AUSTRALASIAN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 35, 2017

The Old Burial Ground: the 2008 archaeological investigations

Nicholas Pitt1, Mary Casey2, Anthony Lowe3 and Robyn Stocks4

Upgrade works in 2008 to the required the archaeological excavation and removal of a portion of the . This was the principal burial place for the non-Aboriginal population of Sydney from September 1792 to January 1820. The 2008 archaeological investigation recorded evidence for 68 burials. This paper summarises key results of this investigation, apart from the skeletal remains. The archaeological remains provided insights into the burial practices of the early colonists, including the spatial arrangement of graves and coffin construction methods. Comparisons with other burial grounds and cemeteries in and overseas revealed that some of these burial practices were unusual, while most others were commonplace. Unusual practices included the adjacent burials of adults and children, thought to be mothers and their children, a substantial minority of burials orientated facing west, and a lack of coffin furniture and clothing-related artefacts. This paper discusses possible reasons for west- facing burials with reference to the broader symbolic meanings attached to burial orientation. It considers the possibility that these formed a distinct group, but concludes that without further evidence no firm identification can be made. It also presents evidence from the 2008 investigation that demonstrates the limited extent of the nineteenth-century exhumations.

The Old Sydney Burial Ground (OSBG) was the principal burial place for the non- Aboriginal population of Sydney from September 1792 to January 1820. It was contemporary with St John’s Cemetery, Parramatta (1790). The OSBG was located near the present southwest corner of George and Druitt streets, Sydney (Figures 1 and 2). While initially placed on the outskirts of the town, by the early nineteenth century the city had expanded to surround the former burial ground. After considerable political debate, the OSBG was redeveloped from the late 1860s, largely as the location of the Sydney Town Hall. Although many graves were exhumed in the 1860s, construction works in the area from the 1870s onward repeatedly dis- covered burials. To date there have been four archaeological investigations of the site, firstly by the University of Sydney (1974), then Godden Mackay Pty Ltd (1991) and Casey & Lowe (2003, 2007– 2008), (Birmingham and Liston 1976; Casey & Lowe 2006, 2007a, 2017; Godden Mackay 1991; Lowe and Mackay 1992). All archaeological investigations have been in response to construction works. Between 2007 and 2010, the City of Sydney commissioned upgrade works to the Sydney Town Hall. These included the Figure 1: Central Sydney, showing the location of the OSBG, outlined in red. excavation of an additional basement to provide extra space for storage and plant below the Lower 2007, 2010). In 2007 Casey & Lowe were commissioned to Town Hall (also known as the Peace Hall; City of Sydney carry out archaeological testing within the Peace Hall before this work could be approved. Subsequently, the Heritage 1 Casey & Lowe, [email protected] Council of NSW approved a programme of archaeological 2 Casey & Lowe and Department of Archaeology, University of recording and salvage (Casey & Lowe 2007a, 2007b), which Sydney, [email protected] was undertaken between 7 January and 5 March 2008, with 3 Casey & Lowe, [email protected] further excavations on 9–10 July and 19–22 August 2008. 4 Casey & Lowe, [email protected] Each grave was excavated by hand. The deposits immediately

3 Figure 2: The historic boundaries of the OSBG in relation to current buildings and graves recorded archaeologically to date. surrounding the human remains were sieved using 5 mm and buried on the site in 1789 (Collins 1798:232; Johnson and 10 mm sieves. A public open day was held on 22 January Sainty 2001:12). Captain Shea’s funeral had been conducted 2008, which attracted over 3000 visitors with many lining up with full military honours and was attended by the Governor around the block (ABC News Online 22 Jan. 2008). and fellow officers (Collins 1798:53; Tench 1793:15). It is This paper summarises the results of the 2008 excavations possible that the location of Shea’s grave influenced the and discusses a range of possible interpretations for the site. selection of the site for the burial ground (Birmingham and The analysis of the skeletal remains and the results of stable Liston 1976:2). isotope analysis from the site are presented in separate papers The appearance of the OSBG changed over time. Initially, in this volume. it appears to have been unfenced (Lesueur 1802) and by February 1804 a plan to enclose the burial ground was pro- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND posed in the Sydney Gazette. This was intended to prevent pigs After they arrived in 1788, the British colonists in Sydney and other livestock grazing there and disturbing the ground. used a number of smaller burial places before the OSBG was By the end of that year, however, palings from the fence had established in 1792. The evidence for these is limited but at been stolen for firewood (Sydney Gazette 5 Feb. 1804:3, 25 least two semi-official burial places were used (Johnson and Nov. 1804:3) and by 1808 the fence was completely gone and Sainty 2001:9-10; Walker 1930:297). One was near George a subscription was undertaken to construct a stone wall set behind a ditch (Sydney Gazette 25 Sep. 1808:2, 9 Oct. 1808:2). Street in The Rocks, around Campbell’s Wharf (Sydney 1 Gazette 25 Mar. 1834:2) and the other was near Clarence The wall was completed in 1809 and measured 168 perches Street, roughly between Margaret and Erskine streets, in the (845 m) in length (Sydney Gazette 4 June 1809:2, 3 Sept. vicinity of the old military barracks at Wynyard (Collins 1809:1). 1798:232, Legislative Council of NSW 1845:818; Figure 1). Governor Macquarie officially expanded the OSBG on Individuals were also occasionally buried on private land, with 5 June 1812, and the new boundaries were set with the high status individuals buried privately within Sydney even assistance of Samuel Marsden, the principal chaplain, William after the OSBG opened (AHMS 1999; Casey & Lowe 2007b; Cowper and Robert Cartwright, the assistant chaplains, and Douglas 2007; Bell’s Life in Sydney 19 Jun. 1847:3; Sydney James Meehan, the assistant surveyor. The expanded area Morning Herald 16 Jun. 1847:3). of the burial ground ‘joined to the present Ground – and The OSBG was set apart for public burials in September Southward & westward of it’ (LEMA 2011). A comparison of 1792 as the construction of the military barracks at Wynyard encroached on the earlier burial place. The site was established 1 Although more commonly a unit of area, ‘perch’ could also be used by Governor Arthur Phillip and the Reverend Richard as a unit of distance, equivalent to the ‘rod’ and the ‘pole’, which Johnson, the Colonial Chaplain, on land previously held by were standardised as 5.5 yards (5.0292 m; Oxford English Dictionary Captain John Shea of the Marines, who is thought to have been 2005: entry II.2). 4 Meehan’s 1807 plan of Sydney with later plans shows that this stage of the Sydney Town Hall on its portion of the land. Only additional area was a triangle of land to the southwest of the those graves that could be readily discovered were exhumed existing burial ground (Meehan 1807). and relocated in 1869 (Cathedral Close Act 1869: sec. 8; It is usually thought that the burials at the OSBG were all Empire 25 Jun. 1869:2; Murray 2016:22; ‘Old Chum’ 1910a). undertaken by Church of England clergy, using the burial The newspaper, The Empire, reported at the time that the service contained in the Book of Common Prayer (Birming- undertakers had difficulty in finding unmarked burials, and ham and Liston 1976:4; Johnson and Sainty 2001:13; Lowe stated that no bones were found from the graves that were and Mackay 1992:16). This is likely to be broadly correct, located but human remains were found in vaults (Empire 25 based on parallels with English law, which allowed Catholics Jun. 1869:2). Taking this claim at face value, it would seem and non-Anglican Protestants to be buried in their local that most remains removed in 1869 came from vaults rather Church of England burial ground, as long as they used the than from graves. This has meant that graves were repeatedly required services (Burn 1763:197; Cherryson et al. 2012:86; discovered during construction works in and around the area Comyns and Kyd 1793:178-179; Shepherd 1801:409). of the former burial ground up to the first archaeological Nevertheless, there were times when no Anglican clergy excavations on the site in 1974. Some of these discoveries would have been available (Bolt 2009:73, 80). For example, were reported in contemporary newspapers or council records. William Pascoe Crook, a former Congregationalist missionary, The recorded discoveries include graves found during major was appointed acting chaplain after the Rum Rebellion in construction works such as the 1870s construction of the St Andrew’s Deanery (since demolished), 1880s construction of January 1808 (Gunson 1966). Alternatively, the ceremony was the Centennial Hall and the associated Lower Town Hall (the performed by the Parish Clerk of St Phillip’s Church, Sydney, location of the 2008 investigation) and a porte coche (since a lay position that involved school teaching, administration demolished) associated with the Sydney Town Hall, and the and some service leading (Sydney Gazette 8 May 1803:3). A construction of Town Hall Railway Station (Empire 12 Aug. small number of Jewish burials also appear to have taken place 1871:3; Singleton Argus 19 Jun. 1929:2, 17 Oct. 1934:3; at the OSBG. A Jewish burial society was formed in 1817 with Sydney Mail 14 Jul. 1926:16; Sydney Morning Herald 17 Aug. its first burial in ‘the General Burial Ground in George Street, 1883:5, 16 Jul. 1888:7, 14 Jul. 1926:16). near the Police Office’ (York Street Synagogue 1945 [1845]:7). Although the evidence for this society is quite late, the claim is very plausible, given that a Jewish religious PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL congregation was meeting in 1820, and a specific Jewish INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SITE section was set apart in the later Devonshire Street (Sandhills) Prior to the 2007-2008 programme of archaeological testing Cemetery (Fowles 1848-50:64; Levi and Bergman 2002: 2 and excavation, the OSBG was the subject of three 149-150; York Street Synagogue 1945 [1845]). Based on the archaeological investigations: salvage works in 1974, and 2008 register of burials, at least six people identified as Jewish archaeological excavation and monitoring in 1991 and 2003 were buried at the OSBG, although only two were buried (Figure 2). during or after 1817 (City of Sydney 2008). The 1974 salvage excavation was undertaken by a team of A minimum of 2361 people were recorded as being buried students from the University of Sydney, led by pioneering at the OSBG, although the actual total was probably higher historical archaeologist, Judy Birmingham. This excavation due to periods of poor record keeping (City of Sydney 2008). was in response to brick vaults being discovered during the People from almost all sections of colonial life were buried construction of the Town Hall Arcade. In the four days from 4 there. Some poorly documented distinctions were maintained April four vaults were recorded, one of which contained a between certain social groups, such as non-commissioned substantially intact coffin. It was decorated with iron studs and officers of the NSW Corps being buried in the northeast the timber identified as Australian red cedar (Toona australis – corner, near George and Druitt streets (Casey & Lowe since renamed T. ciliata). This salvage excavation recorded 2006:25; ‘Old Chum’ 1910b). Several burials were marked by other features associated with the burial ground, including 3 stone monuments of various forms and a number of the footings thought to be from the 1820 boundary wall headstone inscriptions were recorded by various visitors to the (Birmingham and Liston 1976; Sydney Morning Herald 3 Apr. burial ground (e.g. Arnold 1815; Bonwick 1870:108; Sydney 1974:3). Herald 24 Jan. 1833:3, 7 Aug. 1837:3; Sydney Morning The 1991 archaeological monitoring and excavation Herald 15 Nov. 1850:3; The Australian 21 Aug. 1829:3). The programme was carried out during the installation of a new OSBG formally closed on 28 January 1820, when it was stormwater pipe through the basement of the Sydney Town replaced by a new burial ground further to the south of the Hall. The remains of seven burials were found in graves and growing town (HRA Ser. 1, Vol. X:282, 686; Sydney Gazette brick-lined vaults. Notable discoveries included a partial 22 Jan. 1820:1, 5 Feb. 1820:3). headstone with an inscription belonging to Elizabeth Steele, a After a long process of debate, the OSBG was finally convict on the Second Fleet, and an Australian red cedar coffin redeveloped in the late 1860s after the passing of the decorated with rows of brass tacks. This decorated coffin was Cathedral Close Act 1869. Most of the land was given to the located in a brick-lined vault, while undecorated coffins were City of Sydney Council, with some passing to St Andrew’s found in graves (Godden Mackay 1991; Lowe and Mackay Cathedral, and a further portion was allocated for the widening 1992). of George Street. The City of Sydney constructed the first The 2003 programme of archaeological monitoring and excavation was undertaken during further upgrade works on 2 The Devonshire Street (Sandhills) Cemetery opened in 1820 to the Sydney Town Hall by the City of Sydney. This programme replace the OSBG. Its burials were relocated in 1901 to make space was carried out by Casey & Lowe, and directed by Tony Lowe. for Sydney’s Central Railway Station, which now occupies the site (Johnson & Sainty 2001). The areas investigated included part of the Town Hall 3 Some monuments remained standing up to the 1860s when they basement and outside in the northern strip between the Town appeared in photographs of the area (Macarthur 1857–1866; Moss Hall and Druitt Street. Inside the basement, the areas of impact c.1867–1868). were limited, and only four graves were discovered and 5 recorded during the archaeological programme. Although the burials at Old Melbourne Gaol and Pentridge Prison (Hewitt basement graves had been affected by earlier earthworks, they and Wright 2004; Smith 2011), and a mass grave of victims of did contain some evidence for coffins. the 1627 Batavia mutiny, on Beacon Island, Outside the Town Hall, adjacent to Druitt Street, the (Paterson and Franklin 2004). exposed area was greater and required the removal of the Archaeological studies into the commemoration of death existing concrete slab. This northern area revealed a concen- have often used methods such as the systematic survey and tration of 29 grave cuts and three brick-lined vaults. The cataloguing of burial monuments and their associated southern area was dominated by massive footing trenches landscapes. Given the general lack of surviving burial from excavations for the Town Hall in the 1860s and 1870s, monuments at the OSBG, these studies were not extensively which had removed all evidence of burials. The archaeologists reviewed during the present analysis. However, Australian identified the early nineteenth-century topsoil, between RL examples include Lavelle’s landscape study of Sydney burial 20.0 m and 21.0 m (AHD),4 around 500 mm below the 2003 places and crematoria (1989), Casey’s study of Camperdown ground level. These levels provide a fair indication of what the Cemetery (1993) and Muller’s investigation of the West historic ground level would have been when the OSBG was Terrace Cemetery, Adelaide (2015). Sarah Tarlow (1999) and functioning. Although only one grave had the base of a Harold Mytum (2004) offer extended reviews of above ground headstone and footstone in situ (Grave 36), several other archaeological studies of burial grounds and their findings. displaced headstone fragments were found. These fragments The colonial origins of the non-Aboriginal population in did not bear any names, but one was inscribed with partly early nineteenth-century Sydney also makes the archae- legible text: ‘Regt’ [i.e. regiment], ‘[Died in the # Yea]r of His ological investigations of contemporary historical burial AGE/… honnest and/… and Faithful/… [an]d Peaceable/… grounds in Europe and European colonies highly relevant to and’ and ‘… illness … /He establishd … /Being the firs[t] … the interpretation of the OSBG. Recent reviews of seventeenth /leaves an unhap[py] … /and a Babe wi …’ (Casey & Lowe to nineteenth-century burial practices in Europe and North 2006). America include Weglian (2006), Cherryson et al. (2012) and The discovery of these graves along the northern side of Tarlow (2015). These reviews and specific excavation reports the Town Hall meant that the proposed works were not on sites overseas (Adams and Colls 2007; Bashford and Sibun approved. These graves remain preserved in situ underneath 2007; Brickley et al. 2006; Bybee et al. 2002; Caffell and the new surfacing. This area is considered to be the most intact Clarke 2011; Henderson et al. 2013; Kelso and Staube 2008; section of the surviving OSBG and has been designated as an McCarthy et al. 2012; Melikian 2004a, 2004b; Miles et al. area for in situ conservation of burials. 2008; Miles with Connell 2012; Oxford Archaeology 2005; Perry et al. 2006; Powers and Miles 2011; Pre-Construct COMPARATIVE SITES, STUDIES AND Archaeology 2012; Reeve and Adams 1993; Rogers et al. METHODS 2006) enable the results from the OSBG to be placed in a broader context. In particular they help understand changes A number of non-Aboriginal burial grounds have been that occurred in the mid to late nineteenth century, such as archaeologically excavated in Australia. Notable examples are more intentionally landscaped cemeteries, the use of mass- the Cadia Cemetery in western NSW (Higginbotham 2002), St produced coffin furniture, and more elaborate burial clothes. Mary’s Anglican Churchyard Pauper Cemetery, Adelaide, SA (Anson and Henneberg 2004; Matic 2003), the North Brisbane RESULTS OF THE 2008 INVESTIGATION Burial Ground (McGowan 2007; McGowan and Prangnell 2009, 2011; Rains and Prangnell 2002) and the Randwick Overview Destitute Children’s Asylum Cemetery, in the grounds of the Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney (Godden Mackay and The 2008 archaeological programme was undertaken within Austral Archaeology 1997). In New Zealand a small number the Peace Hall. This hall was built as a basement in the 1880s of nineteenth-century Pākehā burial grounds have been with the expansion of the original 1860s Town Hall. The 2008 archaeologically recorded. These include a small Wesleyan investigation provides substantial information regarding the (Methodist) graveyard at Withells Road, Christchurch (Trotter impact of the 1880s works on the OSBG burials. The 1880s and McCulloch 1989), St John’s Cemetery (1860–1926), an works reduced the ground level to between RL 18.75 and Anglican graveyard at Milton, Otago (Petchey et al. 2017) and 18.93 (AHD) across the area of the Peace Hall. This is likely other unidentified burials found during the relocation of to have been equivalent to removing approximately 1.4 m and burials from the Westney Road Denominational Graveyard, 2.2 m of the OSBG phase soil, based on a comparison with the Auckland (Best and Furey 2006). level of the topsoil found in the 2003 archaeological investigations (RL 20.21 to 21.02; Casey & Lowe 2006:18).5 In a number of cases grave locations at cemeteries and Generally the 1880s excavations went down to bedrock or burial grounds have been recorded through archaeological hard clays. The surviving graves were quite shallow, often 200 investigations, while the burials themselves have been left in mm to 300 mm below the basement level. All but eight of the situ. Larger examples of this practice are Camperdown surviving graves had originally been cut into bedrock. Cemetery (Banksia Heritage + Archaeology 2004) and St Therefore it is quite possible that higher graves may have been Mary’s Catholic Church Concord (Stedinger Associates 2010), removed during excavation for the 1880s basement, which both in the suburbs of Sydney. Geophysical studies have also stopped just above the coffin level of the burials discussed in been used in various ways to locate graves in cemeteries, such this paper. In other words, the graves recorded in 2008 may not as Stanger and Roe’s investigation in Townsville (2007). represent all the burials that originally took place within the Historical graves outside regular cemeteries have also been study area. recorded, including solitary graves (AHMS 1999, 2009),

5 For further comparison, the present day height of the nearest street to 4 These levels are provided using the Australian Height Datum (AHD), the 2008 investigations (Druitt Street, near York Street) is RL 21.23 a national standard for absolute height above mean sea level (NSW Spatial Services: Survey Mark PM150342), or roughly 2.4 m (Geoscience Australia n.d.). RL standards for Reduced Level. above the level of the 1880s basement.

6 Figure 3: Some of the partially excavated graves showing the outline of the hexagonal coffins with the surrounding grave fill within the grave cut. Graves 9 to 15 are in the foreground of this photo, looking west. Image: A. Lowe, 22/1/2008.

The 2008 investigations uncovered the remains of 68 only identified from severely truncated grave cuts. Remnant 6 graves (Figures 3 and 4, Table 1). These ranged from burials human bone or teeth were collected from 30 graves. Apart containing highly decayed, yet complete skeletons, to graves from the human remains, the archaeological excavation has provided new information on a range of different character- 6 Throughout this paper, the term ‘grave’ is used to refer to archae- istics of late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century burials in ological evidence for a burial of an individual, including cases where Sydney. This information includes the impact and nature of the no human remains were found. In the case where two coffins were 1880s exhumations, the spatial arrangements and orientations found buried together in one grave cut (Graves 39.1 and 39.2), these were counted as two ‘graves’ for the purposes of all in-text numbers of the graves relative to one another, and the evidence for and summary tables included in this paper and the excavation report. timber coffins and metal hardware.

7 (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) wall and cross plank sides and base Shape Integrity Length Width Shape Survival Length Width or trapezoidal or trapezoidal shoulders) Grave Exhumation Orientation Age # status category on base nails burials number Grave cut Coffin RL Ave. In situ Related Skeleton Table 1: Key Table attributes of graves recorded in the 2008 archaeological excavations at the OSBG; dimensions in mm, RL according Australian to Height Datum. Note that 1, ‘graves’ 36, 47, 53, 54 and 61 were not graves. This discrepancy arose as the graves were numbered during the 2007 archaeological testing program (Casey & Lowe 2007a). 1 Not a grave 2 Exhumed Head at east Child Rectangular 1300 Truncated 550 Hexagonal Base 1100 390 18.75 3 Exhumed Head at east Adult Rectangular 1970 Truncated 500 Hexagonal Base 1920 470 18.83 Y 4 Indeterminate Unknown Infant Rectangular Complete 620 270 No evidence of coffin 18.80 5 5 Exhumed Head at east Adult Rectangular Complete 2230 610 Hexagonal Base and sides 1910 540 18.69 4 6 Exhumed Unknown Child Rectangular Complete 1150 540 No evidence of coffin 18.79 7 7 Exhumed Head at east Adult Rectangular Complete 2220 600 Hexagonal (rounded Base and sides 1855 420 18.80 6 8 Indeterminate Unknown Adult Unknown 1480 Truncated Unknown Base 175 18.85 9 Exhumed Head at west Adult Rectangular Near complete 2210 560 Hexagonal Lid, base and sides 1900 460 18.70 Y 10 6801 10 Indeterminate Unknown Infant Rectangular Near complete 490 180 Unknown Base 490 180 18.85 9 11 Exhumed11 Head at east Adult Hexagonal Complete 2000 600 Hexagonal imprints Timber from north 1860 360 18.79 12 Indeterminate Head at west Child Rectangular Near complete 1240 34013 Hexagonal Exhumed Lid and base 960 Head at east 160 Adult 18.72 Rectangular Y 14 6797 1880 Truncated 430 Hexagonal Partial lid, sides and base14 Indeterminate 1174 460 18.68 Head at east Adult Y Trapezoidal Near complete 2060 740 Hexagonal15 Partial lid and base 1910 Exhumed 420 18.78 Head at east Infant Trapezoidal Y 12 Complete 6958 800 480 Tapered? Poorly represented lid, 660 180 18.80 16 Exhumed Head at east Adult Rectangular Complete 1760 50017 Hexagonal Base Exhumed 1650 Head 480at east Adult 18.72 Rectangular 1950 Truncated 710 Hexagonal Partial base 1670 47018 18.67 Exhumed Head at east Adult Rectangular Near complete 1840 64019 Hexagonal Base and sides 1780 Exhumed 360 18.77 Head at west Adult Rectangular Near complete 2220 79020 Hexagonal Base and Indeterminatesides 1740 460 Head at 18.70east Infant Hexagonal Complete Y 1110 440 Hexagonal Lid, sides and base21 800 240 18.72 Not exhumed Head at east Infant Rectangular Complete 990 370 Hexagonal Lid, sides and base22 590 240 Exhumed 18.60 Head at west Y Adult Rectangular 510 Truncated 510 Unknown23 Base and sides 360 Indeterminate 220 18.64 Head at west Y Adult Rectangular 1030 Truncated 590 Hexagonal?24 Base Indeterminate 1070 470 18.46 Head at west 6724 Adult Trapezoidal Near complete 2260 64025 Hexagonal Sides, lid and base Indeterminate 1900 540 Head at 18.57west Adult Y 6752 Trapezoidal 2310 Truncated 590 Hexagonal Sides, lid and 26base 1780 360 Indeterminate 18.50 unknown Y Adult 6747 Rectangular? 500 Truncated 700 Coffin did not survive27 18.60 Exhumed Head at west Adult Rectangular Complete 2140 75028 Hexagonal Lid and Indeterminatebase 1600 460 Head at 18.60west Adult Y 6800 Rectangular? 1400 Truncated 550 Hexagonal?29 Mid section coffin base Exhumed 18.42 Head at west 6975 Adult Trapezoidal 1910 Truncated 660 Hexagonal Base and sides30 1320 280 18.53 Not exhumed Head at west Adult Hexagonal 760 Truncated 500 Hexagonal Lid, sides and base31 740 420 18.61 Indeterminate 6819 Head at west Adult Rectangular 1700 Truncated Hexagonal? Lid, sides and base32 1300 400 18.62 Indeterminate 6873 Head at east Adult Trapezoidal Near complete 2060 580 Hexagonal33 Lid, sides and base Exhumed 1940 Head 500at west 18.60 Child Y 6905 Trapezoidal 1210 Truncated 570 Unknown Sides and base34 960 400 18.59 Not exhumed Head 6912 at east Adult Rectangular 1570 Truncated 540 Hexagonal Base35 1480 500 18.62 Not exhumed Head at west Y 59 Adult 6909 Rectangular Near complete 2200 67036 Hexagonal Lid, sides and base Not a grave 1900 390 18.55 Y 6901

8 (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Shape Integrity Length Width Shape Survival Length Width eastern end head end Grave Exhumation Orientation Age # status category on base nails burials number Grave cut Coffin RL Ave. In situ Related Skeleton 73 Exhumed Unknown Adult Rectangular? 1015 Truncated 470 Unknown Base and sides 990 200 Y Table 1 Table (continued) 37 Not exhumed Head at west Adult Rectangular Complete 1930 680 Hexagonal Sides, base 1750 400 18.60 7060 38 Exhumed Unknown Adult Unknown 1770 Truncated 580 Unknown Base 1620 420 18.70 Y 39.1 Exhumed Head at east Adult Unknown 620 Truncated 1070 Unknown Base 400 400 18.27 Y 39.2 39.2 Exhumed Head at east Adult Unknown Base 600 450 39.1 40 Exhumed Unknown Adult Trapezoidal Truncated 620 Coffin did not survive 18.24 41 Exhumed Head at east Adult unknown 2050 Truncated 500 Hexagonal Base, sides and lid 1800 350 18.57 Y 42, 43 42 Indeterminate Head at west Adult Rectangular? 2100 Truncated 500 Hexagonal Base, sides and lid 1770 450 18.51 Y 41, 43 6888 43 Not exhumed Head at west Adult ? Trapezoidal 1350 Truncated 560 Hexagonal Base, sides and lid 1290 470 18.54 Y 41, 42 7806 62 Not exhumed Head at west Unknown Unknown 400 Truncated Hexagonal? Base and partial lid 400 500 18.48 Y 7002 63 Exhumed Head at west Unknown Rectangular 670 Truncated 470 Hexagonal Base64 630 445 18.84 Indeterminate Y Unknown Child Rounded Complete 1100 500 Coffin did not survive 65 Not exhumed Head at west Adult Rectangular 900 Truncated 600 Hexagonal Lid, sides and 66base 1100 420 18.79 Indeterminate Y Head 7050 at west Unknown Rectangular? 600 Truncated 360 Coffin did not survive 18.8267 Exhumed Unknown Adult Unknown 400 Truncated Coffin did not survive 68 Indeterminate Head at east Unknown Rectangular 550 Truncated 470 No evidence of coffin 18.71 7036 69 Exhumed Unknown Child Rectangular? 300 Truncated Unknown Base? 18.7770 Indeterminate Head at west Unknown Unknown 720 Truncated 480 Unknown Side 88071 490 18.86 Exhumed Y Head at east Adult Rectangular? 900 Truncated 500 Unknown Base72 840 Not 300exhumed Y Head at west Adult Rectangular 1780 Truncated 770 Hexagonal Lid, sides and base 1580 500 Y 7075 44 Exhumed Unknown Adult Rectangular 1440 Truncated 540 No evidence of coffin 18.76 55 Indeterminate Head at east Adult Unknown 2220 Truncated 400 Hexagonal? Sides, base 1700 30056 18.54 Exhumed Y 56, 57 6812 Head at west Adult Rectangular 2100 Truncated 485 Hexagonal Partial 57lid and base 1870 310 Exhumed 18.27 Head at east Adult Y 55, 57 6826 Unknown 1580 Truncated 650 Hexagonal Partial lid and base 1360 42058 18.10 6835 Indeterminate Head at west Adult Rectangular Complete 2140 55059 Hexagonal Exhumed Base Head at west 1770 500 Adult 18.28 Unknown 6920 1800 Truncated 620 Hexagonal Sides and base 1600 50060 18.60 Not exhumed Y 34 Head at west 6928 Adult Rectangular? 1040 Truncated 650 Unknown Base 61and partial lid 870 350 Not a 18.31grave Y 6969 45 Exhumed Head at east Adult Rectangular Near complete 2550 710 Hexagonal Partial lid, sides and base 1860 500 18.47 46 54 Not a grave 46 Exhumed Head at west Adult Rectangular 1660 Truncated 550 Hexagonal Lid, sides and base 1304 470 18.43 48 Indeterminate Head at west Adult Unknown Hexagonal? Base 400 40049 Not 7099 exhumed Head at west Adult Rounded 340 Truncated 530 No evidence of coffin 18.49 6933 50 Not exhumed Head at west Adult Rectangular 2020 Truncated 660 Hexagonal? Lid, sides and 51base 1880 Indeterminate 420 18.68 Head at east Unknown Unknown Y 6900 Hexagonal Partial lid, sides and base 18.49 Y 52 Indeterminate Unknown Unknown Unknown 600 Truncated 150 Coffin did not survive 18.78 53 Not a grave 47 Not a grave 18.60

9 Site Plan – Old Sydney Burial Ground Sydney Town Hall (post-excavation) Casey & Lowe 2008

Figure 4: Plan of the 2008 archaeological excavation, OSBG, Sydney Town Hall. Field plan: Franz Reidel. Digital plan: Jill Miskella.

Evidence for 1880s exhumations One case in particular demonstrates how inconsistent the nineteenth-century exhumations could be. Graves 34 and 59 The 2008 archaeological investigation cast some light on the were immediately adjacent to each other, and while Grave 59 mixed success of the exhumations prior to the extension of the cut into the grave cut of Grave 34, the archaeological evidence Sydney Town Hall in the 1880s. A total of 68 graves were suggested that the nineteenth-century workmen only definitely found, 33 of which had been exhumed, 12 had not been exhumed Grave 59. Some unexhumed graves were affected exhumed and in 23 cases the archaeological team could not by 1880s construction work, including Graves 30, 49, 50, 60 determine whether or not they had been exhumed. The and 62. This practice is consistent with reports of graves dis- exhumed graves were not concentrated in any one area (Figure covered during the early twentieth century. These stated that 5a) and the archaeological evidence suggested that exhuma- Council workmen took care to leave remains in situ where tion was not always complete. There were six graves that on possible (Sydney Morning Herald 8 Mar. 1904:6, 1 Aug. balance were thought to have been exhumed but that also 1924:8). contained remnant skeletal material. These skeletal remains included cranial fragments (Graves 9 and 27), long bones Spatial arrangement (Graves 9, 27, 33, 56, 57 and 59) and teeth (Grave 56). In one instance (Grave 9), the left femur was upside down, suggesting The spatial arrangement of graves is one of the most basic that the grave may have been disturbed in the past. Further- aspects of a burial site. The general arrangement at the OSBG more, the nineteenth-century exhumations generally did not did not show a clear pattern of rows (Figures 3, 4 and 5), a remove coffins, which may have been due to the poor condi- pattern also observed in the smaller portion of the burial tion of some of them. Out of the 33 graves recognised as being ground revealed in 2003 (Casey & Lowe 2006:24). exhumed, 28 still contained evidence of their coffin base, While traditionally Christian burials have been placed with while a further grave (Grave 11) had some other timber rem- the body facing east, with the head at the western end of the nants and impressions thought to have come from the coffin. grave, one of the most unexpected findings was the large 10 Figure 5: The location of graves distinguished by exhumation status, age category, grave orientation, and whether skeletal material was recovered from the grave during the 2008 excavations. Image: Nicholas Pitt. proportion of west-facing burials, where the head was placed coffin and in some cases the skeletal evidence (Figures 3, 4 at the eastern end of the grave.7 This was observed in a total of and 5c). The west-facing burials were concentrated in the 24 out of 68 burials or 35 per cent (Table 1, Figure 5c). Earlier southern half of the area, which was also distinguished by excavations identified nine other east-facing burials, reducing shallower grave cuts. The southern area contained all five the percentage facing east to 31.2 per cent of all archaeolog- infant burials, as well as five out of six graves thought to ically excavated burials from OSBG, where the orientation is belong to children, identified as such based on their size known (Godden Mackay 1991; Casey & Lowe 2006). The (Figure 5a). orientation of a grave was determined by the shape of the Grouped burials

7 This paper uses the terms ‘east-facing’ = head at west end and ‘west- Among the graves were examples of burials that appear to facing’ = head at east end. A range of other terms can be used, have been deliberately grouped together. The clearest exam- leading to some confusion (see Sprague 2005:106-107). ples were four possible ‘mother and child’ burials (Graves 4

11 Figure 6: Example of a ‘Mother and child’ burial found at the OSBG, 2008, Graves 9 (adult) and 10 (infant). Field plan: Franz Reidel. Digital plan: Jill Miskella, adapted by Nicholas Pitt.

Figure 7: Grave 39 at the beginning of excavation, looking east. Grave 39.2 (left) and Grave 39.1 (right). This shows the foot end of two coffins in one grave cut, indicating the shape of the coffin in the backfill of the grave. Image: A. Lowe, 7/1/2008.

12 Figure 8: The stratigraphic relationship between Graves 41, 42, 43, 45 and 46. On the left is a stratigraphic matrix showing the relationship between the graves. On the right is a detail of the area plan, showing the graves under discussion. East-facing graves (head at the west) are highlighted blue while the west-facing graves (head at the east) are highlighted pink. and 5, 6 and 7, 9 and 10, and 12 and 14) and a double burial Although subject to disturbance, Graves 41, 42, 43, 45 (Graves 39.1 and 39.2; Figures 3 and 6). Out of these burials, and 46 represent a group of five graves buried in a series of only Grave 9 had human remains in good enough condition to overlapping grave cuts. The graves were progressively dug determine the individual’s general age range and sex, indicting from east to west, with each grave having the alternate it was the grave of an adult female. This pair was thought to be orientation to the one before it (Figure 8). This suggests that a mother and her child, although without DNA testing simple explanations such as west-facing graves are earlier than (unfortunately impossible in this case) genetic relationships east-facing graves at the OSBG cannot be applied without remain guesswork. For the other pairs (Graves 4 and 5, 6 and exception. These graves may have formed a deliberate 7, and 12 and 14) the relationship between the two burials is grouping of associated people, or the overlap may have even less certain, but the term ‘mother and child’ is used to occurred due to localised over-crowding. include all graves where an infant or child’s grave adjoined that of an adult. In three cases (Graves 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 9 Coffin construction and hardware and 10), the infant or child was buried on the left side of the adult burial. In the case of Graves 12 and 14 the adult and child The 2008 investigations found that coffins were used for the burials were orientated in opposite directions, and their grave majority of burials. Of the 68 graves excavated, 57 had cuts abutted one another at the head ends. evidence of a coffin. In 11 graves there was no evidence of a Two of the burials, Graves 4 and 10, were likely to have coffin or the coffin did not survive. Only two graves (49 and been for infants less than a year old, as they involved small 68) contained human bones buried without coffins. The overall grave cuts (620 mm and 490 mm long respectively). These preservation of the timber from coffins was poor due to the infant burials appear to have occurred subsequent to the water action through the site. Coffin remains had typically adjacent adult, as both the infant graves cut into the adult decayed into soft organic material or shadows of timber burial. The base of each infant grave was also shallower than pieces. the adjacent adult burial. In a number of cases the base of the coffin formed a Graves 6 and 12 involved slightly older children, based on negative imprint in the clay surface beneath. This provided the length of the grave cuts, although these children were still further evidence for the shapes of timbers used and for cross- probably less than 1 m tall. The grave cut of Grave 6 did not bracing (Figure 9). The limited evidence pointed to the coffins cut Grave 7, the adjacent adult burial, so their temporal being of the ‘single-break’ type (hexagonal shape). The only relationship cannot be determined through stratigraphy. The example of another coffin shape was Grave 15, which held a close positioning of the two graves and their similar alignment tapered coffin that was wider at the top and narrowed towards strongly suggests that the graves were deliberately associated the foot. This coffin was 660 mm long and held the remains of with each other. Grave 12 appears to been dug later than the an infant. Single-break coffins are made of sawn timber planks adult burial in Grave 14. The grave cut of Grave 12 truncated with butt-joined sides, corners and base (Reeve and Adams that of Grave 14 and some of the grave fill of Grave 14 1993: Figure 5.1). Nails were found in situ or ex situ in 43 infiltrated the fill of Grave 12. graves. The in situ nails showed that the coffin bases were Grave 39 was the only double burial of adults found, with nailed perpendicular to the sides (Figure 10). Some coffins two coffins (39.1 and 39.2) sharing the same grave cut, and the contained screws, which are thought to have been used to seal same undisturbed fill surrounding the surviving coffin bases the lid, but the majority of coffins were nailed. There was one (Figure 7). This strongly suggests that they were buried at the instance of double nailing (i.e. two nails driven in parallel with same time. This grave was largely removed in the 1880s and one slightly higher than the other), in Grave 72. There was no the burials were only represented by the surviving coffin evidence for hinges or handles, with the possible exception of bases, which were west-facing (head at east). Grave 51. The exhumation fill above this coffin contained a

13 Figure 9: Negative impression formed by the base of the timber coffin, Grave 5, the ‘single-break’ or hexagonal shape. This coffin was built with two separate shaped planks with three cross braces, at the shoulders, knees and feet, the weakest points in the construction of such a coffin. Image: A. Lowe 6/2/2008.

Figure 10: Coffin outline of coffin, Grave 14, with nails left in situ following the removal of the decayed coffin base, looking south. Image: A. Lowe, 5/2/2008.

riveted flat strap or plate, which may have come from the of several planks running lengthwise. However, there was no coffin handle or hinge escutcheon. recorded evidence of cross-bracing on the coffin in Grave 14, Most of the coffins had bases made from a single plank, and so exactly how the base was made remains unclear. but six bases were made of two planks, usually of similar Evidence of a coffin lid was identified in 27 instances. widths, braced on the underside by two sections of timber Mostly the surviving decayed timbers of the lid were too nailed separately below the shoulders and lower legs (Graves fragmentary to identify construction methods, but there were 5, 11, 16, 30, 50 and 58). The coffin base in Grave 31 had a six cases where the lid appeared to be a single board. In one large single plank that was similarly braced. The coffin in case (Grave 50) the lid was constructed from two timber Grave 42 had a base formed out of two planks of uneven boards joined lengthways down the central axis, although only widths, joined without bracing. The coffin base in Grave 14 remnants of one of these boards survived. All the observed had a prominent central plank, suggesting that it was made up coffin lids appeared flat, with no evidence of vaulting. 14 Figure 11: Iron nails and sprigs with coffin wood adhering showing thickness of timber. Top left: Grave 2 coffin base (6937/#80001). Top right: Grave 45 coffin general (6876/#80189). Bottom: Grave 13 coffin lid (6906/#80024). Image: Gallery2.

Wood samples from two coffins (Graves 21 and 42) were of metal and other materials in the damp soil, and the poor identified, with both considered to be probably Eucalyptus survival of the upper parts of the coffins as a whole. Only the globoidea (white stringybark), or less likely E. sieberi small coffin of an infant in Grave 21 retained evidence of (silvertop ash) or another species of stringybark. These exterior brass tack decoration (Figure 12). Body wrappings stringybark species are native to the Sydney region (Boland et were represented by two possible shroud pins in Grave 30. The al. 2006:548, 580). As noted above, the timber of two coffins only example of coffin furniture was perhaps a broken handle from previous excavations in the OSBG were identified as or hinge escutcheon from Grave 51. Australian red cedar (Birmingham and Liston 1976:16; Lowe The high percentage of small narrow headless and and Mackay 1992:19). These Australian red cedar coffins were countersunk head nails8 is characteristic of cabinet (and coffin) found in a brick-lined shaft vault (Grave 2, 1991) and a brick making rather than building construction. Various-sized vault with an arched roof (1974), which would have been countersunk and headless nails traditionally called sprigs were higher status burials than the standard interment of the two preferred by cabinetmakers as the hammered-in head/top of stringybark coffins identified from the 2008 investigations. the nail was almost invisible on the timber surface. Short Red cedar was considered the higher quality wood for furni- narrow nails or tacks could also fix fabric coffin lining. Larger ture and cabinet making, and may have been used as a prestige nails found at the site, including those used in coffin bases, material for coffins (McPhee 2004:11). often had sturdy rose heads. Other well-known types of flat, rose and clasp head nails, as well as standard furniture brads The 2008 investigation collected and catalogued 427 brass were less commonly used in coffins in this part of the and hand-forged iron hardware items from the graves, which graveyard (Figure 11). The hammering and corrosion of the had been used to construct and decorate the coffins (Figure nails has hampered identification of the nail heads with only 11). The fastenings were classified according to traditional and some able to be loosely classified. A number of the tacks and archaeological nomenclature (Adams 2002; Edwards and nails may have been decorative, such as those with well- Wells 1993; Holmes 1999; Varman 1993; Wells 1998). The formed oval domed heads from Graves 5 and 14. assemblage comprised several types and sizes of headed and headless nails, tacks, brads and screws. Evidence of coffin hinges, handles, exterior decoration, internal furnishings and 8 68 per cent of catalogued OSBG-phase metal fasteners were either grave goods was rare, most probably due to the rapid corrosion sprigs or countersunk head nails.

15 Figure 12: Detail of decorated coffin lid fragments from Grave 21. a. photograph of lid fragments prior to conservation (Gallery2); b. drawing of lid fragments including likely position of tacks based on holes in timber, marked by dotted lines. The tack highlighted by the orange arrow was no longer attached to the lid in its original position, and the grey arrows mark two possible original locations for this tack (drawing R. Stocks); c. Grave 21 showing the decorated lid in situ. Image: A. Lowe, 9/1/2008.

Some 14 nails with off-centre heads of various types were the nineteenth century, they were gradually replaced from found in different graves. While perhaps not specifically c.1805 by machine-made types. Later wire-drawn nails selected by the coffin makers, most would in effect function as associated with the Town Hall phase were introduced to fine brads and have been classified as such. It is possible that Sydney in 1853, but did not become popular until c.1865 these types represent the haphazard or hurried nature of local (Proudfoot et al. 1991:38; Varman 1980, 1993; Wells 1998: nail production rather than a deliberate attempt at an especially 881-83, 88, HF nail Type 2).9 asymmetric or decorative form. All the iron hardware was probably made in Sydney by one or more blacksmiths, who may have been working in association with the government 9 There is a time-lag in the dates when newly patented nail types were lumber yard. Hand-forged nails were among the supplies accepted by the building trade in Australia. This is comparable to Britain where the introduction of many new American labour-saving brought out with the First Fleet in 1788, along with spikes, technologies were resisted. In addition, the prevalence of local hinges, nail rods and bar iron. Although hand-forged nails hardwoods in construction ensured some nail forms were totally continued to be made for specific work until at least the end of rejected. 16 The sides, ends and base of the adult coffins were The incomplete and inconsistent exhumation found at the constructed using a mixture of medium to large nails and OSBG has implications for the heritage management of sprigs. These were hammered in perpendicular to the joint similar sites. Claims of complete exhumation should not be (Figure 10). The smaller nails and sprigs were better suited to taken at face value. Even where exhumation has taken place, neat joinery or decoration rather than strength, and were archaeological evidence for the burials apart from the human probably used to fasten lids or internal lining. The smaller remains themselves may remain, such as the spatial layout of infant and child coffins appear to have been made using a the graves, orientation, and information on coffin construction, combination of these smaller nails and sprigs. Many graves style and size. had lids sealed using nails rather than screws. Only four coffins had iron lid screws with medium-length slot head Spatial arrangement screws found in Graves 24, 27 and 72, with those from Grave 12 being thicker and longer. Use of lid screws is known from The OSBG lacked clear rows for its burials. This lack of rows contemporary and slightly later sites (Bybee et al. 2002; Bybee is not unusual for burial grounds of this period and has been 2004; Reeve and Adams 1993: Figures 5.1-2). observed on eigteenth and nineteenth-century English churchyards, including St Peter’s Collegiate Church, Brass hardware was only found on the infant coffin in Wolverhampton (Adams and Colls 2007:19), and St Martin in Grave 21 where dome head tacks had been placed in a double the Bull Ring, Birmingham (Brickley et al. 2006:25). A similar row around the edge of the lid (Figure 12). This decoration is unplanned arrangement was observed at the mid-nineteenth- similar to that seen on adult coffins found during earlier century churchyard at St Mary’s Concord, Sydney (Stedinger excavations in 1991 (Grave 2, brass tacks) and 1974 (Vault 1, Associates 2010:108). Other mid to late nineteenth-century iron tacks; Birmingham and Liston 1976; Lowe and Mackay cemeteries were much better ordered (Banksia Heritage + 1992), and another coffin accidentally discovered at the site in Archaeology 2004; Henderson et al. 2013:220; Petchey et al. 1883, which was described as being ‘studded with brass nails’ 2017). (Sydney Morning Herald 17 Aug. 1883:5). There was little convincing evidence for overcrowding at the OSBG. In early nineteenth-century Britain, overcrowding Other artefacts in burial grounds was a pressing issue, particularly in London. Coffin hardware and timber formed the majority of the As the urban population grew, the available burial space did artefacts found on the site. The excavators did not find any not increase at the same rate; instead, burials were concen- glass or ceramic artefacts clearly associated with burials. trated in a few limited locations. This led to very high burial Unlike more recent burial sites excavated in Australia (Godden densities in some London burial grounds. In 1847 New Bunhills (c.1821–1853), Southwark, London, held almost Mackay and Austral Archaeology 1997: Vol.1, 92; Vol.2, 2 appendix H; Higginbotham 2002:90-96; Matic 2003:87-88; 21,000 burials within one acre (5.2 burials/m ). Archae- McGowan and Prangnell 2011), no evidence of buttons was ological excavations at that site confirmed that it had a very high density of burials, finding 827 coffins within 260 m2 found in excavated burials at the OSBG. Although textile 2 fragments were not found in 2008, one burial (Grave 30) had (3.2 burials/m ; Miles with Connell 2012:10, 21). These evidence of copper alloy pins or clasps on the left collar bone, London sites achieved high densities by stacking multiple right arm and chest, which may been attached to a burial coffins on top of each other. The OSBG did not face these shroud. These only survived as stains of highly oxidised metal. same pressures. In November 1819, shortly before the OSBG Other artefacts were found and are discussed in the report was closed, the population of Sydney and surrounding district (Casey & Lowe 2017), but excluded from this paper due to was only 11,209 (HRA Ser. 1, Vol. X:286). A total of only space. These include six sandstock bricks, which are most 2361 people were recorded as buried on the site (City of probably from a vault recorded in 1991, and three copper alloy Sydney 2008), which measured 2 acres 2 rods and 11 perches (1.04 ha; City of Sydney 1833–1884), which is equivalent to coins or tokens, which were discovered just above the coffin 2 base of Grave 38. 0.2 burials/m . Even if some burials were not recorded, and higher burials at the OSBG were fully removed when the level DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION of the site was reduced for the construction of the Sydney Town Hall, it is clear from both the historical and archae- Evidence for 1880s exhumations ological record that the OSBG did not suffer from overcrowding in the same way as many London burial The case of the OSBG serves to demonstrate that nineteenth- grounds. The only possible evidence for overcrowding at the century exhumation practices did not always remove all OSBG is a series of overlapping graves (Graves 41, 42, 43, 45 human remains from a burial ground. Successive archae- and 46; Figure 8). However, other explanations are equally ological investigations at the OSBG have found buried human plausible: the graves may form a group of some kind (deaths remains on the site. Many graves were partially exhumed occurring at the same time for instance), or they may have while others survived substantially intact (Lowe and Mackay been intersected simply because poor record keeping and lost 1992; Casey & Lowe 2006). Even where there were historical grave markers meant that the location of earlier graves was reports of the exhumation of this cemetery, the archaeological unclear to the gravediggers. evidence of this site illustrates that this work, usually completed by undertakers, was piecemeal and desultory. Grouped burials Exhumation often involved a focus on the skull and some of the long bones, while other long bones could be left behind. There were four cases at the OSBG where an adult and a child Exhumation practices may also have been informed by the were buried immediately adjacent to one another (Figures 3 condition of the bodies and the timber coffins, which itself and 6). On first appearance, these ‘mother and child’ burials would have been affected by the time between burial and appear an understandable human response to an era of high exhumation. In some cases where workmen later discovered child mortality and when infants and their mothers could often graves, they did not remove human remains but repositioned die in close succession. However, based on the available them within the existing coffin. literature, this kind of burial appears to have been unusual

17 during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in English- The OSBG does not fit neatly into any of these categories. speaking societies. Fairly recent reviews of archaeological There was no church on the site until after the burial ground investigations in the US, Britain and Ireland do not include was closed. Although there were some non-conformist any discussion of similar cases (Cherryson et al. 2012; Christians in early nineteenth-century Sydney, particularly Weglian 2006). The OSBG contained one example of a burial Congregationalist missionaries, they did not form a discrete of two adults, placed side by side in one grave (Grave 39). community in the same way as they did in England. Likewise, the circumstances do not allow clerical burial as an Orientation of burials explanation for the large number of west-facing burials. There is no reasonable evidence that over-crowding led to the west- The traditional practice among most Christian denominations facing burials; indeed, many were recorded in relatively has been for burials to be orientated facing east, that is in a isolated situations (Figure 5c). supine position, with the head at the west end of the grave and Three possible reasons for the large number of west-facing feet at the east. OSBG investigations in 2008 found a signi- burials at the OSBG are: ficant variation from this practice – 24 out of 68 burials or 35 per cent (Table 1, Figure 5) were aligned facing west, i.e. with 1. Sporadic accident, based on inattention at the time of burial. the head at the east end. 2. Systematic mistake, based on a view that approved west- A review of archaeological investigations on eighteenth facing burial. and nineteenth-century Christian burial grounds in English- speaking countries reveals at least four specific circumstances 3. Deliberate action to mark out a particular group. where the conventions regarding east-facing burials were The first of these hypotheses seems unlikely. If west- regularly broken: alignment with a church building, adherence facing burials occurred at random due to simple oversight or to some forms of non-Anglican Protestant belief, identification indifference, they would be distributed evenly over the area of as a priest, and the pressure of overcrowding. the 2008 excavation. Instead they appear to be clustered in the south half of the area excavated (Figure 5c). In some cases graves in a churchyard could be orientated with reference to a church. A likely instance of this is at St Since the west-facing burials appear to form a somewhat Mary’s Anglican Church, Adelaide, which had blocks of north discrete group, we cannot dismiss the possibility that they and east-facing burials facing the church (Matic 2003:38, 92- represent a systematic mistake or specific group. As ordained 94). Another possible example is St Mary’s Catholic Church, clergy did not conduct all the burials at the OSBG there was Concord, in the suburbs of Sydney. This mid-nineteenth- more opportunity for inexperienced people to impose their century site had four north-south aligned grave cuts that were own idiosyncratic practices. in line with the first church on the site, which was also aligned Finally, it is possible that west-facing burials represent a north-south. However, the report authors did not draw this particular social group, perhaps one that was marginalised by connection (Stedinger Associates 2010:37, 87-88, 108, 114- the rest of society. Given that east-facing burial represented 116). In these cases, the church could be understood as a centre the social norm, west-facing burial would represent distinction of holiness, and a proxy for orientation towards the east. from this group. Possible social groups that may occupy west- Some eighteenth and nineteenth-century non-conformist facing burials are: Jews, suicide victims, convicts and burial grounds in England also contained burials with a variety Catholics. The first two groups appear unlikely (even though of orientations, in particular those associated with Baptists and they are known to have distinct burial practices in this period), Quakers (Bashford and Sibun 2007; Caffell and Clarke since the west-facing burials represent a much higher 2011:253; Cherryson et al. 2012:73-74; McCarthy et al. proportion of burials than these groups occupied in the 2012:283; Pre-Construct Archaeology 2012:29). Pragmatism colonial population. Convicts did represent a high proportion appears to have influenced some sites, where burials and of colonial Sydney, comprising 39 per cent of the non- Aboriginal population in 1819 (HRA Ser. 1, Vol. X:286). Yet, vaults were aligned to burial ground boundaries (Caffell and the presence of west-facing infant burials makes the Clarke 2011:253; Pre-Construct Archaeology 2012:29). association of west-facing burials with convicts difficult. However, some Baptist and Quaker burial grounds maintained Generally, the children of convicts were treated as being free, the traditional east-facing burial orientation (Cherryson et al. even though they may have faced some social stigma. 2012:73-74; Henderson et al. 2013:41, 68; Oxford Archae- ology 2005:98; Powers and Miles 2011:237). There are also Catholics also represented a high proportion of the non- cases where Baptists were buried facing west, on an east-west Aboriginal population of . In 1802, alignment (Oxford Archaeology 2005:148-149). Governor King estimated that they comprised roughly one in four settlers (HRA Ser. 1, Vol. IV:83) and by 1816, they It was also not uncommon for Christian clergy to be buried numbered about 5000 or more than 38 per cent of the facing west (Rahtz 1978:4-5; Sprague 2005:107); in order to population of 12,911 people (HRA Ser. 1, Vol. IX:91; Keely symbolically face their congregation at the resurrection of the 2008:5). In colonial New South Wales, a close, but not dead. This has been archaeologically observed at a Jesuit absolute association with Irish identity helped sustain a cemetery (1867–1962) attached to Whitelands College, Catholic cultural identity, even where there were no strict Roehampton, London, where the 86 out of 108 burials were religious observances (O’Farrell 1992:2-3). Catholics faced a west-facing (Melikian 2004a:10, 2004b: 233). fluid social situation that moved between persecution and Finally, overcrowding could lead to interments orientated toleration (Keely 2008; Marsden 1803:31; O’Farrell 1992: in various directions. Coffins could be stacked in vaults in the 1-21; Waldersee 1974:1-20, 186-191). The west-facing burials most efficient manner (Parrington 1987:60; Reeve and Adams at the OSBG appear to have formed a distinct group, possibly 1993:75). At the commercially operated and mostly non- concentrated in a specific section of the burial ground. The conformist New Bunhill Fields burial ground, London, 38.8 most likely group these burials represented are Catholic and/or per cent of burials were west-facing, which the archaeologists Irish burials. However, in order to confirm this hypothesis, considered a solution to over-crowding (Miles with Connell further historical evidence or archaeological evidence would 2012:22-24). be required but is beyond the scope of this paper. 18 Coffins In some ways, the similarities between the OSBG and contemporary late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century The coffins found at the OSBG were largely similar to those sites in Britain and North America were stronger than between found at other late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century the OSBG and later Australian sites from the mid to late sites, although they mostly lacked conspicuous or expensive nineteenth century. The nineteenth century was a time when coffin furniture. The use of local timbers for coffin burial practices changed significantly in North America, construction at the OSBG is unsurprising, and similar Britain, much of Europe and their colonial outposts. Burial practices appear to have taken place around Australia. In grounds, often close to settlements or churches, were gradually Tasmania, Lt Governor David Collins’ coffin (d. 1810) was superseded by landscaped cemeteries. These changes were reportedly made of huon pine (Raabus 2010). At the North accompanied by other developments in the material culture of Brisbane Burial Ground (1843–1875), timber from the family burials, such as mass-produced coffin furniture, more Araucariacae has been identified and is likely to be a local elaborate grave clothing and more formalised landscaping and species, such as hoop pine, bunya pine or layouts of graves. These large-scale patterns are seen in Queensland kauri pine (McGowan and Prangnell 2009). microcosm when the OSBG is compared with other Australian The tacks found at the OSBG bear a strong similarity to cemetery excavations. Unlike mid to late nineteenth-century coffins from other eighteenth and early nineteenth-century sites such as Cadia Cemetery, St Mary’s Anglican Churchyard burial grounds in Britain and North America. The examples Pauper Cemetery (Adelaide), , and from other sites are usually identified as upholstery or coffin North Brisbane Burial Ground, the burials at the OSBG were 10 studs and are typically brass or iron. They were generally not found in distinct rows, and lacked graveclothes or shrouds used in two ways. Most commonly, tacks were used to attach fastened with buttons and the mass-produced coffin furniture. fabric coverings to the exterior of coffins, in which case they The 2008 OSBG excavations also provided evidence for usually occurred in rows around the edges of coffins. Tacks the inadequacy of the nineteenth-century exhumations. This were also used to decorate the lids of some coffins with has implications for other former burial ground sites where initials, dates and occasionally other motifs (Bashford and graves were relocated in the nineteenth century. Without good Sibun 2007:112-113; Bybee et al. 2002: Figure 6.25; evidence to the contrary, it is likely that these other Cherryson et al. 2012:59-60, 69-70; Higginbotham 2002:64; exhumations were also incomplete, particularly for burial Litten 1991:102-103; Matic 2003:83-84; Miles et al. 2008:50- grounds where there were large numbers of poorly marked 53; Perry et al. 2006:221-224, 272-276). During the 1991 graves, as was the case at the OSBG. excavations at the OSBG, fragments of fabric were observed The relatively high proportion of west-facing burials was in association with the coffin tacks during conservation an unexpected feature of the site, given the traditional (Godden Mackay 1991:57). Based on the arrangement of tacks Christian norm of east-facing burials for this period. Although in rows on the coffin recovered in 1974, it was probably limited parallels could be drawn with other sites, comparison originally covered with fabric. The tacks on the infant coffin did not provide a clear explanation for the west-facing burials. from Grave 21 most likely attached fabric to the exterior of Traditional east-facing burial orientation carried a range of the coffin, as they appear to have occurred in two rows meanings for English-speaking Christians in the late (Figure 11). eighteenth and early nineteenth-centuries, from symbolism associated with the second coming of Christ, through to an Other artefacts ancient custom to be followed and a superstitious ritual to be The burials at the OSBG contained few artefacts, either from avoided. The possibility that the west-facing burials clothing or other grave items. The lack of grave goods is represented Catholics, Irish convicts and emancipists has been consistent with observations of British burials of the same explored. Catholics in NSW prior to 1820, many of whom period (Cherryson et al. 2012:73), although a range of were Irish, did maintain a distinct identity, which may have personal items have been found in mid to late nineteenth- been expressed through practices like burial orientation. century graves elsewhere in Australia (Higginbotham 2002:44, The 2008 excavations at the OSBG provided a rare 96; Matic 2003:89-90). The lack of buttons to fasten clothing opportunity to investigate non-Aboriginal burials in Australia and the evidence for a shroud pin in Grave 30 suggests that the dating from the early nineteenth century. The results take us older practice of burial in a shroud continued at the OSBG. back to a time when a premature death was more likely, Alternately, the poor burial conditions may have led to the Sydney was far smaller, and the major burial place was within decomposition of any bone or wooden buttons. Bone buttons easy walking distance of most of the town. They emphasise were manufactured locally in the first years of the colony both the continuity and the distinctiveness of colonial life in (Stocks 2008). the early years of New South Wales with both its British antecedents and its later Australian successors. CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The results of the 2008 archaeological excavation at the OSBG have shown that it was broadly consistent with contemporary This archaeological programme was directed by Tony Lowe, sites in Britain and North America. The similarities can be Casey & Lowe Pty Ltd. The client was the City of Sydney seen in the lack of clear rows in the burial ground, the Council. The 2008 excavation team consisted of Franz Reidel, construction methods used for the coffins, and the lack of Rowan Ward, Abi Cryerhall, Karen Hendrix, Glenn Suey, grave goods. Robert Maxwell and Dr Mary Casey. Dr Denise Donlon was the Forensic Anthropologist for the project. Franz Reidel prepared the field plans. Robyn Stocks catalogued the metal 10 Copper and copper-alloy tacks were made before a patent for cast iron tacks and nails was taken out in 1769 in Birmingham, England and miscellaneous artefacts and produced an associated (see Lenik 1977:45). These cast dome head tacks with soldered-on specialist report. Some photographic services were provided shanks were made in a similar fashion to some types of cast buttons by Russell Workman, Gallery2. Robert Maxwell undertook a made from c.1700 (see Olsen 1963: Figure 1). range of post-excavation work related to the site and prepared

19 material that informed this project including research into BEST, S. and L. FUREY 2006 Westney Road Denominational comparative material and history. Jill Miskella digitised the Graveyard, unpublished report to The New Zealand His- plans and catalogued the building material. Dr Jugo Ilic toric Places Trust by CFG Heritage Ltd., www.cfgheritage. (Know Your Wood, wood identification services) was com- com/2006_38westneycemetery.pdf, retrieved 15 Jun. missioned to identify wood samples from coffins. 2016. Assistance to the archaeological programme was provided BIRMINGHAM, J. and C. LISTON 1976 OSBG 1974 – by Peter Martin, Geoff Brew, and Russell Lloyd, City Projects; Emergency excavation in the City of Sydney, Studies in Dr Lisa Murray, Historian, and Margaret Betteridge, Curator, Historical Archaeology, No. 5, Australian Society for Historical Archaeology, Sydney. City of Sydney; Dr Siobhan Lavelle, and Vincent Sicari, Heri- tage Branch, NSW Department of Planning; Robert Yuen, and BOLAND, D.J., M.I.H BROOKER, G.M. CHIPPENDALE, George Phillips, Tanner Architects. N. HALL, B.P.M. HYLAND, R.D. JOHNSTON, D.A. KLEINIG, M.W. McDONALD and J.D. TURNER 2006 Nicholas Pitt would like to thank everyone who provided Forest Trees of Australia, 5th edition, CSIRO Publishing, comments on his presentation on the site at the 2013 ASHA Collingwood [Victoria]. Conference. He would also like to thank Richard O’Neill for BOLT, P.G. 2009 William Cowper (1778–1858), the Indis- his timely response to a question regarding burials at Sheffield pensable Parson, Studies in Australian Colonial History Cathedral, and Peter Petchey in response to St John’s Ceme- No. 2, Bolt Publishing Services, Camperdown. tery Milton, Otago. 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