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Maritime Interdiction in the War on Drugs in Colombia: Practices, Technologies and Technological Innovation Javier Enrique Guerrero Castro Thesis for the Degree of: Doctor of Philosophy Science and Technology Studies The University of Edinburgh 2016 Abstract Since the early 1990s, maritime routes have been considered to be the main method used by Colombian smugglers to transport illicit drugs to consumer or transhipment countries. Smugglers purchase off the shelf solutions to transport illicit drugs, such as go-fast boats and communication equipment, but also invest in developing their own artefacts, such as makeshift submersible and semisubmersible artefacts, narcosubmarines. The Colombian Navy has adopted several strategies and adapted several technologies in their attempt to control the flows of illicit drugs. In this research I present an overview of the ‘co-evolution’ of drug trafficking technologies and the techniques and technologies used by the Colombian Navy to counter the activities of drug smugglers, emphasizing the process of self-building artefacts by smugglers and local responses by the Navy personnel. The diversity of smugglers artefacts are analysed as a result of local knowledge and dispersed peer- innovation. Novel uses of old technologies and practices of interdiction arise as the result of different forms of learning, among them a local form of knowledge ‘malicia indigena’ (local cunning). The procurement and use of interdiction boats and operational strategies by the Navy are shaped by interaction of two arenas: the arena of practice - the knowledge and experience of local commanders and their perceptions of interdiction events; and, the arena of command, which focuses on producing tangible results in order to reassert the Navy as a capable counterdrug agency. This thesis offers insights from Science and Technology Studies to the understanding of the ‘War on Drugs, and in particular the Biography of Artefacts and Practices, perspective that combines historical and to ethnographic methods to engage different moments and locales. Special attention was given to the uneven access to information between different settings and the consequences of this asymmetry both for the research and also for the actors involved in the process. The empirical findings and I theoretical insights contribute to understanding drug smuggling and military organisations and Enforcement Agencies in ways that can inform public policies regarding illicit drug control. II Declaration of Originality of Submitted Work In conformance to the regulations of the University of Edinburgh, I hereby declare that the present thesis: ‘Maritime Interdiction in the War on Drugs in Colombia: Practices, Technologies and Technological Innovation’, has been composed by me, and that the work is my own. The thesis has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification, neither has it been published in whole or in part. I have read and understood The University of Edinburgh guidelines on plagiarism and declare that this thesis is all my own work except where I indicate otherwise by proper use of quotes and references. Signed: Date: 5th of May 2017 III To Zu and Vico, The lights of my life IV Acknowledgements First and foremost, I wish to thank my supervisors, Professor Robin Williams and Dr. Graham Spinardi. Thank you both for supporting me during these past five years. You have always encouraged my research and have given me professional guidance, constructive feedback, encouraging discussions and a lots of patience. Robin, you have been always supportive and incredibly helpful. I am grateful for your scientific advice, the useful comments and suggestions, but also the moral support throughout. Thank you Graham for your enthusiastic support and care. You always made me feel welcome, your engagement is admirable and I am thankful for the opportunities you provided for me and for the moral and academic support you gave me in different stages of this PhD. I dedicate this work to my family, who have always given me the emotional support to achieve my dreams. I have always had the best examples of perseverance, honesty and kindness from them, especially from my mother, Nora, and my sisters. I also dedicate this work to my daughter. Victoria, what I have done this five years is little compared with I have learned seeing you grow. I extend my gratitude and recognise the fundamental role that my friends had from the first until the last day of this PhD., Diana Velasco, Luis Soares and Mike Kattirtzi, special thanks to Natalia Niño who read the early drafts of several chapters and made comments that clarify my thinking and to Malissa Shaw who commenting on my writing prevented some serious and some silly mistakes. I could not have made it without your support. My friends in Colombia were also vital. Bruno Jaraba and Juan Endo, your encouragement and positive attitudes gave me strength to conclude my doctoral studies. V This project would have been impossible without the financial support of Colciencias and the University of Edinburgh. My gratitude for the Colombian government who through Colciencias is supporting new generations of researchers. I have an unpayable debt with The School of Social and Political Science for providing me a scholarship, so that I had the privilege to undertake my studies here at the University of Edinburgh. I met many great people while undertaking fieldwork in Colombia. In particular at the Centro Internacional de Estudios Estratégicos contra el Narcotráfico (CIENA), of the Colombian Antinarcotic Police, specially to Captain Germain Buitrago, Captain Luz Cuadros and intendant James Nuñez; and the Dirección Contra las Drogas (DIDOC) of the Colombia Navy, specially to Captain Orlando Grisales and Chief Jesus Borda, without their disinterested help and curiosity this research would not have come to fruition, as well to the many officials and NCOs from the Colombian Antinarcotics Police and The Colombia Navy, who took time out of their busy schedules to share their expertise with me, their names may have been erased from this document, but their impact remains. To every researcher and member of staff in the Science, Technology and Innovation Studies all my gratitude and acknowledgements. I could not have been in a more supportive and constructive environment. Their inputs, views, and moral support were vital and are part of this doctoral thesis. Last but not least, I want to give a special acknowledgement to my Wife. Zu, your input, kindness, positivity, and encouragement to finish this stage of our lives was fundamental, writing is disappearing, but you have always been there for me. For your support and love, thank you. VI Abbreviations CICAD – Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission Cotecmar – Corporación de Ciencia y Tecnología para el Desarrollo de la Industrial Naval, Marítima y Fluvial DEA – Drug Enforcement Administration DNP – Dirección Nacional de Planeación (National Office of Planning) LEAs – Law Enforcement Agencies LPV – Low Profile Vessel MIO – Maritime Interdiction Operation NCO – Non-Commisioned Officer NIDA – The National Institute on Drug Abuse NNICC – Department of Justice and National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee NTO – Narcoterrorist Organisations OAS – The Organisation of American States ONDCP – The Office of National Drug Control Policy SIMCI – Sistema Integrado de Monitorio de Cultivos Ilícitos (Integrated Illicit Crops Monitoring System) UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime WDR – World Drug Report WoD – War on Drugs VII Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................... I Declaration of Originality of Submitted Work ................................................................. III Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... V Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... VII Contents ............................................................................................................................. VIII List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ X List of Maps ......................................................................................................................... XII Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 Theoretical and Policy