It Is the Light of Enlightenment That Caravaggio Shows Appearing from the Right with Jesus, Manifesting the Calling of St

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It is the light of enlightenment that Caravaggio shows appearing from the right with Jesus, manifesting the calling of St. Matthew (in the middle of the seated group). FOCUS_Light

Between Spotlight and Shadow

Caravaggio is one of the most influential artists of the Early Baroque. He is especially well known for his dramatic lighting effects. The technique he used to create these was something he guarded like a trade secret. As a result, legends surrounded the painter even during his lifetime. Sybille Ebert-Schifferer, Director at the Bibliotheca Hertziana in Rome, has taken on the task of demystifying Caravaggio’s image.

TEXT MECHTHILD ZIMMERMANN

ome, around 1600: The cap- alongside the prestigious commissions ital of the Papal State was awarded by the church and aristocracy, a Mecca for painters. Here, there was also a flourishing market for they were able to study mass-produced artworks: copied por- masterpieces from antiqui- traits of saints that anyone could pur- R ty through to those by Leonardo da chase for a few coins. Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. How- ever, there was also huge demand for CARAVAGGIO STRUCK A CHORD the new. Before he died in 1590, Pope WITH THE AGE Sixtus V had numerous churches built and renovated that now required Michelangelo Merisi, who adopted the adornment. On his trip to Rome, Mon- name of his parent’s home town Cara- taigne noted that there were “barely vaggio, was one of those who went to any visual depictions” in the church- Rome as a trained painter in the early es there – something that is hardly 1590s. He, too, must have started by ek- imaginable today. ing out a living with copying. But with- Artists from all over the world ar- in just a few years’ time, he succeeded rived in the hope of being able to dem- in establishing valuable contacts. Even onstrate their talent and be discovered. more importantly, he developed a style It was their chance to attain prosperity, that was new, and that struck a chord or even affluence and nobility. But with the age. competition was tough. There were Four criteria distinguish Caravag- many who spent their entire lives copy- gio’s visual language: sensuality, vibran-

Photo: Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte ing works of art for a pittance. After all, cy, intelligent use of artistic quotations

2 | 15 MaxPlanckResearch 33 Scientists reconstructed the scene of The Crowning with Thorns in order to reproduce the lighting. The result: not one spotlight – as one might think at first glance – but three were required to approximate the lighting of Caravaggio’s painting. and – especially striking – his space-de- paintings are further evidence of his as a degenerate failure. As Bellori had fining use of light-dark conceptions. success. As early on as 1600, he earned a major influence on European art the- Caravaggio painted as if the light were 600 scudi for two pictures – twice the ory, the image he propagated of Cara- falling at an angle from above, like a annual salary of a university professor vaggio has endured to this day – much spotlight that in turn cast deep shad- at the time. to the irritation of Sybille Ebert- ows. The background is often dark, Schifferer: the Director of the Biblio- and parts of the painting can only be MALIGNED AS A “MONSTER theca Hertziana, the Max Planck Insti- guessed at. Landscapes or general spa- OF GENIUS” tute for Art History in Rome, has been tial details are very rarely recognizable, fighting to rehabilitate the artist for with the result that the figures appear Caravaggio’s success not only attracted some time. extraordinarily sculptural – in fact, al- admirers – it also generated rivalry and To this end, she has compiled copi- most too close for comfort, from the envy. This was why, during his lifetime, ous evidence from the most diverse viewer’s perspective. and even more so after his death, a sources and writings, and published her In the first few years of the 17th great many rumors developed that findings in the monumental volume century, Caravaggio was celebrated by eventually grew into legends. In 1633, Caravaggio: The Artist and His Work. A many contemporaries for his “divine Florentine painter Vicente Carducho key issue is what Ebert-Schifferer calls art of painting,” and was glorified as a called his colleague “a monster of ge- Caravaggio’s “lighting direction” – the paragon. In his verses, the poet Gaspare nius and talent” and an “Anti-Michel- painter’s characteristic application of Murtola, for example, praised the effect angelo,” and even an “Antichrist.” light and shadow. She regards this fea- of his figures, which he claimed were In a biographical work by art theo- ture of his work as part of a develop- barely distinguishable from living be- rist Giovanni Pietro Bellori published ment in art history, as with the advent

ings. The prices paid for Caravaggio’s in 1672, Caravaggio is already described of the work of Leonardo da Vinci – 100 Photo: Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte

34 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 15 Photo: Andreas Muhs implementing thisrequirement stipu- events andmartyrdom. into theactioninscenes of Biblical the faithfulbyliterallydrawing them people andappealtotheemotions of church the paintingstooverwhelm this. Orderswereissuedthatcalledfor and artwasexpectedtocontribute sponse tothespreadofProtestantism, ed theCounter-Reformationinre- Trent, theCatholic Church had initiat- tion toatthetime:AtCouncilof were beingcalledupontopayatten- addressing akeycriterionthatartists use oflight,Caravaggiowas,infact, marketing iteffectively. Rome, adaptingittohisownstyle,and tation thatwaspreviouslyunknownin able skillintakingaformofrepresen- analysis, Caravaggioshowedconsider- known. AccordingtoEbert-Schifferer’s Rome, andtheirworksweresimplynot way fromtheircontemporariesin Campi. Butsuchpainterswerealong ni GirolamoSavoldoandAntonio dark contrasts,suchasthoseofGiovan- there werepaintingswithstronglight- other approaches.InLombardianart, vaggio hadalreadybeenexposedto ers avoidedstrongshadows. 16th tothe17thcentury, Romanpaint- pletely dark.Upuntiltheturnof ones, thougheventhesearenevercom- segments thatmergesoftlywithdarker the useofso-calledsfumato–bright ination ofhispaintingsrevealswhy: shadows weretobeavoided.Anexam- himself statedexplicitlythatsharp In histreatiseonpainting,Leonardo shadow becameanimportantsubject. merous artists. nomena attractedtheinterestofnu- years beforeCaravaggio–lightphe- “Caravaggio wasmostpersuasive in What’s more,byfocusingonthe During histraininginMilan,Cara- The naturaldepictionoflightand » unknown inRome,adaptingittohisownstyle,andmarketingeffectively. Caravaggio showed considerable skillintakingaform ofrepresentation previously light ofenlightenment,whichisatits that comesinwithChristisalsothe altar onthesameside.Butlight scene, asthereisawindowbehindthe and reinforces thenaturallightof with Christfromtheright-handside due tothedarkness.Thelightappears doors orindoorsremainsuncertain tax collector, isseated.Whetherout- coming intoaroomwhereMatthew, a “ STYLISTIC DEVICE ART QUOTATIONS ASAPOPULAR explains thedetails: pressive whenSybilleEbert-Schifferer to thenon-expert.It’s evenmoreim- display. It’s aremarkablepainting,even mission foraworktobeputonpublic 1599, itwastheartist’s firstmajorcom- with mous paintingstothisday. Together remains oneofCaravaggio’s mostfa- ple is earlyexam- enlightenment. Onevery ings, itactuallyembodiesDivineLight, just illumination:inhisreligiouspaint- out thatlightinhisworkismorethan says Ebert-Schifferer. Andshepoints lated bytheCounter-Reformation,” Adam as thatofAdamin paintings: “Christ’s gestureisthesame skilled quotationofother famous in ture ofCaravaggio’s worktobefound example ofanothercharacteristicfea- you aretheoneImean.” nection anddepictsthecrucialgesture: hand. Thisiswhatestablishesthecon- ly emphasizesChrist’s outstretched ed withanewlife.Thelightalsoclear- the onetobeenlightenedandinvest- the taxcollectorashelooksup.Heis brightest whereitfallsonthefaceof The CallingofSt.Matthew The CallingofSt.Matthew The arthistorianalsopointsoutan The Martyrdom ofSt.Matthew The Martyrdom The CallingofSt.Matthew on theceilingofSistine The Creation of showsChrist , which – the of penchant ofhisRoman Caravaggio deliberatelyplayed onthis quotations fromotherworks ofart. strating theirexpertisebydiscovering er theirartcollectionsand demon- dignitaries enjoyedshowing eachoth- of thetime.Thearistocracyandchurch ular pastimeamongtheupperclasses and interpretingofpaintingswasapop- preciated this.” at thetimecertainlyidentifiedandap- chelangelo. ArtconnoisseursinRome Chap Bibliotheca Hertziana. Bibliotheca Sybille Ebert-Schifferer, Director at the book: her with Caravaggio on light new Shed It isafactthatthemutualviewing el byCaravaggio’s namesakeMi- 2 | 15 MaxPlanckResearch MaxPlanckResearch FOCUS clients. Later, _Light 35 FOCUS 36 ment, somewouldhavegivenany- Schifferer reportswithsomeamuse- pecially hisuseoflight.AsEbert- tate Caravaggio’s visuallanguage,es- and manypaintersattemptedtoimi- caused astirintheRomanartworld, be foundinhispictures. ers, thistypeofallusionisnolongerto paint forless when hewasforced toleaveRomeand MaxPlanckResearch MaxPlanckResearch Both oftheSt.Matthewpaintings MICHELANGELO MERISIDA CARAVAGGIO May July October July July from October from October from ca. 1584 September 18,1610 1607 _Light 1608 to 1599 1606 1588 1608 1592 1609 Admission totheMalteseOrder(barredagaininDecember1608) CaravaggiofleesRometothenearbyprincipalityofPaliano PeriodofstayinMalta 29,1571 knowledgeable Prestigiouspublicandprivatecommissionsforpaintings

Flees to Sicily due to involvement in a brawl FleestoSicilydueinvolvement inabrawl 1606 DeathinPortoErcole ResidentinRome,workvariousstudios SecondperiodofstayinNaples 2

| ResidentinNaples 15 Apprenticeship withrenownedMilanesepainterSimonePeterzano Birth ofMichelangeloMerisiinMilan;childhoodpresumablyspentwithhisgrandparentsCaravaggio

custom- to Salini.AccordingTrisegni, thedeal er, hedeniedhavingrevealedanything was calledtothewitnessstand,howev- slander trial.WhenTrisegni himself when givingevidenceasawitnessin friend andcolleagueFilippoTrisegni formation providedtohimbyhis painter Tommaso Salinihadquotedin- back to1603.Theseindicatethatyoung nique, asshownbytrialrecordsdating thing tobeableemulatethetech- had beenthat,inexchangeforthein- Starting in the the in Starting of half-shadow. avoid theneedtofurtherrenderareas work, healsousedthefoundationto tween lightanddarkareas.Inhislater order toachieveaclearseparationbe- dividual linesatthecolorcontoursin perfected thesysteminthatheleftin- spread innorthernItaly. Caravaggio work fromdarktolight. dark layersofpaintsoastobeable dation, heappliedoneormorecoarse, chalkfoun- dation: aftertheobligatory of theso-calledimprimitura,orfoun- One typicalfeatureisCaravaggio’s use partly uncoveraspectsofthissecret. ods ofanalysis,itisatleastpossibleto selling point.Usingpresent-daymeth- technique atradesecretandunique hecouldtokeephis did everything copyright existed,Caravaggiohimself didn’t revealittoone another.” painters whowereonfriendlyterms must havebeensovaluablethateven the envyofmanyhiscolleagues nique withwhichCaravaggiostirred revealing:“Thepaintingtech- very Ebert-Schifferer findsthisanecdote claimed thatthishadnothappened. to paintacastshadow–andTrisegni formation, Saliniwastoshowhimhow Urbino’s collection of sketches. of their training, as demonstrated by Carlo required to study shadow-casting as part In anagelongbeforepatentsand Such foundationswerequitewide- 16 th century, painters were

Photo: The Morgan Library & Museum, New York Photo: Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte a formativeinfluenceonCaravaggio in inspirer andprotector. Theperiodhad this, heactedasthepainter’s mentor, room andboard,butabove beyond 1595 onward.DelMonte gave him been amemberofthe Monte. Theartististhoughttohave hold ofCardinalFrancescoMariadel niques whilehewaslivinginthehouse- began tomakeuseofsuchclevertech- ray fluorescenceanalysis. heading Holofernes made visibleinthepainting painting darker. Thiseffectwasfirst tions morebrilliantandtherestof toned glazes,makingthebrightsec- peared whitebymeansofthin,dark- would oftentonedownpartsthatap- pure, vividlybrightshades:infact,he varied pigments.Heespeciallydisliked vaggio usedawiderangeofthemost To elaboratethedepictedfigures,Cara- empha to serves maid old the of face caricature-like the while determination, and disgust both reflects Ju Holofernes of hisfigures. of beheading nuances psychological contrasting richly the for also but effects, lighting for only not isknown Caravaggio It’s worthnotingthatCaravaggio of 1598/99usingX- famiglia Judith Be- from enced himmost. modern naturalsciencesthatinflu- was mainlytheCardinal’s interestin lute whilelivingwithdelMonte,butit that helearnedtofenceandplaythe many differentways.Itcanbeassumed this dayasoneofthefounding fathers Guidubaldo delMonte,isregarded to brother, mathematicianand physicist del Montehousehold.The Cardinal’s portant areasofstudypursued inthe paints andglazes. fate –acomponentofmanyemulsion stone,” familiartodayasbariumsul- then newlydiscovered“Bologna with novelpigments,forexamplethe encouraged Caravaggiotoexperiment chemistry. Hisexperiments may have as theprecursortoscienceof pursued apersonalinterestinalchemy and supporterofGalileoGalilei.He Francesco delMontewasafriend Geometry andoptics wereotherim- Geometry Caravaggio usedanelaborate system theideathat leagues haveputforward definitely notbeunderestimated!” ral sciencesduringthisperiod should knowledge ofandinterestin thenatu- writing hisowntreatise.Painters’ the needsofpaintersandsetabout with Galilei,foundthisimpracticalfor who, incidentally, alsocorresponded pert today. PainterLudovicoCigoli, – virtuallyunintelligibletothenon-ex- shadows. Thetreatiseishighlycomplex separate chapteronshadows andcast a treatise byGuidubaldodelMontewith Sybille Ebert-Schiffererrelates:“There’s a deeply,other artistsdelvedintoitvery as no longerascertainabletoday. extent Caravaggiostudiedhisworkis searchers intolight andshade.To what was oneofthemostimportantre- of descriptivegeometry. Atthetime,he However, itiscertainlythecasethat A numberofthearthistorian’s col- 2 | dith’s at expression the 15 MaxPlanckResearch MaxPlanckResearch size Judith’s beauty. beauty. Judith’s size 37 FOCUS_Light

of mirrors and lenses or a kind of cam- firstly, the word soffitto doesn’t mean involved in an incident that today era obscura to project his figures onto roof at all, but intermediate ceiling. would be classified as bodily injury the canvas – something she regards as And secondly, nobody would be stupid with fatal consequences. That’s why he far-fetched. “How would an artist have enough to make a hole in the ceiling if was forced to leave Rome and couldn’t been able to paint his models on a can- they were working on large canvases. It return for the rest of his life. However, vas with a black-brown foundation in also rains in Rome sometimes, and to assess the artist’s behavior properly, a darkened room in which they were what if the canvases were to get wet?” it’s important to examine the history of illuminated by a single ray of light?” The art historian was thus all the crime in general during this period. she asks. more pleased when Caravaggio’s rental This, too, is something Ebert-Schifferer In asking this, Ebert-Schifferer also contract turned up in the Rome State has done, with remarkable results: deliberately challenges the much-de- Archive in 2010, showing that he “There were people we would regard to- bated “naturalness” of Caravaggio’s would have been within his rights to day as very respectable, such as aristo- paintings. Admired by some contempo- dismantle part of the intermediate ceil- crats and even lawyers of the consisto- raries and art theorists, it is dismissed ing. Ebert-Schifferer explains that this ry and the like, who would constantly by others as mere “copying.” “Both is understandable from an art historical get into fights and turn up at the police miss the point entirely,” says the art perspective: “Caravaggio was working station.” The state monopoly on the use historian. Because it’s only at first sight on Death of the Virgin at the time, as of force was not yet established at the that Caravaggio’s paintings appear to well as other paintings that were more time. What’s more, it was still common provide a lifelike representation. A clos- than three meters high. Taking out the practice for the aristocracy to resolve er look reveals that the paintings rare- intermediate ceiling allowed him to set conflicts by the rule of force rather than ly depict a “real” scene as might be cap- up the canvases to their full height – before a court. By similar means, Cara- tured by a photograph; in fact, they are and he would get additional oblique vaggio might have been anticipating the result of a complex composition. light from the mansard window to the hoped-for social advancement into boot. This type of diagonal light, not aristocratic circles. ARTISTIC FREEDOM WITH LIGHT from a hole but from a window, is even The Director at the Bibliotheca AND SHADOW recommended by Leonardo as a re- Hertziana certainly gained a very differ- quirement for a good studio.” ent picture of Caravaggio in the course This particularly applies to the use of According to the researcher, rumors of her intense work: “You simply have light: The scene from the painting The such as that of the demolished roof can to look at whose company he kept, who Crowning with Thorns from 1602/03 was be accounted for by an image of Cara- he wrote to. He had lots of literary elaborately reconstructed in Vienna us- vaggio that has persisted for centuries friends – the type of people who don’t ing spotlights for illumination. In the as a seedy criminal who preferred to talk to every clochard. And the paint- process, the scientists paid particular at- keep the company of thieves and pros- ings themselves indicate that he was an tention to where the shadows fell – and titutes. The 19th century tendency to amazingly intelligent man with an ex- there were several surprises. First of all, associate genius with madness and cellent knowledge of art.” it took three spotlights to illuminate crime only served to strengthen this Sybille Ebert-Schifferer’s research has the painting the way Caravaggio paint- image. The interpretation is still reflect- provided a range of new insights into ed it. And even then, none of the shad- ed in Derek Jarman’s cult film Caravag- Caravaggio’s life and work. However, ows were entirely correct. “That’s art, gio from 1986. 400 years after his death, it is obviously after all. He didn’t just copy light that It’s an established fact, according to no longer possible to shed new light on falls somewhere,” says Ebert-Schifferer. Sybille Ebert-Schifferer, that Caravaggio everything. Just like in Caravaggio’s Wild theories abound regarding was involved in violent brawls on sev- paintings, where the cast shadow leaves Caravaggio’s studio, which he set up in eral occasions and, in 1606, was even a certain amount in the dark. a rented apartment after his time in the

Cardinal del Monte household. The rumors are based on a source dating back to 1605, in which the painter’s landla- TO THE POINT dy makes a claim for damage to the sof- ● Caravaggio’s style is characterized by bright light falling at an angle from above fitto, the ceiling. Several Caravaggio re- that casts a hard shadow, giving the scenes depicted a very sculptural appearance. searchers have interpreted the source as ● The style is both fascinating and polarizing: There were many imitators, but also evidence that the artist made a hole in many enviers and opponents who established a permanent negative image of the the roof in order to get the light to fall artist after his death. into the room vertically. ● According to the latest art historical research, Caravaggio’s lifestyle was typical This kind of interpretation exasper- of his contemporaries. To some extent, his artistic techniques can be deciphered using modern methods. ates Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: “That’s rubbish, it’s a matter of common sense:

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