ohio State University.
38 Esalen Institute, The Esalen Catalog (Big Sur, California: The Esalen Institute, 1977).
39 Siedentop, Physical Education, p. 167.
40 Terry Orlick. In Pursuit of Excellence (Champaign. 111.: Human Kinetics, 1980).
41 Ibid., p.47
42 Ibid., p. 48
43 John Heil, "Imagery for Sport: Theory, Research and Practice," Cognitive Soort Psychology, edited by William F. Straub and Jean M. Williams (New York: Sport Science Associates, 1984), p. 249.
44 See Michael Murphy and Rhea A. White, The Psychic Side of Soort (Reading Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1978), pp. 167-169; George Leonard's "Introduction to the Energy Body, " The Ultimate Athlete (New York: Avon Books, 1975), pp. 60-81.
45 Joe Hyams, Zen in the Martial Arts (Boston: Houghton Miffin, 1979).
46 Robert M. Nideffer, The Inner Athlete: Mind Plus Muscle for W inning (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976), p. 172.
47 Ibid., p. 174
48 See Yasua Yuasa's "Eastern Meditation, " in The Bodv: Toward an Eastern Mind-Body Theorv( 1987). pp. 203-232. The basic source 113 of this Yoga technique is Patanjali’s Yoea Sutra, which was written in about the fifth century A.D.
49 Jerry Colletto, "A Report: American Football and Indian Yoga." Somatics. 2 (Spring 1978): 17-18.
50 Charles A. Garfield, Peak Performance: Mental Training Techniques of the World's Greatest Athletes (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1984).
51 Ibid., p. 37
52 Spencer W ertz, "Zen, Yoga, and Sport: Eastern Philosophy for Western Athletes." Tournai of the Philosophy of Soort. 4 (1977), p. 76.
53 T. Routt, "Transcendental Meditation and Relaxed States: A Pilot Study Comparing Physiological Parameters," (Unpublished study, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington State University, 1973): A. Farrow, Scientific Research on T.M (New York: MIU Press, 1975); J. Psecha, "Comparative Effects of Judo and Selected Physical Education Activities on Male University Freshman Personalitv Traits." The Research Ouarterlv. 41 (1970): 425-431.
54 Charles A. Garfield, Peak Performance: Mental Training Techniques of the World's Greatest Athletes! 1984): Robert M. Nideffer, Athletes Guide to Mental Training (Champaign. 111.: Human Kinetics, 1985); Kay Porter and Judy Foster, The Mental Athlete (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm, C. Brown, 1986); Chic Johnson, "Toward a Revisionist Phiiosophy of Coaching,"( 1986); Scott B. Wattson, "Is there More to Practice Than the Pursuit of Perfection?"( 1986).
55 Micheal Livingston, Mental Discipline: Pursuit of Peak Performance (Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1989). CHAPTER V
SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. SPECULATIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
Sum m ary The purpose of this study was to trace the emergence of Eastern thought and practice in American physical education and sport during the past three decades, from 1953 to 1989. A review and analysis was made of the contemporary literature on American physical education and sport which is related to Eastern thoughts and practices. The specific purposes of this study were: 1 ) to examine those Eastern concepts expressed in the literature of American physical education and sport published during this period. 2) to identify to what extent Eastern thoughts and practices have emerged in contemporary American physical education and thereby may affect the direction of American physical education, and 3) to suggest directions in American physical education, should these Eastern forms and practices become more fully integrated. In order to familiarize the reader with essential Eastern theory and practice. Chapter II presented a brief description of Eastern philosophies. The following fundamental notions, based on the so- called "three wisdoms," - Buddhism. Taoism, and Confucianism, including Neo-confucianism and Zen - were identified: 1) the Four Noble Truths. 2) the concept of impermanence. 3) the idea of Chun
114 115 Tzu, 4) the principle of Yin-Yang, 5) the concept of the Do, 5) the concept of Wu-Wei, 6) the practice of Zazen, 7) the notion of experiential insight, 8) the wisdom of the body, and 9) the idea of Satori. The world view they amplify were related to physical education and sport. Chapter III traced the emergence of Eastern concepts in American physical education and sport. Three distinctive acculturation stages were considered in the process of tracing Eastern emergence during the period 1953 to 1989: 1) acquaintance, 2) appropriation, and 3) transformation. The first stage, acquaintance, in which Eastern ideas were introduced into the field of American physical education and sport, took place from 1953-1967. During this time, American physical educators were introduced to the ideas and concepts of the East. For example, for the first time Zen practice was linked to the field of physical education and sport in the form of a publication in English. Eastern thought and practice were appropriated in the second stage, the period 1968 to 1982. It was during this period that the concepts of traditional American physical education and sport were discussed utilizing Eastern ideas. To some extent, these ideas were accepted. For example, the so-called "Eastern approach" was generally referred to as an alternative to the traditional approach to American physical education and sport. However, the pattern was not one of wholesale adoption. Rather, the mission of American physical educators was somewhat pragmatic. In a sense, it seemed that Westerners tried to use various Eastern techniques and insights 116 as tools and guides selectively to endeavor existing issues they were facing. The third stage began in 1983. In this stage, the pattern of perceiving the relevance of Eastern concepts and practices seems to have changed. In this period, a transformation is taking place, not a mere transplantation. That is, the "Americanization" of Eastern thought and practice seems to occur. Here, some American physical educators are creatively synthesizing Eastern ideas and approaches with those of American physical education for the purpose of integrating them into an American setting. Thus they are contributing to the evolution of the both the nature and attitude of American physical education. In this respect, the effect of Eastern concept and practice goes beyond simply spreading or proliferating. It extends the realm of theoretical development and stimulate newly envisioned theoretical orientations. This process marks a new stage for American physical education in which Eastern concepts, having been transformed, offer an alternative to the traditional Western paradigms. In this period, for example, one concept reflecting this synthesis of East and West seems to be resulting in what may be called a "somatic physical education," incorporating ideas such as "movement as art" and the theory of "right practice." Within those three distinctive acculturation stages, a review of selected contemporary American physical education and sport literature published since 1953 was conducted. This review was primarily descriptive, not evaluative, and offered a brief account of 117 Eastern concepts appearing in American physical education and sport. In general, although there was some overlap, this growing body of literature identified that the emergence of Eastern theories and practices is relevant for physical education in the areas of philosophy, pedagogy, objectives and curricula, and training method. The core of Eastern theory and practice may be expressed as follows: 1 ) theory and practice are grounded on a holistic mind-body theory, 2) there is a distinctive way of teaching based on martial arts pedagogy, 3) self-actualization may be accomplished through movement forms, and 4) there is a distinctive approach toward the concept of practice in these forms which is based on meditative techniques. This review also indicated that over the past three decades, an increasing number of physical educators have linked the nature, methods, and content of American physical education to Eastern concepts and practices. In many ways, it seemed that such considerations reflect a changing attitude, and offer an opportunity for a new paradigm of physical education in America. Such considerations, therefore, were the basis for discussion in Chapter IV. Pointing toward two major aspects of education, the theoretical and the practical. Chapter IV attempted to identify to what extent Eastern thought and practices have emerged in contemporary American physical education, and thereby may affect the direction of American physical education. The emergence of Eastern thoughts and practices over the past three decades seemed to be varied and extensive, involving a change of attitude, methods, and content of 118 American physical education and sport. This chapter did not covered all such emerging aspects of changes, yet it was noteworthy that the observed differences in Eastern theory, pedagogy, objectives and curriculum, and training have offered viable alternatives to the traditional and dominant theories and practices in American physical education and sport. Based upon the increasing body of literature and the heightened awareness and practice of Eastern movement forms in the West, it seemed justifiable to state the following: 1) Although it is unlikely that dualistic notions of body and mind will be overcome completely in American physical education, the Eastern concept of mind-body, characterized as holistic and experiential, is serving as a catalyst in American physical education. It is stimulating genuine inquiry and activity in reassessing the nature and value of movement and physical activity. With these insights, a growing number of American physical educators are exploring human movement in terms of meaning and as a qualitative expression of wholeness. 2) With regard to pedagogical concerns. Eastern ways of teaching and learning have offered an alternative to conventional Western approaches to the learning and teaching of skills and performance. In contrast to mechanistic and behavioral approaches grounded in the dualistic Newtonian and Cartesian paradigms, the Eastern holistic way - "intuitive, spiritual, process-oriented, and nonrational" - has demonstrated an appeal for American physical educators and the general public. It is clear that various techniques 119 and attitudes of teaching and learning have the potential to make a significant contribution in a pedagogical context. 3) The concept of self-actualization and the Eastern movement forms that are permeated by this concept have contributed to broaden the objectives and curricula of physical education, leading American physical educators to consider increasingly the subjective and qualitative dimensions of physical activity which had been neglected in dominant traditional physical education. A growing interest in martial arts and movement forms incorporating this concept has made these activities an integral and expanding part of physical education programs on all levels. The emergence and development of so-called "experientially-oriented curricula" in American physical education owes a portion of its growth to the merging of Eastern and Western ideas and concepts. In contrast to those mainstream physical education programs which emphasize physical development and skill, these curricula focus on self- actualization centered in personal experience of movement. 4) In considering what, if anything, American physical education has learned from Eastern thought and practice, two answers might be given: a particular attitude toward the process of practice, and a set of specific techniques for training. The primary focus in training is on adopting a certain attitude, not on thinking of executing techniques. The entire approach to practicing is focused on the internal process of practicing, or how it is done, as opposed to the external product of practicing, or what to do. 120 5) With reference to specific methods, Eastern training disciplines such as meditation, relaxation, breathing, and centering techniques offer alternative mode of training methods to dominant traditional Western approaches. The concept of the "energy body" underlying these techniques expands the potential for achieving peak performance beyond the range of cognitive behaviorism and the anatomical paradigm of mechanism. 6) Most importantly, the influx of Eastern ideas and methods has caused an evolution in the attitude toward and methods of athletic training. In employing Eastern methods, American physical educators have pragmatically attempted to integrate radically different Eastern ideas with American ways. The resulting emergence is not a simple "transplantation," but a complex "transformation," or "Americanization" of Eastern thought and practice. This dialectical synthesis has resulted in a new theoretical orientation in American physical education, which is still in its infancy, an alternative to both traditional Eastern and Western paradigms.
Conclusions and Speculations The purpose of this study was to trace the emergence of Eastern thought and practice in contemporary American physical education during the past three decades, from 1953 to 1989. A review and analysis was made of contemporary literature on American physical education and sport which is related to Eastern thought and practice. 121 Because of the nature of this study, it is difficult to form specific conclusions. Based upon the specific findings and discussions presented in this study, however, it is possible to draw the following general conclusions. Because Eastern thought and practice continue to emerge, the consequences for American physical education are not entirely clear. Passing through a distinctive "acculturation process" in different environmental and intellectual settings, nevertheless. Eastern ideas and practices have offered some significant motivations to the evolution of American physical education and sport over the past three decades. This does not, however, mean that they have had great impact on American physical education and sport. It is assumed that many examples of Eastern thought and practice are still in the early stages of development in the West, and thus their merit and worth have not been thoroughly established in American physical education. To some extent, the growth of the Eastern paradigm in the past three decades has been associated with the emergence of the movement of "existential-phenomenology" and "humanistic psychology," due to some apparent similarities between these contemporary Western ideas in philosophy and psychology, and the traditional theories and practices of the East. Nevertheless, it is apparent that to some extent Eastern thought and practice is now playing a role, as a catalyst, in directing a new paradigm for American physical education and sport over the past three decades. In this respect, they have contributed indirectly to contemporary theory and practice in American physical education. 122 These contributions could help to provide direction to the evolution of physical education and sport in the twenty-first century. The future role of Eastern paradigms in American physical education is impossible to predict fully, because the fundamental emergence is still going on. A sufficient body of research has not been accumulated yet to predict what that role will be. However, it is possible to speculate about the direction of this emerging paradigm. If the Eastern presence in American physical education had its beginning with the publishing of HerrigeTs Zen and the Art of Archerv in 1953. then it has existed for about four decades. If we look at such time spans in the context of the rapidity with which philosophical "fads" usually come and go in America, the Eastern presence in contemporary American physical education cannot be called as a "fad." However, when we compare four decades of the emergence of Eastern thought and practices in American physical education with the more than two thousand years of its existence in the East, it seems clear that it is still a new paradigm for the field of American physical education. Looking at the various phenomena in which they manifest themselves, it is clear that Eastern concepts in American physical education have not had a great deal of visible influence. Some of the concepts and methods which Eastern theory and practice espouse are consonant with those of American physical education, but others are inconsistent with them. For example, Eastern practices such as meditative movement forms and martial arts are in conflict with the 123 dominant values of American physical education and sport, as shown in chapter III. The study has reviewed selected works from a growing number of American physical educators who consider Eastern thought and practice, whether or not they actually call themselves "Eastern theorists," This initially seemed like quite a large group. However, when we recall that a substantial number of Eastern theorists are in the philosophical and psychological areas, we realize that Eastern thought and practices are known very little in most areas of physical education. In the sociological and historical literature, for example, very little was expressed of Eastern concepts and their applications in American physical education. What, then, is the future of Eastern paradigms in American physical education? Will they ever become a significant force? Can there be a creative synthesis of Eastern and Western concepts? Will American transformation of Eastern theories and practices in the context of Western institutions facilitate their emergence in physical education? As far as the general picture is concerned, indications seem that there will be an acceleration of acceptance of Eastern concepts and practices in the near future. Of the three acculturation stages evident the process of Eastern emergence in American physical education mentioned in Chapter III, that of "transformation" offers the greatest mode of development. As much in the same way as Indian Buddhism was understood in purely Chinese terms in China sixteen hundred years ago. Eastern paradigms will be successful and 124 acceptable in American physical education only when it is understood in purely American ways, as a result of transformation. Although the duration of Western interest in Eastern thought and practice cannot be estimated, the writer can confidently predict a continuing transformation of Eastern concepts into Americanized ones. This could serve to integrate Eastern and Western approaches to athletic training. Eastern concepts of the body have begun to gain wide acceptance. Meditative techniques as applied in sport psychology have generated considerable interest among coaches in athletics. The increasing growth of martial arts programs in American physical education is evidence of the transformation of Eastern practices. Most importantly, however, the genuine impact that Eastern thought and practice have on American physical education and sport will depend upon whether physical educators and athletes accept, or at least try to better understand, various Eastern wisdoms as they relate to physical education and sport.
Recommendations for Further Studv Based on the present study, several aspects of the relationship between Eastern and Western theory and practice warrant further study. The following recommendations for further study are proposed: 1) an in-depth study of Eastern concepts and practices and how they have influenced American physical education and sport, especially in historical, sociological, and scientific areas 125 2) a study about Confucian implications for American physical education. So far, most treatment of American physical education and sport has been focused on the concepts of Buddhism, Taoism, and Zen. Confucianism never exerted the fascination that the others did. Why? The humanism and practical emphasis of Confucius' teaching seem better suited to pragmatic American taste than any other Eastern concepts. This needs to be studied 3) a comparative study about the influence of existential- phenomenological movement and humanistic psychological movement, which emerged in this period as not examined in this study. How Eastern thought and practice are compatible with such foreign paradigms should also be studied 4) a more specific study concerning the impact of martial arts in the United States, particularly from cultural and social standpoints 5) more specific study of the impact of each of Eastern philosophies on different Western sports APPENDIX
A CHRONOLOGICAL LISTING OF EASTERN STUDIES IN THE LITERATURE OF AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT (1953-1989)
This bibliography includes such materials as books, journal articles, proceedings and newsletters of some physical education and sport society meetings, and master's theses and doctoral dissertations appeared in the literature of physical education and sport from 1953 to 1989. Some sources are included which appear to have little or no relation to the field of physical education and sport. However, these have been included because they provide other valuable background information concerning the Eastern studies. This bibliography can be employed in connection with related literature chapters of various master 's theses and doctoral dissertations concerning the Eastern studies.
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Herrigel, Eugen. Zen in the Art of Archerv. R. F. C. HulKtrans.). New York: Random House, 1953.
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Gluck, J. Zen Combat. New York: Ballantine, 1962. 126 127
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Sinari, Ramakant. "The Method of Phenomenological Reduction and Yoga." Philosophy East and West: Jou rnal of Oriental and_ Comparative Thought. 15(3). (July- Oct. 1965): 217-228. mz
Slusher, Howard S. "Sport and Religious." Man. Sport and Existence: A Critical Analysis. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1967, pp.121-127.
1968
Strickland. W. W. "Buddhism and the Body." The Buddhist Review. 7 (1968): 59-62.
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Hanna, Thomas. Bodies in Revolt. New York: Holt, Rinehord & Winston, 1970.
Liu, Da. Tai Chi Chun and I- China: AJZhoreographv of B.odVLand-. Mind. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
Puligandla, R. "Phenomenological Reduction and Yogic Meditation." Philosophy East and West." 20 (Jan., 1970): 19-33.
JL2Z2.
Kim, Jeung H. "The History of Empty-Hand Combat in the Orient an Development of the Oriental Martial Arts in America." Unpublished master's thesis, Kent State University, 1972.
Murphy, Michael. Golf in Kingdom. New York: Dell Pub, 1972.
Herrigel, Eugen. "The Great Doctrine of Archery." Snort and Body. Ellen Garber and William Morgan (eds.). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 1972, pp.120-123. 128
Frager, Robert. "Working with Life Energy." The Geocentric Esoerience. Los Angeles: Lamplighters Roadway Press, (1972).
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Charpio, Donald Joseph. "The Nature of Human Movement: A Philosophical Interpretation Delineated from Neo- Confucianism." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. 1973.
Leonard, George. "Aikido and the Mind of West." International Digest. 3 (Tune 1973): 17-23.
Ravizza, Kenneth. "A Study of The Peak-Bxperience in Sport." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Southern California, 1973.
Leonard, George. The Ultimate Athlete: Revisioning Sports. Phvsical Education, and the Bodv. New York: The Viking Press, 1974.
Abe, Shinobu. "Japanese View of Human Being and Sport," The Annual Tournai of Principles of Phvsical Education. 9, (1974).
Rohe, Fred. The Zen of Running. New York: random House, 1974.
Simri, Uriel. "Asia's Contribution to the Modern World of Sport. " Phvsical Education and snort in Asia and Pacif ic. Area. Uriel Simri (eds.). Tel-Aviv: Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport.. 1974,
1225.
Smith, Adam. "The Sport is a Western Yoga." Powers of Mind. Ballentine Books. 1975.
Sekida, Katsuki. Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy. New York: John Weatherhill, 1975. 129 Capra, Fritjof. The Tao of Phvsics: An Exploration of the Parallels between Modern Phvsics and Eastern Mysticism. Berkeley; Shambhala, 1975.
Klelnman, Seymour. "The Nature of a Self and its Relation to an ‘Other' in Sport." Tournai of the Philosophy of Soort. 2 (1975): 45-50.
Brunner, Ann. "A Philosophic Inquiry into a Holistic Approach to Human Movement from the Perspective of Zen." Unpublished master's, thesis. Smith College, 1975.
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Kleinman, Seymour. "The Old Creation and the Rediscovery of the Body." Proceedings of the International Congress of Physical Activity Science Conference, 1976.
Kleinman, Seymour. "Beyond the Body and the Body of Knowledge " Proceedings of AAPE Conference, Milwaukee, (March 1976).
Gallwey, W. Timothy. The Inner Game of Tennis. New York: Random House, 1976.
Nideffer, Robert M. The Inner Athlete : Mind Plus Muscle for Winning. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976.
Leuchs, Arne, and Skalka, Patricia. Ski with Yoga: Conditioning for The Mind and Bodv. Matteson, 111.: Greatlakes Living Press, 1976.
Blackburn, Dan. and Maryann Jorgenson. Zen and the Cross Countrv Skier. Pasadena, California: Ward Ritchie Press, 1976.
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Taylor, Eugene. "Aikido: The Evolution of a Martial Arts into a Spiritual Discipline. " Somatics: Magazine-Tournai of the Bodilv Arts and Sciences. 2 (Spring 1977): 8-12.
Wertz, S. K. "Zen, Yoga, and Sports: Eastern Philosophy for W estern Athletes." Tournai of the Philosoohv of Soort. 4 (1977): 68-82. 130
Stone, R. E. "Moving as a Way of Knowing: Movement as Meditation," Paper presented at the ARAPCC Symposium on Movement. AAHPER National Convention, Seattle, (March 1977).
Allen, D. J., and B. W. Fahey, (eds.). Being Human in Soort. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977.
Ravizza, Kenneth. "Potential of Sport Experience." Being Human in Soort. D. J. Allen and B. W. Fahey(eds.). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977.
Fahey, Brian W. "The Passionate Body." Being Human in Soort.
Conry, Barbara J. "Meditation : an Inner Experience with the Body." B.ginfi-aujnaiLin.Sp.ort-1977.
Huard, P. and M. Wong. Oriental Methods of Mental and Phvsical Fitness. D. N. Smith(trans.). New York: Funk & Wagnails, 1977.
Harper, W. A. D. M. Miller and E. Davis. The Philosophic Process in Physical Education. Philadelphia : Lea & Febiger, 1977.
Fetters, Jan L. "The Body Aesthetics: A Symbolic Experience." Proceedings of the NCPEAM Conference, 1977.
Hanna, Thomas. "The Somatic Healers and The Somatic Educators." Somatics: Magazine-journal of the Bodilv Arts and Sciences. 3 (Autumn 1977): 48-52.
Kleinman, Seymour. "Eastern Thought, Movement Forms and Western Sport." Proceedings of the Philosophic Society for the Study of Sport Conference. The Ohio State University, Columbus, (November 1977).
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Kleinman, Seymour. "Considerations on the Nature of Knowledge and Sport." Proceedings of the NAPECW Conference, (1978). 131
Norton, Candace Jane. "Exploring the Somatic Dimension of Physicai Education." Unpubiished master's, thesis. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1978.
Sheehan, George. Running and Being: The Total Experience. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978.
Murphy, Michael, and Rhea White. The Psvchic Side of Sports. Reading, MA: Addision-Wesley, 1978.
Colletto, Jerry. "A Report: American Footbali and Indian Yoga." Somatics. 4 (Spring 1978): 17-23.
Shea, Edward J. Ethical Decisions in Phvsical Education and Soort. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1978.
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Min, Ken. "Martial Arts in the American Educational Setting." Quest. 31. (1979): 97-106.
Zeigler, Earle. "Should East Meet West in Physical Education Philosophy?" Issues in North American Soort and Phvsical Education. Washington: AAHPERD Publications, 1979,pp.237- 244.
Singer, Robert N. "Future Directions in the Movement Arts and Sciences." Quest. 31 (1979): 255-263.
Ravizza, Kenneth. "Enhancing Human Performance: An Answer Lies Within." Proceedings of the NAPEHE Conference, ( 1979).
Hamada, H., and P. Tow. "A Discussion of the Feasibility of a University Martial Arts Program." TQPER. (Feb. 1979): 47-49.
Back, Allan, and Dashik Kim. "Toward a Western Philosophy of the Eastern Martial Arts." tournai of the Philosoohv of Soort. 6 (1979): 19-28.
Arnold, Peter J. "Inteliectualism, Physical Education, and Self- actualization." Quest. 31(1) (1979): 87-96. 132
Hyams, Joe. Zen in the Martial Arts. Boston: Houghton Mlffin, 1979.
Kim, Young Hwan. "Buddhism and Its Implications for American Physical Education." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Kent State University, 1979.
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Or lick, Terry. In Pursuit of Excellence. Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1980.
Mogul, Jerry. "T'ai Chi Ch'uan: A Taoist Art of Healing." Somatics. (Spring and Autumn 1980): 42-49.
Kataoka, Akio. "Philosophical View on the Relationships of Theories and Practices in Physical Education and Sport." Asian lournal of Physical Education. 3 (1980): 230-233.
Ravizza, Kenneth. "My body is My Temple." Aesthetics and Dance. Carolyn Thomas(ed.). Reston: AAHPERD Publications, 1980.
Blofeld, John. Gateway to Wisdom: Taoist and Buddhist Contemplative and Healing Yogas Adapted for Western Students of the Wav. Boulder, Colorado: Shambhala Publications, 1980.
Stone, R. E. "The Zen Experience in Sport." Paper presented to the PSSS, Japan Branch, Tokyo, November 1980.
Siedentop, Daryl. "The Eastern Influence in Physical Education." Phvsical Education: Introductory Analysis!3rd Ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: WCB, 1980. m i
Eusden, John D. Zen & Christian: The lournev Between. New York: Crossroad, 1981.
Gallwey, T. The Inner Game of Golf. New York: Random House, 1981. 133
Kleinman, Seymour. "The Reunification of Health and Physical Education." Proceedings of the AAPE Conference, 1981.
Kasulis, T. P. Zen Action / Zen Person. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1981.
Wilber, Ken. No Boundary: Eastern and Western Approach to Personal Growth. Boston & London: New Science Library, 1981.
Stone, Roselyn E. "Of Zen and the Experience of Moving." Quest. 33 (1981): 96-107.
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Higgs, Robert J. Soort: A Reference Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Green Wood Press, 1982.
Nishitani, Keiji. Religion and Nothingness. Jan Van Bragt(trans.). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982.
Wilber, Ken (ed.). The Holographic Paradigm and Other Paradoxes: Exploring the Leading Edge of Science. Boulder: Shambhala, 1982.
Taisen, Deshimaru. The Zen Wav to the Martial Arts. Nancy Amphoux (trans.). New York: E.P. Dutton, 1982.
Mihalich, Joseph C. Soort and Athletics: Philosophy in Action. Totowa: Row man and Littlefield, 1982.
Fetters, Janis Lynn. "The Body Beautiful: Beyond Stereotypes." ■lournal of Physical Education. Recreation and Dance. 33 (1982): 31-32.
Becker, Carl B. "Philosophical Perspectives on the Martial Arts in America." Tournai of the Philosophy of Soort. 9 (1982): 19-29.
Back, Allen, and Daeshik Kim. "Pacifism and the Eastern Martial Arts." Philosophy East and West. 32 (1982): 177-186. 134 m i
Wilber, Ken, Eve to Eve: The Quest for the New Paradigm. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1983.
Thomas, Carolyn E. Sport.in a Philosophic Context. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1983.
Yamaguchi, Junko. "A Phenomenological Inquiry into Movement Awareness Illustrated Through Zeami's Theory of Noh." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1983.
Staal, Frits. "Indian Concepts of the Body," in Three Asian Body Philosophies and tx>o Martial Arts: A Special Feature. Somatics. 4 (Autumn/Winter 1983-84): 31-41
Hsu, Adam. "Chinese Martial Arts: Bridging the Cultural Gap Between East and West." Somatics. 4 (Autumn/Winter 1983-84): 42-45. (Appeared in Mind.and Bodv: East Meets West, edited by Seymour Kleinman, 1986).
Schimidt, Richard J. "Japanese Martial Arts as Spiritual Education." Somatics. 4 (Autumn/Winter 1983-84): 46-49. (Appeared in Mind and Bodv: East Meets West. 1986).
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Coville, Claudia Ann. "Education Through the Physical: A Reconceptualization Based on Analysis of Yoga, Zen, and Kendo Literature." Unpublished Ph.D dissertation. Stanford University, 1984.
He il, John. "Imagery for Sport: Theory, Research and Practice." Cognitive Soort Psvcholoev. Edited by William F. Straub and jean M. Williams. New York: Sport Science Associates, 1984.
Case, Bob. "Eastern Thought and Movement Forms: Possible Implications for Western Sport" The Phvsical Educator. 41(4), (December 1984): 170-175. 135
Wertz, Spencer K. "Review Essay: The Zen Way to the Martial Arts." Tournai of the Philosophy of Soort. 9 (1984): 94-103.
Garfield, Charles A. Peak Performance. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher,1984.
Back, Allan and Dashik Kim. "The Future Course of the Eastern Martial Arts." Quest. 36 (1984): 7-14.
Wheeler, Mark. "Surface to Essence: Appropriation of the Orient by Modern Dance," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1984.
Inada, Kenneth K., and Nolan P. Jacobson (eds.). Buddhism and American Thinker. Albany, New York: SUNY Press, 1984.
Meredith, Lawrence. "Aesthetics and Kinesthesis: Meditations on Metaphysical Education, or Graffiti in the Gameroom." Arete: The Tournai of Soort Literature. (2:1), (1984): 11-24. m i
Shaner, David Edward. The Bodvmind Experience in Taoanese B-U.ddhism: A Phenomenological Studv of Kukai and Doeen. New York: SUNY Press,!985.
Vanderwerken, David L., and Spencer K. Wertz (eds.). Soort Inside aut-J(eadings in Literature and Philosoohv. Forth Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1985.
Updike, John. "Tao in the Yankee Stadium Bleachers." Soort Inside Out: Readings in Literature and Philosoohv. Forth Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1985.
Smith, Adam. "Sport is a W estern Yoga." Soort Inside Out: Readings in Literature and Philosoohv. 1985.
Garner, Richard T. "The Deconstruction of the Mirror and Other Heresies: Ch an and Taoism as A bnorm al Discourse." Tournai of Chinese Philosoohv. 12(1985): 155-167. 136
Maraldo, John C. "The Practice of 3ody-Mind; Dogen Shinjingakudo and Comparative Philosophy." Doeen Studies (Studies in East Asia Buddhism: No.2), (1985): 112-130.
Brunner, Ann. "Self-Understanding through Movement: Experiential Dimensions of Education." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1985.
Lee, Sun Ock and John Chang McCurdy. Zen dance: Meditation in Movement. Seoul: Seoul International Pub. House, 1985.
Delza, Sophia. Tai Chi Chun(Wu Stvle): Bodv and MindJnJIarjnonv. The Integration of Meaning and Method. New York: SUNY Press, 1985.
Abe, Masao. Zen and Western Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985.
Loy, David. "Wei-wu-Wei: Nonduai Action." Philosoohv East and West. 35 (January 1985); 73-86.
Nideffer, Robert M. Athletes' Guide to Mental Training. Champaign, Hi.: Human Kinetics, 1985.
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Kleinman, Seymour. "Somatics in Higher Education." Somatics. (Spring/Summer 1986): 26-28.
______"Physical Education and Sport as Art, Not Science." Proceedings of Asian Games Scientific Congress in Seoul, Korea, Cheonan: Dankuk University, 1986.
Yamashita, Kazuhiko. "Feudality of College Sport in Japan." journal of the Philosoohv of Soort. 13 (1986): 35-44.
Abe, Shinobu. "Zen and Sport," lournal of the Philosoohv of Soort. 13 (1986): 45-48.
Kleinman, Seymour (ed.). Mind and Bodv: East Meets West. Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1986. 137
Richman, Chares L. "The Development of Self-Esteem through the Martial Arts." International Tournai of Soort Psychology. 17 (1986): 234-239.
Wheeler, Mark. "The East/West Dialectic in Modern Dance." Mind and Body: East Meets West. Champaign, 111.: Human Kinetics, 1986.
Brunner, Ann. "Beyond East and West: From Influence to Confluence." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Canic, Michael J. "An Eastern Approach to Motor Skill Acquisition and Performance." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Chen, David Y. "Natural Symbolism in Chinese Martial Arts." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Duncanson, Scott. "Unity of Knowledge and Action: The Thought of Wang Yang-Ming." Mind and Bodv: East meets West.
Forster, Angelika. "The nature of Martial Arts and Their change in the West." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Garner, Richard T. "Hemispheric Imperialism." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Hanna, Thomas. "Physical Education as Somatic Education: A Scenario of the Future." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Hof ses, Lisa P. "A Comparison of the V ernacular Dance of Two Countries: Japanese Kabuki and American Jazz." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Johnson, Chic "Toward a Revisionist Philosophy of Coaching." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Koizumi, Tetsunori. "The Importance of Being Stationary: Zen, Relativity, and the Aesthetics of No-Action." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West. 138
Linden, Paul. "The Art of Aikido: Philosophical Education in Movement." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Norton, Candace J. "Cultural Narcissism and the Resurrection of the Indecent Fitness Machine: Problem and Possibilities." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Wattson, Scott B. "Is There More to Practice Than the Pursuit of Perfection?" Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Griffiths, Paul J. On Being Mindless: Buddhist Meditation and the Mind-Bodv Problem. La Salle, 111.: Open Court. 1986.
Mitchell, Lynda D. "The Role of Hatha Yoga in the Martial Arts." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Olson, Gregory D., and Comfort, Norman D.III. "Aikido: The Art of Human Movement." Mind and Bodv: East Meets West.
Heckler, Richard S. "Aikido And the Military Elite," Somatics. (Winter 1986-87): 10-13. m i
Hamaguchi, Yoshinobu. "A Conceptual Anaiycis of Relations in Judo, Physical Education and Sport in Jigoro Kano." Procedines of the PSSS Conference on The Philosophy of Sport. Japan: University of Tsukuba, 1987.
Higuchi, Satoshi. "The Aesthetic Studies of Sport in Japan." Proceedines of the PSSS Conference.
Kataoka, Akio. "An Essay on the Natural Basis Under the Notion of Sport." Proceedines of the PSSS Conference.
Kondo, Yoshitaka. "Sex Equality in Physical Education and Sports and the Japanese Society." Proceedines of the PSSS Conference.
Masumato, Maofumi. "Movement Structure: Movement Articulation and Internal Speech as a Basic Concept." Proceedines of the PSSS Conference. 139
Satoh, Tomihiko. "An Essay on the Natural Basis Between Physical Education and Sport." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Sinoda, Motoyuki. "A Criticism of the Record-Keeping Principle in Modern Sport." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Takahashi, Masanori. "Logic of Team and the Logic of Committee: Development of S. Nakai's Logic of Committee to the Philosophy of Team." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Takahashi, Susumu. "The Art of Kendo and Zen." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Takizwa, Fumio. "Learning Movement and Logic of Human Body - A Phenomenological Approach." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Toyoshima, Tatehiro. "Sports and Zen." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Yamaguchi, Junko. "Wonder-Experience in the Sporting Body." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Yamashita, Kazuhiko. "Sport as Do(Art or Way)." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Yuasa, Yasuo. "A Cultural Background for Traditional Japanese Gymnastic Philosophy and a Theoretical Examination of This Philosophy." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference.
Masunaga, Shizuto. Zen Imagery Exercises: Meridian Exercises for Wholesome Living. Tokyo and New York: Japan Publications, 1987.
Weng, Chi-Hsiu Daniel. "Modern Shuai-Chiao: Its Theory, Practice and Development." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1987.
Wheeler, Mark. "Surface to Experience: Oriental Influence on Modern Dance," Somatics. (A utum n/W inter 1987-88): 13-19. 140
Duncanson, Scott. "Unity, Intention and Change; The language of Physical Education." Unpublished paper. The Ohio State University, Columbus, (Winter 1987).
Abe, Sinobu. "Modern Sports and The Eastern Tradition of Physical Culture: Emphasizing Nishida's Theory of the Body." Tournai of the Philosophy of Soort. 14 (1987): 44-47.
Kataoka, Akio. "In Praise of Calmness in Sport." Proceedings of the PSSS Conference on The Philosophy of Sport Held in Texas Christian University, Forth Worth, (September 1987).
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