SPLIT LAKE CREE FIRST NATION
Analysis of Change
Split Lake Cree Post Project Environmental Review VOLUME ONE: August 1996 Traditional fishing using hand-woven nets and birch bark canoes. is one of a Tseries of studies being used in the planning of hydroelectric development on the Birthday/Gull reach of the Nelson River. It forms part of the Post Project Environmental Review as described in Article ..(b) of the Split Lake Cree Implementation Agreement. Manitoba Hydro provided the funding and technical equipment required for the development of this study, as part of its responsibilities under the Agreement. By mutual agreement, Split Lake Cree First Nation has taken lead responsibility for the production of the paper, with periodic review and comment by Manitoba Hydro representatives.
is largely based on interviews conducted in the Cree language with Split Lake Cree Elders and adults, in which testimony was provided about many important developments in the life of the people. Video tapes of these interviews are Dedicated to the memory of available at the Tataskweyak Trust Elder Samuel Garson, Secretariat Office in Split Lake. Split Lake Cree. Contents of this report may be reproduced without permission, provided appropriate credits are given.
The views and interpretations in this report are exclusively those of the Split Lake Cree. While Manitoba Hydro funded this report and contributed photographs and maps, the Corporation does not necessarily agree with, nor is it bound by all of the historical interpretations contained in it. Table of Contents Chapter 3 Chapter 5 Acknowledgements Adapting to Outside Advent of the Modern Era Preface ...... Influences Split Lake in the 1960s.... Split Lake in the 1920s, Resource Harvesting Introduction 1930s and 1940s...... and the Economy...... 49 Background ...... Hudson Bay Railway...... Community Development ...... Context ...... Resource Harvesting, the Economy, New Communities...... and Government Involvement...... Hydroelectric Development ...... Chapter 1 Registered Trapline System Community Governance ...... Split Lake Cree Early Established ...... Conclusion...... Community Development History...... ...... Community Governance Pre-contact...... ...... Chapter 6 Early settlements ...... 20 Conclusion...... Environmental and Social Community Establishment...... 22 Disruption Chapter 4 Treaty 5 Adhesion...... 24 Split Lake in the 1970s.... Traditional Lifestyle Resource Harvesting Chapter 2 Changes and the Economy...... Traditional Life Continues Split Lake in the 1950s.... Community Development...... at Split Lake into Resource Harvesting Hydroelectric Development and the Economy...... Accelerates...... the 20th Century...... Community Development...... The Northern Flood Committee Resource Harvesting and Negotiation of the and the Economy Community Governance ...... ...... Northern Flood Agreement...... Community Development First Hydroelectric Development.... ...... Hydro Project Impacts ...... Community Governance Conclusion...... ...... Community Governance ...... Conclusion...... Split Lake Trading Post.
Chapter 7 Appendix 1 Figure : Split Lake Cree Land Use Decade of Uncertainty Wildlife Harvesting Calendar ...... opposite and Reconstruction Figure : Split Lake Cree Traditional Impacts...... Use Area, Settlements, Outcamps, Split Lake in the 1980s.... Subsistence Harvesting Impacts .... Trails and Routes ...... follows Resource Harvesting Commercial Fishing Impacts...... Figure : Split Lake Registered and the Economy...... Trapping Impacts ...... Trapline Zone ...... opposite Community Development...... Conclusion...... Figure : Extent of Split Lake Road to Split Lake ...... Community Development in .. Appendix 2 Impacts of Hydroelectric Figure : Effects of Kettle Generating Development Continue...... Summary of Northern Station on Moose Nose Lake Reach Flood Agreement Benefits Northern Flood Agreement Figure : Split Lake Water Regime: Implementation ...... Overview ...... 89 Average Monthly Water Levels for Community Governance ...... 1975 to 1992 ...... Pre and Post LWD-CDR Periods ..... Conclusion...... 1992 Agreement...... Figure : Extent of Split Lake Community Development in .. Endnotes...... Chapter 8 Figure : Split Lake Fish Community Renewal Bibliography ...... Harvests–⁄ to ⁄ ...... Split Lake in the First Half Figure : Split Lake Registered List of Figures Trapline Zone: Value of Furs / of the 1990s...... Figure : Components and Phases of Number of Trappers–⁄ to Community Development...... the Post Project Environmental ⁄ ...... Northern Flood Agreement Review...... - Tables Implementation ...... Figure : Map to Split (aT tas que) Hydroelectric Development Effects. Lake, drawn by Cha chay pay way ti, Table : Split Lake Cree First Nation Chiefs since 1937 ...... Community Governance ...... May 1806 ...... follows Table : Commercial Fishing Use, Conclusion...... Figure : Principal Manitoba Hydro Projects Affecting the Split Lake Cree Quota and Production: Split Lake Study Area ...... follows Resource Area, by Lake ...... Chapter 9 Figure : Manitoba Hydro Projects Concluding Summary...... 81 and Related Activities in the Split Lake Cree Study Area ...... follows Boys at the beach, Split Lake. 1929.
Acknowledgements The Split Lake Cree – Eli Harvey representatives, involved in the joint – Eve Keeper management of the Birthday/Gull – Joseph Keeper Joint Study Group, wish to – Daniel Kirkness acknowledge those individuals – Tubal Kirkness whose participation contributed to – Alison Kitchikeesick the completion of this study. In – Elijah Mayham particular we would like to thank: – John P. Mayham • the Elders who participated in – Matilda Mayham the interviews and who provided – Joe Morris the most vital historical information – Charles Morris concerning the early development of – John J. Ouskan the Split Lake community. – Sarah Jean Ouskan – Simeon Beardy – Stanley Ouskan – Betsy Flett – Billy Spence – William T. Flett – Edwin Spence – Alex Garson – James M. Spence – Noah Garson – Shadrack Spence – Samuel Garson † – Arabella Wavey – Jake Wavey • members of the interview team • Split Lake Cree Chief and • Joseph I. Keeper, Denis DePape who conducted the interviews with Council who, after a review of an of InterGroup Consultants Inc., Split Lake Cree Elders, adults and earlier draft, requested a heavier E. E. Hobbs and Associates Ltd., and youth, and whose perspectives emphasis on the pre-s period of William Kennedy Consultants Ltd., greatly assisted in shaping the Split Lake Cree history. who provided general review and writing and the analysis of this • Members of the Split comments. document. Lake/Manitoba Hydro Joint Study Special thanks go to everyone – Michael Garson Group who helped define the studies who provided photographs – Alfred Beardy for the Post Project Environmental including Michael Garson, John – Bryant Keeper Review. Garson, Allison Kitchikeesik, George – Joseph Morris Representing Split Lake Cree Hardy – NFCRA, Manitoba Hydro, – Samuel Garson † – Victor Spence and retired teacher Jack Harrison. – Michael Garson A large number of people – Lazarus Kitchikeesick provided valuable insights about the – Samuel Garson † contents of this analysis of change, – Joseph Morris and the Split Lake Cree regret any Representing Manitoba Hydro oversight in acknowledging their – Bernie Osiowy contributions. – Glen Cook – Don Rogalsky – Larry Stefanuik †(deceased ) – Dave Magnusson
Overleaf – traditional Cree summer hunting and fishing camp.
Preface
At that time it was proposed that An interview team of Split Lake he split lake cree the analysis be broken down into Cree personnel was trained in Trepresentatives on the ten year time frames, beginning in interview techniques. Manitoba Birthday/Gull Joint Study Group the s and s. Recognizing Hydro provided audio and video suggested that a people’s account of that hydroelectric development was tape equipment and a television set, their history should be prepared. not the only agent of change that in order to document and view the The initial idea was to consider had affected the Split Lake Cree over interviews. In total, Elders and developments since the start of the period, it was agreed that other adults were interviewed and about hydroelectric development in the interrelated factors would also be hours of interviews were taped, mid-s. Manitoba Hydro considered. These included trapping most of them in the Cree language. supported the concept. Consultants and fishing changes, the emergence Two to three people were involved to the Study Group were asked to of the wage economy, population in each interview and each of the prepare a workplan for the movement and growth, community sessions lasted about three hours. incorporation of such a study into characteristics, diet/health, Initially, a long questionaire was the Post Project Environmental transportation, education, social used to guide the interviews. Review process. At the initial issues, and other outside However, this proved too meeting on January , , the development pressures. An initial cumbersome so the interview team Study Group agreed to proceed with list of major community changes was abandoned it in favour of a more a study that identified and analyzed provided by Elders at the January flexible, thematic approach. This the changes that had affected the meeting. This list was later contributed to a freer flow of Split Lake Cree since the start of used as the basis for two information while maintaining some hydroelectric development in the questionnaire survey instruments, structure in the interview process. study area. one for Elders and another for Interview team members transcribed adults. several of the interview sessions into English and these became the raw data upon which this document was based. In addition, the interview team met with the consultants after the interviews to ensure the writers had a complete picture of the information collected.
Albert Garson catching trout at Waskaiowaka Lake.
Additional complementary Cree would require a marrying As various drafts of the Analysis research was carried out by together of the present oral of Change report were prepared, members of the Study Group and by testimony, more interviews and they were reviewed by members of the consultants to the Post Project materials from other written sources. the Split Lake Cree interview team Environmental Review process. After the material in this and the Study Group. Helpful Statistical information was obtained document was initially presented to comments and feedback were from a variety of sources, including the Chief and Council in June , received and many changes made as the Manitoba Department of Natural they requested that information a result. Resources and Statistics Canada. from the treaty signing time and Community profile information was earlier be included in the study. This compiled for surrounding was accomplished by undertaking communities such as York Landing some additional research into and Ilford. Information from Split historical documents and by going Lake community plans was also used back to the interview team for and incorporated. Given the additional Split Lake Cree historical intention to focus and report on the information. Old photographs for experience and knowledge of the the document were provided from a people, no thorough review was variety of sources, mainly Split Lake conducted of the primary archival Cree and Manitoba Hydro, as well as sources or secondary literature. A a former teacher who spent time in complete history of the Split Lake Split Lake in – .
Introduction
HIS DOCUMENT describes part Tof the historical experience of the Split Lake Cree. It identifies and analyses key changes in the First Nation’s history, noting factors that have caused such changes, particularly the impacts resulting from hydroelectric development. It provides an overview of the Cree presence in northern Manitoba from pre-European times up to the present. However, the study’s focus is on the century, describing traditional life before , followed by an account of the development of the community within relevant eras, with special emphasis on the years after . The purpose of this study is to identify and understand the major changes in the First Nation’s growth and evolution, based directly on the people’s experience. Many of the subjects covered here in a general way are deserving of their own detailed historical analyses, considering both the oral and written records. This analysis of change has drawn upon existing studies, reports and other documents and upon consultation Treaty party. Indian agent and guides. Split Lake . with certain knowledgeable individuals who have clarified Background Concerned about what was particular matters. However, its By far the most significant happening to their lands and waters most important source has been development that irreversibly the five First Nations began to meet detailed interviews with Split Lake changed the way of life of many of together in the early s. Split Cree Elders and adults. the Cree of northern Manitoba, Lake Cree leaders and Elders quickly including the Split Lake Cree, was became major supporters and the Lake Winnipeg Regulation – proponents of the idea of working Churchill River Diversion (LWR-CRD) together to oppose Manitoba Hydro hydroelectric project. The area it in an effort to stop the project. Split impacted is the permanent tribal Lake Cree, more than any other of homeland of the Cree, consisting of a the First Nations, had already significant portion of Manitoba suffered from its adverse effects. The below the tundra in the boreal forest people had seen its impacts on their region. The First Nations most traditional lands and waters, above affected were Split Lake, Nelson and below the Kelsey generating House, Cross Lake, Norway House station. Split Lake Cree leaders and York Factory. urged the other four First Nations to
join them in trying to stop the Implementation Manitoba Hydro projects had project, in order to avoid further However, once the NFA was already flooded Split Lake Cree such consequences.1 To this end, the signed, its effective implementation waterways and lands, including five First Nations established the became a matter of dispute, with the campsites, hunting grounds and Northern Flood Committee in . other parties interpreting in the traditional use areas, had interfered narrowest way its broad contractual with transportation, adversely Northern Flood undertakings. Although greatly impacted wildlife and fish habitat Agreement disappointed by this turn of events, and populations, and negatively Despite their best efforts, the the five First Nations took up the affected the traditional way of life. First Nations were not able to stop struggle to get it implemented. It In addition, it was evident that the Manitoba Hydro project. was not until an arbitrator was Birthday/Gull project planning had Nevertheless, the Northern Flood appointed in , and claims began been initiated without any Committee fought to have its to be filed, that some real prospect of consultation with the First Nation. concerns heard and was able to serious implementation appeared. Community leaders and members convince Canada to support it in Progress was, nevertheless, had little understanding of the negotiating additional land rights painfully slow, and by the NFA potential impacts of the possible and compensation for the impacts of First Nations had decided to pursue development. The people were also the Lake Winnipeg Regulation – a more vigorous and comprehensive determined that future stages of Churchill River Diversion upon approach to getting the agreement hydroelectric development would the lands, lives, and livelihood of its implemented. not occur until full compensation member First Nations. Using the In , prior to any acceptance had been received in the form of the James Bay Agreement as a of the global process proposed by comprehensive implementation of precedent, it negotiated the the First Nations, Split Lake Cree the NFA. Fortunately, in response to Northern Flood Agreement (NFA) were informed that Manitoba Hydro First Nation concerns, Hydro called with Canada, Manitoba and wished to negotiate an upward off the proposed negotiations at that Manitoba Hydro. This agreement, adjustment of the on-reserve setback time. the first in the history of northern line to accommodate potential Manitoba in which Cree First hydroelectric development of the Nations had the ability to represent reach on the Nelson River between themselves independently, was Birthday and Gull Rapids, to signed in December and kilometres downstream of the ratified by all parties in . For community. This announcement the Cree people, the NFA had two about potential future flooding purposes: to compensate them for produced a profound level of the adverse effects of the Hydro anxiety throughout the community, project; and to assist in the which was still shaken by the development of a viable and continuing, uncompensated adverse sustainable livelihood in their effects of past hydroelectric traditional homeland. development, particularly the Lake With regard to Split Lake Winnipeg Regulation – Churchill specifically, the NFA granted River Diversion. Manitoba Hydro an easement for the storage of water on reserve lands below approximate elevation feet above sea level and contiguous to Split Lake. Furthermore, Hydro was obligated, to the extent possible, to control the flow of water so as not to exceed elevation feet above sea level on Split Lake.
Showing patience and skill, the accepted by Split Lake Cree First More details on the agreement are NFA First Nations, represented by Nation. included in Appendix . the Northern Flood Committee, In September , Split Lake gradually succeeded in moving Cree First Nation began negotiating Joint Study Group discussions with the other parties the implementation of the Northern Since October , Split Lake into full-scale negotiations. By , Flood Agreement with the other Cree and Manitoba Hydro, the other parties – Canada, parties. A precondition placed on represented by the Joint Study Manitoba, and Manitoba Hydro – these negotiations was the Group, have together been had agreed to try to negotiate an understanding that the eventual conducting a study program to agreement for an implementation implementation agreement would do facilitate planning associated with mechanism for the NFA and by the nothing to harm the position of the the Birthday/Gull hydroelectric full spring of had agreed on a other First Nation signatories of the development option, which could Proposed Basis of Settlement of NFA. Negotiations continued from have the effect of altering the water Outstanding Claims and Obligations. November until May . The regime agreed to in the NFA and the Initially, this was accepted by four very challenging work undertaken Implementation Agreement. of the five Northern Flood during that period by Split Lake Both parties identified three areas of Committee members. The summer of Cree, both internally and with the study which will assist in each side’s was spent trying to work out other parties, resulted in a understanding of the impacts of any an accommodation with Norway comprehensive agreement, which future construction of dams and House First Nation, which did not was ratified by the Split Lake Cree generating stations. The three areas find the proposed basis of settlement membership in the spring of . are: a Split Lake Community acceptable. However, agreement was The final signing took place on June Planning and Impact Study, not possible and at a meeting on , . completed in November , which August , , three of the five The negotiation of the NFA assessed Split Lake’s community NFA First Nations, with Cross Lake Implementation Agreement by Split development requirements both abstaining, decided to put the Lake Cree First Nation was a with and without impacts from implementation negotiations on pioneering step in the Birthday/Gull; a Post Project hold. implementation of the Northern Environmental Review which is Meanwhile, during the summer Flood Agreement. It demonstrated currently underway; and a of , Split Lake Cree First Nation the determination of the people to Birthday/Gull Resource Impact held several workshops with its get fair compensation for the adverse Study. membership, for information, effects of the Hydro project upon communication and direction. The their lands, lives, and livelihood, as Environmental Review direction was clear – to get on with promised in the NFA. It was the The Post Project Environmental the next phase in trying to work out culmination of a year long Review is a requirement of Section an implementation agreement based struggle by the Split Lake Cree and . of the NFA Implementation on the proposed basis of settlement. also marked a path which the other Agreement, which sets out the As a result, Split Lake Cree Chief and NFA First Nations have since resolution process governing Council indicated to their Northern followed. deviations from the Split Lake water Flood Committee partners that they The agreement provided Split regime and any amendment to had a mandate from their people to Lake Cree First Nation with Hydro flooding easements. As part proceed with the negotiation of a ,, over a period of time, of the resolution process to amend comprehensive implementation approximately , acres of new the easements, paragraph (b) of agreement, and that they did not reserve lands, and , acres of subsection .. requires Manitoba have the authority to do otherwise. titled lands. This was in addition to Hydro to implement, cooperatively At that time the other four First the ,, paid to the Split with Split Lake Cree First Nation, a Nations voted to cut their ties with Lake Cree by Canada, Manitoba, and review of the existing environment Split Lake Cree First Nation. At a Manitoba Hydro between and in the Split Lake resource area. later date, in April , they . In return, the First Nation Specifically, the paragraph requires attempted, by resolution, to formally waived all past, present and future Manitoba Hydro, “at its own oust Split Lake Cree First Nation claims and outstanding NFA expense and with the cooperation of from the Northern Flood Committee. provisions, except for some very Split Lake Cree”, to: On principle, this position was never specific Hydro-related liabilities. implement...a review of the Figure – Components and Phases of the Post Project Environmental Review
existing environment including the (above) shows the components and Environmental Matrices impacts of that part of Existing phases of the Post Project summarizing Manitoba Hydro Development which impact on the Environmental Review. impacts on the Split Lake Cree, and Resource Area, and of future the fourth, the Environmental environmental impacts on Split Phase One Baseline Evaluation. Lake Cree anticipated to result It was agreed then that the future from such Future Development, as stages of the review would consist of Phases Two and Three such relates to Split Lake Cree. three phases of work. Phase One Phase Two will entail a synthesis involves four studies. The first of the findings of the Phase One The original terms of reference study is this history of the First studies in a report that will for the Post Project Environmental Nation, focusing on the concentrate on the meaning and Review were approved by Split Lake century, and identifying those significance of hydroelectric Cree and Manitoba Hydro in changes, particularly the effects of development to the Split Lake Cree. November . Hydro’s wish was hydroelectric development, which While it will not produce a detailed to begin with the Community have affected the traditional way of evaluation of the physical and Planning and Impact Study, the first life in the resource area. The second biological impacts of individual report in the joint study process. Its study is a history of hydroelectric Hydro projects, it will show what completion served to foster a more development in the study area the impacts mean to the people. This harmonious working relationship including a description of first order is a dimension of environmental between Split Lake Cree and physical impacts. Figures , assessment that has not been Manitoba Hydro. The terms of which follow page , show addressed sufficiently in past reference of the Post Project principal Manitoba Hydro projects environmental reviews and studies. Environmental Review were revised and related activities in the study Phases One and Two also involved in with joint agreement. Figure area. The third study will be the an environmental specialist to
develop terms of reference for Phase Every part of this earth is sacred The air is precious to the red man, Three, to provide additional to my people. Every shining pine for all things share the same environmental baseline data and needle, every sand shore, every breath - the beast, the tree, the environmental monitoring mist in the dark woods, every man, they all share the same information. clearing and humming insect is breath. The white man does not It is hoped that this Analysis of holy in the memory and experience seem to notice the air he breathes. Change report will give the reader an of my people. The sap which Like a man dying for many days, appreciation of the Split Lake Cree’s courses through the trees carries he is numb to the stench. But if we profound attachment to the lands the memories of the red man… sell our land, you must remember and waters, and of the changes This shining water that moves in the air is precious to us, that the which, although they have altered the streams and rivers is not just air shares its spirit with all the life the nature and extent of this water but the blood of our it supports. The wind that gave attachment, have never severed it. ancestors. If we sell you our land, our grandfather his first breath The First Nation continues to be you must remember that it is also receives his last sigh. And if intimately associated with its natural sacred, and you must teach your we sell you our land, you must environment despite the assaults of children that it is sacred and that keep it apart and sacred, as a place modernization. Split Lake Cree each ghostly reflection in the clear where even the white man can go appreciate the natural gifts that the water of the lakes tells of events to taste the wind that is sweetened Creator has provided to the earth and memories in the life of my by the meadow’s flowers… and to them. This Aboriginal people. The water’s murmur is the You must teach your children that appreciation was described, albeit in voice of my father’s father. the ground beneath their feet is the another circumstance and time, most ashes of our grandfathers. So that eloquently in a statement attributed The rivers are our brother, they they will respect the land, tell your to Chief Seattle in when, in quench our thirst. The rivers carry children that the earth is rich with response to the American our canoes, and feed our children. the lives of our kin. Teach your government’s offer for a large area of If we sell you our land, you must children what we have taught our Aboriginal land and the promise of a remember, and teach your children, that the earth is our reservation, he said: children, that the rivers are our brothers, and yours, and you must mother. Whatever befalls the earth henceforth give the rivers the befalls the sons of the earth. kindness you would give any brother…
- Figure : Map to Split (aT tas que) Lake, drawn by Cha chay pay way ti, May 1806. Redrawn by Peter Fidler in one his journals, it is now housed in the Hudson’s Bay Company Archives. Figure : Principal Manitoba Hydro Projects Affecting the Split Lake Cree Study Area. Figure : Manitoba Hydro Projects and Related Activities in the Split Lake Cree Study Area. Context Post World War Two conditions effect in the pre-World War Two The devastating effects of the brought about changes which era, it created conditions leading to Lake Winnipeg Regulation – created a severe disruption to the disastrous consequences for the Churchill River Diversion traditional culture. The necessities post-World War Two era. Neither hydroelectric project seriously of education, the new phenomenon the Federal Government, the disrupted and altered the lands and of family allowance, and other Provincial Government nor the waters which had been the lifeblood social and economic factors did not Cree people were prepared for the of the Split Lake Cree since time allow the Cree to disperse into the forces of change that were immemorial. In , Joseph I. various sections of their engulfing the Cree. Many other Keeper, then Executive Director of traditional resource areas as they factors, such as increased access to the Northern Flood Committee, once had for the greater part of the the media and to the outside world spoke at a conference on the year, from early fall until late of the dominant society, had the environment in Montreal. As part of spring. The Cree were forced by effect of creating new and different his paper on the NFA, he spoke about circumstances beyond their control expectations for the young people. these impacts from the perspective to live in one central location all A number of large mining projects of the Cree people of northern the year around. This new pattern in the fifties and early sixties Manitoba, and put them in the caused a drastic impact and produced outside employment for historical context of the rapid social change not only in how the Indian many young Cree. Increased and and economic change experienced people trapped, fished and hunted better health services were having by the Cree in the second half of the in their traditional resource areas, a positive effect in decreasing the century. His comments are a but it also created new dynamics Cree mortality rate particularly fitting opening for this study. for social interaction, for local for infants and children but this government, for housing, for the also had the effect of increasing the In order to put the socio-economic planning of their lives, and all the pressure on decreasing resources in expectations from the NFA into other problems associated with a rapidly changing environment. perspective, it must be realized moving into a new physical, social The only continuing and sustained that the Cree of Northern and economic environment. It solution that governments found Manitoba have been experiencing a created new pressures upon the for this emergent situation was period of rapid social and economic natural resources within the home welfare and more welfare and by change since the end of World War community area. Such a prosaic the late sixties the majority of the Two. Up to years ago, prior to item as the acquisition of sufficient Cree on the five Northern Flood World War Two, the Cree of firewood has become a problem for reserves had become welfare Northern Manitoba lived in a most of the Bands. recipients. Through no fault of trapping, fishing and hunting their own the Cree in the Northern economy in a manner that allowed This was not change planned by Flood Area had become casualties them to exploit fully the natural government for the Cree nor was of change. The social and economic resources which they had utilized this change planned by the Cree for basis for their existence and in a particular way for centuries. themselves. It was change caused survival which had sustained them Certainly, white contact with its by changes in the social and for centuries was being severely superior technology, the fur trade, economic fabric of Canada as a disrupted. and its diseases had impacted the nation. The Federal Department Cree but they had adapted to it responsible for Indians and Indian The announcement by the Province within the continuing context of lands struggled to adapt itself to of Manitoba of a giant hydro their own culture. change but because the political project in Northern Manitoba in dynamics which could have led to a the mid-s brought a promise more meaningful and productive of hope which changed to despair change was lacking, a period of when the Cree people discovered social and economic breakdown that the land upon which they lived was set into motion for the Cree. and from which they had drawn The policy of unaware or uncaring their sustenance would be changed neglect by the Canadian body physically and their traditional politic remained in existence as it livelihood from hunting, fishing Figure (opposite): Split Lake Cree Land Use Calendar – prepared by had in the pre-war era. While this and trapping would be very Natural Resources Secretariat. policy did not have an apparent adversely affected, and in some cases destroyed, by changes caused Mr. Keeper then detailed the More than anything else, the to the land and natural resources following five broad categories of Elders speak of the water as the by new and different water impacts and damages: destruction of lifeblood of their existence. Water, regimes caused by dams and river many components of the resource before the hydroelectric project, was diversions . . . Concerning the Cree base; disrupted economic linkages; always clean. People could get water and the hydro project, one often damage to community from the lake and know it was safe. hears the arguments that the infrastructure; new costs; and They could fish in the lake near their Indians were in a bad position diminished aesthetic values. He homes and know that they need not anyway. Comments such as “The continued: fear the possibility of poison from the fish. Their nets would not be project will probably help them” or It is difficult to quantify the costs filled with algae and debris. They “One can’t stand in the way of of damages described above and could land anywhere along the progress” are often heard, the total impact is much greater banks of the lakes and rivers; the reflecting misconceptions and than the sum of its parts because shorelines had not yet been misinformation about the actual what has happened cumulatively destroyed and desecrated. They state of affairs. If we look at the to the Cree people from the hydro could navigate the lakes and rivers total impact of the hydro project project is a separate and in safety and know what to expect. upon a people already suffering the conceivably the most deadly of In the winter time they would know effects of rapid and debilitating impacts because it could be just the where to travel, where the ice was change, we find that the effect of added pressure which could cause safe. These things are no longer the project upon the Band the dam to break, to put it communities has not lessened the possible. metaphorically.2 horrendous symptoms of rapid The testimony of the Elders The Manitoba Hydro project has change. Examining the statistics interviewed for this study, who so changed the natural environment we find no evidence of positive remember the life the Split Lake Cree that the Split Lake Cree have lost social and economic change, rather once enjoyed in their tribal their faith and their trust in the land we find some rather frightening homeland, shows that they, more and waters which have always indicators that the project may be than anyone else, realize what they sustained them. The Churchill and exacerbating and accelerating the have lost. Nelson River basins, which were the already devastating effects of They speak of a life of freedom basis of their homeland, have been social and economic damage in the and of fulfillment in an environment radically altered and their resources five Northern Flood Communities. that they knew and cherished. Many damaged. Based on their travels Statistics validating the increase in of the Elders recall the time when throughout the resource area, the alcoholism, unemployment, child there was no need for money Elders and adults also believe that, and family abuse, violent crime because the very concept of money in the interior, the wildlife and very and suicide are available. was not a part of the Indian way of nature of the land itself have been affected, particularly the low-lying What is the specific nature of the life. Their life in their resource area areas near the streams and rivers. changes that the project has was not nomadic, but was an introduced into the already serious accommodation and an arrangement situation of existence for the with nature and her rhythms. The Northern Cree? people had everything they required – food, shelter, clothing, recreation, medicine, and their relationship with their Creator.
A bull moose being brought down with stone-tipped arrows.
Chapter 1 Pre-Contact
Split Lake Cree Early T THE TIME of the first Cree harvested fish with nets made History A contact with Europeans, from willow and birch roots. Moose the Cree occupied the boreal forest and caribou were also valuable as region of northern Canada from they provided large quantities of present day northern Quebec into meat, their hides could be used for Saskatchewan and Alberta in the clothing and shelter, and their bones Lake Athabaska area. There is fashioned for tools. The illustration reliable, archaeological evidence that above shows a bull moose being there were Cree in what is now brought down with stone-tipped northern Manitoba more than , arrows. Beaver, muskrat, geese, years ago, a presence which has ducks, bear, porcupine and hare continued through to this day. were also important sources of food. The forefathers of Split Lake Cree Caribou was a staple. The ancestors were hunters and gatherers who of Split Lake Cree developed a rich lived off the rich resources of the array of tools and technologies to lands and waters. Their way of life harvest these resources. They also centred around the lakes and rivers developed a system of beliefs and where wildlife and plant resources customs to conduct their lives.3 could be harvested. Fish were a particularly important source of food and were abundant. Northern
The Cree were a water people. Living along the shores of the lakes and rivers, they hunted and fished, and gathered herbs and berries from along the shoreline. The lakes and rivers were the roads by which they travelled. The waters, the shorelines, the shallows, the marshes, the riverbanks and willow thickets supported the fish, plants and animals that fed and sheltered them. The hundreds of miles of shoreline along Split Lake and the banks of the Nelson River, and the rivers and creeks running into them, provided the Cree with their sustenance. Centuries of occupation and use of the lands and waters enabled the identification and selection of the most useful and fruitful areas for residence and harvesting, in keeping with the rhythms of the seasons. Prior to contact with the white man, Cree people were living in and around Split Lake – which in Cree is called Tataskweyak, meaning ‘the place of tall trees’ – and throughout the whole Split Lake resource area, as they had undoubtedly done since time immemorial. It is reasonable to assume that many of the so-called ‘Home Guard Cree’ who lived around York Factory until the late , and who then came to live at Split Lake, were Lay reader Chief William Keche-kesik preparing a sermon before church. Early s. descendants of the Cree who had lived in the Split Lake area for Early Settlements appoint governors and make laws, as centuries. It can also be assumed that Early contact with Europeans had well as the authority to conduct both before and after Hudson’s Bay been made by the when the trade and commerce, including, of Company forts were built at York French arrived and encountered the course, the fur trade. However, no Factory and Churchill, many Cree Cree settled around Hudson Bay. In powers were given to interfere with continued to use the traditional area , Radisson and Groseilliers the Aboriginal way of life, except as of the Split Lake Cree. Because of its sailed to James Bay and conducted needed to protect forts and factories, extraordinary richness in all that trade with them. and to maintain peaceful trade. was central to the traditional way of In , the Hudson’s Bay While there is scholarly life, Split Lake itself was a central Company was granted a Royal disagreement about the effects of the gathering spot for the scattered Charter over the vast territory of fur trade on Aboriginal life, it seems hunting clans of Split Lake Cree in Rupert’s Land, including what is that indigenous land use and the pre-contact era. now northern Manitoba. The Royal traditions continued substantially Charter gave the company sovereign independent of the demands of the ownership of the land, with fur trade. A large measure of enormous powers of local autonomy was maintained until the government including the right to mid to late century when
Split Lake and Nelson House York boat brigade leaving Norway House. – Hudson’s Bay Company Archives, Provincial Archives of Manitoba government and religious The first permanent Hudson’s York Factory, and Paint Lake, institutions began exerting their Bay Company trading post in what is Chatham and Sipiwesk Lake Houses influence. Rather than establishing now Manitoba was established at in the upstream area of Split Lake. the dominance of one culture over York Factory in at the outlet of The Cree who took up residence another, the fur trade relationship the Hayes River on the western around the York Factory trading has been characterized as one of shore of Hudson Bay, approximately post were known to the traders as interdependence, carried out for the kilometres northeast of Split the ‘Home Guard Cree’. It is mutual benefit of both the Lake. It was the most important important to note, however, that this Aboriginal people and the fur source of European trade goods for term is not how the Cree saw or merchants. The Cree acted as the Aboriginal people in the central described themselves. The Cree middlemen between Aboriginal fur and southern areas of the region. In word for the Cree people is Ininewuk gatherers to the south, west and , the company established Fort (plural) or Ininew (singular), and that east, and Hudson’s Bay Company Prince of Wales trading post at is how the Split Lake Cree have representatives. As a result they Churchill. However, the furs traded always described themselves were able to exert control over other there were never half as many as whether at York Factory or at Split tribes and to expand their range. In those at York Factory. After its Lake. addition, as the Elders point out, the destruction by the French in materials and equipment obtained and subsequent re-establishment, by the fur trade with the company, Fort Prince of Wales lost much of its contributed to a better life for the significance to the Cree. Other people within their traditional smaller trading posts or supply lifestyle. depots in the vicinity appear to have included Flamborough Head and Seal Island slightly southwest of
Split Lake mission and trading post, on the shore of Split Lake due north of the peninsula. Early s. – Hudson’s Bay Company Archives, Provincial Archives of Manitoba
The Cree people were It is almost certain that neither Community instrumental in the York Factory the ‘Home Guard Cree’ nor their Establishment post’s operation, providing meat for forefathers originated at York In response to increased Hudson’s Bay Company workers, Factory, but came to live there from competition from the Northwest haying, rafting wood, loading and different locations over a number of Company, the Hudson’s Bay unloading ships, and transporting years. Many of these people may Company established a post on Split goods and furs between York have originated from the Split Lake, Lake in . While the post was Factory and Norway House, Fox Lake, and War Lake areas and located on the Nelson River route to kilometres to the southwest. These other places in the interior. York York Factory, the Hayes River was Cree were some of the ancestors of Factory was like a boom town to the main travel route to York present members of the Split Lake, which some Cree people had Factory used by the Cree. Therefore, York Factory, War Lake and Fox migrated. Their presence at York the post’s utility depended upon the Lake First Nations, all of whom Factory was a mutually beneficial use made of both routes. As a result, reside within the general boundaries arrangement with the Hudson’s Bay the fortunes of the post at Split Lake, of the Split Lake Cree traditional Company.5 Split Lake House, fluctuated, but it resource area.4 remained in operation off and on for almost years.
Confirmation class at Split Lake with Reverend A. Dewdney. Anglican Church and bell tower are also shown. Before .
A new post was established in When the many families of York The Split Lake Cree faced some to meet the requirements of Factory Cree settled at Split Lake in very challenging times in the Norway House and Cross Lake Cree the late , it was necessary for transition from having a close who hunted in the area. It was them to re-establish themselves relationship with York Factory, located at the north end of Split Lake within the resource area which when it was the port for the near the outlet, close to the mouth of provided them with a year-round Hudson’s Bay Company in Rupert’s the Assean River. This new trading source of fish and was a good place Land, to living at Split Lake near a post, located within the traditional to hunt caribou and moose. Another small outpost of the company. The summer gathering area of the Split reason for the York Factory Cree changes resulted from the growth of Lake Cree, facilitated the settling at Split Lake was that it was Canada westward as a nation and establishment of a more permanent easier to reach from Norway House other forces over which the Split community at Split Lake, as well as than from York Factory. After York Lake Cree had no control. However, encouraging an influx of ‘Home Factory became redundant, material, these were changes with which they Guard Cree’ from York Factory equipment and food stuffs, that used could cope, as they had with the during the . These latter were to come from York Factory, began to many other changes experienced suffering from a scarcity of caribou be shipped north by steamboat on over their centuries of life in the and game in that area and could no Lake Winnipeg to Norway House. area. It meant re-affirming their longer depend upon assistance from Norway House then became the linkage, and turning inward, to the declining York Factory trading transportation hub for much of the primary reliance again on the Split post. north. Lake resource area. Their relationship continued to the land and waters which had always existed for them, since long before the coming of the white man.
In , Anglican Archdeacon J. Lofthouse visited Split Lake which had no church, no school and no resident missionary. At that time, he estimated that there were families living all around Split Lake, of whom were from York Factory or Churchill. These figures would suggest that the families who were not from York Factory or Churchill were indigenous to the Split Lake area. As well, other family groups were then inhabiting the further northern reaches of the vast permanent tribal homeland. In , native catechist Joseph Keche-kesik arrived in the community and stayed for two years. Together with missionary Lofthouse, he built a log school house. The Reverend Charles Fox came to Split Lake in and ministered to the community until . He spearheaded the construction of the first Anglican church and mission house in Split Lake in .6 Joseph Keche-kesik, must have been an extraordinary servant of the Lord for, by working with the Reverends Lofthouse and Fox, he was able to help establish the Anglican Church in Split Lake in such a way that had real meaning for Arecha and Chief William Keche-kesik at treaty signing ceremony in early s . the Split Lake Cree. Reverend Charles Fox learned Cree, and how Treaty 5 Adhesion In , Treaty was signed to travel by dogteam from camp to In the late and early between representatives of Canada camp during the winter months. The century, the Canadian government and the Saulteaux and Cree tribes of Elders say that he was taught to do was looking to the north in order to central-eastern Manitoba. In these things by the Split Lake Cree. develop and exploit its resource exchange for ceding title to their It is a tribute to these early potential. The government, traditional lands, the First Nation Christians, both Indian and white, therefore, believed it necessary to signatories were promised reserve that they were able to establish such extinguish Indian title to the land, in lands based on to acres for a strong Christian presence at Split the same manner it had in other each family of five, gifts and Lake, a presence which exists up to parts of Canada. The vast area of annuities, ammunition and nets, the present time. It is not clear Rupert’s Land controlled by the agricultural implements, and whether or not some or all of the Hudson’s Bay Company was maintenance of on-reserve schools. Cree who had moved from York transferred to Canada in . This The right to hunt and fish was also Factory were already Christians. helped to foster the negotiation of promised but, in the words of the treaties in order to pave the way for treaty, was subject to government white settlement and development.7 regulation and to those surrendered lands required for settlement and development. Early Split Lake settlement in showing Hudson’s Bay Company buildings and residences.
By the early century, Split ⁽⁾ Draw a line from Wintering signed an Adhesion to Treaty , Lake Cree First Nation, with the Lake northeastward to Fox Lake relinquishing title to , square assistance of Anglican Church including all the Lake. miles of traditional lands in representatives including the exchange for the benefits of ⁽⁾ Draw a line from Fox Lake Reverend Charles Fox, had Treaty , which included hunting northward to the junction of the communicated its desire to make and fishing rights. A gratuity of two Churchill Rivers, the point of treaty. The federal government per person was also paid. This starting.8 . prepared to sign treaty adhesions surrender covered all of the area with several northern Manitoba Cree Apart from their desire to included in the current Split Lake First Nations. Federal agents knew preserve their traditional way of life, Resource Management Area. Joseph that the Split Lake Cree made their Split Lake Cree were particularly Keche-kesik was elected at this time living entirely by trapping, hunting concerned about protecting their as the first Chief of Split Lake Cree and fishing, and as boatmen for the fishing activities. Next to Split Lake First Nation although he is not Hudson’s Bay Company, freighting itself, the most important site for this explicitly mentioned as such in the goods down the Hayes River to was Waskaiowaka Lake located at treaty. Norway House. Their harvesting the head waters of the Little area was described in as Churchill River. The First Nation follows: was starting to become alarmed by The population [of the First the potential infiltration of southern Nation] is about … Their fishing companies, which had crept hunting grounds may be described: up to the southern boundary of the Treaty area and were killing off ⁽⁾ Draw a line from the point sturgeon, a traditional country food. where the Little Churchill River In , representatives of Split junctions with the larger Churchill Lake Cree – William Keche-kesik, south westward to the Wintering Charles Morris and Albert Spence – Lake. The Split Lake Cree felt strongly The testimony of the Elders At the time of the first survey of that by signing the treaty with the reflects the view that the Split Lake the reserve in , the population Crown, they were asserting, Cree had of their way of life and its was , entitling the Split Lake affirming and guaranteeing their relationship to the land and waters Cree First Nation to , acres. In relationship to their permanent and the resources that flow from fact, the amount of reserve land tribal homeland. The Cree did not them. The Elders described a way of surveyed exceeded this, as indicated view their relationship with the land life that was a continuation of a way below: and natural resources as a right, as of life that had sustained them for Reserve Split Lake 3,608 acres the white man interprets a right. centuries, in which they fished, Reserve A Split Lake , acres Rather, they saw it as a reciprocal hunted, and trapped, and gathered Reserve B Split Lake acres relationship in which respect and berries, roots, and herbs from the TOTAL , acres responsibility flow both ways. Their land. The Split Lake Cree as a group hope and belief that they could had established themselves in a vast The legal creation of these preserve this relationship with their area of land where family groups reserves was only confirmed by land, waters and resources, was the utilized particular areas. This, federal Order-In-Council main motivating factor which however, was not done by any strict OC/PC -, dated July , induced them to sign the treaty. type of regulation or enforcement. . This would not be the last time They knew that their brothers to the Their right to hunt in a particular that the reliance of Split Lake Cree south at Cross Lake and Norway area was determined by consensus on the good faith of the Crown, to House had signed Treaty with the and mutual respect. There were act promptly and in accordance with Queen, who had promised them instances where people would its promises, would prove to be protection and the right to hunt and venture into another area but this unwarranted. It is beyond the scope fish and trap in their tribal was the exception rather than the of the present study to determine to homeland as long as “the sun shines rule. what extent the belated action by and the rivers flow”. Canada to deal with the ‘legal niceties’ respecting the creation of the reserves, was related to the Kelsey Hydro development that was taking place at the same time.
Early aerial photograph of Split Lake community showing old Northwest Mounted Police post (centre).
Chapter 2 FTER SIGNING the Treaty treaty days. Northwest Mounted Traditional Life Continues AAdhesion in , the Split Police visits from Norway House at Split Lake into Lake Cree continued to live in their were not common. Social problems the 20th Century traditional ways, remaining self- were few and were solved in the sufficient and stable, and depending traditional ways. There was no upon the lands and waterways for formal education, apart from limited their livelihood and identity as their instruction during the summer from ancestors had done before them.9 In Anglican missionaries, as the addition, they continued to do some younger generation were taught seasonal transport work for the traditional skills by their parents Hudson’s Bay Company, freighting and grandparents. In , there goods on York boats between York were fewer than students, few of Factory and Norway House although whom progressed beyond grade two this was to come to an end once the or three. Family and generational railway was built in the area. The ties were close and the people only outside assistance consisted of practiced the Anglican religion. occasional food rations from the Good health was the normal Hudson’s Bay Company during condition, a testament to the times when big game was scarce, as rigorous life and reliance on natural well as some clothing provisions foods and traditional medicines. from the government. However, already non-Aboriginal The community was isolated and influences were beginning to make only visited by the government on their presence felt.
Left to right: William A. Kitchekeesik, Jonah Flett and Mr. McLeod at Landing (Aiken) River, trading for supplies.
Resource Harvesting and In , the Assistant Secretary In those days the land and its the Economy of Indian Affairs requested that the resources still provided for almost all Although the traditional way of Deputy Minister of Marine and Split Lake Cree needs. Hunting, life was continuing, Split Lake Cree Fisheries set aside Split Lake, trapping, fishing and gathering were were beginning to be concerned Waskaiowaka Lake and the chief forms of economic activity about the preservation of their Pukatawakan Lake for the Split Lake and were carried out all year round, harvesting activities, particularly Cree.11 It is not evident from the with specific kinds of harvesting the fishery in Waskaiowaka Lake. available records whether or not this being more prevalent during certain The reserve surveyor wrote in acknowledgement of Split Lake Cree seasons. Every part of the animal that: rights and interests was ever was used, and animals were usually formalized by subsequent action of killed when they were fat so that ...they are afraid when the Canada. However, the request itself maximum use could be made of railroad is built that fishing does represent an official acceptance them. For example, a bull moose companies will come in and fish of the rights of Split Lake Cree would be taken around September out the supply at this point guaranteed by Treaty well before while the cow would not be killed (Waskaiowaka) and I would the federal Natural Resources until November or December. recommend that the Department Transfer Agreement, which formally Trapping was carried on from the protect their interests in this recognized these rights. Split Lake fall and winter, when beaver was matter insofar as it is possible to Cree had not yet come to realize that harvested, until the spring when do so as a considerable number of these protected rights would be muskrat was caught. Furbearers them live in that vicinity during evident more in the breach than the were generally caught with wood- the winter.10 observance in their relations with frame traps capable of a ‘quick-kill’. the governments. Traps made of logs, so-called ‘double log’ traps, were also used. Foxes were often captured in the fall and penned until December when their fur had matured. People trapped primarily for food, clothing and other forms of sustenance. In addition, furs were exchanged with the Hudson’s Bay Company for food and provisions, rather than for money. Fishing was pursued all year round, and was perhaps the key source of food. Fish would be dried and smoked for future consumption. It was also caught as food for the sled dogs and used as bait in fur- bearer traps. Fishing was conducted by means of weirs and with hand- made fishing nets; fish hooks were used for ice fishing. Moose and caribou were primarily hunted in the fall, and were a plentiful source of meat. Ducks were also hunted in the fall, while geese were harvested in the spring. Small game like rabbits and chickens were easily caught with snares. Trees were a rich source of medicinal aids which could heal a wide variety of ailments. Treated leaves and fir needles were used to heal wounds. Teething babies’ pain was alleviated by applying the sugary coating of young birch trees, and the ground-up remains of dry rotted trees soothed diaper rash on infants. Senecca root was a natural Fanny Brightnose and family at camp. medicine for headaches. The ashes of burnt wood were used for cleaning Hudson Bay rail line route. They these indigenous technologies were purposes. Respected, traditional moved southwest on the Nelson the result of centuries of learned healers who possessed knowledge of River to Sipiwesk Lake and experience. They were fashioned Aboriginal medicines included Mary harvested fish and game along the with patience and skill from Keeper and John Joseph. Grass River, as well as along the materials harvested from the natural Split Lake Cree harvested over a Bigstone and Fox rivers in the environment, had little or no vast area that extended in most southeast. monetary cost, and enabled the directions beyond the current Travel was mainly by dog team mutually respectful, albeit fragile, registered trapline boundaries, or birch bark canoes and later by relationship between man and particularly in the northern region. canvas canoes. Sometimes large nature to be sustained. Resource harvesters travelled north wooden boats were used for freight, Split Lake Cree lived throughout to Billard and North Knife lakes, and and at other times people would the resource area in camps of various sometimes went as far as Fort Prince simply walk along pulling a sizes. In summer, large camps were of Wales and York Factory. They toboggan with provisions. Wood set up beside lakes and rivers where went northwest to Fidler and Kiask frame teepee-like lodges, covered fish could be found in abundance. lakes and as far west as Southern with moss or spruce boughs, or As winter drew near, the summer Indian Lake, as well as east to the canvas tents provided shelter. All of camps were abandoned to the
Gathering at the church in Split Lake. whiskey-jacks and ravens, and the is based upon interviews with Southern Indian Lake as well. people left in smaller groups of five several Split Lake Cree Elders and to ten families to head for their fall forms part of a base of Split Lake Community Development and winter hunting grounds. Days Cree traditional ecological By the early years of the were filled with the numerous knowledge. century, the community was already activities necessary for survival – Because Split Lake Cree harvested a permanent year-round settlement, hunting, snaring, skinning, resources over a wide expanse of but mainly housing old people and preparing pelts, making tools, land, interaction with other First various members of Chief and smoking meat, cooking, sewing, and Nations was common, particularly Council. Most able-bodied First so on. The day began early, with with the Fox Lake Cree around Nation members left the community adults up before the dawn to make Moose Nose Lake (Stephens Lake) in the fall or winter to hunt, fish and preparations for the busy day ahead. and Atkinson Lake, where both Cree trap, living in semi-permanent The rising and setting of the sun Nations would gather sturgeon in camps. They would return to the was the natural measurement of the spring and summer, and fish in Split Lake community in the daily time. In much the same way, the fall. To the south, down the summer, staying a month or two people followed the natural cycles of Bigstone and Fox rivers, members of including treaty days. They also the moon, and their calendar was the the Oxford House First Nation returned for special occasions like circle formed by the changing of the would be encountered. In the Christmas and Easter. The traditional seasons from summer to fall, fall to eastern reaches of the resource area, gathering times were most winter, winter to spring and round the York Factory and Shamattawa frequently happy social occasions, again, as another season would Cree also harvested. To the south an opportunity to renew ties among begin anew. In the old days, the there were also the Cross Lake and families and clans. These times were Split Lake Cree would observe the Norway House First Nations; and to also when self-governance was most natural resource calendar, that has the west, the Nelson House First actively practiced by the Split Lake been documented and clearly Nation. Summer gatherings and Cree, in lengthy, regular meetings illustrated by Manitoba political meetings were held from among the First Nation members to Keewatinowi Okimakanak Natural time to time with Nelson House, consider and take decisions on all Resources Secretariat. This calendar, Norway House and other Cree matters of collective importance to shown in Figure opposite page , Nations on their reserves, and at the people. Recluse Lake, kilometres due The Pas as far as Landing River, and in their own customary fashion the north of Split Lake and in the centre then by canoe to Split Lake. peace, order and mutual respect that of the traditional resource area, was The Anglican Church was a was central to the way of life. Elders the site of a year-round settlement, central part of the community in the report that their grandfathers complete with a Hudson’s Bay early decades of the century carried out this collective Company trading post and a church. and people took up Christianity, governance function, leaving its This site was covered with birch finding a comfortable fit with their actual origin shrouded in the mists trees, and there were sturgeon Cree view of the world. Church of time. At any rate the peacekeepers downstream in the Little Churchill offerings were presented three times have proven to be a very durable River. Throughout the Split Lake annually at Christmas, Treaty and visible reminder that the people resource area there were several Sunday and at Easter. Thanksgiving have never ceased exercising their large outcamps such as those at Sunday was held in early September inherent right to self-governance. Assean, Waskaiowaka and Billard and functioned as a ‘farewell’ service The signing of the treaty in Lakes to the north, and Atkinson for those who would travel to the had formalized a relationship Lake to the southeast. Other smaller fall and winter camps where between the Split Lake Cree and the camps could be found at Kettle, Jam, Thanksgiving would be celebrated Crown. The Split Lake Cree Blackwater, Limestone, Gull and again in the mid-fall. Weddings understood this relationship as Moose lakes. Figure following page were usually held in Split Lake or providing them protection to shows the location of many of Recluse Lake, although the local continue to live in their tribal these outcamps, and the main trails priest occasionally travelled to the homeland as they had since time made and maintained through outcamps to perform some religious immemorial. It is evident from the frequent usage by the Split Lake functions. Elders’ testimony that the people Cree to access their resource area. never understood the treaty as a In the Split Lake community Community Governance reduction in their prior rights, but people lived mainly in teepee-like In the early days the First Nation rather as an agreement to share the lodges and huts made of wood, tree government was not formally bounties of nature with the white boughs, animal skins and moss, all institutionalized. Rather, it man, receiving in return the modern held together with mud. Other functioned as was needed to benefits that Her Majesty’s buildings included police barracks, maintain the traditional Aboriginal government could provide. the Hudson’s Bay Company trading way of life. The family was the main Split Lake Cree selected reserves post, a church and mission house, governing and social unit. Next was on Split Lake at the site of their most and a log school house. There were the clan or group of families and useful lands and waters. These were no roads but rather well-worn trails. beyond that the tribe followed by surveyed by Canada in . The Country foods harvested from the the Cree Nation as a whole. Certain people understood that these land were supplemented by root members of a clan earned a level of reserves were lands for their crops from local vegetable gardens authority based on their skills and permanent and exclusive use. The and abundant fish from the waters of knowledge in particular areas of Split Lake Cree honoured their Split Lake. Only a few staples like resource harvesting. Clan leaders understanding of the importance of tea, sugar, lard, pork and baking would emerge as a result of their Treaty by means of a yearly treaty powder were available from the general leadership skills, personality ceremony, at which time treaty Hudson’s Bay Company store. On and effectiveness in dealing with money was paid and other items rare occasions flour could be bought, outside contacts. Leaders could not promised under the treaty would be but there was never any butter. force their views on families or given out, such as the distribution of Caribou were so plentiful at times individuals, who were free to obey ammunition and twine for making that people tell stories of them being or to ignore the leadership and even nets. This ceremony was the shot right from their homes. move away if they chose. occasion of community festivities Community supplies were usually First Nation laws and their and sharing. transported to the Hudson’s Bay enforcement were made and Company post along the Nelson exercised through general clan River. This route was abandoned in opinion and concerns. Decisions when the first stage of the were made by consensus. The people Hudson Bay railway was completed. already followed the practice of Then provisions came by rail from selecting peacekeepers to maintain
“Split Lake in the summer. In the distance are pine and spruce clad rocky islands. Note the rank grass and flowers. The canoe is pulling a raft of wood; there are no horses and they bring the wood”– Jack Harrison
After the treaty was signed, there process that involved the whole The Split Lake Cree membership was an elected Chief and Council community, including regular and Chief and Council, over the who represented the people in general meetings where many of the years, developed their own dealing with government. In members actively participated. In unwritten constitution or set of rules practice, the new Chief and Council fact, the Chief and Council had no by which matters were decided. It system favoured by the federal actual powers beyond what was was a system in which the Split Lake government did not change much in given to them by the people. The Cree knew and understood the rules the prior approach to community formal powers of Chief and Council for living in the Split Lake governance. According to the set out in the Indian Act were not community. These rules had a strong Elders, an accurate picture of this well understood, being practiced spiritual and moral base. However, new arrangement is of a system more as a result of coincidental they were rules and a way of life giving a somewhat higher level of similarity between traditional which were soon to be challenged formality to relationships and approaches and the legislation, by the new and dramatic changes governing practices that had rather than by design. that were to confront the Split Lake evolved within the Split Lake Cree Cree in the coming decades. way of life over the centuries. The Chief would act as chairman for meetings where local matters were decided. The Split Lake Cree Elders, while not an elected body as such, Figure (opposite): Split Lake Cree were the respected advisors and Traditional Use Area, Settlements, counsellors in a decision-making Outcamps, Trails and Routes. Treaty party at Split Lake in 1930; making lunch. The school is in the background.
Chapter 3
Adapting to Outside URING THE S, the way of The final Adhesions to Treaty Influences Dlife of the Split Lake Cree were signed by the Deer Lake, Fort remained, much as it had for Churchill and York Factory First Split Lake in the 1920s, generations, within the ongoing Nations in .12 Two years later in 1930s and 1940s process of gradual adaptation and , Manitoba’s boundaries were change that had enabled the self- extended north to the parallel, sustenance of the people since time increasing the province’s land base immemorial. The Ininewuk by over , square miles.13 This continued to utilize their traditional set the stage for the development of territory in the manner, and northern lands and resources by according to the rhythms their non-Aboriginal outsiders. forefathers had followed. However, Although the Cree had been external factors were beginning to adapting successfully for more than intrude and make their presence felt. a century to changes introduced into their way of life by Europeans, most notably through the fur trade, the s saw the start of an acceleration in the pace and nature of such change. Two examples discussed by Split Lake Elders could be considered a portent of what was to come.
Figure (opposite): Split Lake Registered Trapline Zone. Reverend Dewdney amidst the congregation at Split Lake in .
Some of the Elders spoke of a In the late s, for the first children attended, and other mysterious ‘plague-like’ illness that time, some children from Split Lake modernizing factors also played a killed many Split Lake Cree over a were sent out to residential schools. part. four month period in the early They went to Elkhorn and Birtle, However, by far the most s. Many people starved and Manitoba and some went out-of- significant development at this time, others suffered tending to the dead province to Prince Albert, which was to open the door to all and dying. While the cause of the Saskatchewan. Usually the eldest future change, was the completion disease is not known, it is speculated child in the family was selected, in of the railway line through that it was part of the deadly world- with the parents consent, to attend Split Lake Cree traditional lands to wide influenza epidemic of such schools. Formal education at Churchill. making its way to northern residential schools was for full days Manitoba and Split Lake.14 up to grade four. After that students One story suggests that it may spent half of the day in class with have been a York Factory resident the remaining time taken up by farm who inadvertently spread the labour. While the precise impact of disease when he travelled across the the residential schools of this era is territory to warn people at Split beyond the scope of this study, it Lake not to visit York Factory, appears that it had only a minimal where the illness was running disruptive effect on the teaching of rampant. Whatever the cause, traditional knowledge and skills to people suffered greatly and it has young people. It was by no means as been only recently that the Elders devastating as the impact wrought have found it possible to talk about by residential school attendance in “the time of death”. the s when greater numbers of
Hudson Bay Railway noted as some of the hardest decades, although Gillam had a Canadian National Railways (then workers, worked on the significant presence as well. The Pas the Canadian Northern Railway) construction of the railway and was still visited for medical began construction of a line from subsequently settled along the line emergencies and for the delivery of Hudson Bay, Saskatchewan in to take advantage of seasonal babies. and by had completed the track employment and transportation. as far as Wabowden, kilometres Railway employment introduced Resource Harvesting, the southeast of present day Split Lake Cree to cash remuneration Economy, and Thompson.15 The Pas, and the goods and services it could Government Involvement kilometres southwest of Thompson, purchase. It also took them away Despite this increased contact, which had been a fur trading post, from traditional activities. the nature, mode and range of agricultural centre and mission, The various communities that resource harvesting continued much became a divisional point on the arose at railway section or divisional as before at Split Lake. Its primary railway. By it had become the points quickly became places of purpose and greatest value economic and administrative centre contact and settlement for Split Lake continued to be self-sustenance, of the north.16 Forestry, mining, and Cree. Some families moved to these rather than commercial gain. rail line employment were its key communities and often remained However, both the federal and industries and by its there throughout their working provincial governments gradually population had grown to over lives, although they generally started to become more actively ,.17 returned to Split Lake to retire. involved in the regulation of The rail line had been extended Others obtained supplies and traded harvesting activities. to Churchill by , crossing furs at these settlements. Ilford, The federal Natural Resources northeasterly through the Split Lake kilometres southeast of Split Lake Transfer Act came into force in . Cree’s traditional territory and and accessible from Split Lake by By virtue of this legislation, introducing a new technology into the Aiken River, became a major Manitoba received title to all of the their way of life.18 Even though the point of contact with the outside lands and resources within its Elders speak of the railway as a world. Another important settlement boundaries, subject to outstanding largely beneficial development, it was Gillam, kilometres to the east treaty land entitlement and to also brought other less desirable which was directly accessible by rail Aboriginal rights to hunt, trap and features that the people would soon from Ilford and Bird. fish for food on unoccupied Crown learn were associated with all of the Indeed, the railway played a land.19 Subsequent developments externally-driven developments. significant role in increasing and have shown that Manitoba was eager The plan to build the railway and maintaining contact with the outside to exercise the rights of ownership, the selection of the right-of-way world. By the s more and more but was rather less observant of the were not matters on which Split Split Lake Cree were participating in related responsibility associated Lake Cree were consulted. There was the wage economy. During the with the obligation to protect no apparent consideration of any Second World War, as the labor Aboriginal rights. Indeed, the adverse effects that might be related force shrank reflecting the demands historical record does not show the to this incursion across the resource of Canada’s participation in the war, province having any great concern area. No record exists of any the railway hired men from Split to protect these rights. Rather, it thought of compensating Split Lake Lake to work as section men. Men seems to have been primarily Cree for this use of their traditional were also hired to go south in the interested in seeking ways of lands for the primary benefit of summer months to help harvest the controlling trapping activities. outsiders. crops on the farms. Some men from During the depression years of The railway was built for the Split Lake also saw action in the war. the s, many white men came primary purpose of transporting In addition, contact increased north looking for work and to get grain to tidewater, where it was with the Department of Indian away from the bleak economic stored for later shipment overseas, Affairs and the Manitoba conditions in the south. Some of the and its construction and operation Department of Natural Resources, people involved in the construction was a key step in opening up the from their offices in Ilford. Chief and of the rail line stayed in the north. A north to development. A significant Council began to travel more on lot of these men decided to try their number of northern Cree, including outside business. Ilford remained the hand at trapping. many from Split Lake who were main point of contact through these Beaver and marten were the most to kill the animals. The quota system remained in effect. The Northwest Mounted Police continued to make sudden searches and arbitrarily confiscate pelts. In addition, with the introduction of a wolf cull program in the s, the province further broadened its interference with traditional resource harvesting and management practices. The use of poison to kill the wolves, along with its use to harvest beaver, is reported by the Elders to have been deadly to other animals in the region. At the same time, Manitoba also indicated its intention to establish a registered Left to right: Billy Wavey, William Wavey and Horace Morris trapline system in northern having tea on the trail. Manitoba, a development which was to have an impact upon the scope of commonly trapped furbearers at this The new rail transportation link traditional resource harvesting. This time. However, excessive demand, was making a difference both for the proposal to divide up the resource resulting from good prices as well as Hudson’s Bay Company and for free area into individual traplines was non-native trapping pressures, led to traders, who saw possible profits in initially resisted by the Split Lake beaver becoming over-harvested. the fur business. Many such Cree. The government imposed a quota trappers began to find their way into system to deal with the depletion of what had once been exclusive Registered Trapline the beaver population and trapping territory for the Split Lake System Established Northwest Mounted Police officers Cree and other northern First Long traditions had governed the began confiscating pelts, sometimes Nations. This influx of white allocation of lands and resources without regard for eligible quotas. trappers made the need to share the through arrangements among clan As a result, significant quantities of lands and resources a much more leaders and Chief and Council, with beaver could only be trapped in the tangible reality. Unfortunately, with the decisions based upon the good of far northern regions along the little planning or consultation, and the collective whole, not on Churchill River and beyond. inattention to existing Cree rights individual entitlements. According and usages, the influx disturbed the to the Elders, the provincial delicate balance between the Cree government people did not and their environment, resulting in understand the communal aspects of avoidable damages. the system traditionally used by the Despite the increasing intrusion Split Lake Cree. Even though the of external influences on the Split new system was meant to keep out Lake Cree way of life, traditional the non-Indian trappers, it was harvesting patterns generally based on a concept of individual continued. New technologies were ownership, rather than the adapted to support traditional customary land use relationship. practices. Canvas canoes replaced Chief Sam Cook warned that if parts those made of birch bark, and small- of the resource area were allocated to powered motors were introduced in certain trappers it would lead to the early s. Beaver continued to tension and in-fighting. be scarce throughout the s, and A provincial representative, Jack were still available mainly in the Lundy of the Manitoba Department vicinity of the Churchill River. The Natural Resources, who was fluent continuing scarcity was made worse in Cree, persuaded the Split Lake by outside trappers who used poison Community Development In the s, Split Lake was still not a permanent settlement for most First Nation members, many of whom continued to live in the bush and return to the community only during Christian holiday seasons and the summer. About people lived year-round at Split Lake. Recluse Lake was still the main settlement outcamp in the resource area where six to ten families lived. Kettle and Atkinson lakes were important gathering places in the spring for muskrat trapping. The community of Split Lake was still in the early stages of “The missionary and his wife are in the two sleighs. This is the post at Sand Lake - development. Settlers were arriving miles north...”– Jack Harrison from York Factory, where the wildlife resources had been Cree that the registered trapline and Isaac Spence – described and depleted, and many Cree are system would be beneficial for them. marked out the Split Lake Cree’s reported to have come in an attempt It would prevent outsiders from traditional resource area for the to escape the worst influences of harvesting their resources. In province. However, regardless of the non-Aboriginal culture, which addition, he argued, Split Lake Cree information they provided about the conflicted with traditional values. trappers could be better assisted by extent of traditional occupation and York boats still travelled up and the department, if it knew where usage, the creation of the registered down the Nelson River from Norway they were located, for example, in trapline zone by Manitoba resulted House. Their arrival in the case of emergencies. in the formal reduction of the size of community was a major event. As The intent of the new system, at the traditional harvesting area. In summer frosts were unusual in the least with respect to conservation, the southwest the Sipiwesk Lake- region and the long hours of summer may have been sound, but there was Grass River region was allocated to sunlight resulted in rapid no real consultation with the Split Pikwitonei, although some of Split germination, gardens were very Lake Cree beyond trying to convince Lake trappers still retain lines in that successful and produced a rich them of the system’s merits and area. abundance of crops. making many promises. While the Nevertheless, despite the The construction of a one-room system was sold to the people on the negative effects of the changes school house in was an basis of its ability to keep the caused by the registered trapline important community development resource area for their use, in system, the Elders also report that leading to the expansion of formal practice it resulted in provincial general harvesting traditions were education. control of the resource area, with maintained, albeit with The Anglican Church maintained provincial game wardens essentially progressively less time being spent its influential social presence. A acting as a new type of ‘Indian on the land. Even though there was men’s guild and a guild for teenage Agent’ with very strong powers of a greater permanency to the girls were formed in to care for enforcement. community, Split Lake Cree still and maintain the church. A women’s Notwithstanding their concerns, made extensive use of much of their auxiliary was established around the and with no effective alternative, the traditional resource area. Figure same time. It held quarterly Split Lake Cree accepted the merits opposite page shows the Split meetings and provided many gifts of of controlling the intrusions into Lake registered trapline zone. furnishings to the church. their homeland by outside trappers. Social problems were still the Reluctantly, and after much local exception in the community. Bush consideration, three Split Lake Cree life remained the centre of most Split Elders – Donald Flett, Judah Ouskan Lake Cree’s existence. Wherever Christmas festivities outside the old band hall. they resided, the church and were noticed, no one starved as began to move away from the customary enforcement of practices there was always an availability of outcamps, such as Recluse Lake, and and mores exerted a stabilizing country foods. to settle in the community to be influence. The Anglican Church Minister, nearer to Ilford which was the Although Split Lake was still not Reverend George Cowley, arrived in closest transportation and service treated as a year-round community the community in . He was to be centre. A seaplane base was in the s, it continued to a key figure in the Split Lake constructed there. Outside resource develop. Log cabins began to replace community for the next years or harvesting activities increased in the teepees and tents. Gardens so, acting as missionary, school Split Lake vicinity and in continued to be cultivated. The fur teacher, doctor and generally as the Indian Affairs built the first buyer, Mike Hatley, opened a small ‘Indian Agent’. Social stability teacherage in the community. store, competing with the Hudson’s continued. While non-Aboriginal Split Lake’s social and cultural Bay Company, and was popular with influences were growing, Reverend fabric remained strong, as Chief and local residents. Modern appliances Cowley and the Hudson’s Bay Council and the Anglican Church like radios and wind-up Company manager were the only both maintained their positions of phonographs made their first white residents. The presence of the authority and influence. Traditions appearance. Department of Indian Affairs was continued, exemplified by the use The great depression, which minimal despite the existence of the made of medicine men who had economically devastated much of district office in Ilford. The work special knowledge of the healing Canada in the s, was only ethic was promoted and no alcohol attributes of many plants and animal marginally felt in Split Lake, was allowed on the reserve. parts. Christian teachings continued existing as it did on the margins of The community’s composition as well and blended with traditional the mainstream Canadian economy. and character remained much the values. While a scarcity of store-bought same into the s, although it items like flour and baking powder continued to grow. Some people Isaiah Mayham, Tubal Kirkness, William Flett, Billy Spence Fanny Dick, Susanna Flett, Labella Kirkness, and Simeon Beardy Emily Nepitabo and Priscilla Kirkness
“Some of my class. 1930 - Split Lake, Manitoba”– Jack Harrison
Left to right: Oliver Lindal, Billy Wavey and Carl Muir outside the local store in Gillam. Late s.
Left to right: In the foreground, Moodie Nepitabo, James Wavey, Jonah Flett (standing) and John Flett. s.
Reverend George Cowley. c. .
Left to right: Unknown man, Sarah Brightnose and George Brightnose. c. .
Leaving the church after the Saunders’ wedding in Split Lake. Late s. Community Governance A larger, more permanent There was still no permanent staff Just as the patterns of resource community population as the years of the First Nation government, and harvesting and community life passed required Chief and Council to all required government functions, gradually evolved over these spend more time and pay more whether executive, political or decades, so too did the practice of attention to dealing with community administrative, were carried out by local government. Much however matters that had been less important Chief and Council, as had was marked more by continuity than when people lived with fewer close customarily been the case. by change. Chief and Council was neighbours. As a result of the The peacekeepers continued to be the respected authority in all social increasing need to deal with the influential, contributing matters and opposition was rare. governments, Chief and Council considerably to the tranquillity and Social relations, such as marriages, were called upon more often to continuing mutual respect in the were governed by Chief and represent Split Lake Cree interests. community. It seems most likely that Council, many of whom were For example, when the registered it was early in this period that these Anglican clergy. These trapline system was being positions started to be filled by responsibilities were rooted very considered locally, Chief and election at the same time Chief and firmly in the traditional Cree Council both organized internal Council were elected. understandings of the role of the discussions and spearheaded the Even though the structure of leadership. dealings with Manitoba. governance was rudimentary, it was entirely adequate and appropriate to meet the everyday needs of the Split Lake Cree. Its evolution continued within the essential concepts derived from the practice of generations of ancestors.
Left to right: Solomon Harvey, John Flett, Peter Beardy, Aaron Beardy and Jack Wavey camping on the trail to Split Lake. c. s Conclusion The period up to brought tribal homeland. Even though the many changes for the Split Lake changes strained the Split Lake Cree Cree, a number of which challenged patterns of life, they did so to no traditional ways of getting things greater extent than many other done. The perceived disturbance changes which the people had related to the introduction by experienced and accommodated Manitoba of the registered trapline during their long occupation of the system has been noted. For all of the lands and waters. Unknown to the change, however, life continued Split Lake Cree, however, more within the known, respected and disturbing developments were just loved environment of the permanent around the corner.
The Lamont house in Split Lake. c.s. Chapter 4
Traditional Lifestyle EGINNING IN , in addition modern settled existence in the Changes Bto the registered trapline community at Split Lake, together system, there were forces building with the disruption and need for Split Lake in the 1950s up from outside Split Lake which adaptation that such change were to have the effect of forcing the necessarily entailed.20 Split Lake Cree to adapt their way of life in a manner that had never Resource Harvesting and happened before. National policies the Economy concerning Indian education and the While fur and fish harvesting introduction of the family allowance activities continued over as large an would have a major impact on the area as before, notwithstanding traditional lifestyle. Both mining registered trapline boundaries, development at Thompson and the several factors reduced the central need for more and more importance of harvesting in the lives hydroelectric power in the south of the Split Lake Cree. Resource would also have far-reaching harvesting was increasingly consequences on the lives and the regulated by Manitoba, and lands of the Split Lake Cree. conservation officers suddenly Split Lake Cree Elders have became more noticeable, although characterized the s as a period the restrictions imposed were of important change in the history of relatively minor, such as prohibiting their people. This change can be best the harvesting of tagged animals. described as the transition from a Prices for fur, particularly beaver, traditional way of life to a more began to plummet in the early s
The Flett family at Muskrat Portage, Waskaiowaka Lake. and trapping proved less operations, which first focused on The federal government’s remunerative. Caribou migration catching sturgeon in the Nelson introduction of family allowance at started to diminish, reducing River followed by whitefish and Split Lake, with the requirement of hunting activity. pickerel in Split Lake, was yet school attendance by the children, In addition, contrary to the another external, uncompensated was another major factor in forecast benefits of the registered imposition on the traditional changing people’s relationship with trapline system, outsiders were pursuits of the Split Lake Cree. the lands and resources. Whereas in intruding more and more into the At the same time, both wage the past groups of families would go resource area. Outside commercial employment and social assistance into the bush and trap together, now fishermen like Duke Lindal and Bill increased. Wood cutting continued only the men undertook this Chorchinsky were fishing lakes for the Hudson’s Bay Company, and activity. The women had to stay in traditionally harvested by Split Lake many Split Lake Cree also engaged in the community to care for and raise Cree, such as Waskaiowaka Lake other kinds of employment, the children who were attending where all of the lake trout eventually including freighting and school. Modern education brought disappeared. A fishing lodge maintenance work for the railway, its own rewards, but the failure to established on the lake by Indian as well as for Duke Lindal, and, in adapt the school year to the rhythms Affairs passed through a succession the late s, clearing a route for of Aboriginal life inevitably meant of private owners. the transmission line from Kelsey to that the children lost continuity in Although the outside fishing service the new mining town of their learning of traditional companies introduced modern Thompson. This latter work was harvesting skills and knowledge. A fishing equipment such as arranged by the Department of knowledge gap began to exist commercial nets and motor boats, Indian Affairs. Whole families between the young and the old, as it and offered seasonal employment to would move to the employment site. never had in the past. some Split Lake Cree, they were Split Lake Cree Elders recall that inevitably competing for this wages for the clearing project were Community Development important domestic resource. In very low or even non-existent, with All of the pressures on traditional other words, the introduction of labour essentially being bartered for harvesting activities further outside commercial fishing food. increased the concentration of Ilford also had political significance in the region as both the Department of Indian Affairs and the provincial Department of Natural Resources continued to maintain district offices there. In addition, it was a major place of social contact with friends and relatives. York Landing was established in on the southern end of Split Lake when members of the York Factory First Nation were relocateded there by Indian Affairs. This created another community where people could visit neighbours who shared some of the same ancestors, the ‘Home Guard Cree’ of Wedding of William and Illa Garson in Split Lake. York Factory. settlement and activity in and had been for generations, and Many Split Lake Cree became around the Split Lake community. continued to be stored in the enfranchised both as a result of Many of the numerous trapping and ground. working at outside wage fishing camps scattered throughout Outside access was still mainly by employment and in order to obtain the resource area were slowly rail through Landing River in the the legal right to drink alcohol. The abandoned as people settled in year- summer and Ilford in the winter. destructive effects of this strongly round communities, although there Mail was picked up once a week at government-encouraged but was still a significant settlement at the junction of the railway and relatively poorly understood Atkinson Lake. The community of Aiken River. Sigfusson Transport practice of enfranchisement, were Split Lake had grown to a constructed hundreds of miles of not dealt with until treaty status was population of more than by the winter roads in the resource area, again made possible with the end of the decade.21 and delivered supplies to the passage of Bill C- in . There was no electricity yet, but community by winter road on its Even though times were other significant developments way towards Southern Indian Lake. changing, traditional knowledge and occurred. Houses continued to be Dog-teams and canvas canoes were beliefs still prevailed. The people built of logs from locally available still the primary means of travel, but continued to oppose alcohol. material and, during the s, a log float planes and bombardiers had Although Reverend Cowley left the band hall was constructed. Two new made their appearance and were community during this decade, the small school buildings were built. used occasionally. More powerful Anglican Church maintained its The establishment of these facilities, boat motors were also introduced in strong presence and church in conjunction with increased school this decade. attendance remained important. By attendance, was a key impetus in the A considerable number of Split , the church’s women’s growth of a permanent community. Lake Cree continued to go to Ilford A nursing station was built in to take advantage of employment auxiliary had a large membership. Salt pork and other foods were , although births and other there with the railway. This major medical procedures were still community was still the key point of distributed by the priest every handled at the hospital in The Pas, contact with the outside world, Friday. Generally, there was a high which remained the centre for major although there was also continued degree of community cohesion, a services in the north. The existence interaction with other rail line system of curfews, and few social of the nursing station tended to communities where First Nation problems, although drinking outside reduce the reliance on traditional members worked, visited and of the community was starting to medicines, although they were still traded. Ilford was the main supply become a concern. used. Country foods were still a centre for Split Lake, and Duke predominant part of the diet, as they Lindal ran a store in the community. Split Lake Cree men hauling freight from the Landing River portage on the Aiken River.
Community Governance autonomous exercise of their of these impacts given the usual Chief and Council continued to responsibilities, were unheard of. description of hydroelectricity as a exert leadership and influence, with Nevertheless, in spite of the ‘clean’ source of power. the Chief now acting as local difficulties, central dimensions of Unknowingly and without magistrate. Nevertheless, the passing continued self-governance, in the consultation, hydroelectric of Chief Sam Cook in the s, who form of the peacekeepers and the development was to result in serious had led the First Nation since the consideration of matters of disruption of and changes to the s, was taken as a sign that the community import in general band way of life of the Cree of northern old ways were changing. membership meetings, were Manitoba. Unfortunately, it also The stresses of the s, maintained, and in retrospect quite neglected to take into consideration attributable to the heightened pace probably strengthened as they had the requirement to protect of exploitation of the resources of no choice but to come to grips with Aboriginal rights. the region by outsiders, were new problems. Until , hydro power imposed on a structure of development in northern Manitoba governance which was poorly First Hydroelectric consisted of the Laurie River I and II equipped to manage such relatively Development generating stations with a combined rapid and unknown change. Little Of all externally-imposed factors capacity of only megawatts. practical advice and support was for change, hydroelectric These were developed by Sherritt available from the governments, development was destined by the Gordon Mines to provide electricity which tended to either ignore the geography of northern Manitoba for its mining operations and the impacts, or to view them as ‘short and the growing energy demands of townsite at Lynn Lake,22 and were term pain for long term gain’. industrial Canadian society to have unknown to and had no effect on the Outside, independent advisors, who the most significant impact on the Split Lake Cree. might have assisted the Split Lake Split Lake Cree. There is certainly In construction began on a Cree Chief and Council in the bitter irony in the nature and extent larger hydro facility, the Kelsey dam Start of the dock construction at Kelsey from which scows would carry material across the river. September . and generating station on the upper The Kelsey project was developed Nelson River. It came into operation without any consultation with the in with a generating capacity of Split Lake Cree, either as to its megawatts. This station was not construction or its impacts. They connected to the southern systems, were concerned, but did not know and was built to provide power to how to deal with Manitoba Hydro. the INCO mining establishment and This was a decade of rapid change the new town of Thompson. Located for the Split Lake Cree, and they just kilometres south of Split Lake were occupied with coming to grips community, this was the first direct with its challenges and problems. experience Split Lake Cree had with With very little understanding or the powerful and destructive effects information about the nature or of hydroelectric development. effects of such a hydroelectric The Kelsey generating station development project, some people was a forerunner to the major thought that the development might hydroelectric projects of the be a good idea as it would provide following decades, and represented sorely needed work. In any event, the initial phase of what would Kelsey was completed, establishing become known as the Lake the pattern of ignoring Split Lake Winnipeg Regulation-Churchill Cree rights and interests, and failing River Diversion project, which to provide compensation for began in the late s and would damages until much later. It was a have such a major impact on the pattern that long continued to lands, waters and livelihood of the characterize hydro developments Split Lake Cree. within the resource area. Kelsey, March , . The coffer dam crib for the last tailrace, ready for launching. Conclusion Nevertheless, while the people The changes of the s adapted to their new conditions, described in this chapter including the increased cash undoubtedly required the Split Lake requirements of the economy, there Cree to undergo much adaptation. still continued to be strong reliance They were forced by circumstances on the traditional use of lands and beyond their control to live in one waters, despite pressures for central location all year round to an modernization. The way of life may extent that previous generations have been changing, but the never had. This not only caused underlying Aboriginal values major changes to their traditional remained. Moreover, the full effects resource harvesting practices, but of Kelsey had not yet been felt as the also created new requirements for decade drew to a close. While the people living in an unfamiliar stresses on Split Lake Cree society physical, and social environment. were more noticeable, the people’s While pressure grew even greater traditional resilience in the face of to keep the children in school, and change was still supporting their families in the community, there was adaptation to the changes within an no concerted effort to facilitate the understood, albeit evolving type of local economic opportunities environment. that could provide a self-reliant alternative to the traditional way of life.
John the Baptist Anglican Church, built in the mid-s by Split Lake residents.
Chapter 5
Advent of the Modern Era PLIT LAKE CREE ELDERS have people would range this far. Sportrayed this phase of Split Nevertheless, trapping remained an Split Lake in the 1960s Lake Cree history as relatively stable important activity and the return of after the changes of the s, as a a trapper after months on the time of more calm community trapline was a significant community growth and modernization.23 There event, as the men went to visit the were, of course, still increasing successful trapper in his home. Fur pressures and influences from the prices remained depressed, as outside world. Not least, this decade reflected in the records of low saw the establishment of two new remuneration received by Split Lake communities within the resource trappers during the s. The area, as well as the direct experience commercial fishery on Split Lake of hydroelectric development continued, but with somewhat impacts. erratic catch and financial returns. The Elders have observed that the Resource Harvesting and porcupine disappeared during the the Economy late s. Resource harvesting was Wildlife and fish gathering still pursued primarily for domestic activities still extended beyond the sustenance purposes and affirmation northern and southern limits of the of traditional ways, rather than for registered trapline zone, but fewer commercial gain.
Wood hauling, building log their confidence in the quality of the on Split Lake in which raised cabins and freighting were the main waters, which are reported to have the level to elevation feet, that sources of wage employment. In still been relatively clear, and which was five feet or more above the long- addition, employment on the rail were relied upon for drinking, other term average. While these events line still attracted a significant domestic purposes, swimming and threatened the community for their number of Split Lake Cree families. boating. Shorelines were used duration, people accepted them as From the perspective of an extensively for camping and natural occurrences that were economist, Split Lake Cree lived on picnicking, and the bird life around expected in the centuries old the margins of the modern economy, the community was extensive. A relationship between man and with a growing but still relatively favourite activity for young Split nature, which was certainly not weak attachment to its cash basis. In Lake Cree was to search for minnows always benign. financial terms the people were between the rocks in the shallow There was no road access to the poor, but their continuing use of water along the shoreline. community yet, and few, if any, cars available natural resources for on the reserve. Travel by dog-team domestic purposes meant that life Community Development continued, but snowmobiles became was less hard than a simple Centred on the peninsula, the more common. The use of motorized assessment of financial means would Split Lake community continued to boats expanded further. In both suggest. modernize. It started to become a cases, the traditional paths and The introduction of social more formal, planned community travel routes, over the open or assistance for adults, primarily for with the completion of a planning frozen waters, remained the married couples, in the form of study by Underwood McLellan principal transportation corridors vouchers or cash, provided some Associates in . Figure shows within the resource area and to the modest relief from the scarcity of the extent of community outside world. These were travelled cash. However, the availability of development at that time. The on- in safety and with confidence. social assistance also resulted in reserve population was , % of Although the community was more Split Lake Cree reducing the whom were young people.24 Some modernizing, social problems are not amount of time they spent away modern homes were being built and noted by the Elders to have been from the community trapping, amp diesel electrical service was prevalent. There was still a respect hunting and fishing. More and more introduced. This was enough to for traditional values and authority, people were leading an increasingly power a few electric lights and a as illustrated by regular church sedentary and dependent life in the radio. Wood stoves were still relied attendance, the significant role of community. on for cooking and heating. For the the priests and by evening curfews. The increase in cash income did first time radio programming When necessary, individuals were not result in a marked change in broadcast from Thompson included assisted in physical chores like wood consumption patterns. The some Cree language content. cutting and water hauling. The community store was still relatively A new four-room school house community was still close-knit and small and was only restocked in was constructed, but after grade six traditional, celebrating seasonal winter. As well, with little most children were sent to Indian community events together. electricity, there were no Affairs residential schools in Children would visit the school refrigerators in the homes for food Dauphin, Brandon, Cranberry teachers, not least to see the wonders preservation. Country foods like Portage or Norway House. When of new technologies such as vacuum moose, fish and beaver continued to they returned to the community, cleaners in their modern homes. make up most meals, supplemented few took up the traditional life of Wood was gathered for the church by oats, tea, and bannock. their Elders, and many had lost their in the early fall, when a community Split Lake Cree remained largely mother tongue. Some slowly feast was also staged. dependent upon the natural regained it; others never did. The There were few visitors to the environment, as they had always residential school experience community, which retained many of been, for their recreational and widened the generation gap between its traditional Cree customs. In , leisure activities. Access to the Elders and young people. a major community event was the outside world was limited and travel This was a time of significant meeting between then Indian Affairs was expensive. Even though the natural turbulence. In the early Minister Jean Chrétien and Split effects of the operation of Kelsey s, a huge forest fire threatened Lake Cree on the reserve. were noticeable, people maintained the reserve. There was a major flood
Figure 8: Extent of Split Lake Community Development in . New Communities Nations in favour of Gillam. administrative and service centre of The emergence of two new Thompson was the other northeastern Manitoba and, located communities playing major roles in community that began to play an kilometres by air southwest of the resource area brought Split Lake important role after . There had Split Lake, its influence would soon Cree into further contact with the been mining activity in northern become pervasive. However, this modern world. Manitoba for several decades. From was not felt immediately by the Split Gillam, once a small divisional the discovery of gold at Herb Lake Lake Cree. point on the Hudson Bay railway, near The Pas in and sulphide Train access to Thompson from was a thriving modern town by the ores in the vicinity of Flin Flon in Split Lake was available through late s. It was developed by , to the development of nickel Landing River by way of the Aiken Manitoba Hydro as an operational and copper mines at Lynn Lake in River, but initially there was no road base for the Kettle Rapids generating the early s, the mining industry connection. It was not until the late station and the future planned had been a major catalyst of s, when an airport was built at hydroelectric facilities downstream northern development and Split Lake and scheduled air service on the lower Nelson River. It was settlement.25 However, none of this was started, that Thompson became inhabited primarily by Manitoba had had significant impact on the more influential. Unlike the Hydro personnel. Many Cree in the Split Lake Cree until Thompson. experience with the railway, it is resource area, attracted by wage In , nickel deposits were notable that few, if any, Split Lake labour opportunities, moved to the found, after a decade of exploratory Cree were employed at the INCO townsite. These were mainly Fox drilling by INCO, in the Cook Lake mines. The reasons for this are hard Lake First Nation members, but area.26 This lead to the development to pin down definitively, although some Split Lake Cree also moved of the huge INCO mines and the lack of local interest in working there. The settlement at Atkinson establishment in of the town of underground and the impossibility Lake was practically vacated by Thompson which grew rapidly. of simultaneously maintaining members of both of these First Thompson quickly became the mining employment and the
Squared log house on the peninsula built by William Wavey in the early 1950s.
Round log house built by Robert Wavey This stained glass window sits above the altar in John the Baptist on the peninsula. Church. From the original old log church in Split Lake, it was donated by the women’s auxiliary. traditional way of life, as well as the Hydroelectric project which harnessed only a mining company preference for Development modest portion of the total Nelson hiring experienced miners, all As noted in the previous chapter, River, and did not greatly change undoubtedly played a role. The fact starting in the operation of the the levels and flows of the that INCO hiring took place in The Kelsey generating station made downstream reach of the river. Pas was also a factor. Thompson Manitoba Hydro’s presence well- However, Split Lake residents would have progressively greater known in the Split Lake resource noticed many adverse effects. The influence on the Split Lake Cree way area. Kelsey flooded land for a water in Split Lake seemed to be less of life in following decades, and the distance of kilometres upstream clear, and algae became more early signs of this future role were of Split Lake along the Nelson River, common. There was more debris already inescapable. affecting , acres of northern both downstream of the dam on the In spite of the expanding boreal forest. Little, if any, of the Nelson River and in Split Lake. After influences of Thompson and Gillam, shoreline was cleared and tons of heavy rains water levels on Split Ilford still continued to be the key debris, trees and soil entered the Lake seemed to rise faster. In a service/supply centre and point of Nelson River increasing its sediment winter fire at the dam site caused the external contact for the Split Lake load. Traditional hunting areas on release of stored up water and Cree in the s. Its easy the upper Nelson River, in particular substantially raised elevations on accessibility by the Aiken River Goose Hunting Lake and as far as Split Lake, causing slush ice. These either by winter road or by Sipiwesk Lake, were lost to Split effects started the process of seaplanes operated by Ilford- Lake Cree hunters. The dam raised undermining the confidence that the Riverton Airways and its direct rail forebay water various levels up to people had always had in the quality link to the outside assured its feet at the site of the former rapids. and safety of their waters. ongoing importance in this period. Kelsey was a ‘run of the river’ The commercial and domestic Long Spruce dam and generating station was the third plant built in the Split Lake resource area. Started in 1971, the first units went into service in 1977. It is located 16 kilometres downstream of Kettle. winter levels were increased by an now formed later in the year and These extensive bio-physical average of nearly three feet while break-up came earlier. Higher impacts of hydroelectric summer levels were reduced by winter water flows caused thin ice development affected every facet of about three-quarters of a foot. A and slush ice which resulted in the First Nation’s use of its greater frequency of water perilous travel conditions according traditional lands and waters and fluctuation also resulted. to Split Lake Cree. Fluctuating water shook its cultural identity to the According to the testimony of the levels in winter resulted in very very roots. Elders, each part of Hydro’s project, dangerous ice conditions, for particularly Lake Winnipeg example on Stephens Lake, where Harvesting Effects Regulation – Churchill River water levels varied by as much as six Commercial and domestic Diversion and the Kettle dam and feet in one week. The seasonal harvesting activities were seriously generating station, caused a large reversal of water flows, combined affected. Fur bearers and waterfowl range of impacts, from bio-physical with debris, limited shoreline access were destroyed, or driven from their to cultural and social, in a domino- and water-based transportation. ruined habitats. Moose, deer, and like fashion. The waterways had been the lynx were forced upland as the most travelled transportation routes. shorelands could no longer support Biophysical Effects The developments of the s them. Fish habitat was changed by Terrestrial and shoreline habitat effectively left the Split Lake Cree the increased turbidity, and the was either destroyed by flooding or with much reduced, more costly and relative abundance of various rendered inhospitable for wildlife less safe access to their territory. The species changed. Mercury and human use by water level and negative effects experienced with contamination of fish, particularly in flow changes. Flooded shorelines respect to the waterways, on which Stephens Lake, became a problem, along the diversion route introduced the Split Lake Cree had always and Split Lake Cree were advised not mud, silt, vegetation and wood relied, explains why the Cree came to eat certain species. debris into the waterways and made to call Manitoba Hydro “the There was a local perception that the water dirtier. The projects flooder”,or o-inski-poo-chi-kayoo in the fur and fish that were caught drastically altered the ice regime. Ice Cree. were of inferior quality. Trapping and fishing now required recreation was adversely affected as Few Benefits significantly greater effort and ice conditions made many activities While the Kettle and Long Spruce expense to produce a reasonable more dangerous. Summer activities projects were responsible for return. Winter ice conditions, had to be curtailed because camping generating a substantial proportion particularly slush ice, was reported and picnicking sites had either been of provincial power and produced to have been a costly problem for fur flooded or left high and dry. Boating corresponding revenue, Split Lake trappers. The cost of fishing was dangerous below the Kettle dam Cree received only minimal benefits. increased dramatically as boats and because of severe water level A few First Nation members worked motors were damaged by debris and fluctuations. The Churchill River on the construction of Kettle and shoreline conditions, and nets had to was completely destroyed for Long Spruce. Some people worked be cleaned or repaired because of recreational use and its pristine in operations and maintenance at fouling by algae, silt, mud and other wilderness values were lost. Kelsey, and one First Nation member debris. More expensive aluminum The presence of construction and recently retired from Manitoba boats now had to be used. On the operational personnel associated Hydro employment to reside in Split Churchill River, the dewatering of with the hydroelectric project also Lake. One hundred () amp power lakes damaged fish habitat. For had detrimental effects on was provided to community example, Billard Lake could not be traditional land and water use. As households, but electrical costs were commercially fished after . The discussed in the previous chapter, high, imposing a new requirement Butnau River diversion into the the establishment of the modern for cash expenditures on the people. Kettle River, completed as part of the town of Gillam in the late s left Benefits under the NFA were slow in Kettle dam development, made the a permanent, new population within coming, and Elders commented that water more turbid and damaged the resource area who used Split in the s the cost of the new domestic fishing in the lower Kettle Lake Cree lands, resources, and hydroelectricity may actually have River. waters as if they were their own. exceeded the Hydro resource Hunting and fishing by the compensation programs. Changed Water Quality newcomers also placed increased As the power developments People could not drink the lake pressure upon wildlife and fish curtailed traditional land and water and river water, as had always been resources. activities, cultural values were their practice, without feeling they damaged. Social problems began to were getting sick. As a result they The 1979 Flood increase in Split Lake. People lost became afraid to eat any fish they There was not even any confidence in the lands and waters caught. The changes to the source of consistency in the changed water which had always sustained their the peoples’ drinking water regime. Only three years after Lake identity. Negative aspects of modern completed the loss of confidence in Winnipeg Regulation – Churchill society for the Cree, such as store- the wholesomeness and safety of the River Diversion, spring and summer bought food and television (made water for consumption that had flooding in produced some of possible as a result of the started in the s after Kelsey. the highest water levels on record, telecommunication towers built by These changes in the water quality with particularly severe impacts on Manitoba Hydro and Manitoba made particularly significant the shorelines, wildlife habitat, and Telephone System in conjunction contractual guarantee of continuous domestic harvesting. Split Lake Cree with the Kettle development), began availability of potable water which had barely begun adapting to the to exert more of an attraction. The the Northern Flood Committee had new ‘normal’ water regime when growing social disruption was secured under Article of the NFA. this happened. The occurrence of increased by the construction of this flood, in spite of Hydro’s PR to Split Lake in . The Effects on Recreation assurance that the changed water Thompson-Gillam road, serving Split The Hydro projects also regime would behave ‘normally’, Lake, was built as a result of the destroyed the aesthetic beauty of the even if somewhat differently than Long Spruce development and was waterways and severely limited the state of nature, further eroded cost-shared by Manitoba Hydro. their recreational and cultural use. peoples’ willingness to believe that Dirty water made swimming less the outsiders really understood the attractive and debris inhibited continuing effects of what they had boating. Children got sores from done. swimming in the lake. Winter
One of the major streets in Split Lake. c. . Chapter 6
Environmental and Social S of The community became less Disruption Tturbulence and environmental tightly-knit and family cohesion upheaval for the Split Lake Cree. weakened. The environmental Split Lake in the 1970s The Lake Winnipeg Regulation – devastation and disruption caused in Churchill River Diversion projects of part by hydroelectric development - wrought havoc with the affected traditional Aboriginal water and shoreline habitats of values and compounded social hundreds of kilometres of the problems as people found resource area. At the same time the themselves cast adrift in a new, negative aspects of other outside strange, and hostile world.27 agents of change, such as social assistance, residential schools and Resource Harvesting and television, were also becoming more the Economy pronounced and widespread. By far the most significant Television, for example, was pressure on Split Lake Cree resource perceived by Elders as having a bad harvesting and other traditional land influence on young people. At the and water activities in the s was same time, other examples of the massive hydroelectric modernization, such as electrical developments which were appliances and better education, profoundly altering the landscape in were positive developments. ways which were far more dramatic and profound than the effects of the Kelsey generating station.
Although traditional harvesting activities did continue, fewer young people participated, and the territory travelled continued to decrease. Dog teams were replaced by snowmobiles, which were more expensive to operate and maintain. As a result of increased prices for certain fur bearers, trappers did manage to increase the gross financial return of their activities in the late s. At the same time, trapping programs negotiated with Manitoba Hydro to offset the adverse effects of the Lake Winnipeg Regulation -Churchill River Diversion project provided incentive for some trappers. Jigging at the old band hall. However, those people who went to the north of the resource area talked so negatively on their return about the impacts on the Churchill River that trappers stopped going there. The commercial fishery on Split Lake continued, although income was erratic and it was closed or partially closed for many of the early years of the decade because of concerns about industrial mercury contamination expressed by the Freshwater Fish Marketing Corporation. External pressures on harvesting continued to be felt. Hunters and anglers from Gillam and Thompson were active in the Split Lake resource area. Gillam residents began illegally constructing cottages Elders Eveline Wastasecoot, Sophie Spence and Helen Spence. on Stephens (Moose Nose) Lake without the consent of either In addition to the traditional development corporation established Manitoba or Split Lake Cree. About resource-based pursuits, Split Lake under the terms of the Northern the same time, the Manitoba Cree continued to work on the rail Flood Agreement (NFA). Registered Trapline Association line. As well, some First Nation Unfortunately, in spite of all of the came into existence to give trappers members found temporary work investment and economic activity a united voice on provincial with outside developers, usually in surrounding Split Lake, social trapping issues. relatively low skill jobs. Some assistance became more widespread, younger people who had secondary increasing dependency and idle school education were able to find time. employment away from the community. A few local businesses were established towards the end of the decade as a result of funding from Neyanun, an economic
Since the establishment of a mission at Split Lake in , the Anglican religion has been an important part of community life. Shown here is the existing Anglican church and cemetery.
Community Development Community standpipes were Television was also introduced In the community, development constructed by the Department of into many community homes and its on the peninsula continued. The on- Indian Affairs in , providing a impact cannot be underestimated. It reserve population had grown to rudimentary chlorinated water created expectations, some false. It by , and there was an influx of supply for the community. The exposed young people to the outside families of CN rail retirees to Split people were told that the lake water world, on the one hand introducing Lake.28 A new kindergarten to grade was no longer safe to drink. previously unknown cultural nine school was completed in , According to the Elders, this new influences, but at the same time and local teachers began to be source of supply was, in one sense, bringing readier access to trained through the Brandon welcomed by the people, given the information about the struggles of University Northern Teacher growing lack of confidence in the other Indian peoples, in far off parts Education Program. An electrical safety of the traditional lake supply. of the country, to assert their rights. submarine cable allowed for the use At the same time the need for this The greater difficulty and less of home appliances, as to amp alternative source deepened people’s satisfying nature of traditional, service became available. Local suspicions that the changes being outdoor activities tended to make party-line telephone exchange experienced would last forever. The television a substitute, thus isolating service was also introduced. replacement of easy access to lake the youth even more from the waters with several centralized experience of the Elders and the sources also increased the effort traditional values of the Split Lake required to access this most Cree. fundamental element of life’s sustenance.
Reliance on store-bought food As a result of all of these factors, In the space of a decade, two grew, although country foods still the social fabric in Split Lake began dams and generating stations were reportedly comprised the majority of to erode and young people, alienated constructed downstream of Split meals. In the early s, the from the old ways, increasingly Lake on the lower Nelson River, and Hudson’s Bay store encouraged questioned the wisdom of traditional the massive Lake Winnipeg increased consumption of red meat, life and values. Church attendance Regulation – Churchill River at the expense of fish consumption. began to drop. The curfew Diversion scheme was implemented. The perception that the taste of the disappeared. Alcohol and drug use The Kettle dam and generating fish from the lake had changed, and increased, although still mainly off- station, with a generating capacity the associated lack of confidence in reserve. of over , megawatts, began its wholesome nature, markedly operation in . It tripled the size increased the effectiveness of the Hydroelectric of the lake that had always been store’s advertising. As the diet Development Accelerates known to the Cree as Moose Nose changed and sedentary ways became There can be no doubt, however, Lake, and flooded over , acres more prevalent, the health of that the most profound factor of of land including many First Nation residents deteriorated and the change in the s was traditional harvesting, recreational incidence of modern illnesses, hydroelectric development. and cultural sites. This was not particularly diabetes, became more Manitoba Hydro projects caused unlike the flood that had occurred common. extensive flooding along the Nelson naturally in . However, this Parents placed increasing River, and also dewatered thousands time it was unexpected as Split Lake emphasis on formal education as a of acres of land along the Churchill Cree believed that Manitoba Hydro means of understanding and dealing River. These projects permanently was now regulating the waterways. with the changes being experienced, altered waterways in the resource At the same time Moose Nose Lake as well as of obtaining future area, forever changing the was re-named Stephens Lake in employment. This, combined with relationship the Split Lake Cree had honour of a former Chairman of continued residential school enjoyed with the natural world since Manitoba Hydro. attendance, left many of the youth time began. Shortly after this flooding, unfamiliar with the traditional ways Manitoba, along with the federal construction began on the Long of living off the land. government, had established the Spruce dam and generating station, Increased access to Thompson Lake Winnipeg, Churchill and 16 kilometres downstream of Kettle. with its ‘city ways’ was another Nelson Rivers Study Board in Long Spruce became operational in destabilizing factor. By the early to study the environmental impacts and water levels were raised s there was scheduled air of the Lake Winnipeg Regulation feet. Over , acres of Nelson service between Split Lake and – Churchill River Diversion River shoreline and tributaries were Thompson. Taxi service from the projects. However, by the time the flooded. The Split Lake Cree were Odei River, near Orr Creek, began in board’s report came out in , not consulted about either of these the mid-s. The completion in both projects were already nearing hydroelectric projects nor were they of a year-round road, completion as was the construction prepared for the range of negative Provincial Road , between of the Long Spruce generating impacts that would result. Although Thompson and Split Lake station and initial development of both the Lake Winnipeg consolidated the link. Limestone on the lower Nelson Regulation – Churchill River River. The board’s report was also Diversion project and the Long considered by some environmental Spruce generating station on the experts and critics to be lower Nelson River had been substantially less than an planned for a number of years and environmental impact assessment were already being built, the First that one would expect today. Nation did not know that its reserve lands would be directly affected until .
Figure : Effects of Kettle Generating Station on Stephens Lake Reach. – Manitoba Hydro The Northern Flood and the governments, and to secure Hydro that the First Nations should Committee and the collective rights and interests of not succeed in stopping what was Negotiation of the NFA the Cree. seen by the outsiders as ‘progress’, As discussed earlier, allying itself Initially, Manitoba and Manitoba the Cree were not successful in with four other Cree Nations who Hydro, refused to acknowledge the stopping the project. anticipated and experienced adverse legitimacy of the Northern Flood However, even though the effects from the Lake Winnipeg Committee and attempted to primary objective could not be Regulation – Churchill River negotiate separate compensation accomplished, the Northern Flood Diversion, Split Lake Cree First settlements with each of the Committee was successful, for the Nation became a founding member communities and affected resource first time in the history of northern of the Northern Flood Committee in users. However, under pressure to Manitoba, in forcing the . The committee was formed, by negotiate with the Northern Flood governments and Manitoba Hydro the independent action of Split Lake, Committee from the increasingly to recognize the legal rights of the Nelson House, Norway House, Cross organized and informed First First Nations. Negotiations began, Lake and York Factory First Nations, Nations, as well as from the federal but notwithstanding Cree legal to oppose the Manitoba Hydro government, which recognized the rights – related to reserve lands and development project. This coming Lake Winnipeg Regulation – other interests – they were together of the threatened Cree Churchill River Diversion’s certain conducted under considerable peoples marked a fundamental step impact on reserve lands, Manitoba duress, caused not least by the in their political development. The and Manitoba Hydro finally continuing construction activities basis of the alliance was that each recognized the committee in . within the resource areas. In spite of First Nation would remain In the face of the huge the difficulties they faced and the responsible for its own affairs, but investments that had already been unequal bargaining positions, the that there would be cooperation to made, and the consensus among First Nations, under the umbrella of fight the actions of Manitoba Hydro Canada, Manitoba and Manitoba the Northern Flood Committee, that had the Government and Hydro started meaningful negotiations with the communities prior to and even as late as , the course of events would have been vastly different. The Commission went on to recommend that: ...in the future all Hydro projects that will have an appreciable impact on a community or on the environment be given a rigorous environmental assessment and review before authorization. Moreover, the people affected should be consulted and fully Kettle generating station, located on the lower Nelson River seven miles east of informed long before project Gillam. Construction occurred over the period to . The first turbine units went into service in . committal, so that their legitimate concerns are taken into account in succeeded in negotiating the implementation of the promised the authorized scheme. Northern Flood Agreement (NFA), measures was left substantially in Government must ensure these which was finalized in and the hands of Canada, Manitoba and ends are achieved.29 ratified in , by the Northern Manitoba Hydro. Unfortunately, the Flood Committee and the five First Cree First Nations’ faith in the Hydro Project Impacts Nations, Canada, Manitoba and willingness of the other parties to The Lake Winnipeg Regulation – Manitoba Hydro. Key Split Lake take all of the promised actions was Churchill River Diversion negotiators included the then Chief found to be misplaced. Faced with development became operational in Ken Wastasecoot, Philip Garson, and high projected costs to implement -, prior to the Long Spruce Sam Garson, the latter of whom the NFA consistent with its language, flooding, and, as noted, before the signed the NFA on behalf of the spirit and intent, the other parties signing of the NFA. The Churchill Chief. The signing of the NFA was shrank from the task and proceeded River Diversion increased flows testimony to the cooperative efforts with what can only be described as down the Burntwood River more of the Chiefs, Councillors and Elders the narrowest possible interpretation than eight-fold, permanently of the five First Nations, and to their of their responsibilities. Indeed, it flooding shorelines and adding determination and tenacity in the would be several years before the additional flow down the lower face of very adverse circumstances. other parties’ insistence that the NFA Nelson River. Over , acres of This was exemplified by the fact was a ‘political accord’ rather than a Split Lake reserve land were taken that the reserves of the Nelson contract, would be overturned, first for Hydro water storage purposes. House Cree were already starting to by the arbitrator appointed pursuant The opposite effect occurred on the be flooded by the Churchill to the NFA, and then by the Churchill River, in the north of the Diversion even before the NFA was Manitoba Court of Appeal. resource area, where over , finalized. In , the Commission of acres of formerly rugged wilderness The Northern Flood Agreement Inquiry into Manitoba Hydro (the shoreline were dewatered and contained promises, by Manitoba Tritschler Inquiry) criticized Billard and Fidler Lakes were Hydro, Manitoba and Canada, to Manitoba’s and Manitoba Hydro’s substantially reduced in size and replace all affected reserve lands on approach towards the northern depth. a : basis, as well as to provide a Aboriginal communities in the Lake Winnipeg Regulation wide range of compensatory, development of the Lake Winnipeg reversed the natural, seasonal flows remedial and developmental Regulation – Churchill River and levels which the Split Lake Cree measures to offset the adverse effects Diversion: had lived with for all time. The of the Lake Winnipeg Regulation – It is clear to the Commission, after entire Nelson River from Lake Churchill River Diversion. Under the reviewing all of the evidence and Winnipeg as far as the Kettle dam terms of the NFA, the listening to all of the witnesses, forebay was altered. On Split Lake, Kelsey dam and generating station located on the Nelson River where it flows into Split Lake. Construction began in and the first four turbines started operating in . fisheries were also affected. and any costs, to the extent they known, there is little evidence that Sturgeon did not come down the were recognized at all, were treated the lessons were applied to the Nelson River as frequently as in the as the ‘price of progress’. There is no developments that would shortly past, which the Elders attribute to record of Canada doing anything to create similar impacts on the Split the presence of the Kelsey insist on the recognition of Split Lake Cree. generating station. Split Lake Cree Lake Cree rights, other than perhaps After completing Grand Rapids, fishermen noticed cyst-like defects the belated creation of the Split Lake described in official Manitoba Hydro in fish, particularly in walleye and Cree reserves in the late s. literature as the ‘jewel of the pike. The mooneye population was At about the same time as the system’, Manitoba Hydro turned its reduced. In the areas not protected Kelsey development became attention to harnessing the by bedrock and stone shorelines, operational, Manitoba Hydro began enormous power potential of the shoreline bird and furbearer habitat construction of the Grand Rapids Nelson River. The federal-provincial was damaged; the red-winged hydro project on the Saskatchewan Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba blackbird disappeared from the River between Lake Winnipeg and Board in and the Nelson River upper Nelson River area in the mid- Cedar Lake. The Grand Rapids dam Programming Board in s. and generating station was completed reports investigating the First Nation members were completed in and was fully energy potential of the Nelson River, gaining their first direct experience operational by . This severely including the regulation of the with the impacts of hydroelectric damaged traditional resource areas outflow of Lake Winnipeg and the development, which, as noted of the four First Nations inhabiting diversion of the Churchill River into earlier, had been planned without the Saskatchewan River delta and the Nelson River. any consultation, and certainly the Chemawawin Cree were forced In , Manitoba and Canada without the informed consent of to completely relocate. These entered into an agreement that Split Lake Cree. In spite of the negative effects provided a tragic provided the basis for the Lake impacts that the Elders report were lesson for Manitoba Hydro and the Winnipeg Regulation – Churchill being experienced by the people as a governments. They revealed the River Diversion. It specified that result of the operation of Kelsey, no inevitable consequences of such Manitoba Hydro would finance and compensation was paid. The project development on the indigenous construct the Kettle Rapids dam and was viewed by the proponents and population. Sadly, in spite of what generating station, kilometres other northern developers as an the governments and Manitoba downstream of Split Lake, while admirable sign of northern growth, Hydro knew, or ought to have Canada would pay for the
construction of, and own, the high power to reduce or cut off social Conclusion voltage direct current transmission assistance. The Department of Indian The s were essentially an lines ( kV) between Kettle Rapids Affairs exercised considerable extension and continuation of the and Winnipeg. Manitoba would power, managing directly both the changes of the s. Harvesting of provide the land required for the finances and the external natural resources was still very transmission line and give the relationships of the First Nation. Up important to Split Lake Cree who necessary approvals for the project. until at least the mid-s, there continued to rely on the lands, Water power reserves along the were no direct employees to carry resources and waters of their major river systems were created in out the everyday functions of forefathers, despite being more that same year. governance, which were integrated settled in a planned and growing This was the beginning of the into the responsibilities of the Chief community. According to Elders, hydroelectric project that would and Council. considerable country food in the cause such damage and disruption, The peacekeepers were still form of moose, beaver, whitefish, and change forever the way of life of proving to be an enduring force in and pickerel was harvested, blessed the Split Lake Cree in the coming the community, a very visible and consumed by the people, with decade. symbol of the continuity of country food meals still surpassing governance practices from ancient store-bought. Traditional cultural Community Governance times, enforcing the curfews and practices and festivals were actively Even though the impacts of generally maintaining the good maintained. The community of Split hydroelectric development and of order and traditions of the people. Lake remained relatively isolated the new communities in the resource The Elders report that at this time and stable. area were only beginning to be felt there were still three peacekeepers. While the changes taking place in the s, they created new The RCMP were viewed generally as were not as dramatic as those of the pressures for the Chief and Council. an unnecessary outside force, and s, influences, such as the Such changes had never before been were only allowed on the reserve growth of northern towns, mining experienced by Split Lake Cree. The with the permission of Chief and and the first direct effects of impacts of Kelsey were increasingly Council. hydroelectric development were being raised in the general band In the latter half of the decade, as increasingly evident. As a result, the meetings, but the leadership was pressures continued to mount on the most central beliefs and trust in a unsure how to effectively voice traditional leadership, there appears well-understood environment were these concerns to the governments to have been a conscious effort made shaken by the magnitude of and Manitoba Hydro. It would be to actively encourage the devastation seen upstream along the another ten years before the participation of the younger men in Nelson River to Sipiwesk and government of the First Nation the community decision-making Cauchon lakes. The s provided would succeed in establishing a process. Today’s leaders talk of the first concrete indications to the forum for doing so, by allying itself Elders approaching them Split Lake Cree that their unending with other northern Cree First individually as young men to struggle for survival and adaptation Nations within the Northern Flood convince them of the need for their to circumstances in a known world Committee. more active role in the regular was changing because of At least during the first half of general band meetings. The age of fundamental changes to the very the decade, Chief and Council, the Council started to reflect this character of that familiar world. comprised of the older First Nation transition. The late s saw the Further serious impacts were soon to members, governed consistently election of the youngest Chief in the come. with the traditional customs. The history of the Split Lake Cree. Elders continued to exercise the Frequent general band meetings most influence on decisions within were still held, maintaining the age- the community. The functions of old tradition of the active government remained primarily participation of the adult members inward-looking, such as the strictly in the everyday governance of the enforced daily curfews imposed by First Nation, while retaining the Chief Alfred Spence and Council. power to make decisions which Similarly, Chief and Council had, Chief and Council felt obliged to put and used from time to time, the into effect.
Figure : Split Lake Water Regime: Average Monthly Water Levels for Pre- and Post-LWR–CRD Periods. – Manitoba Hydro
Figure on page illustrates the Community Governance Complicating this generational effects of the Kettle dam and Not surprisingly, the s was a shift in leadership was the generating station on the Moose period of rapid transition in the role increasing requirement for Chief and Nose (Stephens) Lake reach of the of Chief and Council. In order to deal Council to be out of the community Nelson River. Visually, the effects with the perceived threats to the to participate in tribal governing are dramatic. More subtle, but very existence of the people, there activities. This contributed to a nonetheless profound, were the was a need to draw upon the more decrease in their internal authority. seasonal reversal effects of the Lake ‘modern’ perspectives and education While the younger generation took Winnipeg Regulation – Churchill of younger members, who had more of a leadership role in terms of River Diversion on the immediate greater familiarity with the outside political responsibilities, the Elders environs of Split Lake. Figure world. This internal impetus, continued to take responsibility for illustrates the Split Lake water coming from the older people, to ensuring respect for the moral and regime for the pre- and post-Lake pass the torch of leadership sooner customary practices of the Winnipeg Regulation – Churchill than would have traditionally been community. River Diversion periods. The the case, was reinforced by the reversed cycle of low water in the reduction in voting age from to summer and high water in the in . This substantially winter periods is particularly expanded the voting age population. notable.
peacekeepers still represented the will of the people in the maintenance of social peace and order. The general band meetings, while having to address hitherto unknown challenges, remained an important forum for discussions and debate, and a source of guidance and support for the leadership.
Conclusion This chapter has described how traditional values and customs came under increasing pressure during the , as the consequences of increased modernization and contact with the outside world were felt. From the Split Lake Cree perspective, hydroelectric development was by far the most profound agent of change, causing both major physical impacts on the lands and waters, as well as the resulting undermining of the essence of Aboriginal practices and customs. As a result of externally imposed developments that were beyond their control, the people of Split Lake had become casualties of change. While resource harvesting activities continued, people participated for less sustained periods of time. Many young people, steered towards educational Limestone dam and generating station, the most recent Manitoba Hydro plant, is endeavours, were less capable of located 47 kilometres east of Gillam. Initially started in the s, it was built over a period of several years, mainly in the late 1980s. carrying on traditional activities and began to hold animals in less esteem The tremendous efforts required Ken Wastasecoot, and Michael P. than had their Elders. The centre of first to negotiate and then endeavour Garson. John Wavey and Ken traditional pursuits had always been to convince the other parties to Wastasecoot led the Split Lake Cree the shorelines, but shoreline activity implement the NFA, began to impose participation in the struggle to decreased because of the adverse a diverse array of administrative, negotiate the NFA. effects of hydroelectric technical and legal demands upon Despite the many significant development. People lost faith in the Chief and Council. The very modest changes that occurred during this altered waterways and in the natural numbers of staff working in the First decade, there were still significant environment that had always Nation government were elements of continuity within the sustained them. In short, the sudden complemented by the Cree staff and structure of governance. As noted, environmental degradation in the other technical and legal advisors the Elders continued to play an traditional territories resulted in a working within the Northern Flood important and respected role, both traumatic break in the pattern of Committee. Chiefs during the s internally and as valued advisors in evolution and sometimes difficult were, in chronological order, Daniel meetings among the five Northern adaptation that had characterized Kirkness, Bill Spence, John Wavey, Flood Committee First Nations. The earlier eras. Aerial view of the growing Split Lake community. Chapter 7
Decade of Uncertainty he early s were marked First Nation had again found its and Reconstruction Tby uncertainty and bearings, and was beginning to indecision. Split Lake Cree First reassert control over its own Split Lake in the 1980s Nation was unsure how to deal with affairs.30 the deepening negative influences of the outside world and, in particular, Resource Harvesting and with the continuing adverse effects the Economy of hydroelectric development which Hunting, fishing, trapping, and should have been mitigated or the gathering of country foods and alleviated by the NFA. From the medicines carried on in the s. Split Lake Cree perspective, the Because of continuing interest in other parties to the agreement had these pursuits, as well as a growing not lived up to the promises in the population, there were more NFA. While, from the outside, the trappers than in the s, although community was perceived to be the number of commercial fishermen stable, among members there were remained about the same. Among real concerns that it may be resource harvesters there was as overwhelmed by the new, stark strong an attachment to the land as realities it was facing. By the late before. However, hydroelectric s, however, a number of development impacts were still a developments indicated that the major limiting factor.
On the surface, trapping and Notwithstanding the continuing Hydro construction continued fishing appeared productive with attachment to resource harvesting, when work on the huge Limestone large numbers of participants. severe unemployment characterized dam and generating station resumed However, the continuing physical the local economy for most of the in . This was the fifth and last effects of the Lake Winnipeg year in the first half of the decade, hydroelectric generating station to Regulation – Churchill River with a corresponding increase in date on the Nelson River. Some Split Diversion, particularly related to social assistance dependency. Lake Cree participated in skills and transportation impediments, made Women’s handicraft production all employment training programs these activities difficult to carry out but ceased, with bingo and visits to there. Benefits from these programs and produced substantial hidden Thompson taking its place. Fewer were slight, however, as skills were costs in terms of extra expense, time people made snowshoes. The not adequately developed at work or and effort. Domestic fishing declined customary division of labour became could not be applied elsewhere as on Split Lake because of concerns blurred as women began to work employment opportunities were few. about the water quality, particularly and men took more of a role in In addition, those Split Lake Cree after the flood of . Elders noted raising children. To some extent this with jobs were often overlooked for a sharp decline in goldeye in the was made possible by the gradual advancement. early s. As well, fur prices expansion of employment In spite of the general increase in dropped sharply towards the end of opportunities in the government and local job opportunities in the late the decade. Despite all of these service sectors of the local economy, s, the rapidly growing labour problems, the people’s attachment to particularly in the latter part of the force meant that there were the lands and waters continued. decade, as progressively more probably more people unemployed Country foods still comprised, functions of government were made and reliant on social assistance at the perhaps, half of the diet. One subject to the devolution policies of end of the decade, than at the response to the hydroelectric the Department of Indian Affairs. beginning. This was particularly the impacts was to move some of the The education and health systems case since most of the people born in harvesting activities and to fish and also contributed to the increase in Split Lake continued to reside there, trap unregulated waters and local job opportunities for women. with a very low rate of permanent shorelines. In the early eighties, construction out-migration. The challenge of on the reserve was essentially defining a new basis for the confined to a modest housing economic self-reliance of the Split program. After the middle of the Lake Cree, which had never been decade, however, there was a seriously addressed by the relative boom in this sector. The governments, remained to be taken extensive construction activity on up by the people in the future. the reserve, resulting from the provision of basic infrastructure such as the water and sewer system, improved housing, and local streets, provided many much-needed local jobs for First Nation members.
Several constuction projects began in Split Lake in the late s.
Community Development There was conflict between Numerous events interrupted or Social and health problems external values and Aboriginal curtailed a wide range of community seemed to deepen. Lack of respect cultural traditions, which were services in the s. The airport for authority increased. Young weakened and began to be was closed in the early part of the people became even more alienated redefined. Traditional religious decade. The school burned down in from the values of their Elders and beliefs were practiced only by the and temporary classrooms had began asserting their new-found Elders, who were also the First to be used for the next four years legal rights, as individualistic Nation members most frequently until a new school was built. The notions began taking hold, partly as attending church services. Although Bay store burned down in but a result of Constitutional there was a reported decline in was soon rebuilt. There were power deliberations and the passage into active church attendance, the outages because of load rejection at law of the Charter of Rights and Anglican Church and its practices Kelsey. Electricity was also cut off Freedoms. and moral code remained a when the submarine cable snapped predominant influence on everyday in . Shoreline development life. Alcohol and drug abuse was became restricted because of the more frequent, although, as in the Manitoba Hydro setback or past decade, usually not in the severance lines. On top of these community, given the local ban on problems, Split Lake experienced intoxicants and active enforcement high waters in , and in by the peacekeepers. major forest fires threatened the whole community.
However, there were also notable new situation on the basis of their particular, easier access to alcohol. community improvements. own efforts, Split Lake Cree One result of this realization was to Household telephone service to the continued the pressure to secure a maintain Split Lake as a ‘dry’ reserve outside world became available in modern, replacement school, with where alcohol was banned. There is the early s. The Split Lake the goal of providing kindergarten no doubt that the road created a community doubled in size when to grade education in the major attraction to take advantage of adjacent land beyond the peninsula, community for the first time. At the services in Thompson, with very including the old airstrip, was set end of July , two busloads of many Split Lake members travelling aside and developed for community Split Lake Cree arrived in Ottawa to there weekly, if not more expansion. This had been lobby the federal government. frequently. recommended by the Shortly afterwards, approval was Hilderman, Witty Community Plan. received for the construction of the Impacts of Hydroelectric A major water and sewer project new school, on the site favoured by Development Continue began slowly in as one of the the people. This noteworthy success Adverse effects on the lands and then major benefits from the contributed to renewed self-respect, waters continued as before. The Northern Food Agreement. Under and underpinned the major efforts seasonal reversal of flows and levels this program water and sewer made by Chief and Council to gain on Split Lake, the low flows on the installation occurred on the local control of education in the Churchill, and high flows on the mainland, providing running water s. Burntwood, were now permanent and bathrooms for about % of the features of the environment. While homes. This was part of a major Road to Split Lake some outsiders claimed that nature water and sewer infrastructure Even though the Split Lake had begun to adjust to the unnatural program that took place on all five airport was closed in the s, cycles, the Elders continued to NFA First Nation reserves. access to Thompson, and to southern notice far more signs of negative Manitoba, became easier because of effects than positive adjustment. The New School the completion of PR to Split Traditional pursuits continued to be The response of the Split Lake Lake in . By , the road had adversely affected along ‘on-system’ Cree to the destruction of the school been extended to Gillam. This waterways and, more and more, by fire illustrates that no matter how caused an increase in on-reserve hunters, fishermen and trappers had desperate the situation may have vehicles, creating added pressure to to go further afield in order to seemed at times in the late s and improve the inadequate internal harvest game and fish, incurring early s, the will to control their road system. More important, additional expenses. own affairs was never lost. When however, was its negative influence The spring and early summer the school burned, the Department on social stability. flood of , not totally unusual in of Indian Affairs informed the First Besides hydroelectric a state of nature, also caused Nation that the children would be development, PR has been cited consternation, as had the earlier taken out of the community to as perhaps the key agent of change flood of , since such floods were school until the building could be affecting Split Lake in the late s contrary to the intended effects of replaced. It also indicated its plan to and early s.31 By making access the Hydro regulation scheme. Both construct replacement school to the outside world easier, modern domestic and commercial harvesting facilities on the site of the old school, influences affected the community practices were seriously disrupted as a site that had always been more, further weakening traditional unnatural ice effects and flooding up considered undesirable by the local social and family relationships. to five or six feet beyond the norm population. Chief and Council agreed to the took their toll. Extreme events such Chief and Council, supported by road, which was vital for as these also caused many ‘hidden’ the members, rejected both these maintaining a reasonable level of effects on plants, insects and wildlife positions. Using the First Nation’s services in the community, and was struggling to adapt to the regulated own money which had been secured made even more necessary as a result water regime. These are difficult to through negotiations to implement of the deterioration in traditional describe and impossible to quantify. the NFA, portable classrooms were travel routes on the waterways The flood seriously affected the purchased, moved to the community caused by the hydroelectric projects. recreational use and enjoyment of and installed on the old school site. At the same time they were aware of Split Lake, caused community Having succeeded in creating this its potential adverse effects, in concern and anxiety because of its
Satellite view of Split Lake area showing main highway and other features. July , . – Manitoba Centre for Remote Sensing unpredicted nature, and, perhaps economic recovery of their to obtain the promised benefits most troubling of all, seriously community. The failure of these contained in the agreement. The undermined the theory that Mother expectations to be realized led to Split Lake Cree, like the other NFA Nature would be able to adapt well bitter disappointment and mistrust. First Nations, had to resort to filing to artificial interference with her The governments and Manitoba numerous arbitration claims to try to natural rhythms and patterns.32 Hydro failed to implement seriously force implementation of the the numerous advantageous agreement. Northern Flood provisions of the NFA, and adequate By the mid-s, almost a Agreement resources were not made available to decade after its signing, most of the Implementation ensure that its provisions were NFA was being implemented only Both the perceived failure of carried out. Notwithstanding the partly, inadequately, or not at all. Canada, Manitoba and Manitoba determination that the NFA was a Compensation lands had not been Hydro to adequately address the binding contract, its general provided; drinking water was ongoing physical adverse effects of wording left considerable room for considered unsafe; shared the Lake Winnipeg Regulation – interpretation. Canada, Manitoba management of wildlife was Churchill River Diversion, and the and Manitoba Hydro consistently minimal; and community resulting sense of powerlessness, used this fact to downplay their development was not being were symptomatic of the loss of responsibilities. addressed. Normal Indian Affairs control felt by Split Lake Cree in the The NFA had generated program funding had been reduced, early s. The people had believed understandable expectations because of perceived benefits that the promises in the NFA, had trusted amongst the Split Lake Cree. These were supposed to result from the that its terms would provide a expectations were increasingly NFA. Some benefits that were seen vehicle to counteract the adverse frustrated as successive Chiefs and by Split Lake Cree included a few effects of the hydro projects, protect Councils, in alliance with the other local remedial works, advance the integrity of their lands and Northern Flood Committee First payments on a handful of claims waters, and foster the social and Nations, waged a continual struggle which went towards housing
development, and the Manitoba funding for the Northern Flood than relying on the other parties to Hydro trappers’ assistance Committee; the commitment to take the lead. programs. spend the money required to One of the key provisions of the provide water and sewer services, in Global Approach NFA not adequately addressed by recognition of the obligation to Out of this experience was born the other parties was the provide safe water to the the global or comprehensive commitment to comprehensive communities; and a Federal approach to implementing the NFA, monitoring of the adverse effects of Ecological Monitoring Program, to based on the concept that the First the Hydro projects, including a monitor selected impacts of the Lake Nations should negotiate with the socio-economic assessment of such Winnipeg Regulation – Churchill other parties to receive the lands, effects. The first order physical, River Diversion upon the lands, moneys, authorities and continuing biological and chemical waters, fish and wildlife of the five inter-party relationships sufficient consequences had been suffered by NFA First Nations. to place each First Nation in the lead Split Lake Cree on a continuing basis This almost stunning success, with regard to implementation of the since , when Kelsey began after so many years of frustration, NFA. Many workshops were held in operating. Yet the impacts had only started Split Lake Cree and the other Split Lake, and among the First been investigated or monitored in a First Nations down a road with Nations, during the late s in limited, piece-meal way by many new challenges. A period of order to reach a consensus among Manitoba and Manitoba Hydro since intensive planning and organization the people. Finally, in January , the early s. The lack of began in order to develop the means full four-party negotiations began in comprehensive monitoring of to control and secure the maximum order to try to win the complete hydroelectric project impacts possible spin-off benefits from the implementation of the agreement rendered such assessments unprecedented infrastructure that had been signed in . meaningless to the Split Lake Cree, development in the communities. For the Split Lake Cree another and did nothing to allay the Split Lake Cree took on the shared critical factor in reaching the enormous uncertainties associated leadership in proposing to Canada decision to take this global approach with the projects’ effects. and receiving approval for the was the growing apprehension and establishment of the Northern Flood uncertainty over future impacts Political Approach to Capital Reconstruction Authority, a associated with Hydro’s exploration Implementation wholly Cree-owned institution, and drilling around Birthday and Faced with the continuing which would take on and manage Gull rapids downstream of Split intransigence of the other parties, successfully the completion of the Lake in . That same year the Northern Flood Committee water, sewer, housing and road Manitoba Hydro announced that the Chiefs and their senior staff and development project. Local work in Split Lake reserve boundaries would advisors held many discussions to Split Lake was substantially need to be re-negotiated because the find a way to obtain the entitlements completed by the end of the s. planned Birthday/Gull hydro which their people insisted had been The efforts to implement the NFA development option could raise Split promised. Finding the NFA Article water and sewer program Lake by several feet. arbitration provisions ineffective at demanded a large portion of the time Split Lake Cree protested producing practical results, the and energy of the leadership of the Manitoba Hydro’s lack of decision was taken to forge a more Northern Flood Committee and the consultation about these twin political approach to secure the First Nations, until a formal projects as well as the failure to promised benefits of the NFA. agreement was concluded with conduct an adequate assessment of Consistent with this decision, the Canada in May . Nevertheless, already existing impacts. Faced with five Chiefs travelled to Ottawa in important lessons from this process this strong local opposition, May to meet then Minister of were applied to other unmet Manitoba Hydro withdrew its Indian Affairs, John Munro, and entitlements under the NFA. Split request to renegotiate the Split Lake press their case. The outcome of the Lake Cree and the other First Nations Reserve setback lines in late , meeting was unusually rewarding, concluded that political means could pending further investigation and and only six weeks later Canada be effective in asserting their rights, study of the flooding effects of announced the approval of a and that the First Nations would do Birthday/Gull. Buoyed by this package of NFA implementation best to take on direct responsibility additional evidence of their measures, including: ongoing for implementation measures, rather increasing capability to protect their
own rights, Split Lake Cree took community development initiatives. The peacekeepers also maintained assurance that Manitoba Hydro was These developments were concrete their prominent community now more aware of the importance evidence that Split Lake Cree were responsibilities, and grew in number of joint planning and impact progressively reclaiming control, not over the decade. The persistence and assessment processes. The Split Lake only over NFA implementation, but growth of this traditional institution Cree approached the global over other dimensions of community of self-governance is particularly negotiations with renewed development as well. The Chiefs notable given that senior officials of determination and confidence that who continued to negotiate the RCMP and Indian Affairs made this time things would be different. implementation during this decade several trips to Split Lake to explain were, beginning with the that the peacekeepers could not Community Governance election, Ken Wastasecoot, Michael remain in existence. The people The struggle to win the P. Garson, Daniel Kirkness, Norman listened patiently, but persisted in implementation of the NFA, Flett and Larry Beardy. the ways passed on to them by their combined with the increasing Another very visible grandparents. This persistence not responsibilities of the First Nation characteristic of the increasingly only underlines the unbroken government flowing from the sophisticated First Nation autonomy of the Split Lake Cree, but program devolution policies of the government was the growth of staff, also the people’s wisdom, since by Department of Indian Affairs, both executive and administrative, the end of the decade Split Lake was resulted in substantial changes to at the local level. At the beginning openly acknowledged to have the community governance in the s. of the decade there were fewer than lowest incarceration rate of any Chief and Council became less a half dozen such staff; by the end, northern Manitoba Aboriginal involved in family issues, and there were as many as four dozen, community. focused more on the broader including those working in the collective rights and interests of the school and at the nursing station. Conclusion First Nation. This transition was Although this growth was fuelled to The s were a defining aided by the negotiations, along a considerable extent by the moment for the Split Lake Cree. At with other First Nations in the devolution of program management the beginning of the decade, it north, to establish A, an responsibilities from the federal seemed to many that the way Indian child care agency providing government, it was fundamentally forward had become obscure, that specialized support, help and driven by the decisions of the people there was a real danger of losing not guidance to First Nation families and and Chief and Council to take on all only a known and loved children. responsibilities possible, and to environment as a consequence of Chief Norman Flett took a very structure NFA implementation hydroelectric development, but also active role in the Northern Flood activities with the maximum the precious, sustaining links with Committee in starting the successful possible local involvement. those who had gone before. The negotiation of the Article Even with all of the changes First Nation showed remarkable Agreement of the NFA regarding resulting from the growth and resilience and by the mid-s sewer and water services, over a increasing sophistication of the First there was already practical evidence period of three years. The Nation government, essential aspects that this was beginning to change. experience gained in building from of continuity could still be found. By the end of the decade, the scratch a major Cree institution, the All decisions of vital interest to the practical groundwork had been Northern Flood Capital First Nation continued to be debated successfully laid, based on the Reconstruction Authority, to fully in the general band meetings, decisions of the people to create a manage the construction, added new which were still very well attended. new and different basis for future understanding of the ways in which The respected role of the Elders self-sustenance, building on the a modern government could meet remained. Indeed, notwithstanding traditions, knowledge and the needs of the people. the pre-eminent role of the younger perspectives that had sustained the The global negotiations which leaders in meetings at the Northern Split Lake Cree in their tribal began with the goal of settling Flood Committee level, Elders were homelands for many generations. outstanding NFA obligations, frequently in attendance and their provided valuable lessons on how wise words of counsel and governments worked and the experience were highly valued. requirements for negotiating for
MV Joe Keeper provides ferry service between Split Lake and York Landing.
Community York boat built to represent Split Lake Cree at York Boat Days in Norway House and at other festivals.
Construction of the , sq. ft. Chief Sam Cook Mahmuwee Education Centre in Split Lake. Chapter 8
Community Renewal VEN THOUGH it would be Community Development Epremature to draw definitive Several important physical and Split Lake in the First Half conclusions about the experience of other community development of the 1990s the s, community renewal seems initiatives have been completed in to have been the main feature of life the last five years, building on the in Split Lake since . The First foundation laid in the s. A new Nation has made major strides in band office was constructed in . reasserting control over its A modern kindergarten to grade development, its lands and its school was opened in September waters. Split Lake Cree have been , allowing students to complete actively involved in managing their their high school education in the resources and further developing community. By water and their government administration. sewer services had been provided to They have also overseen the about % of the expanded extensive redevelopment of their community. To meet community reserve community. Rightful pride is power needs a direct transmission taken in the fact that all of this has line from Kelsey was completed in also contributed to a revival of , for the first time ensuring the traditional cultural pursuits, availability of reliable, unrestricted particularly among younger amounts of electrical energy. The members, as well as an increase in arena was finished in . Mail the consumption of domestic food.33 service increased to three times per
week. Figure on page shows Northern Flood people, guided Split Lake through the extent of development in the Agreement the negotiations between and community by . Implementation . Split Lake Cree are still carrying The global negotiations to The agreement provided on traditional pursuits despite the implement the NFA that began in additional financial compensation of ongoing effects of hydroelectric early , resulted in divisions $ million, making for a total development. Recent activities have among the member First Nations of implementation package worth more helped foster a revival of cultural the Northern Flood Committee, just than $ million, along with tens of practices throughout the at the time that a comprehensive thousands of acres of new reserve community; the sharing of country implementation framework had been land at Waskaiowaka Lake and foods is but one example. The negotiated. The details of this period Assean Lake, and titled lands spiritual aspect of Cree culture has are recounted in the Introduction to throughout the resource area. Just as assumed more significance. this study. Faced with the decision important, new institutional Although problems of contemporary of either abandoning years of work arrangements were created among society continue – the increase in and departing from the clear the parties, in terms of the diabetes is particularly disturbing – direction provided by the people, or management and use of Split Lake Split Lake Cree are better able to proceeding alone if necessary, Split Cree traditional lands, resources, and handle them, equipped as they are Lake Cree First Nation chose to waterways, as well as the enhanced with both Aboriginal values and proceed, and committed itself to environmental monitoring capability modern science and technology. continued negotiations. of the First Nation. Additional Indeed, the community appears These negotiations, carried out in details on the specific provisions of to be moving towards a way of life the face of what many assessed to be the Implementation Agreement are which is blending both traditional overwhelming odds, resulted in the provided in Appendix . The Split and modern practices and values. signing of the historic NFA Lake Cree are convinced that this Several examples illustrate this Implementation Agreement, on June agreement has been, and will trend. Resource harvesters still , amongst Split Lake Cree, continue to be, of central importance winter in cabins in the bush, but at Canada, Manitoba and Manitoba in the First Nation reclaiming its the same time they watch the NHL Hydro. Chief Norman Flett, ably rightful share of control over its playoffs on portable televisions supported throughout by the lands and waters, as well as enabling while they are there. Split Lake Cree Council, First Nation staff and the it to reaffirm its Aboriginal identity. youth are educated in a modern school, learning computer and other contemporary skills. At the same time they also express increasing interest in Split Lake Cree traditions and Aboriginal culture. Cree language is taught in the Chief Sam Cook Mahmuwee Education Centre, and field trips to traditional land use sites are common. Despite their taste for chips and cola, many young people are also eating more country foods.
Elder Joseph Morris assists in opening the new arena at Split Lake. The Implementation Agreement helped fund construction of the arena.
Figure : Extent of Split Lake Community Development in .
Hydroelectric Community Governance This agreement also provided the Development Effects The growth in the size and opportunity to formalize several of As in the s and s, sophistication of the First Nation the traditional forms of self- hydroelectric project impacts government that took place in the government. These include the continue to affect Split Lake Cree s, has continued as the nineties Elders’ Tribunal to resolve certain lands and waters and, through bio- unfold. Government staff now disputes, the autonomous financing physical linkages, their social, number about , the Tataskweyak of the peacekeepers, and the role of economic and cultural systems. Education Authority employs general band meetings in While the wounds inflicted by the people, and the Tataskweyak Trust, determining implementation residential school system and other responsible for the implementation objectives and expenditure negative aspects of change are of activities related to the priorities. beginning to heal, and while some agreement, has employees. In negative effects of modernization addition, relationships with the continue, the Hydro-related impacts federal and provincial governments and damages may never diminish. and with Manitoba Hydro, defined Nevertheless, Split Lake Cree are in contract as well as politically, are confident that they are better actively managed through multi- equipped than ever to deal with party structures created under the them. Implementation Agreement.
Today, Split Lake is a thriving community of nearly people.
Overseeing all of these activities, modern means of doing this through with strict accountability to the various new institutional and people, Chief and Council today operational arrangements, these are perform the legislative functions of a rooted in practices passed down much more complex government. through the generations. Even here traditions are maintained, The Split Lake community as bi-annual elections continue to continues to modernize and evolve return a Council which is broadly but traditional pursuits and respect representative of both the family for cultural practices and customs and age groups in the community. are not forgotten; they are growing, and are forming part of an exciting Conclusion new synthesis of the traditional and The Split Lake Cree have chosen the modern. One could fairly the path of blending the old and characterize the past decade in Split new in order to gain control of their Lake as a time of community Victor Spence manages Split Lake’s lives and destiny with confidence renaissance. Tataskweyak Environmental Agency. and determination. The people, Without him this report would not have been possible. faced with new challenges, are continuing, as their forefathers did, to exercise their inherent right to govern themselves, across a wide spectrum of governmental functions. While the First Nation is employing
Split Lake Elders and other members at the signing ceremony for the Split Lake Implementation Agreement.
Signing of the Split Lake Cree NFA Implementation Agreement in Split Lake on June , . From left to right: Hon. Thomas Siddon, Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development; Chief Norman Flett, Split Lake Cree First Nation; Hon. James Downey, Minister of Northern Affairs, Manitoba; Mr. John McCallum, Chairman, Manitoba Hydro-Electric Board.
Split Lake ‘New Core’ showing band office, Tataskweyak Trust office and security office.
Chief, Councillors and Elders cutting the ribbon at the opening of the new band office.
Table
SPLIT LAKE CREE FIRST NATION CHIEFS SINCE 1937
. norman flett
Split Lake peninsula in 1927 (above) and in 1990 (inset).
Since 1992, a joint board of Split Lake Cree and Manitoba appointees controls land use and manages the resources throughout the , sq.mile Split Lake Resource Management Area. Meeting of the Split Lake Resource Management Board at Recluse Lake on August , . From left to right: Bill Kennedy; Bryant Keeper (B); Loretta Clarke (B); Chief Norman Flett; Doug Barrett (B); Harold Smith; Samuel Garson (B-now deceased); Michael Garson (B); Don Cook (B); Eric Wilson (B); John Garson (B); Lazarus Kitchikeesick (B); Bernie Osiowy (B); and Anthony Mayham. The (B) denotes board member. Overlooking Wasakamew (Troy) Lake, one of many beautiful Split Lake area views.
Chapter 9
Concluding Summary NLY A PORTION of the long This report has been completed as Oand vibrant story of the one of several studies in the joint Split Lake Cree is presented in this study program of Split Lake Cree study. It concentrates on the and Manitoba Hydro that has been century, and attempts to identify underway since . It is also part and analyze the developments which of Phase One of a joint Post Project have changed forever the First Environmental Review of Nation’s environment and ancient hydroelectric project impacts which way of life. Undoubtedly, the most Split Lake Cree and Manitoba Hydro profound of these has been the are conducting. It should be read in impact of hydroelectric projects on conjunction with the other Phase the lands and waters, as well as on One reports dealing with the Split Lake Cree cultural, social, and history, extent and impacts of hydro spiritual traditions. development in the Split Lake resource area and with environmental impacts of such development on the Split Lake Cree.
The ancestors of the Split Lake Split Lake Elders say that by the These changes were compounded Cree have lived in what is now s people were adapting. They by the drastic manipulation of the northern Manitoba for generations. were getting used to the new waterways that occurred in the Here they hunted, trapped, and realities and beginning to accept the s with the Lake Winnipeg fished, relying on the often modernization that could not be Regulation – Churchill River abundant wealth that Mother Nature avoided. However, just as the Diversion project, and the related provided to sustain them and to give community was getting used to construction of major generating meaning to their lives. Although the these changes, the first signs stations. The effects of Kelsey were world was changing, their appeared of what was to be the most tame by comparison. The lands and forefathers adapted within the devastating change of all. With the waters that Split Lake Cree had context of their own culture and, operation of the Kelsey dam and relied on since time immemorial, that well into the first half of the generating station, Split Lake Cree formed the very centre of their century, continued to find their got a first taste of what was to them identity as Cree people, were livelihood and their identity from the totally inconceivable – dramatic uncompromisingly altered by an the lands and waters in their vast changes to the nature of their lands outside force over which they had resource area. A proud, self-reliant and waters such as had never before no control. People became people, they still had little contact been known. While they were just disoriented as they tried to grasp with the outside world and starting to take in the magnitude of what was happening to them and continued to rely on their own what was happening to their sacred come to terms with an uncertain strength and social cohesion. land, they also had to begin dealing future. However, by the s, the with the social consequences of Joining together with other outside world was beginning to other outside influences. The impacted First Nations in the intrude into the lives of the Split development of Thompson as a Northern Flood Committee, Split Lake Cree, challenging their regional centre, the coming of Lake Cree found themselves traditional ways and values. This electricity, television, modern frustrated in their efforts to have the trend continued with increasing appliances, and perhaps more Northern Flood Agreement persistence, such that by the s significantly, the completion of an implemented. Just as they had the changes it brought could no all-weather road to Thompson – all trusted the Crown when they signed longer be ignored. The registered of these had destabilizing effects on their treaty at the beginning of the trapline system, residential schools, the community. century, so they had believed the the Hudson Bay railway, family promises that, through the Northern allowance – all of these had an Flood Agreement, they would at impact on the way people lived. least be compensated for the They affected the Cree culture in devastation they had suffered. Yet, various and complex ways, all of as the s and s wore on, they which reduced the traditional seemed to be getting nowhere and reliance on and use of the lands and the community, weakened by the waters. People no longer harvested loss of its traditional ways, faced resources as extensively as they had ever deepening social problems. in the past, some of the younger generation did not have the opportunity to learn the traditional skills, and more and more people began to live in one central location year-round at Split Lake. Social impacts did not occur immediately, but the stage was being set for future problems.
The Kelsey generating station on the Nelson River at Split Lake was the first of four generating stations in the Split Lake resource area.
Finally, as the s progressed, Numerous influences have This study has documented some the First Nation managed to reassert affected and changed the lives of the of the key changes that have control of its destiny. Its decision to Split Lake Cree in the century. occurred in Split Lake Cree resource conclude the global Northern Flood While hydroelectric development harvesting activities, particularly as Agreement negotiations, by itself if has had the most dramatic impact, it they have been impacted by the necessary, signalled the beginning of must be seen in relation to other hydroelectric projects. Many of the a new era. In June , Split Lake forces which have also changed other effects of hydroelectric Cree First Nation finally concluded forever the old way of life. Other development are unseen and the NFA Implementation Agreement agents of change, like residential impossible to measure. They can be with Canada, Manitoba, and school and family allowance, had direct or indirect but are, Manitoba Hydro to compensate for major but transitory and manageable nonetheless, just as real. The the losses it had suffered. The effects. Features of modernization damages to Split Lake Cree cultural, arrangements entered into with the like formal education, electric social, and spiritual identity have other three parties under the terms appliances, and water and sewer been the most disturbing, touching of the agreement will lead to both systems became easily blended with the very core of their being. It will the physical renewal of the traditional values. However, be the task of Phase Three of the community at Split Lake and shared hydroelectric impacts, some of Manitoba Hydro-Split Lake joint control by the First Nation of which were permanent, were Post Project Environmental Review development throughout its profound and directly contrary to to establish an environmental resource area. those values. baseline from which to measure The proud Split Lake Cree have future potential hydroelectric re-established the foundation for impacts. their development, combining the best of their traditional ways and values with the benefits of the modern world.
Appendix 1 harvesting patterns. Other external organization of the community factors, such as greater competition itself.34 Wildlife Harvesting for game and fish from outside the In short, new indicators and data Impacts region resulting from increased road of relevance to Split Lake Cree are and rail access, and from inside the required. region in the form of growing Given this reality, the graphs populations in places like Gillam and included in this appendix cannot Thompson, have also had an effect. possibly provide an accurate or Hydro facilities, transmission line comprehensive portrayal of the construction and related activities, profound and far-reaching impacts like the construction of PR , on Split Lake Cree harvesting construction roads, trails, and pursuits that have resulted from stream crossings have opened up the these historical developments. resource area for greater Therefore, they should be The harvesting of wildlife for exploitation. interpreted with caution and at best sustenance and commercial purposes By far, the most significant factor can only illustrate trends with has continued throughout the of change, however, has been the respect to a limited number of recorded history of Split Lake Cree hydroelectric development which indicators. First Nation. Harvesting traditions has permanently altered the lands are still maintained and are an and waters. The range of impacts Subsistence Harvesting essential ingredient of members’ from the dams and generating Harvesting for food over the identity as Cree people. Spring and stations, the multitude of resource area has been, and fall hunts are an annual rite binding transmission lines, and the water continues to be, a cornerstone of the the community together. Country diversion and regulation schemes, is Split Lake Cree way of life. Informal foods are a staple of the diet and still described in detail in previous surveys of Elders and other comprise much the same animals chapters. It is very clear that since knowledgeable people indicate that that the forefathers of Split Lake , when the Kelsey generating domestic food consumption, while Cree depended upon - moose, station began operating, these varying, has comprised much of the beaver, muskrat, whitefish, pickerel, hydroelectric developments have diet in the latter half of this century. waterfowl, including ducks and had profound and continuous In the s, it comprised about geese, and small animals like rabbits negative effects upon the wildlife % of all meals eaten. This declined and chickens. Wild berry crops like harvesting pursuits of the Split Lake to % in the s, reaching a low gooseberries are consumed, and gull Cree and other Aboriginal people in of % in the s. As the Split and duck eggs are a treasured the region. Lake Cree have begun to heal and delicacy. It is very difficult, however, to again value the Aboriginal way of However, many factors of scientifically measure the relative life, domestic food consumption has change, in different ways and at impacts of any one of these factors of started to increase, reaching about different times, have affected the change, including hydroelectric % of all meals in the first half of amount and the success of wildlife development. Harvesting data either the s. harvesting activities. These factors does not exist, is not reliable, or fails Many influences have been have complex and cumulative to accurately portray the complete responsible for this variation in effects. They include natural forces range of impacts of any one factor. country food consumption. Split such as wildlife population cycles, This last deficiency is particularly Lake Cree acknowledge that these migration patterns, disease, and critical. have, of course, included the habitat destruction/creation by fire. Usher and Weinstein (), note: availability of store-bought food, particularly in the early s when Production factors such as fur and Although development projects the Bay store was actively fish prices, the influence of may lead to certain predictable encouraging people to eat red meat. marketing agents, and distance from physical, biological and However, the effects of markets also play a part. In addition, institutional changes, how these hydroelectric development have ‘modernizing’ influences, like are perceived and experienced been the primary negative influence residential schools, access to locally cannot be predicted without on country food consumption. The commercial facilities, and reliance on reference to the historical flooding, destruction of wildlife and other forms of income, have affected experience, culture and social Total Seasons Years Fished Avg. Avg. Avg. LAKE R NR Fished S W Duration Quota Weight $ Value Men On-System Split X – 28 28 1 1954-88 45,000 21,834 16,239 14 Stephens X – 5 4 2 1979-84 20,000 2,325 4,843 2 Billard – X 7 – 7 1966-76 7,000 7,976 3,501 3 Fidler – X 17 7 10 1959-87 11,000 7,733 3,266 4 Total 31 29 12 1954-88 83,000 26,138 17,449 16 Off-System Assean X X 9 9 – 1965-88 5,000 13,611 6,025 5 Atkinson – X 22 13 12 1958-87 23,000 13,839 7,903 4 Buckland – X 8 8 1 1967-88 9,000 9,485 4,539 2 Butnau X – 3 – 3 1968-83 2,000 1,545 180 1 Caldwell – X 3 2 1 1971-83 11,000 3,235 1,789 2 Campbell – X 3 2 1 1965-71 11,000 8,535 1,260 3 Christie – X 4 3 1 1965-72 7,000 2,598 786 4 Dafoe – X 19 8 11 1958-88 14,000 7,659 4,385 3 Holmes – X 10 8 2 1961-73 20,000 17,636 4,553 4 Kiask – X 4 2 2 1963-72 5,000 3,206 594 3 Moose Nose – X 10 10 – 1968-87 5,000 5,862 3,235 1 Myre – X 2 – 2 1961-63 2,000 1,907 529 3 Settee – X 8 3 5 1957-69 5,000 4,234 1,297 3 War – X 24 11 14 1950-86 2,000 2,621 1,524 2 Waskaiowaka X X 11 10 6 1954 – 73 23,000 17,454 4,158 8 Total 34 23 25 1950 – 88 144,000 36,444 15,154 13 R = resident; NR = non-resident S = summer; W = winter Source: Usher and Weinstein ()
Table : Commercial Fishing Use, Quota and Production: Split Lake Resource Area, by Lake. its habitat, and enormous obstacles Commercial Fishing sauger comprise most of the catch, caused by reduced access to some Most of the commercial fishing in with whitefish being the most traditional harvesting areas, have all the resource area dates from the late plentiful. taken their toll. In addition to the s. The commercial fishery had A review of the literature reveals general impacts, the flooding in trouble getting started due to delays little detailed information on the and severely curtailed seasonal in the construction of the fish plant. history of the Split Lake fishery, harvesting activities. Historically, community residents particularly those factors which It is practically impossible, have fished mostly in Split Lake, have influenced production, however, to ascertain or quantify which on average has produced the participation and value levels. with any accuracy the impacts of largest catches of any lake in the Conservation officer reports between any one of these factors on domestic resource area. Almost all of the off- and acknowledge the food gathering. The necessary data system lakes are fished by non-Split fishery but offer little analysis or are either non-existent, as in the case Lake residents. Table 2 (above) data concerning this harvesting of small game and waterfowl shows historical commercial fishing activity, unlike trapping which statistics, or highly suspect because use, quota and production by lake receives far greater attention. of the lack of scientific rigour in for the Split Lake resource area. The Split Lake has been affected by data-gathering methods.35 Split Lake commercial fishery has financial factors which have affected been mainly a summer operation. the entire northern Manitoba Whitefish, pickerel, jackfish, and commercial fish harvest. However,
Figure : Split Lake Fish Harvests – ⁄ to ⁄. the extent to which this is a introduced in 37 but the nature linked to higher mercury levels. The consideration is not clear. More of the effect of this upon the First final report of the Federal thorough research, analysis, and Nation is not well understood. Ecological Monitoring Program consultation with Split Lake Another general issue mentioned conducted by Environment Canada fishermen would be required to in the literature is parasitic and the Department of Fisheries and determine how certain variables infestation of whitefish,38 but, Oceans, noted that mercury levels in common to the northern fishery as a unlike other fisheries, the Split Lake jackfish and pickerel were whole have impacted upon the commercial fishery has been able to uncharacteristically high for all lakes fishery at Split Lake. maintain its status as a lake with including unflooded lakes in the The establishment of the export quality whitefish. program study area. It was Freshwater Fish Marketing Mercury contamination, speculated by the Federal Ecological Corporation in as the sole particularly in jackfish and pickerel, Monitoring Program that the source purchaser/marketer of fish in has also affected northern fish of the fish mercury in Split Lake Manitoba has been cited as a key harvesting. For example, commercial may be due to the earlier flooding of factor in the decline of the northern quotas were not met in ⁄, the Kelsey forebay on the upper fishery after .36 However, when the Split Lake fishery was Nelson in the s.39 production, participation and value closed early because of a concern Figure shows level of catch, levels for the Split Lake fishery have over potential mercury value and participation for the Split generally increased since . The contamination of fish. Over the next Lake fishery between the mid-s impact of the Freshwater Fish two years, the lake was closed all and early s. It indicates that all Marketing Corporation on the Split year for the same reason. It was also three variables, while fluctuating, Lake fishery is not known. closed in ⁄ and ⁄, but have generally increased. Transportation costs have been for all species on these occasions. Existing data does not present a noted as one of the key problems In most cases the mercury is full picture of the effects of agents of affecting northern fisheries. naturally occurring, but change upon the commercial fishery, Provincial transport subsidies were hydroelectric development has been in particular the impacts of
Figure : Split Lake Registered Trapline Zone: Value of Furs ⁄ Number of Trappers–⁄ to ⁄. hydroelectric development. Trapping After reaching high levels of According to Split Lake fishermen, The Split Lake trapping block, economic value in the s, the cost of fishing has increased created during the early s when trapping declined in the s and because of the additional effort and the provincial registered trapline s primarily because of low fur expense required as a result of system was established in northern prices for beaver. Trapping returns debris damaging boats, motors and Manitoba, consists of active represented a substantially reduced nets, as well as the increased traplines covering about , portion of annual income. A travelling distances required. These square miles. These traplines are recovery in the mid-s and early increased costs have reduced the registered to residents not only from s is reflected in the Split Lake financial return for the fishermen. Split Lake but also from Gillam, harvesting data. This was likely Ramsey and Patalas () note Ilford, Bird and York Landing. because of higher prices for long- that the pickerel catch has decreased Historically, many factors have haired species such as lynx. In by % since , while sauger has affected fur harvesting, and the recent years, trapping has declined increased by an unspecified amount. literature contains much useful in value and, not surprisingly, This may be due to the sediment information in this regard. Although participation, province-wide. This build-up at the mouth of the many of the sources refer to also appears to be the case in the Burntwood outlet into Split Lake northern trapping in general, some Split Lake trapping block. caused by the Churchill River factors would undoubtedly have Diversion, but further investigation impacted upon the Split Lake Cree is required.40 fur harvest, although the extent of the impact is not clear. These factors include furbearer population and disease, fires, bad weather, alternative sources of income including wage employment, and most importantly, fur prices.
Trapping, requiring intensive vouchers and cash, around . Conclusion effort, has never generated a high Overall, the commercial value of Wildlife harvesting, in both the financial return. Reliance on fur harvested on the Split Lake commercial and domestic sectors, alternative sources of income has registered trapline has generally continues to be actively pursued by been common. For example, one of increased since the early s. The the Split Lake Cree. Numerous the factors which precipitated the number of trappers has also changing conditions have affected trapping slump in the s, and increased as Figure shows. Usher the extent and success of these helped foster a decline in trapping as and Weinstein () conclude that activities. However, as far as Split a family activity, was the the probable reasons for this were Lake Cree First Nation is concerned, introduction after World War Two the rapid increase in fur prices in the it is Manitoba Hydro’s projects that of federal relief for Indian people in late s, as well as the incentive have affected these activities most Canada. By , this was being paid provided by Manitoba Hydro’s negatively. The effects are hard to in cash, in place of payments in kind Trapline Compensation Program determine scientifically because of such as food vouchers.41 from to .45 However, both the limitations of available data, in Federal income maintenance value and participation variables particular the lack of indicators to support was another monetary have been subject to wide measure real, but as yet unassessed, source which deterred trappers from fluctuations since the s. Data impacts. Given the continuing and fur harvesting. In particular, family also show that the beaver and even increasing use of wildlife and allowance, which was introduced muskrat harvest is not as abundant fish resources by Split Lake Cree, nationally in ,42 has been cited as it once was and other species like and the probability of future as a key factor that has adversely marten have assumed more impacting hydroelectric projects, a affected Aboriginal trapping importance. major challenge for both the Split participation in Manitoba: However, the existing data do Lake Cree and Manitoba Hydro will not capture the full impact that The institution of the Family be to develop baseline information changed conditions have had on the Allowance system since the war, which will allow for the monitoring trapping activities of Split Lake with its requirement of regular of existing impacts and for the Cree. For example, trappers have school attendance, has all but discernment of anticipated impacts incurred increased costs and eliminated family participation in from future development. expenses because of travel trapping.43 The rise in school attendance by difficulties caused by hydroelectric young Manitoba Aboriginals, either development, particularly slush ice. at reserve day schools or in These additional costs have to be residential schools off-reserve, considered in any determination of resulted in young people not the value of the fur to the trapper. acquiring the skills and experience Unfortunately, such data are not required for trapping, which mainly available. takes place in the fall and winter. To Additionally, as Usher and counter this loss Split Lake Cree Weinstein point out, existing fur made an effort to provide a value records do not give a reliable community trapline where young indication of the real effects people could learn trapping skills. hydroelectric development has had It is important to note that the on actual harvests or on the provision of relief and other federal population of any particular species financial assistance was not the same of furbearer, as they combine all across Canada during the post- harvest and price changes. Nor do war period. It varied from region to the records measure other factors region, partly at the discretion of which affect harvesting levels, such Chiefs and Councils and, in as customary use arrangements and particular, of the local Indian forest fires. They also note potential inaccuracies in the existing Agent.44 Split Lake Elders report 46 that the community began receiving numbers. family allowance in the mid-s, and social assistance, in the form of Appendix 2 Overview 1975 to 1992 Various dimensions of the Beginning in , Manitoba Summary of Northern substantive provisions and Hydro began to institute Flood Agreement Benefits implementation process of the compensatory and remedial Northern Flood Agreement (NFA) measures to offset the adverse have been discussed throughout this impacts of its hydroelectric study. Even though any development projects on the Split categorization of these matters may Lake Cree. The informal basis of well be inadequate, there is a these early payments was replaced reasonably sensible division that can with a contractual arrangement in be made by looking both at the ⁄, the Northern Flood experience related to the original Agreement. Northern Flood Agreement, dating The NFA obliged Manitoba between when Manitoba Hydro, Canada and Manitoba to take Hydro first made compensation a broad range of actions, in the form payments and , and at the of remedial, compensatory and experience since the NFA developmental measures, in return Implementation Agreement. The for the use of Cree reserve lands for other sections of this paper have the Manitoba Hydro projects, and addressed in some detail the process for the damages expected to be related to negotiating the two caused to First Nation rights and agreements. The following is a brief interests, including those of the Split summary of the substantive terms of Lake Cree. Entered into by the both agreements, including the governments and Manitoba Hydro payments made. as a result of pressure from the First Nations of the Northern Flood Committee, the NFA promised that appropriate actions would be taken by these parties to deal with any concerns of the signatory First Nations that might arise and which were attributable to the projects. The agreement was couched in quite broad language leaving very significant room for differences of interpretation. Binding arbitration provisions were written into the NFA to deal with any disputes which might arise. The NFA arbitrator was given very broad plenary power to fashion equitable remedies leaving no party worse off than if the projects had not been built. Perhaps not surprisingly in retrospect, given the matters at issue and the potential financial liability of Hydro and the governments, the agreement proved to be incapable of effective implementation. Arbitration cases proliferated to the point that even the extensive powers of the arbitrator could not hope to resolve the many matters in dispute. Without trying to attribute • In , in a six year settlement of 1992 Agreement responsibility for this impasse, it Claim , Manitoba Hydro, with On June , , Split Lake Cree needs to be pointed out that the NFA the support of Manitoba, First Nation, Manitoba Hydro, itself actually made provision for all provided $239,325.77 as trapping Manitoba and Canada signed the of the matters about which Split compensation retroactive to , Split Lake NFA Implementation Lake Cree and the other First Nations and an additional , to Agreement, which provided for an were concerned. At no time did Split fund a trapping development agreed implementation of all terms Lake Cree, or the Northern Flood program between and . of the original NFA, and the Committee on its behalf, seek more This included a capital settlement of outstanding arbitration extensive measures than were component, grubstake funding, claims. contained in the original agreement. equipment assistance, access The financial terms of the Nonetheless, by the late s all of improvement and management agreement provided that an the parties to the NFA were costs. Manitoba Hydro also spent additional total of ,, convinced that a new , to clear trails and would be paid by Canada, Manitoba comprehensive negotiation was in improve access in the Split Lake and Manitoba Hydro. Hydro’s share order to arrive at mutually agreed resource area. of the compensation was terms for its implementation. • As a partial settlement of Claim ,, in bonds issued at From up to the time that the 97, Manitoba Hydro funded a yearly intervals between and Split Lake Cree NFA Implementation fisheries development program , advance payments of Agreement was signed in June , costing ,.. This was ,, in cash, and ,, each of the other parties had paid comprised of capital requirements in cash shared with Manitoba. significant money to Split Lake Cree, and subsidies for costs incurred Manitoba contributed ,, in as is set out in the financial schedule as a result of damage to addition to the payment shared with to the agreement. Specifically, equipment and nets, caused by Hydro. Canada agreed to make Canada had spent ,, debris. annual payments between and inclusive of the Article water and • Manitoba Hydro also spent totalling ,,. sewer initiative; Manitoba had ,. for remedial works at The First Nation settled contributed and ,,; Split Lake, mainly for clearing ,, in various accounts of Manitoba Hydro some ,,; debris and portage the Tataskweyak Trust, which is for total payments of ,,. improvements. held for the benefit of, and managed by, the Split Lake Cree. Of this total, • Between and , Manitoba Mitigation Programs almost ,, was allocated for Hydro spent ,. on The following are some of the immediate development measures compensation to individuals for main compensation and remedial over the first several years following damages to motors, docks and measures included in the Manitoba the signing of the agreement. The other property losses, and in a Hydro payments: remainder of the funds, a total of settlement for a drowning. • The to trapline more than ,,, will be held compensation program helped as continuing capital of the Trust, Split Lake Cree trappers to attain divided into accounts for the pre-diversion trapping returns by following purposes, in the following providing cash payments, as well amounts: as covering incidental expenses • Implementation ,, for cabin construction and • Environmental transportation improvements. Monitoring ,, According to Manitoba Hydro, • Resource Compensation ,, the program covered traplines, • Remedial Works ,, with trappers participating, • Economic and with total payments between Social Development ,, and of ,..
The new reserve and titled lands • formal recognition of the Split • arrangements for the under the agreement provide a Lake resource area, comprising comprehensive implementation of significant amount of land located at almost 7% of the total area of the the agreement, defining the lead strategic locations within the Split province, by Manitoba and Split Split Lake Cree responsibility and Lake resource area. The entitlement Lake Cree, and establishment of a accountability standards to to new reserve land, which Resource Management Board to members, and establishing the amounted to , acres under the undertake joint planning and ongoing four party Executive original NFA, was increased to about management of all lands and Implementation Committee; , acres, consisting of two resources in the resource area; • arrangements for dealing with blocks, the larger along Assean • provisions for the establishment those Indian moneys paid under Lake, contiguous to the existing of a four party Environmental the agreement for the taking and reserve, and a much smaller block at Monitoring Committee, and use of reserve lands, including Waskaiowaka Lake. The titled lands, definition of roles with regard to the commitment by Canada to which are held by the Split Lake continuing cooperative pass legislation to ensure that Cree Land Corporation on behalf of monitoring of effects of the such moneys would be under the the First Nation, consist of a total of Hydro project, including the control of the Tataskweyak Trust , acres of land located in establishment of the Tataskweyak rather than Canada; separate parcels on different Environmental Monitoring • provisions governing assured water bodies within the Split Lake Agency; continuing access by Split Lake resource area. The total acreage of • economic and social development Cree to normal program funding new reserve and titled lands measures, including personal from Canada and Manitoba; amounts to about , acres of compensation arrangements, and • arrangements to assure additional lands owned and a definition of responsibilities controlled by the Split Lake Cree continuing good faith efforts by providing the lead roles to Split Split Lake Cree and Manitoba First Nation. Lake Cree through, among other In addition to the financial and Hydro, with the cooperation of vehicles, the Tataskweyak Canada and Manitoba, to provide land provisions, the page long Development Corporation; access to Split Lake Cree members NFA Implementation Agreement contained a variety of • resource compensation and businesses with regard to other provisions to fully implement arrangements for commercial and future project employment, with domestic resource harvesters, agreement that if disputes arise the terms of the NFA. These include: including the establishment of an such disputes will be addressed • the definition of the post project Elders’ Tribunal to determine under the contractual provisions water regime on all hydro project appropriate compensation for of the NFA; influenced waterways in the Split adverse effects; Lake resource area, setting • arrangements between Split Lake standards for monitoring and • provision for the financing of Cree and Manitoba Hydro to deviations, processes to deal with necessary remedial works and enable the future establishment of future deviations, and joint measures, and the operation and a Split Lake Cree electrical distribution company, if feasible; planning with regard to possible maintenance costs related to such Hydro development of Birthday works; and Gull rapids including an environmental review of the effects of existing development;
• releases and indemnities among Even though the NFA the parties, with respect to the Implementation Agreement is in its original NFA provisions and infancy compared to its total life, outstanding arbitration claims, which will last as long as the Hydro and definition of the continuing project operates, all parties to the Manitoba Hydro liabilities under agreement are pleased with the the terms of the NFA for: implementation efforts to date. a) personal injury and death There have not yet been any caused by the project, disputes among any of the parties b) deviations from the post regarding the meaning of its project water regime caused by provisions and attendant the project, obligations. A further indication of c) unknown and unforeseen its perceived success as a means to adverse effects caused by the fully implement the ⁄ NFA is project, that all of the other four NFA First d) disabilities, injury or death Nations have either signed or are in resulting from eating mercury the process of negotiating similar contaminated foods, and agreements with Manitoba Hydro, e) future obligations of Manitoba Canada and Manitoba. Hydro related to project employment; • mechanisms for settling any future disputes among the parties or within Split Lake Cree First Nation related to the agreement.
Endnotes Split Lake Cree Elders and Adults interviews, Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is based translated into English from Cree, March . on Split Lake Cree Elders and Adults interviews. Also see Tessier, pp. and S. L. J. I. Keeper, Executive Director, NFC, The Northern , , -; Flood Agreement as an Instrument for Social and Hill, Split Lake Cree Traditional Land Use Mapping Economic Equity, Presentation to a Conference on the Project, interview with Split Lake Cree Elders, February and Cowley. Environment, Montreal, November . , ; Hilderman, Witty, p. Information in this section is substantially from . Historical Resources Branch, Manitoba Department of Ibid. Culture, Heritage and Recreation, , The Treaty No. , pp. -. Oldtimers: First Peoples of the Land of the North Wind, W. C. Morton, Manitoba: A History, University of pp. , and ; and S. L. Hill, Fox Lake First Toronto Press, , p. . Nation Land Use and Occupancy: Living Memory of the Dr. M. Clearsky, physician, Split Lake nursing Fox Lake Cree, Practicum Submitted in Partial station. June . Personal communication. Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Natural Resource Management, University G. Buckingham, Thompson: A City and Its People, p. of Manitoba, April , pp. -. , . Morton, p. Except where noted, information in this section is . from Hilderman, Witty, Crosby, Hanna and Statistics Canada, Census. Associates, Split Lake Community Plan, March , Hilderman, Witty, p. . p. ; Hill, pp. -; Manitoba Keewatinowi Constitution Act, , - George V (Imp.) c. . Okimakanak Inc., Keewatinook Okimowin: Elders and Adults interviews; Tessier, pp. -; Mechanisms and Solutions, A Presentation to the Cowley. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, November Underwood, McLellan and Associates Limited, , pp. and ; E. Ross, Beyond the River and the Community Study for Split Lake Indian Reserve, Bay, University of Toronto Press, , Map ; G. , Friesen, The Canadian Prairies: A History, University p. . Based upon population of , using a growth rate of % per decade. of Toronto Press, , pp. -. The history of hydroelectric development in this and J. E. Foster, The Home Guard Cree and the Hudson’s Bay Company: The First Hundred Years, Native subsequent paragraphs in this subsection are derived from G. Cowie, Hydroelectric Development in Northern People Native Lands, Carleton University Press, . Manitoba: A Critical Analysis, A Major Paper Information in this section is from Hilderman, Witty, Submitted to the Faculty of Environmental Studies in p. ; D. S. Tessier, A Social and Cultural Study of Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Split Lake, Manitoba, With a Special Emphasis on of Master of Environmental Studies, York University, Education, , pp. -; Ross, pp. and ; , p. ; Elders and Adults interviews; and Hill, pp. and from Mrs. Rev. G. Cowley, -; . Manitoba Hydro, History and First Order Effects of History of Split Lake Mission, reprinted, Spring . Manitoba Hydro Projects in the Split Lake Cree Study Parts of this section dealing with the background to Area, prepared for Split Lake Cree - Manitoba Hydro Treaty No. are from Hilderman, Witty, pp. , Joint Study Group, . and ; the paragraphs dealing with the terms of the Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is based treaty are from Indian and Northern Affairs, Treaty on Elders and Adults Interviews; Manitoba Hydro, No. Between Her Majesty the Queen and the History and First Order Effects; Cowie, pp. -, . Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Tribes of Indians at Underwood, McLellan and Associates, p. Berens River and Norway House with Adhesions, , . Queens Printer, pp. -. Morton, pp. , , , . Tessier, p. 164. Buckingham, p. . Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is based on Split Lake Cree Elders and Adults interviews; and Manitoba Hydro, History and First Order Effects.
Reserve population is from Hilderman, Witty, p. . Ibid., pp. -. Commission of Inquiry into Manitoba Hydro, Final Ibid., pp. -. Report, December , p. . Environment Canada and Department of Fisheries Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is based and Oceans, Federal Ecological Monitoring Program, on Elders and Adults interviews. Final Report, Volume , Chapter , , p. . For example, see Hilderman, Witty, p. . D. Ramsey and J. Patalas, Impact of the LWR and Information on the impact of these floods is from CRD on Fish Populations in the Rat-Burntwood and Split Lake Cree Negotiating Team, Adverse Effects Nelson River Systems, prepared by Agassiz North Related to Summer and Fall Floods on Split Lake, Associates Ltd. for the Manitoba Department of November . Natural Resources, July , pp. -. Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is based N. B. Hawthorn, A Survey of the Contemporary on Elders and Adults interviews. Indians of Canada, prepared for the Department of Citizenship and Immigration, p. Usher and Weinstein, Towards Assessing the Effects , . of Lake Winnipeg Regulation and Churchill River Ibid., p. . Diversion on Resource Harvesting in Native S. Jamieson and H. Hawthorn, The Role of Native Communities in Northern Manitoba, prepared for the People in Economic Development in Northern Federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans, , Manitoba, -, prepared for Committee on p. . Northern Manitoba’s Economic Future, , p. . Ibid, pp. -. Hawthorn, p. . D. J. Green and A. J. Derkson, The Past, Present and Usher and Weinstein, p. . Projected Demands on Manitoba’s Fresh Water Fish Ibid., pp. and . Resources, prepared for the Department of Natural Resources Fisheries Branch, , p. .
Bibliography Beardy, A. . File of correspondence between Hill, Stewart Lloyd. April . Fox Lake First Nation Manitoba Hydro and Split Lake/NFC representatives Land Use and Occupancy: Living Memory of the Fox re: Birthday/Gull Hydro Development. Lake Cree. Practicum submitted in partial fulfillment Buckingham, G. . Thompson, A City and Its People. of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Clearsky, Dr. M., physician Split Lake nursing station. Natural Resources Management, Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba. June . Personal communication. Hill, Steward Lloyd. February . Commission of Inquiry into Manitoba Hydro. Final , Split Lake Cree Traditional Land Use Mapping Project. Interview with Report. (Tritschler Inquiry). December . Split Lake Cree Elders. Constitution Act. , - George V (Imp) c, 26. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. . Community Cowie, G. . Hydro Electric Development in Northern Profiles - War Lake, York Factory and Fox Lake. Manitoba: A Cultural Analysis. A major paper submitted to the Faculty of Environmental Studies in Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. . First Nations partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Community Profiles, Manitoba. of Master of Environmental Studies. York University, InterGroup Consultants Ltd. December . Limestone Ontario. Household Survey: . Prepared for Manitoba Hydro. Cowley, Mrs. Rev. George. , reprinted Spring . History of Split Lake Mission. Unknown periodical. Jamieson, S., and Hawthorn, H. . The Role of Native People in Economic Development in Northern Enns, Richard. . A Bibliography of Northern . Prepared for Committee on Manitoba. University of Manitoba Press. Manitoba, - Manitoba’s Economic Future. Environment Canada and Department of Fisheries and Keeper, J. I., Executive Director, Northern Flood Oceans. . Federal Ecological Monitoring Program. Committee. November The Northern Flood Final Report, Volume . . Agreement as an Instrument for Social and Economic Fisheries and Oceans. Commercial Fish Harvests, ⁄ Equity. Presentation to Conference on the - ⁄. Environment. Montreal. Foster, J. E. . The Home Guard Cree and the Hudson Knowles, J. A. . Socio-Economic Analysis and Bay Company: The First Hundred Years, Native People Projections for Gillam, Bird and Sundance. Prepared Native Lands. Carleton University Press. for the Polar Gas Project for Underwood McLellan Friesen, G. . The Canadian Prairies: A History. and Associates Ltd. University of Toronto Press. Manitoba. . Manitoba, -. Committee on Godard, Gil. April, . Manitoba Hydro, Liaison Manitoba’s Economic Future. Officer. Information re: development of Gillam. Manitoba Department of Culture, Heritage and Personal communication. Recreation. . The Old Timers: First Peoples of the Green, D. J. and Derkson, A. J. . The Past, Present Land of the North Wind. and Projected Demands on Manitoba’s Fresh Water Manitoba Department of Natural Resources. Commercial Fish Resources. Prepared for Department of Natural Fish Harvesting Data, ⁄ – ⁄. Resources, Fisheries Branch. Manitoba Department of Natural Resources. Commercial Hawthorn, N. B. . A Survey of the Contemporary Fur Harvesting Data, ⁄ – ⁄. Indians of Canada, Part . Prepared for Department of Citizenship and Immigration. Manitoba Department of Natural Resources. Conservation Officer Reports, –. Hilderman, Witty, Crosby, Hanna and Associates. Manitoba Department of Northern Affairs. (est.). March . Split Lake Community Plan. Prepared for the Split Lake Indian Band. Community Profiles: Ilford, Split Lake. Hilderman, Witty, Crosby, Hanna and Associates. Manitoba Department of Northern Affairs. . Community Reports. Ilford. March . York Factory: Land Entitlement and Land Exchange Study. Prepared for the York Factory Indian Manitoba Department of Northern Affairs. . Band. Community Profiles.
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Split Lake Cree Land Use Calendar – Natural Resources Secretariat
Split Lake Registered Trapline Zone