I L L U S T R A T E D E N C Y C L O P E D I A B I O L O G Y 7 5 1 6 1 7 3 5 3 8 1 2 4 3 7 1 1 8 0 7 9 9 1 N 8 B 7 S I 9 7 1 . 15) ( 15) ( EE he edible T primary root. LL art of a carrot . p its II s i sap FF TT Xylem and phloem tissues CC d AA The tissueplants in vascular he word photosynthesis means he deepest living plant root ever found Xylem and phloem cells in a leaf that FF T 65-80% of a plant is made up of water. T The largest simple leaf Some species of e cm per day, making cm per day, ent 60 m below ground. 1 making with light”. hem the world’s fastest- bamboo, grow up to 9 # “ # # w # ever found was 3 m long and nearly 2 m wide. It belonged to an arum plant in Malaysia. # t growing plants. hat carry water, and minerals and sugars t Veins support its structure and transport water and nutrientsits cells. to all of Xylem that carries water and dissolved minerals from a plant’s roots to the rest of the Vascular tissue Vascular t dissolved vascular plants in it, around plant. This liquid is called s i l simple leaf is the A y phototropism y l g geotropism l The controlled release of o a l modified leaf used by climbing The growth or slight movement thick, underground stem or root A A c i o lose-up photograph of guard cells surrounding a eason. Potatoes are a type of stem tuber. stoma on the underside of a leaf. stoma on the underside of a leaf. Tendril C growth of a plant in response to gravity. Tuber that stores food for nextthe growing s plants to wrap around objects for support. Transpiration water as vapour through a plant’s stoma. Loss of water in the leaves creates suction, which draws up water from the roots. This water carries nutrients absorbed by the of the plant. roots around the rest Tropism of a plant in response to a change in its environment. For example, is the movementplant towards of a or away from light and i t n b that Vein e 15) . o which ( i , f b t tiny hole on the s A o a lateral roots a part of a vascular plant primary root ff n h s leaf not divided into leaflets. A horizontal stem that grows Fine growths at the tip of each o m A new a plant. growth on part of Chloroplast p a i A The long, sti that supports flowers, fruits its leaves, The part of a vascular plant l Stoma r 15) t compound AYERS AYERS OF A LEAF e layer Epidermis ( or cones. It contains tissues that carry water and nutrients around the plant. Stoma (plural: stomata) underside which of a leaf, through carbon dioxide seeps enters and oxygen out. Root hairs root. They increase surface area of the roots so they can take up more nutrients. Simple leaf Shoot Stem Pallisade Rhizome beneath the ground. Shoots and roots grow from the rhizome. Root A with leaf, seven leafltets. normally grows ground. below Roots anchor a plant and take in water and dissolved minerals the soil. The from first root to grow is the then sprouts sideways Spongy mesophyll layer L a o r a f r s a t n i d t s r c u a is where x o l , palisade e r l j d i e t w e b x d Two crescent-shaped cells Two The process by which flat surface on a plant d y hat carries sugars made by t The soft inner layer of a leaf A n u cells are activated by light so that they open the stomata the stoma’s opening.Guard or smaller to adjust the size of 15) The tissue inside vascular e stoma. The cells become larger during the day and close them at root-like structure in plants such n i ranspiration take place. Most contains chloroplasts for Leaf where photosynthesis and located either side of a plant’s t ( leaves are broad so that as much A , e The leaves of a plant. e night to reduce water loss. spongy mesophyll layer i s light as on them. possible can fall The leaf of a palm or fern, divided l Guard cells the photosynthesis. The lower layer, called carbon dioxide, water vapour and layer sugars move around between cells. a of the mesophyll, called the below the epidermis. The upper layer Mesophyll Phloem plants i ater photosynthesis from the leaves to the k rest of the plant. h Foliage Frond into multiple leaflets.Fronds grow from tightly coiled base of a plant. buds at the As the frond unrolls, its tiny leaflets open up and grow. Rhizoid as mosses. Rhizoids may anchor a plant to the or both. Unlike ground, absorb water, true roots, rhizoids do not contain vascular tissue (xylem and phloem). sugars plants use as food. Plants use this sugar to power their life activities. Photosynthesis also produces oxygen, which seeps out into the air. Photosynthesis green plants use sunlight as an energy source to combine carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil to make W vapour l r xygen e O t a i p o 0 v t Leaf j i x 5 e w s a e 2 d n s leaf divided into smaller oots R m l A tem y S small structure the within e n A l 0 The outermost layer a plant, of e 2 r a h 0 lower F 1 n ater and utrients arbon a epidermis absorbs water and nutrients. and reduces the amount of water lost through evaporation. In the roots, the petals. Itplant from damage protects the inside of a plant. the chloroplasts Compound leaf parts, called leaflets, joined to one stem. Epidermis covering its leaves, stems, roots and Chloroplast cell of a plant that contains the pigment chlorophyll. Photosynthesis is carried out Sunlight C dioxide W n h 1 e a t r s e t SS l r p p NN e c u TT e OO t r . II NN 18) or through the o v m TT ( c d AA 18) Other plants reproduce o ( CC LL 18). b o o a ( A green pigment, present n NN PP plant’s body has specialized parts for different jobs. Its leaves make food using energy from sunlight, a until they are ready to grow. UU C C M F A a A small growth on a stem or branch FF ithin protective, modified leaves called oil, as well as a stiff stem that supports he Venus fly trap is a carnivorous plant that takes he Venus A Most plants have roots that take in water, either asexually process called photosynthesis. minerals and other substances from the s the plant above the ground. Flowering plantsfemale parts that have male and make seeds dispersal of spores T nutrients from insects instead of the soil. Like other using photosynthesis. plants, it also makes food Chlorophyll in all green plants, that absorbs sunlight and uses the sun’s energy to carry out photosynthesis. Bud that will develop into a flower, stem or w scales leaf. In some plants, buds are enclosed 6 1 ! ! ! ! ! I L L U S T R A T E D E N C Y C L O P E D I A BIOLOGY I L L U S T R A T E D E N C Y C L O P E D I A

First published in 2012 by Orpheus Books Ltd., 6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire, OX28 4AW, England www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright ©2012 Orpheus Books Ltd. Created and produced by Nicholas Harris, Sarah Hartley, Katie Sexton, Ruth Symons and Erica Williams, Orpheus Books Ltd. Text Ruth Symons BIOL O GY Illustrated by Graham Austin, Martin Camm, Stuart Carter, Fiammetta Dogi, Malcolm Ellis, Elisabetta Ferrero, Sauro Giampaia, Ray Grinaway, Inklink, Ian Jackson, Mike Lowe, David More, Nicki Palin, Sebastian Quigley, Peter David Scott, Martin Woodward, Colin Woolf, David Wright Consultant Richard Walker, writer and consultant

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Photographs on pages 7, 11 and 12: Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain Photograph on page 10: Copyright ©2011 Nanka (Kucherenko Olena) Used under licence from Shutterstock.com Photograph on page 17: Dr Jeremy Burgess, Science Photo Library Photograph on page 27: Copyright ©2011 Eric Isselée Used under licence from Shutterstock.com CONTENTS ABOUT THIS BOOK

ach double page contains a brief introduction, LIFE 6 Eexplaining the general subject, followed by key words arranged in alphabetical order. To look up a CLASSIFICATION 8 specific word, turn to the index at the back of this book: this will tell you which page to go to. If you want EVOLUTION 10 to learn more about a subject, take a look at the factfile, or follow the arrows to read related entries.

MICRO-ORGANISMS 12 INTRODUCTION BOLD WORDS FACTFILE This explains the These highlight The factfile provides extra PLANTS & FUNGI 14 general subject useful words that information on the subject. ANIMAL MOVEMENT 24 and provides some do not have their Facts are presented in easy basic knowledge. own entry. to read bullet points.

TTACK DEFENCE Magnolia A & 26 Dicot A flowering plant with two Assorted cacti cotyledons ( 16) and petals in multiples growing in an PLANTS & of four or five. Most flowers, bushes and American desert F A C T F I L E trees are dicots. FUNGI # Flowering plants are the prevailing Epiphyte A plant that grows on other plants group of land plants around the world, except for colder regions, where for support, typically to reach more light. coniferous plants dominate. Epiphytes collect rainwater and leaf litter, # The first land plants evolved around he second largest kingdom of living which provide them with nutrients. Moss A bryophyte with 500 million years ago from green algae. MIGRATION 28 things is the plant kindom. The key Epiphytes include bromeliads and orchids. leafy stems. Many species feature of a plant is that it obtains spread across the ground, forming a mat. # The world’s oldest organism is the slow- T Fern A flowerless green plant with a long, growing Jurupa oak, found in California and energy from sunlight by photosynthesis Cactus A succulent that has adapted to Mould A furry growth of fungi on damp or believed to be 13,000 years old. ( 16). Plants do not have sensory organs stiffstem, and branching leaflets ( 16) open its stomata (pores) only in the cool of decaying organisms. # A scientist who and, although they can grow towards known as “fronds”. Ferns grow in damp the night. Most cacti are covered in spines studies plants is light or water, they cannot move freely places and can live in low light levels. Some Mushroom An umbrella-shaped fruiting to stop animals eating them. They are one Herbaceous plant A plant whose leaves and called a botanist. around their environment. Fungi, once tropical ferns grow as epiphytes. body, grown when a fungus reproduces. of the few plants that flourish in deserts. stem die down to soil level at the end of # The pitcher plant thought to be plants, are now classified as The mushroom’s top, or cap, releases Flowering plant A plant, also known as an the growing season. Herbaceous plants (right), is a a separate kingdom. Fungi include: Carnivorous plant A plant that obtains millions of tiny fungal spores ( 18) that carnivorous plant NDEX angiosperm, that flowers and produces include irises, peonies and carrots. I 30 ( 13) that lures insects mushrooms, yeasts and moulds. nutrients by digesting animals. Carnivorous fruits containing seeds ( 18). blow away in the wind. Poisonous They decompose dead or dying plants and plants live in places where soils are lacking Horsetail A spore-bearing vascular plant mushrooms are often called toadstools. using the scent of its Ginkgo An ancient, non-flowering plant nectar. Insects fall into animals and take their energy from the essential minerals. They trap animals using with a rigid, hollow stem. Horsetails are bottle-shaped pitchers with fan-shaped leaves. The only surviving Mycelium The network of threads in a nutrients they release. pitfall traps, sticky surfaces and snap traps. brush-like in appearance and are often filled with rainwater and fungus. Mycelia grow into the bodies of species is native to China. found near rivers, lakes or swamps. the plant’s digestive juices, dead or dying organisms, causing them to and drown. Annual plant A plant that germinates ( 18), Gnetophyte A woody, seed-bearing plant. decompose. They then absorb the flowers and dies within one growing 14 Gnetophytes include: Ephedra, a shrub from released nutrients. 15 season (usually a year). Annual plants Liverwort the US; Gnetum, a tropical forest vine and include corn, lettuce, beans and marigolds. Welwitschia, a cactus-like plant. Non-vascular plant A plant, such as a Vascular plant A plant with bryophyte, that has no tube-like vessels for tiny, tube-like vessels that Aquatic plant A plant that lives in water. Hemiparasite A plant that obtains energy carrying water and nutrients. Non-vascular carry water, nutrients and sugar Moss through both photosynthesis and by Biennial plant A flowering plant that takes plants normally live in damp places. around its body. Vascular plants all have two years to complete its life cycle. In the parasitic means. Mistletoe is a hemiparasite. Crocos, a monocot Buttercup, a dicot Parasitic plant A plant that takes water roots, stems and leaves. first year, it stores energy obtained through and nutrients from another plant, known Vine A plant with a long, thin stem that photosynthesis. In the following year, it Clubmoss A low-growing, green plant Hornwort A flat bryophyte that releases as the host. Parasitic plants may attach climbs up other plants, rocks or other PLANT FUNCTIONS 16 uses this energy to flower and make seeds. with scale-like leaves. Club mosses spores ( 18) from horn-shaped capsules. themselves either to the outside or inside structures for support. Biennials include hollyhocks and pansies. reproduce using spores ( 18). Hyphae A long, thin thread forming the of the host. Bryophyte A non-vascular plant, such as a Conifer A cone-bearing plant, also known mycelium of a fungus. Perennial plant A plant that lives for moss, that absorbs water and minerals as a gymnosperm. Conifers reproduce Rafflesia, a parasite, is the world’s Mushroom Lichen Algae ( 12) and fungi living together. more than two years. Many smaller largest flower. through its leaves and reproduces using using seeds formed in scaly cones ( 20). The algae makes food via photosynthesis. perennials are herbaceous. All trees spores ( 18). All conifers are bushes or trees. The fungus gathers water and forms a and most shrubs are perennial. Most have long, narrow leaves protective layer over the algae. Because of that do not fall in autumn. Shrub A low-lying plant with LOWERS SEEDS this relationship, lichens are very hardy. F & 18 The fronds 1 woody stems branching out from Cycad A palm-like woody of a fern Liverwort A small, mat-like bryophyte. a base just above the ground. plant that produces 4 Liverworts have either simple leaves or flat seeds via cones ( 20). Succulent A plant that stores green bodies that look like leaves. Cycads grow in tropical 2 water in its stem, leaves or roots. Inside a fungus’s fruiting body, a Monocot A flowering plant with just one Most succulents have small regions and were toadstool (1), fungal spores are common during the time 3 formed (2) and released (3). In suitable cotyledon ( 18) and petals in multiples of leaves and waxy surfaces in order TREES 20 of the dinosaurs. conditions a spore grows a hypha (4). three. Monocots include lilies and tulips. to prevent water loss.

ARROWS KEY WORDS AND ENTRIES PAGE NUMBER These arrows show you where to look up other Key words are arranged alphabetically Page numbers ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 22 words mentioned in the entry. For example, across each double page. Each entry are easy to find ( 26) tells you to go forward to page 26 and provides a short explanation of what at the side of ( 6) tells you to turn back to page 6. the key word means. the page. Earth’s surface millions of years after its formation. Hybrid An organism that is the offspring of Its warm, shallow seas were a soup of chemicals parents from two different species. Hybrids LIFE from which living things probably formed. are usually unable to reproduce. Kingdom The taxonomic rank above iving things are called organisms. phylum and below domain. All organisms Organisms can be classified, or put are split into six kingdoms: archaea, Linto groups, according to their bacteria, protists, fungi, plants and animals. similarities, relationships and ancestry. Linnaeus, Carolus (1707-1778) Swedish Most scientists think that organisms are scientist who invented the system of two- divided into three domains: archaea, part scientific names and introduced ranks, bacteria and eukaryota. Each of these is including kingdom, class and order. then divided into further groups, or ranks, Archaea One of the three domains. Class The taxonomic rank above order of decreasing size: kingdom, phylum, Archaea are a group of single-celled and below phylum. Order The taxonomic rank above family class, order, family, genus and species. organisms with no cell nucleus ( 12). They and below class. Every cell in every organism contains DNA ( 10). Domain The highest rank into which life is differ from bacteria ( 12) in their chemical This is a model of its structure. divided. The three domains are: bacteria Organism Any living thing. All organisms make-up. Within this domain there is just F A C T F I L E Animal kingdom The largest eukaryotic ( 12), archaea and eukaryotes. Bacteria and consist of a cell or cells. They convert Reproduction The production of offspring. one kingdom, also called archaea. chemicals to provide materials for growth kingdom. Animals can sense their archaea, distinguished by their chemical All living things can reproduce. # The first life-forms on Earth appeared surroundings, move independently and Carbon A common chemical that forms make-up, are each split into one kingdom. and the release of energy to power life about 3700 million years ago, probably in Respiration A process that takes place in take in energy by eating other living things. a part of all living cells. Eukaryotes are divided into four kingdoms. processes. All organisms can reproduce and the sea. They were formed when certain respond to changes in their surroundings. all living things, by which chemicals are simple chemicals joined to each other to Eukaryotes One of the three domains. broken down to release energy. Most form more complex ones, although it is not TAXONOMIC NAME (scientific ORGANISMS Eukaryotic organisms have one or more Phylum The taxonomic rank above class organisms need oxygen for respiration. known how this first occurred. cells and, unlike archaea or bacteria, their and below kingdom. Instead of phyla, the # People once thought living things could RANK and common) INCLUDED Scientific name A two-word name for a 6 cells have a nucleus and organelles ( 12). plant kingdom is split into divisions. appear from nothing. For instance, it was 7 species. The first word is its genus (eg. believed that maggots developed from Eukaryota Eukaryotes are divided into four kingdoms: Protists, fungi, plants and animals Plant kingdom One of the eukaryotic Panthera). She second is its specific name rotting meat. In 1668, Italian Francesco Redi Domain animals, plants, fungi and protists. Eukaryotes kingdoms. Plants obtain energy from light (eg. tigris), which identifies it as one showed this was not the case by proving maggots developed from eggs laid by flies. Family The taxonomic rank above genus via photosynthesis ( 16). They also absorb species (Panthera tigris) within that genus. Animalia Vertebrates, arthropods, molluscs, To prove his theory, he placed meat in two Kingdom and below order. water and minerals from the ground. Plants jars—one open, one sealed. Days later, Animal kingdom sponges, worms and others Species A group of organisms that are cannot move freely around their habitat. there were maggots only in the open jar, Fungi kingdom One of the eukaryotic usually similar in appearance, and that are the one that flies had been able to enter. Chordata Mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians Protist kingdom One of the eukaryotic able to breed together and produce young Phylum kingdoms. It includes mushrooms, yeasts, Vertebrates and fish moulds and mildews. Most fungi feed on kingdoms. A protist is made up of a single that can also breed successfully. dead and decaying organisms, and cell containing a nucleus ( 11). Subspecies A subgroup of a species, often Taxonomy The classification of all living Mammalia Carnivores, ungulates, primates, insectivores, reproduce using spores ( 19). Rank A level, such as species, genus or geographically isolated from other things into ranks of varying sizes, Class Mammals rodents, marsupials and others Genus The taxonomic rank above species class, within the taxonomic system. subspecies. Different subspecies could including species, genus, family, class, Carnivora Cats, dogs, civets, hyenas, bears, and below family. breed successfully if brought into contact. order, kingdom and domain. Order mongooses, weasels, raccoons, seals, THE SIX KINGDOMS Carnivores sea lions, walruses and others TAXONOMIC CHART (left) showing how, for example, tigers are classified. Felidae Big cats, cougars, cheetahs, Family servals, lynxes, caracals, Cats ocelots and domestic cats

Genus Panthera Jaguars, tigers, lions Big cats and leopards

Panthera tigris 6 subspecies: Bengal, Indochinese, Species Malayan, Sumatran, Siberian and Tiger South China tiger Archaea Bacteria Protists Fungi Plants Animals ARCHAEA Gazelle CLASSIFICATION Mammals BACTERIA Chordates Birds

lassification is a way of grouping all organisms Protists Amphibians Comb jellies together to show how they are related to one Canother. This chart shows how the three domains ( 6) Fungi Reptiles of life are split into kingdoms and classified by biologists. EUKARYOTES Sponges Plants Jawless fish Cnidarians Phylum/ Bony fish KEY: Domain Hammerhead shark Division Animals Kingdom Class Rotifers Cartilaginous fish Sea urchins Water bears Amoeba PROTISTS Starfish Echinoderms Feather stars Fungal protists Flagellates Amoebae Foraminiferans Heliozoans Velvet worms S Brittle stars L Red octopus A Horsehair

Ciliates Apicomplexans Cnidosporidians Golden algae Euglenoid M Sea cucumbers Octopuses and 8 I worms 9

N squid

A Spiny-headed Snails and Diatoms Dinoflagellates Red algae Brown algae Green algae worms slugs

Molluscs Chitons

FUNGI Segmented Rhinoceros Mussels and clams worms Beetle Tusk shells Moulds Sac fungi Imperfect fungi Club fungi Roundworms Insects Deep-sea limpets Fly agaric Flatworms toadstool Arachnids PLANTS Fern Arthropods Horseshoe crabs Ferns & Conifers Angiosperms Ginkgos Sea spiders horsetails Lampshells

Centipedes Bryophytes Club mosses Gnetophytes Cycads Moss animals Millipedes Hermit crab around 13 Liverworts minor phyla Hornworts Mosses Monocots Dicots Crustaceans DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) A chemical Genetics The branch of science that deals A fossil ammonite EVOLUTION inside the cells ( 12) of all living things. DNA with heredity—how features are passed can copy itself and carries the instructions on, or inherited, from parent to offspring F A C T F I L E

(genes) needed to build and run a cell. via the genes. # For thousands of years, humans have volution is the process by which Embryology The study of animals’ early Homologous structure A structure bred domestic animals or crops with “desirable” features to emphasise those living things gradually change; this development. Similarities between the shared by species that may look different features in the next generation. This is Emay make them better suited to their embryos of mammals, birds, reptiles and but evolved from a common ancestor. called “artificial selection”. environment. Variations within species fish indicate that they evolved from a For example, bat wings and human arms # Natural selection does not always make mean that some individuals are better common ancestor. look different but are built from the same organisms more complex. Sometimes it suited to their lifestyle than others. These set of bones. makes creatures simpler. For example, the Parallel evolution The development of individuals are more likely to survive and ancestors of fleas, like most insects, had Fruit eater Mendel, Gregor (1822-1884) Austrian priest similar features in related, but different, wings. In the course of evolution, fleas have reproduce, passing on the features that A male peacock’s tail feathers show sexual selection. who observed that most features of a species. For example, Old World and New lost their wings as an adaptation to moving helped them survive. However, conditions plant are determined by the features of its World porcupines, which both share an easily through fur or feathers. change naturally with time: some foods Analogous structure A structure with the # Charles Darwin Seed eater parents. He published his findings in 1866. ancestor, evolved spines independently. may become scarcer or the climate may same function that is found in unrelated (right) spent five change. Evolution may allow some species. For example, the wings of birds, years on board the organisms to survive in the new conditions. bats and insects are analogous, because The light colouring HMS Beagle, Insect eater making they evolved independently. of peppered moths camouflages ( 12) observations about the plants Convergent evolution The evolution of Nectar and them against pale- and animals similar features in living things that are insect eater coloured lichens on trees. This prevents encountered on the unrelated but whose ways of life are alike. Hawaiian finches—an example of predatory birds ship’s journey. During the For example, whales and sharks both have adaptive radiation from spotting them. expedition, he sent over 5000 fossil, plant streamlined bodies and fins that enable and animal specimens back to England. 10 them to move through water easily. Extinction The process whereby every 11 As a result of genetic mutation, albinos such as this member of a species or subspecies dies out. rat (right) have no pigment in their skin, hair or eyes. Darwin, Charles (1809-1882) British During the Industrial Revolution, Variations Differences between individuals scientist who established the theory of Fossil The remains of once-living things many trees became blackened by of the same species. They are the result of Adaptation The process whereby living evolution by natural selection. In 1859, preserved in rock. If a dead organism is soot. Natural selection resulted in an individual’s unique combination of things tend, over several generations, to he published his theory in his book quickly buried by sand or mud, its remains darker, better-camouflaged moths becoming much more abundant. genes, including inherited mutations. become better suited to their environment. On the Origin of Species. may, over millions of years, turn into rock. Organisms are adapted to climate, available Fossils show long-extinct organisms that Vestigial organ A body part that has Divergent evolution The process of two become smaller or seemingly functionless foods and the avoidance of predators. provide evidence for evolution. Mutation A change to the structure of a Sexual selection A type of natural or more closely related species becoming in the course of evolution. For example, gene. This may occur spontaneously or be selection that occurs because one sex Adaptive radiation The evolution of many more dissimilar, often when they live in Genes A set of instructions that tell an the appendix in some hervibores is large triggered by outside factors such as prefers certain features in individuals of different species, such as Hawaiian finches, different habitats. For example, the organism how to grow and maintain itself. and involved in digesting plant material; radiation or chemicals. Many mutations are the opposite sex. For example, female from a single species. It often happens desert-living kit fox is paler than the Genes are contained within DNA. Because in humans it is small and vestigial and harmful and cause damage if passed on to peahens choose their mate on the basis of when a species moves to a new area and woodland-living red fox, an adaptation they control the way cells are built, genes plays no obvious part in digestion. individuals take to different ways of life. that helps it blend in with its surroundings. help determine an organism’s features. offspring. Some are beneficial and result in his tail feathers. A male peacock with offspring that are more likely to survive, large tail feathers has a greater chance of Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823-1913) English Scientists can trace the evolution of a species by Steppe mammoth breed and pass on the mutated gene. mating and passing on his genes. scientist who, independently of Darwin, examining fossils. Here are some of the ancient Gomphotherium 600,000 years ago Modern African elephant proposed a theory of evolution by natural relatives of modern elephants. c. 14 mya Natural selection The process whereby Speciation The formation of a new selection in the 19th century. organisms best suited to their environment species as a result of divergent evolution. Palaeomastodon c. 36 mya are more likely to survive and reproduce. If one group within a species becomes Moeritherium If their offspring inherit the same features, isolated, does not breed with other c. 37 million years ago they, too, have a better chance of survival. groups, and so evolves separately, its Individuals less well adapted may not members will gradually become more survive to reproduce. Natural selection is and more different and eventually form The embryos of a fish, turtle, cow and human all the driving force of evolution. a new species. look similar: they evolved from the same ancestor. Flagella Tail-like projections that enable MICRO- some micro-organisms to swim. Flagella are used in a whipping motion to propel ORGANISMS organisms through the water. Foraminiferan A small protozoan, with a rigid, case-like cell wall, like a beautifully- icro-organisms are tiny living shaped shell. things that are far too small for Heliozoan A spherical, freshwater Mus to see without a powerful protozoan, surrounded by long, stiff microscope. They are all around us: in the projections that are used to catch prey. air, in the water, even inside our bodies. Micro-organisms include bacteria, viruses, protists and some fungi. Other Salmonella bacteria (red) invading human cells. Bacillus A rod-shaped bacterium. microscopic life-forms include the young The bacteria move with the help of tail-like flagella. of some plants or animals. Cell A tiny “building block” which makes up the tissues in all living things. It is typically a bag of jelly containing a nucleus Alga (plural: algae) A plant-like protist and other working parts, called organelles. found in water or moist ground. Algae make food by photosynthesis ( 16). They Ciliate A large protozoan covered with range from single-celled organisms to hair-like cilia. These beat back and forth to large, multicellular forms, such as seaweed. make the organism move. A computerized model of an adenovirus (above), Vorticella A transparent protozoan with a Amoeba A protozoan with no definite Dinoflagellate Coccus A spherical, or ball-shaped, one of the viruses that causes the common cold. bell-shaped body attached to a stalk. shape. Amoebae live in water and move by bacterium. It has an outer protein shell made of triangular Hair-like cilia waft food into its mouth. 12 sections. Inside it is a length of DNA. 13 flowing like a bag full of jelly. They feed on Aspergillus A microscopic fungus ( 14) that Cyanobacterium A bacterium, also known Billions of protists live in the sea. Yeast A microscopic, single-celled other micro-organisms, such as bacteria, grows on decaying matter and soil. as blue-green algae, that produces its own fungus ( 14) found in soil and on plants. and reproduce by splitting in two. Some species can cause disease in humans. Prokaryote A single-celled organism, food using photosynthesis ( 16). Multicellular Consisting of more than such as a bacterium, that lacks a nucleus Yeasts contain chemicals that change Apicomplexa A group of parasitic Bacterium (plural: bacteria) A simple one cell. and organelles. sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. protozoans, including the species single-celled organism. Bacteria are found Diatom Nucleus A large structure in some cells, that cause malaria in humans. nearly everywhere, including in air, water, Protist An organism made up of a that contains a cell’s genes ( 10) and single cell containing a nucleus. Most acicomplexans invade and live ice, rocks and inside other organisms. therefore controls all cell activities. inside the cells of other organisms. Some bacteria cause disease in humans. Protists live mainly in water and damp F A C T F I L E Organelle A tiny structure inside some places. Some (algae) make energy by cells. Each type of organelle has its own photosynthesis ( 16) but others # Bacteria are the commonest living specific function. The word organelle (protozoans) take in food. things. Diatoms Single-celled algae that live in # means “little organ”. Protozoan (plural: protozoa) A protist A quarter of a million bacteria can fit on ponds, rivers and oceans. Diatoms are to a single pinhead. that obtains energy by eating food. protected by a hard case. # Some protozoa sift food particles from Yeast is used in the manufacture of some food and drinks. In bread-making, it Didinium A freshwater ciliate that feeds passing water. Others actively hunt prey. produces the gases that make dough rise. on protists much larger than itself. Spirillum A corkscrew-shaped bacterium. # The earliest living things on Earth were Dinoflagellate A marine alga with a prokaryotes. Virus A microscopic package of strong, rigid cell wall and pointed horns # Viruses can exist in a dormant state for chemicals that causes disease and can that help it to float upright. years when not in contact with the living only reproduce by invading the cells cells of a host. But as soon as it infects a An amoeba flows Euglena A protist that makes its food of a living organism. Some human host, a virus becomes active and invades This E. coli bacterium (above) is approximately towards a smaller cells in order to reproduce. 0.0015 mm long. It is much larger than a virus by photosynthesis ( 16) and moves by bacterium and diseases, such as colds and flu, (above, left) which is only about 0.0001 mm long. flicking its tiny, whip-like flagellum. swallows it whole. are caused by viruses. Magnolia Dicot A flowering plant with two Assorted cacti cotyledons ( 16) and petals in multiples growing in an PLANTS & American desert of four or five. Most flowers, bushes and F A C T F I L E trees are dicots. FUNGI # Flowering plants are the prevailing Epiphyte A plant that grows on other plants group of land plants around the world, except for colder regions, where for support, typically to reach more light. coniferous plants dominate. he second largest kingdom of living Epiphytes collect rainwater and leaf litter, # The first land plants evolved around which provide them with nutrients. Moss A bryophyte with things is the plant kindom. The key 500 million years ago from green algae. feature of a plant is that it obtains Epiphytes include bromeliads and orchids. leafy stems. Many species T spread across the ground, forming a mat. # The world’s oldest organism is the slow- energy from sunlight by photosynthesis Fern A flowerless green plant with a long, growing Jurupa oak, found in California and ( 16). Plants do not have sensory organs believed to be 13,000 years old. Cactus A succulent that has adapted to stiff stem, and branching leaflets ( 16) Mould A furry growth of fungi on damp or and, although they can grow towards open its stomata (pores) only in the cool of known as “fronds”. Ferns grow in damp decaying organisms. # A scientist who light or water, they cannot move freely the night. Most cacti are covered in spines studies plants is places and can live in low light levels. Some Mushroom An umbrella-shaped fruiting around their environment. Fungi, once to stop animals eating them. They are one Herbaceous plant A plant whose leaves and called a botanist. tropical ferns grow as epiphytes. body, grown when a fungus reproduces. thought to be plants, are now classified as of the few plants that flourish in deserts. stem die down to soil level at the end of # The pitcher plant The mushroom’s top, or cap, releases a separate kingdom. Fungi include: Flowering plant A plant, also known as an the growing season. Herbaceous plants (right), is a Carnivorous plant A plant that obtains millions of tiny fungal spores ( 18) that carnivorous plant mushrooms, yeasts ( 13) and moulds. angiosperm, that flowers and produces include irises, peonies and carrots. that lures insects They decompose dead or dying plants and nutrients by digesting animals. Carnivorous fruits containing seeds ( 18). blow away in the wind. Poisonous plants live in places where soils are lacking Horsetail A spore-bearing vascular plant mushrooms are often called toadstools. using the scent of its animals and take their energy from the Ginkgo An ancient, non-flowering plant nectar. Insects fall into essential minerals. They trap animals using with a rigid, hollow stem. Horsetails are bottle-shaped pitchers nutrients they release. with fan-shaped leaves. The only surviving Mycelium The network of threads in a pitfall traps, sticky surfaces and snap traps. brush-like in appearance and are often filled with rainwater and fungus. Mycelia grow into the bodies of species is native to China. found near rivers, lakes or swamps. the plant’s digestive juices, Annual plant A plant that germinates ( 18), dead or dying organisms, causing them to and drown. Gnetophyte A woody, seed-bearing plant. flowers and dies within one growing decompose. They then absorb the Gnetophytes include: Ephedra, a shrub from 14 season (usually a year). Annual plants released nutrients. 15 Liverwort the US; Gnetum, a tropical forest vine and include corn, lettuce, beans and marigolds. Welwitschia, a cactus-like plant. Non-vascular plant A plant, such as a Vascular plant A plant with Aquatic plant A plant that lives in water. bryophyte, that has no tube-like vessels for tiny, tube-like vessels that Hemiparasite A plant that obtains energy carrying water and nutrients. Non-vascular carry water, nutrients and sugar Biennial plant A flowering plant that takes Moss through both photosynthesis and by plants normally live in damp places. around its body. Vascular plants all have two years to complete its life cycle. In the parasitic means. Mistletoe is a hemiparasite. Crocos, a monocot roots, stems and leaves. first year, it stores energy obtained through Buttercup, a dicot Parasitic plant A plant that takes water and nutrients from another plant, known photosynthesis. In the following year, it Clubmoss A low-growing, green plant Hornwort A flat bryophyte that releases Vine A plant with a long, thin stem that as the host. Parasitic plants may attach uses this energy to flower and make seeds. with scale-like leaves. Club mosses spores ( 18) from horn-shaped capsules. climbs up other plants, rocks or other Biennials include hollyhocks and pansies. themselves either to the outside or inside structures for support. reproduce using spores ( 18). Hyphae A long, thin thread forming the of the host. Bryophyte A non-vascular plant, such as a Conifer A cone-bearing plant, also known mycelium of a fungus. Perennial plant A plant that lives for moss, that absorbs water and minerals as a gymnosperm. Conifers reproduce Rafflesia, a parasite, is the world’s through its leaves and reproduces using Mushroom Lichen Algae ( 12) and fungi living together. more than two years. Many smaller largest flower. using seeds formed in scaly cones ( 20). The algae makes food via photosynthesis. perennials are herbaceous. All trees spores ( 18). All conifers are bushes or trees. The fungus gathers water and forms a and most shrubs are perennial. Most have long, narrow leaves protective layer over the algae. Because of that do not fall in autumn. Shrub A low-lying plant with this relationship, lichens are very hardy. woody stems branching out from The fronds Cycad A palm-like woody 1 of a fern Liverwort A small, mat-like bryophyte. a base just above the ground. plant that produces 4 Liverworts have either simple leaves or flat seeds via cones ( 20). Succulent A plant that stores green bodies that look like leaves. Cycads grow in tropical 2 water in its stem, leaves or roots. Inside a fungus’s fruiting body, a Monocot A flowering plant with just one Most succulents have small regions and were toadstool (1), fungal spores are common during the time 3 formed (2) and released (3). In suitable cotyledon ( 18) and petals in multiples of leaves and waxy surfaces in order of the dinosaurs. conditions a spore grows a hypha (4). three. Monocots include lilies and tulips. to prevent water loss. Foliage The leaves of a plant. Rhizome A horizontal stem that grows Flower beneath the ground. Shoots and roots PLANT Frond The leaf of a palm or fern, divided grow from the rhizome. into multiple leaflets. Fronds grow from FUNCTIONS tightly coiled buds at the base of a plant. Root The part of a vascular plant ( 15) that As the frond unrolls, its tiny leaflets open normally grows below ground. Roots up and grow. anchor a plant and take in water and dissolved minerals from the soil. The first plant’s body has specialized parts Guard cells Two crescent-shaped cells root to grow is the primary root, which for different jobs. Its leaves make located either side of a plant’s then sprouts sideways lateral roots. food using energy from sunlight, a Water stoma. The cells become larger A vapour process called photosynthesis. Sunlight or smaller to adjust the size of Most plants have roots that take in water, the stoma’s opening. Guard Chloroplast Vein minerals and other substances from the cells are activated by light so Epidermis soil, as well as a stiff stem that supports that they open the stomata the plant above the ground. Flowering during the day and close them at Pallisade Oxygen layer plants have male and female parts that Carbon night to reduce water loss. make seeds ( 18). Other plants reproduce dioxide either asexually ( 18) or through the Leaf A flat surface on a plant Spongy where photosynthesis and mesophyll Close-up photograph of guard cells surrounding a Vascular tissue Xylem and phloem tissues dispersal of spores ( 18). layer transpiration take place. Most stoma on the underside of a leaf. that carry water, and minerals and sugars leaves are broad so that as much dissolved in it, around vascular plants ( 15). Tendril A modified leaf used by climbing Bud A small growth on a stem or branch light as possible can fall on them. Stoma Leaf plants to wrap around objects for support. Veins Xylem and phloem cells in a leaf that that will develop into a flower, stem or Stem Mesophyll The soft inner layer of a leaf LAYERS OF A LEAF support its structure and transport water leaf. In some plants, buds are enclosed Transpiration The controlled release of below the epidermis. The upper layer and nutrients to all of its cells. 16 within protective, modified leaves called water as vapour through a plant’s stoma. 17 of the mesophyll, called the palisade Root hairs Fine growths at the tip of each scales until they are ready to grow. Loss of water in the leaves creates suction, Xylem The tissue in vascular plants ( 15) layer, contains chloroplasts for root. They increase the surface area of which draws up water from the roots. that carries water and dissolved minerals Chlorophyll A green pigment, present photosynthesis. The lower layer, called roots so they can take up more nutrients. This water carries nutrients absorbed by from a plant’s roots to the rest of the in all green plants, that absorbs the spongy mesophyll layer, is where Simple leaf A leaf not divided into leaflets. the roots around the rest of the plant. plant. This liquid is called sap. sunlight and uses the sun’s energy to carbon dioxide, water vapour and carry out photosynthesis. sugars move around between cells. Shoot A new growth on part of a plant. Phloem The tissue inside vascular Stem The long, stiff part of a vascular plant ( 15) Water and plants that carries sugars made by ( 15) that supports its leaves, flowers, fruits F A C T F I L E nutrients photosynthesis from the leaves to the or cones. It contains tissues that carry Roots # rest of the plant. water and nutrients around the plant. The word photosynthesis means “making with light”. Photosynthesis The process by which Chloroplast A small structure within the Stoma (plural: stomata) A tiny hole on the # 65-80% of a plant is made up of water. green plants use sunlight as an energy cell of a plant that contains the pigment underside of a leaf, through which carbon A simple leaf # The deepest living plant root ever found source to combine carbon dioxide from chlorophyll. Photosynthesis is carried out dioxide enters and oxygen seeps out. went 60 m below ground. the air and water from the soil to make inside the chloroplasts of a plant. # The largest simple leaf sugars plants use as food. Plants use this Tropism The growth or slight movement ever found was 3 m long Compound leaf A leaf divided into smaller sugar to power their life activities. of a plant in response to a change in its and nearly 2 m wide. parts, called leaflets, joined to one stem. Photosynthesis also produces oxygen, environment. For example, phototropism It belonged to an arum which seeps out into the air. is the movement of a plant towards or plant in Malaysia. Epidermis The outermost layer of a plant, away from light and geotropism is the # Some species of covering its leaves, stems, roots and Rhizoid A root-like structure in plants such growth of a plant in response to gravity. bamboo, grow up to petals. It protects the plant from damage as mosses. Rhizoids may anchor a plant to 91 cm per day, making The edible the ground, absorb water, or both. Unlike Tuber A thick, underground stem or root them the world’s fastest- The Venus fly trap is a carnivorous plant that takes and reduces the amount of water lost A compound part of a carrot growing plants. nutrients from insects instead of the soil. Like other through evaporation. In the roots, the true roots, rhizoids do not contain vascular leaf, with that stores food for the next growing is its primary root. plants, it also makes food using photosynthesis. epidermis absorbs water and nutrients. tissue (xylem and phloem). seven leafltets. season. Potatoes are a type of stem tuber. Dandelion Sycamore Catkin FLOWERS & Stigma F A C T F I L E SEEDS # Some seeds, such as those of apples, do not germinate until they have been in cold temperatures for a length of time. Seeds and pollen carried This shows that winter has passed and by the wind he main function of a flower is to conditions are right for growing. reproduce—make seeds which grow # A few seeds, such as those of the Anther Fruit An outer coat surrounding a seed or Seed A small case, containing an into new plants. A typical fower has ironwood tree, do not germinate unless T seeds. It is formed from a flower’s ripe undeveloped plant embryo and a supply both male and female parts. The male Filament they have been scorched by fire. ovary and may be soft or hard. Some parts produce tiny grains of pollen, which of food. This provides energy for the Other plants will have been burnt, so the fruits have tasty flesh that attracts ground is bare and ready for new life. must reach the female parts of a flower of plant to grow until it develops the ability animals to eat them so they will disperse # the same kind. The male cell will fuse to photosynthesize. The largest seed in the world comes Style seeds in their droppings. from the giant fan palm. One fruit weighs with, or fertilize, the female cell, and the Sepal A small, green, leaf-like structure up to 20 kg and takes around 10 years female parts will then start to develop Germination The growth of a plant from a beneath the petals of a flower. The sepals to grow to its full size. into seeds. Seeds have a better chance of Ovary Petal seed. Germination requires water, oxygen protect the flower when it is in bud. # The smallest growing away from their parent plant, so and a favourable temperature. flowering plant in many are adapted to be dispersed by the world is the Nut A fruit with a very tough outer case. wind, water or animals. THE REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER Wolffia globosa. It is 0.6 mm long Ovary A flower’s female reproductive and 0.3 mm wide. Berry A small, fleshy, stoneless fruit Dispersal The process by which a plant organ where egg cells, or ovules, are containing one or many seeds. Berries scatters its seeds. produced. Once the eggs are fertilized by include tomatoes and gooseberries. male cells (pollen), the ovaries begin to Embryo A young plant inside a seed. 18 enlarge into fruit. Wind dispersal The movement of seeds 19 Bulb A round, underground stem with thick Endosperm The part of a seed where food A coconut floating towards a beach away from the parent plant via the wind. leaves emerging from the top and roots where it may grow into a new tree. is stored for the developing embryo. This strawberry plant has Some seeds, such as dandelions, have emerging from the bottom. The leaves grown a new shoot that fluffy “parachutes” to help them stay in store food between growing seasons. Filament A stalk-like part of a flower that Spores Tiny, dust-like particles that grow has developed into a new the air and therefore drift further away. Tulips and onions grow from bulbs. holds the male anther. plant. This is known as into new plants. Non-flowering plants Others, such as sycamores, have “winged” asexual reproduction. such as ferns reproduce using spores, as do Pollen grain Carpel The female reproductive organ of a Flower The reproductive part of a seeds that twirl away fungi ( 14). Each spore contains DNA ( 12) flower, consisting of an ovary, style and flowering plant. Some flowers have both from the tree as they fall. contained within a protective coat. Animal dispersal The scattering of seeds by stigma. Some flowers have one carpel, male and female organs, while others animals. Fruits are eaten by animals, which while others have a cluster of carpels, have only one or the other. Stamen The male reproductive part of a GERMINATION disperse seeds in their droppings. Nuts are called a pistil. flower, consisting of an anther and filament. Petal A leaf-like structure surrounding the When a seed germinates, its roots often buried and, if left uneaten, may Catkin A dangling cluster of flowers that FRUITS reproductive parts of a flower. Together, Stigma The part of the carpel at the end of spread downwards and the shoot germinate. Alternatively, seeds may latch arches up and straightens. disperse pollen via the wind. Catkins are the petals of a flower form the corolla. the style, were pollen is received. on to animals’ fur using hooks or barbs. The cotyledons then open found on willows, birches and oak trees. Petals are often brightly coloured to attract Stone A large hard seed inside a fleshy fruit. out and begin Anther The bag-like part at the tip of a insects, which pollinate flowers as they photosynthesis. Coconut The fruit of a coconut palm stamen, where pollen is produced. move from plant to plant to drink nectar. Style The long, thin part of the carpel tree ( 19), a seed surrounded by a husk. connecting the ovary to the stigma. Asexual reproduction Reproduction It may fall into the sea and float to other Avacado fruit Pollen Tiny, dust-like particles produced by involving one parent plant, without beaches where it grows into more trees. Orange anthers. They contain the male sex cells. Testa The protective layer around a seed, pollination. A new shoot or root develops also known as the seed coat. Cotyledon A leaf-like structure, otherwise Pollination The transfer of pollen from the into a new plant identical to the parent. Peas known as a seed leaf, that is present male to the female parts of a flower. Pollen Water dispersal The movement of seeds Ballistic dispersal The explosive dispersal inside a seed before it germinates. grains are light and many are carried in the away from their parent plants via water. of seeds. The fruit squeezes to fling its After germination, the cotyledons begin air. Others are sticky and carried by animals Most aquatic plants and some land plants seeds as far away as possible. the process of photosynthesis. Walnut that drink nectar from flowers. use water as a means of dispersal. Palm tree A tree TREES with a straight trunk and no branches. Leaf At the top is a crown of large leaves. Palm trees tree is a tall perennial plant ( 15) may grow up to 40 m tall, with a woody stem and branches Water (red) is drawn up from the soil mostly in tropical and sub-tropical areas. to the leaves through the sapwood. high above the ground. Its Winter Spring Summer Autumn A Sugar made by photosynthesis (blue) branches, which divide into smaller twigs, Resin A sticky substance produced by A deciduous tree through the seasons Deciduous A tree, such as an oak, maple passes from the leaves to the rest of spread out leaves so that they all receive as trees. Resin helps to seal any wounds in the tree through the inner bark. or birch, that sheds its leaves in the much sunlight as possible. The roots below the trees’ bark to protect it from infection. Cone The reproductive parts of a autumn. This allows it to conserve water ground anchor the tree and soak up water It also traps insects to stop them from coniferous tree. Conifers have male and during the cold months. In the spring it and nutrients from the soil. There are two eating the plant’s wood. Trunk The main stem of a tree. A tree main kinds of tree: broadleaf trees and female cones. When ripe, the male cone grows new leaves. trunk has several layers: the outer bark, releases pollen, which is carried by the Sapwood The layer inside a tree beneath inner bark, growth layer, sapwood and conifers. Different trees have leaves of Endogenous tree Any tree that grows wind to female cones. Seeds then develop the growth layer. The sapwood carries heartwood. different shape. These are often the new wood interspersed with old wood inside the female cone while on the tree. water from the roots up to the leaves. easiest way to tell different species apart. fibres, rather than in a specific area of A new layer of sapwood grows each year, Twig A small division of a branch. new growth. Endogenous trees include appearing as a ring. Leaves, flowers and fruits grow from Bark The tough outer layer on the stem of Conifer tree palms and cacti. buds on twigs. trees, shrubs and vines. The outer bark and cone Evergreen A plant, such as a pine or holly, LAYERS OF A protects against damage, cold and water (below) Sapwood that has leaves all year round. Evergreen TREE TRUNK Growth loss. The inner bark, or phloem ( 16), plants constantly lose and replace their layer carries sugars made in the leaves around Inner F A C T F I L E leaves throughout the year. the rest of the tree. bark 20 Exogenous tree Any tree Outer # The largest tree in the world is the 21 Branch A division of a tree trunk that giant sequoia in California. More than that grows in width by bark supports twigs, leaves, flowers and fruit. 90 m tall and possibly more than 3000 forming new layers years old, it is 25 times heavier than the Broadleaf tree A flowering tree that of wood under the largest animal, the blue whale. produces fruits with seeds inside. Many inner bark each year. # The science of trees is called broadleaf trees are deciduous but some, Most trees are dendrology. such as holly, are evergreen. exogenous. # Trees are a valuable resource. They give us fuel, timber, medicines, food, Growth layer paper, rubber and even soap. Even more A layer of a plant’s importantly, they take in carbon dioxide trunk just beneath and give off oxygen, maintaining the the inner bark. balance of gases in the atmosphere. It makes new bark Roots Coniferous tree A tree, such as a pine or on the outside and fir, that grows its seeds inside cones and new sapwood on has needle-like leaves. Coniferous trees Bark the inside. Growth layer typically have a narrow, conical crown Sapwood shape. Almost all coniferous trees are Heartwood The inner Annual ring evergreen but some, such as larches, core of a tree’s trunk If you look at the are deciduous. made of old, hardened Heartwood stump of a freshly cut- sapwood. The heartwood down tree, the sapwood that is Palm tree Crown The upper branches and leaves gives a tree its strong of a tree. Each species has a characteristic added to the growth “backbone”. layer each year appears shape based on the number and angle of as a single ring. Count the its twigs and branches. Most crowns either A giant sequoia, the number of rings and you will have a rounded or crown shape. biggest tree on Earth. find the age of the tree. Red foxes can be very territorial, Echolocation The method by which some fighting any other foxes that animals, such as bats and whales ANIMAL stray into their territory. sometimes navigate and find their prey. They emit high-pitched BEHAVIOUR sounds and listen to the echoes to build up a picture of their surroundings.

nimal behaviour includes all the Ethology The study of animal behaviour. things an animal does and how it Eusocial animals Animals that live in tightly Adoes them, including finding food, organized units and depend on one avoiding predators, mating and breeding. another for survival. Different groups It also examines the relationship of within the unit are responsible for certain animals to their environment and to other Birdsong The musical calls made by some tasks such as finding food, raising young or A male and female albatross animals. Some animals live in complex species of bird in order to mark out their defending the group. Most eusocial perform their mating “dance” social groups. Others are usually solitary, territory or attract a mate. Birds also make animals are insects, such as ants and bees. but will group together to mate or raise shorter calls to alert others to danger. Commensalism A relationship between Imprinting A form of learning where some Symbiosis A relationship between their young. Most animal behaviour is Fixed action pattern Instinctive animal Brood parasite An animal that tricks other two living things in which one benefits newborn birds or mammals recognize and members of two species in which one or directed towards increasing the chances behaviour as a result of an animal’s genes species into raising its young. For example, and the other is unaffected. For example, follow the first moving thing they see, both benefit. For example, clownfish live of an animal’s survival. ( 10). For example, it is thought that cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of other jackals sometimes follow tigers, feeding some bird courtship displays are fixed usually a parent. among the vemomous tentacles of sea on the remains of their kills. anemones which do not harm the fish but birds. The young hatch and push the eggs action patterns. Nest A structure built by an animal or insect kill its enemies. The anemone may feed on Alpha animal An individual that leads and around them out of the nest, securing all in which it cares for its eggs or young. influences the rest of its group. The alpha of the nestlings’ food for themselves. Hibernation The process whereby some animals attracted to the clownfish. has the best food and the first pick of mammals spend winter in a state of Circadian rhythm A 24-hour body clock Meerkats are Territory An area that an animal or group mates. He or she is often the largest, reduced body activity. Body temperature 22 that guides the behaviour of most social animals. of animals defends against others of its 23 strongest or oldest member of the group. drops significantly, enabling the animal They live in organisms, affecting patterns such as sleep kind. This removes competition for food In some species, such as baboons, the to conserve energy. groups of 30 or and digestion. Circadian rhythms continue so and take turns and protects young from potential danger. alphas all descend from one “royal” family. regardless of light and dark. Imitation Behaviour where an animal to watch out for Animals mark their territory by leaving copies another animal’s actions. In the predators. their scent around its borders, or by Colony A group of one kind of animal 1980s, researchers observed one Japanese making loud calls. living together. Some animals, such as macaque (a monkey) washing her food in ants, form permanent colonies, co- the river, rather than brushing it off like Nocturnal Active during the night and operating to feed and breed as other macaques. This useful behaviour inactive during the day. In hot areas, part of a unit. Other animals was soon imitated by those around her. animals may be nocturnal to avoid the F A C T F I L E gather only to breed. Honeybees form eusocial colonies. heat of the day. Some animals, such as # Animals of the same species living in Competition The struggle for survival bats, hunt at night to avoid competition different regions may have varying within or between species as they with others—in the case of bats, birds. “dialects” in the calls they use. compete for limited food, water or # Many animals use body language and Parasite A living thing that depends on territory. Competition allows natural facial expressions to communicate with another living thing (a host) for needs selection ( 11) to occur, with animals one another. For example, maintaining such as food and shelter. eye contact, or staring, is a sign of better suited to their habitat and lifestyle aggression in many species. being more likely to survive. Parasitoid A parasite that kills its host. Clown fish and The young of some insects are parasitoid. Chimpanzees live together in Courtship Behaviour used to attract a anemone groups and defend their mate. Some animals, especially birds, have Social animals Animals that live in groups. territory against other groups. elaborate courtship behaviour, often They may share tasks such as finding food Grooming one another helps to strengthen the bonds between involving “dances”. It helps the animals to or looking out for predators. A few kinds group members. select partners that are sexually mature, Most bats are nocturnal. They live in large groups in of animals, such as wolves and lions, work strong, fit and healthy. dark places such as caves or trees. together in packs to hunt. Gliding Controlled Penguins swimming underwater NIMAL falling motion through the air, A used by some forest animals. F A C T F I L E Gliders cannot power their flight, but MOVEMENT # The fastest land animal, the cheetah, use flaps of skin, stretched between sprints at more than 100 km per hour. limbs like parachutes, to slow their Its sharp claws, which are permanently A spider monkey uses descent. Gliding animals can steer but extended, act like spikes on running shoes, ne of the key features of an its prehensile tail to cannot glide upwards. providing good grip on the ground. help it move through animal is its ability to move # The fastest marine animal is the sailfish, the treetops. around. Most creatures can run, Hovering The act of staying in one position Peristalsis Wavelike muscle contractions Swimming Movement through water. which can reach speeds of up to 110 km/h. O in the air, achieved by some flying animals, down a tube. Earthworms, use peristalsis to walk, jump, hop, slither, swim or fly. Aquatic creatures must be streamlined so # A vulture, followed by scientists in a such as hummingbirds. Hovering uses a Limbs are not vital for movement. Brachiation crawl forwards. the water slips past them easily. Fish such motorized glider, was observed gliding very quick flapping motion and burns up as sharks swish their tails from side to side 75 km without flapping its wings once. Snakes are limbless, yet they can slither A type of arboreal Prehensile Capable of grasping. Some much more energy than forward flying. to provide a forward propulsive force, # on the ground, swim in water and even movement used by animals, such as monkeys, have a Hummingbirds are the fastest-flapping while whales move them up and down. birds, using up to 80 wingbeats per second. climb trees. A few animals do not move monkeys to swing by Jet propulsion A type of movement used prehensile tail, used as an Other aquatic animals, such as eels, move # about, at least as adults. For example, their arms from branch by jellyfish, octopuses and squid. Water is extra limb when climbing Most gliders, such as this sugar barnacles are stuck to seashore rocks, to branch. sucked into the animal’s body sac and by undulation. Aquatic birds and turtles through the trees. glider (right), are although they were mobile when squirted out at speed, propelling the flap their limbs to “fly” through the water. Fin A broad, flat surface able to soar up to 90 m they were young. animal in the opposite direction. between tree branches. projecting from the body Streamlined A smooth shape that reduces of aquatic animals, including fish and Jumping A type of movement used by air or water resistance. Animals that fly or whales, used for steering and balance. animals such as kangaroos, rabbits and swim must be streamlined so that the air fleas. Jumping animals have long back Duck flying or water slips past them easily and they Undulatory movement Rabbitfish Flipper A specialized limb in a marine swimming legs, used to power them forward. use less energy to move through it. A wave-like motion that pulls an animal’s mammal, such as a seal, used to propel it Quadrupedal An animal that moves on two body into an S-shape. Undulatory motion 24 through the water. Terrestrial movement Movement over 25 legs. Most land mammals are quadrupedal. is how snakes crawl and eels swim Aerial movement Movement through the Caterpillars looping land, by walking, running, crawling, Flying Movement through the air using air by flying or gliding. Very small animals, along a branch Sessile An animal that is not able to move jumping or slithering. Walking The slowest gait in terrestrial wings. Only birds, bats and insects can fly. such as insects, may also be picked up and about as an adult. For example, mussels bipedal or quadrupedal movement. When They flap their wings down to create a carried by the wind. are stuck to seashore rocks, but were walking, at least one foot is always on the lifting force, and back to push themselves mobile during their young stages. ground. In contrast, during running, all the Arboreal movement Movement through forward. There are two kinds of flapping feet may be off the ground at once. trees. Many arboreal mammals have long flight: hovering and forward flight. Sidewinding Sideways, undulatory motion limbs to reach across gaps and sharp claws used by some snakes to ease movement Wings A pair of structures that enable an Gait The pattern in which an animal moves to grip bark. Frogs and lizards cling to trees Limbless movement Movement in water or across sand or slippery surfaces. In the animal to fly by flapping. In birds and its limbs. Most animals have several gaits with their sticky finger pads, and snakes use overland without the use of legs. Limbless desert, snakes may sidewind so that only mammals these are modified front limbs. used for different speeds or terrain. their muscular bodies to climb branches. animals use muscles in their body to propel one patch of their body is in contact with Birds have feathered wings. Bats’ wings For example, a horse may walk, trot, themselves forward. Snakes slither or swim the hot sand at a time. are made of skin stretched between their canter or gallop. In each gait, the horse using undulatory motion. Snails and slugs long fingers. Most insects have one or two moves its limbs in a different way. Soaring A type of flight used by some large A sidewinder (above) moving over desert sand crawl on one slimy foot. Earthworms use pairs of wings. peristalsis and leeches use looping. birds, such as eagles, to stay in the air, seldom flapping their wings. Soaring birds Looping A type of movement used by some use rising air currents to keep them aloft. caterpillars and leeches. The animal secures They can fly for many kilometres in this its rear end and reaches foward with its Bipedal An animal that moves on fashion, using little energy. front end. With the front of its body in two legs. Apes and large birds put one place, it pulls forward its rear end to form a leg in front of the other. Others, such as loop and starts the cycle again. kangaroos, hop on two legs. A few species, A kangaroo pushes off with its back such as the basilisk lizard, may run on two A cheetah, the fastest Muscle A body part that gets shorter, or feet and leans forwards as it leaps into legs in short bursts, to escape predators. land animal in the world contracts, to move another body part. the air. Its long tail helps keep it balanced. Prey An animal that is hunted and eaten ATTACK & by other animals. F A C T F I L E Pronking A sudden, stiff-legged leap into DEFENCE the air, used by some herd animals, # When attacked, a sea cucumber can especially gazelles, as they run from squirt out its insides as a distraction whilst predators. It is thought to be a signal to it escapes. It later grows them back! eat-eating predators obtain the pursuing predator that the individual # Most predators depend on stealth to their food by hunting and is fit and the predator would do better to creep up on prey. Owls’ feathers have soft edges so they make hardly any sound as chase another animal in the herd. Mattacking other creatures: their they fly. Cat’s paws enable them to pad prey. Most predators are strong and agile, softly over ground without being heard. with keen senses and weapons such as Porcupine # Plants also need defences from being sharp teeth and claws. Animals use a eaten by animals. Because they are rooted variety of means to defend themselves. to the ground, they cannot escape. Some Some have hard bodies, spines or foul- varieties, such as cacti and brambles, have spines tasting flesh. Some use speed to escape, that make them difficult while others may fight back, kicking out A group of female lions ambush a wildebeest. Chemical defence A form of self-defence Mobbing behaviour An attack launched to eat. Some, such as with hooves or charging with tusks or where an animal sprays toxic liquids over by a group of animals in order to drive stinging nettles, have horns. Safety in numbers also helps— Armour A hard body covering that helps its attacker. This is common in insects and away an attacker. Mobbing is common in stinging hairs that make them painful for animals many eyes and ears are more likely to protect animals. Armour may take the in some mammals, such as skunks. animals such as nesting birds, whose to touch. A few plants form of a hard shell, as in tortoises, or detect predators. young are at risk. are poisonous or taste overlapping scales, as in armadillos. Some foul to stop animals Pack-hunter A predator that hunts as part reptiles also have armour-like, scaly skin. eating them. Adrenaline A chemical released into the of a group. Pack-hunters increase their bloodstream when an animal senses Spines Sharp, needle-like protrusions on Autotomy The action of deliberately chance of success by surrounding prey, or The harmless milk snake (above) mimics the 26 danger. It makes the heart beat faster, losing a body part, used by some animals working to bring down large prey. the body of animals such as hedgehogs, bright colours of the venomous coral snake. 27 sending more blood around the body, so to distract predators while they escape. porcupines and porcupine fish. When the muscles can work harder. For example, some lizards can shed the Predator An animal that kills and eats threatened, a porcupine curls into a ball or other animals. tip of their tail, which continues to twitch backs into its attacker, leaving spines Warning colours Bright colours and embedded in its attacker’s skin. as the lizard runs away. Insects and Musk oxen form a circle around their markings that warn that an animal tastes spiders shed their limbs in a similar way. young to defend them from wolves. Startle display A sudden action intended bad or is poisonous to eat. Certain fish, beetles, caterpillars, moths and butterflies Camouflage The means by which animals to intimidate or startle an attacker. Some have horrible-tasting or poisonous flesh. escape the notice of predators or prey, animals flash bright colours or patterns to Predators soon learn to avoid them using their colours, patterns or body startle predators. Other animals suddenly because they recognize their colours. shape to blend in with their surroundings. A copperhead pit viper uses its yellow tail tip to puff up to make themselves appear larger, attract small animals, then strikes with its fangs. The countershading of or leap out to scare their predator. Warning colours may also signal that an a tiger shark animal is venomous. For example, several Countershading A type of camouflage Sting A short, sharp organ belonging to venomous snakes are brightly coloured. Ambush A surprise attack. In an ambush, used by many fish. A dark back enables some animals, such as bees, ants and a predator hides until its prey approaches, the fish to blend in with the depths when scorpions. Stings inject venom into other when it suddenly darts out. Ambushes use seen from above; a pale underside animals, in order to paralyze or kill prey, less energy than long chases. enables it to merge with the light surface or harm attackers. waters when seen from below. Apparent death A type of self-defence Venom A poisonous substance found in where an animal feigns death if Mimicry A similarity between two species the bodies of some animals, including threatened. This deters those predators that protects one or both of them. Some species of snake, spider, scorpion and fish. that prefer to make their own kill. animals mimic other, more dangerous It can be used for killing prey or defence, Many snakes feign death. The Virginia species, in order to scare off predators. and is usually injected with a sharp sting The caterpillar of a hercules moth is brightly opossum also uses apparent death, For example, some harmless flies have or bite. Venomous predators may give coloured and covered in spines in order to deter also called “playing possum”. The talons of an owl are suited to snatching up prey. similar markings to bees and wasps. warning that they are about to strike. predators from eating it. Olfactory navigation Navigation that MIGRATION relies on mental maps based upon scent. F A C T F I L E The willow Olfactory navigation is usually used over warbler’s small distances. Salmon and some species # Caribou (reindeer) migrate farther migration takes it of salamander are believed to overland than any other animal, walking igration is the movement of from Siberia to the use olfactory navigation up to 1300 km every spring from the an animal or a group of southern tip of during migrations. coniferous forests of Canada to their Africa each winter. Manimals from one place to summer pastures in the Arctic. another. This usually takes place once a # Many migrating animals feed year, in a certain season. Animals may intensively before migrating, in order to migrate to find food or to reach build up their fat reserves for the journey. conditions more suitable for breeding. # A willow warbler’s body holds enough Migrations take place over land, by air Willow energy to enable it to fly 6o hours non- warbler ASIA stop. This enables it to fly across deserts and by water. Birds migrate the farthest, Complete migration A migration where Every autumn, monarch butterflies migrate from and seas on its migratory route. because flight enables them to cover all members of a species migrate Canada to Mexico, where they cluster in their millions on tree trunks. long distances. An animal that migrates together. Complete migrations are Noctule is called a migrant. typical of caribou (reindeer) and many bat Painted EUROPE Painted ladies are the birds, including warblers and lady farthest-travelled Old The noctule bat flies up to shorebirds. World (not from 1600 km across eastern Americas) butterflies. Europe in the spring. Homing The ability of an animal to travel towards a set location, such as a True navigation home or breeding ground, from an Navigation that depends on unfamiliar starting point. Homing Desert recognition of major landmarks may depend on celestial, Caribou 28 locust such as rivers, mountain ranges or even 29 magnetic or olfactory (reindeer) roads and cities. Marine animals, such as navigation. Golden NORTH Monarch plover dolphins, navigate by remembering the Pigeons are well known AMERICA butterfly AFRICA shape of the ocean floor. homing birds. Monarch butterfly V-formation A pattern formed by Irruption Any Partial migration migrating birds in the air in order to save migration that Altitudinal migration The migration of just some energy. Air movements caused by the occurs at random The movement of animals from a members of a species, usually to breed. flapping of the bird in front provide extra intervals. high altitude to a lower one, for example Navigation The ability of The herring gull, red-tailed hawk and lift for the birds behind it. Geese, ducks, Irruptions may up and down a mountain. Many animals SOUTH an animal to travel from one golden eagle are all partial migrants. pelicans and cranes all fly in this formation. involve some, AMERICA leave mountain peaks in winter as plants Golden plovers point to another Partial migrations are much more many or all of a population. Migrating caribou often have become covered in snow. migrate from Brazil Nomadic migration The random common than complete migrations. For example, lemmings are known to northern Canada to swim across rivers to Celestial navigation Navigation using the for their irruptive migrations, which and back, a round migration of animals in search of Removal migration A migration where a reach their destination. stars, sun and moon. For example, it is occur if there is a shortage of food, or trip of 40,000 km. food. For example, wildebeest and species permanently leaves its original thought that starlings navigate using the if they become overcrowded. zebras migrate nomadically across the environment. Removal migrations sun to tell which direction they are flying African plains. Once they have eaten the take place when an environment Latitudinal migration The movement of in. Warblers, flycatchers and other night- plants in one area they move to another. is destroyed or if there is not animals north and south to different Magnetic navigation Some animals can time flyers are throught to navigate by enough food to go round. climates. In the northern hemisphere, detect the Earth’s magnetic field and use it Each year, swarms of locusts fly referring to the position of the stars. the north is colder than the south, and as a guide when they migrate. Bats, sea 3200 km around the Sarhara desert. Seasonal migration in a nomadic migration. Compass navigation The ability of an many animals migrate south for the turtles and birds use magnetic navigation. Migration that matches animal to travel in a compass direction, winter. Animals return in the summer Scientists think they can do this because the change in seasons. for example north, without reference to when the north is warmer and food is their brains contain tiny particles of a Most animal migrations landmarks and regardless to starting point. plentiful once more. magnetic mineral called magnetite. are seasonal. branch 16, 20-21 dinoflagellate 8, 12 fungi 6-9, 12-15, 19 L nest 23 prehensile 24-25 stigma 18-19 breeding 22, 28 disease 13 club 8 nocturnal 23 prey 26-27 sting 27 INDEX bromeliad 14 dispersal 18-19 imperfect 8 leaflet 14, 16-17 nucleus 6-7, 12-13 prokaryote 13 stoma 14, 16-17 bryophyte 8, 14-15 animal 18 sac 8 leaves 14-15, 17, 18, 20-21 nutrients 14 pronking 27 stomata see stoma bud 16, 19 ballistic 18 compound 16-17 nut 18-19 protein 13 style 18-19 bulb 18 water 19 simple 15, 17 protists 6-8, 12-13 subspecies 7, 10 A wind 19 lichen 15 protozoan 12-13 swimming 24-25 adaptation 10-11 division 7, 8-9 limb 24-25 symbiosis 23 adaptive radiation 10 DNA 7, 10, 19 G Linnaeus, Carolus 7 adrenaline 26 domain 6-8 liverwort 8, 14-15 O gait 24 looping 24 algae 12-13, 15 order 6-7 C genes 10-11, 13, 23 QR brown 8 organelles 6, 12-13 cactus 14-15, 20, 27 genetics 11 quadrupedal 25 T golden 8 organisms 8-13, 15, 22 camouflage 11, 26 genus 6-7 rank 6-7 taxonomy 6-7 green 8, 15 single-celled 6, 12-13 carbon 6 geotropism 17 reproduction 7 tendril 17 red 8 M ovary 18-19 carbon dioxide 13, 16-17 E germination 14, 18-19 resin 21 territory 22-23 alpha animal 22 echolocation 23 oxygen 16-17, 19 carpel 18-19 ginkgo 8, 14 mating 22 respiration 7 testa 19 ambush 26 embryo 11, 18-19 catkin 18-19 gliding 24-25 Mendel, Gregor 11 rhizoid 16 toadstool 8, 14-15 amoebae 8, 12-13 embryology 10 cells 6-7, 10, 12-13, 16-19 gnetophyte 8, 14 mesophyll 16 rhizome 17 transpiration 16-17 analogous structure 10 endosperm 18 chemical defence 26 growth layer (tree) 20-21 micro-organisms 12-13 root hairs 17 trees 14, 19, 20-21 angiosperm 8, 14 epidermis 16-17 chlorophyll 16 guard cells 16-17 migrant 28 roots 15, 16-21 broadleaf 20 animal movement 24-25 epiphyte 14 P chloroplast 16-17 gymnosperm 14 migration 28-29 primary 17 coniferous 20 aerial 24 ethology 23 pack-hunter 27 cilia 12-13 altitudinal 28 vascular 17 endogenous 20 arboreal 24 Euglena 12 palisade layer 16-17 ciliate 8, 12 complete 28 running 25 exogenous 20 limbless 24 eukaryotes 6, 8-9 palm tree 18-20 circadian rhythm 22 latitudinal 28 palm 21 terrestrial 25 eusocial animals 23 parasite 23 class 6-9 nomadic 29 tropism 17 undulatory 25 evergreen 20 brood 22 classification 6-9 partial 29 trunk 20-21 30 animals 6-11, 22-29 evolution 10-11 H parasitoid 23 31 clubmoss 8, 14 removal 29 tuber 17 behaviour in 22-23 convergent 10 heartwood 20-21 peristalsis 25 S coccus 12 seasonal 29 twig 21 courtship in 22-23 divergent 10 heliozoan 8, 13 petal 14-16, 18-19, sap 17 coconut 18-19 mildew 6 methods of attack by 26-27 parallel 11 hemiparasite 14 phloem 16-17, 20 sapwood 21 colony 22 mimicry 26-27 methods of defence by 26-27 extinction 10 heredity 11 photosynthesis scientific name 7 commensalism 22 minerals 7, 16 anther 18-19 hibernation 23 7, 12-19, 21 seed coat 19 competition 22-23 mobbing behaviour 27 apicomplexa 8, 12 homing 28 phototropism 17 seed leaf 18 cone 14, 17, 20 monocot 8, 15 V apparent death 26 homologous structure 11 phylum 6-9 seeds 14, 16, 18-20 conifers 8, 20 moss 8, 15 variations 10-11 archaea 6-8 hornwort 8, 15 pistil 18 sepal 19 corolla 19 mould 6, 8, 14-15 vascular tissue 16-17 armour 26 horsetail 8, 15 plants 6-8, 11, 14-15, 19 sessile 24-25 cotyledon 14-15, 18-19 multicellular 12-13 venomous 23, 27 artificial selection 11 F host 23 annual 14 sexual selection 10-11 countershading 26 muscle 24 vestigial organ 11 asexual reproduction 16, 18-19 family 6-7 hovering 24 aquatic 14, 19 shoot 17, 19 crown (tree) 20-21 mushroom 6, 14-15 v-formation 29 Aspergillus 12 fern 8, 14, 16, 19 hybrid 7 biennial 14 shrub 14-15, 20 cyanobacterium 12 mutation 10-11 vine 15, 20 autotomy 26 fertilization 18-19 hyphae 15 carnivorous 14, 16 sidewinding 25 cycad 8, 14 mycelium 15 virus 12-13 filament 18-19 coniferous 15 soaring 25 Vorticella 13 fin 24 flowering 14 social animals 23 fixed action pattern 23 functions of 16-17 speciation 11 flagella 13 herbaceous 15 species 6-7, 10-12, 14-15, B flipper 24 IJK NO non-vascular 15 17, 20, 22-24, 26-29 bacillus 12 D flowers 14, 16-19, 21 imitation 23 natural selection 10-11, 22 parasitic 15 spirillum 13 WXY bacteria 6-8, 12-13 Darwin, Charles 10-11 flying 24-25 imprinting 23 navigation 28-29 perennial 15, 20 spongy mesophyll walking 24-25 bark 20-21, 24 deciduous 20 foliage 16 inheritance 11 celestial 28 succulent 15 layer 16-17 Wallace, Alfred Russel 11 berry 18 diatoms 8, 12 foraminiferan 8, 13 irruption 28 compass 28 vascular 15, 16-17 spores 6, 14-16, 19 warning colours 27 bipedal 24-25 dicot 8, 14-15 fossils 10-11 jet propulsion 24 magnetic 28 pollen 18-20 stamen 18-19 wings 25 birdsong 22 Didinium 12 frond 14, 16 jumping 24-25 olfactory 28-29 pollination 18-19 startle display 27 xylem 16-17 brachiation 24 digestion 11, 22 fruits 14, 17, 18-21 kingdom 6-9, 14 true 29 predator 26-27 stem 15, 16-18 yeast 6, 13, 14