Ocean of Letters: Language and Creolization in an Indian Ocean Diaspora Pier M

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51827-7 - Ocean of Letters: Language and Creolization in an Indian Ocean Diaspora Pier M. Larson Index More information

Index

Abolition Act (1833), 161, 238, 247 Alpers, Edward, 10, 20, 40 abolition, slave trade, see also Ambaniandro, 278, 330, see also emancipation Amboalambo, Hova British presence in Madagascar and, Amboalambo, 218, 266, 297, 330, see also 196–200 Ambaniandro, Hova British treaty with Radama in 1817 ethnicity in Mauritius, 217 and, 185 Ambongo, 327, 330, 334, 339 effect on Radama’s soldiers and Amharic Bible, 30 officers of, 198 Amistad trial, 11 Academie Malgache, 162 amnesia, social Aceh, 66 connections to Madagascar and, 10, Acton, Walter, 207 107, 236, 237 African creoles (language), 11, 15 Analakely, 300 African diaspora, see also African creoles, ancestral languages, 121, 230, see also African languages, Malagasy diaspora, African languages, Malagasy language Mozambique identities defined, 9, 21 colonial linguistics and, 100 imperialism and, 25 Indian Ocean and, 9, 40 production of, in colonial contexts, 22 intersections with Malagasy diaspora subject to regulation, 255 and, 35–42 Anderson, Benedict, 291, 292, 298 linguistic heterogeneity of, 42 Andian Maudoubou, 88 theorizing language and creolization in, Andriamambavola, 199 7–26, 220–31, 349–55 Andriamamonjy, 306 African history Andrianado, David Johns, 271, 273, 275, place of Madagascar in, 8, 30, 38 283, 304, 306, 310, 317 African languages, 354, see also African escape from Diego Suarez of, 335 diaspora, Bantu languages, Emakua Nouvelle Decouverte and, 278 classical theories of creolization and, Andrianampoinimerina, 199 7–26, 221, 222 Andriandramaka, see Drian-Ramaka creolization and, 353 Andrianilaina, Josia, 327, 334, 336, 342 European slave colonies and, 11–18 at Mwali, 336, 343 African literature, 29, 354 Rakalija and, 338 Africans, see also caffres, Kaf populations, Andrianisa, James, 268, 269, 313, 343 Mozambique identities Jumbe Sody and, 344 Mascarenes and, 106 Andrianomanana, Simeon, 268, 269, transit across Madagascar of, 234 278, 283, 284, 300, 304, 323 agriculture, see farming Andriantiana, Rafaralahy, 200, 210, 216 aides memoires, 89, 98 Andriantsifola, 336, 339 alcohol, 128, 130, 217, 333 Andriantsimisitra, 192 Ali, Salih bin, 16 Andriantsoly, 332, 333 Allen, Richard, 104, 147, 262 Anglican mission, Mauritius, 254, 274, Allibert, Claude, 90 282, 283

356

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51827-7 - Ocean of Letters: Language and Creolization in an Indian Ocean Diaspora Pier M. Larson Index More information

Index 357

Angontsy, 333 collection practices of, 296 Anjouan, see Ndzuwani creolite and, 223, 229 Ankarana, 333, 338, 340 daily lives of slaves and, 217 Ankay, 103 ecclesiastical, 44, 295, 312 Annales des voyages, 152 Froberville family collections and, Annales maritimes et coloniales, 175 156, 163 Anonoka, 333 historical research and, 351 Anosy, 49–99, 168 kingdom of Imerina and, 293, 315 defined and delimited, 51 Lazarist collections and, 61, 70, 109 description of, 51–4 linguistic competence and, 252 early Muslim immigrants to, 45 literary societies of ^le de France and, first sighting by Europeans, 49 153 human connections with^le Bourbon, 101 missionaries and, 295 Lazarist missionaries and, 89–99 monolingualism and, 219 roads of, 349 Nicolas Mayeur and, 153 speech variety of, 31 personal letters and, 295 traversed by unnamed ex-slave, 43 Queen Ranavalona and, 32 Antalaotsy Ratsitatanina’s trial and, 206, 209 Antemoro group, 46 Sir George Grey collections and, 297 northwest group, 51, 331, 333 South African, and vernaculars, 246 Antananarivo, see also Imerina visibility of language communities in, armies departing, 198 240 departure of missionaries from, 253, 303 arithmetic, see numeracy elite politics at, 199 armies, see also soldiers, wars embassy from (1836), 324 British at Mauritius, 211 English language and, 178 Malagasy, 197, 293, 312, 313 gossip about, at Mauritius, 312, 317 Armstrong, James, 241, 243 image of, in Madagascar, 314 Asgarally, Azize, 208 language politics and, 185, 192, 193 Asgarally, Issa, 208 literacy at and around, 177, 195, 293, 307 Asians, South Malagasy identity and, 318 Mascarenes and, 106 Mayeur’s travels to, 35 Assemblee coloniale, 148, 157 printing press at, 279 Astrolabe, 175 refugees’ dreams of return to, 342 Atlantic Ocean, see also African diaspora, speech variety of, 192, 268 Brazil, Caribbean, Cuba views about Ratsitatanina at, 212, 218 African ethnic identities and, 297 wars and enslavement and, 103 African languages and, 11–18, 30, 42, Antemoro, 45–7, 103 228, 230, 351, 354 Anteony, 46 colonization schemes in Madagascar Antesaka, 103 and, 58 Antomboka, 336 comparison to Indian Ocean of, 104, 350 Antongil, Bay of, 103 concepts of African diaspora and, 9 Antsihanaka, 103 connections to Indian Ocean of, 27, 69, apprentices, 196, see also ex-slaves 243, 352 Cape Colony and, 241 ethnic identities and, 346, 348 Malagasy language and, 252–60 French and Iberian, 14 Mauritius, number of, 247 historiography of creolization and, Arabian peninsula, 42, 45, 52, 330 350, 351 Arabian Sea, 330 Madagascar’s slave trades and, 38 Arabic language, 189 Malagasy language publications and, 66 literacy in, 45 Malagasy speakers in, 43, 62 Malagasy religious vocabulary and, 95 Ranavalona’s embassy to, 324 archives theories of creolization and, 11, 25, 352 Anosy and, 60 Australia, 274, 275 British Library collections and, 164, 194 Austronesian diaspora, 37

358 Index

Austronesian languages, 174 colportage of, 283 East Africa and, 37 honor and translation of, 185 Madagascar and, 33 Mauritius and, 275, 280, 283, 284, 325 Avaradrano, 200, 338 reading of, 195, 276, 286 sailors and, 280 bagne, Port Louis, 201, 203, 213 speech varieties and, 194 Baissac, Charles, 228 translation in Froberville archives Baker, Edward, 253, 256, 257, 262, 269, of, 182 301, 311, 312, 315 Bible Society, British and Foreign, 279 departure from Mauritius, 274 Biby, village, 264, 285 Baker, Philip, 24, 102, 220, 221 Black Town, 239, 240 Baly, Bay of, 267, 330, 334 Blanc-Pignon, 59 Ratsarahomba’s visit to, 339, 342 bodkins, 310 Bantu languages, see also African Boina, Bay of, 43 languages Bollee, Annegret, 221 Brazil and, 15 Bombe, Jean Pierre, 214 Comoro islands and, 330, 340 Bombetoka, Bay of, 103 Madagascar and, 35–7 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 148, 151, 157, 179 Mascarenes and, 106 books, see also Bible, catechisms, number of speakers in Southern Africa dictionaries, grammars, publishing, and, 38 soratse, vocabularies speakers of, compared to number of composed and kept by ombiasa, 93 Malagasy speakers, 38 conversation and the vocabulary of, baptisms 89–99 Anosy and, 60, 81, 84 cost of, 281, 282 ex-slaves and, 264, 277 distributed by Andrianilaina in Lazarist healing strategies and, 81–4, 87 Ambongo, 335 Malagasy in France and, 62 early Malagasy language publications slaves at the Mascarenes and, 111, 119 and, 66 Barbados, 16, 43 French language, 283 Barber, Karin, 29, 295 gifts of, 310 Barry, Colonel, 179 hymn, 177, 279, 280, 281, 282, 325 Batavia, 44, 55, 68 Malagasy identity and, 258, 286 Bathurst, Lord, 180, 181 Malagasy, used by missionaries, 113 Belchior, Francisco, 43 owned by Lazarist missionaries, 87 Bellebarbe, Toussaint de, 60, 61, 92 practices of priest and ombiasa and, Belleombre plantation, 187, 188 76, 85 Bencoolen, 44 printed at the Mascarenes, 119, 149 Beno^t, Ga€etan, 20, 208 refugees at the Comores and, 340 Beno^t, Norbert, 208 secret deliveries of, 306 Berbeyer brothers, 303 spelling, 258, 280, 282 Berbeyer, Mr., 299, 303 vernacular, post-emancipation Mauritius Betanimena, 314 and, 279–86 Betsileo, 103, 267, 297 Boothby, Richard, 67 village at Moka and, 266 Bose, Sugata, 31 Betsimisaraka, 267, 314, 325, 328, 330, Botomandry, Paoly, 269 338, 340 Boulanger, Professeur, 214 confederation, 163 Bourdaise, Santos, 63 contract laborers to Mauritius, 333 Bouwer, Leoni, 34 identity, 266 Brady, James, 197 migrants to Comores, 333 Brazil, 12, 15, 16, 17, 232, 354 Bevan, Thomas, 186, 189, 190 creolized Portuguese language of, 14 Bhojpuri, Mauritian, 107, 231, 252 European discovery of, 49 Bible, see also translation Lıngua Gerals of, 100 African languages and, 30 Rugendas’s travels in, 15

Index 359

British empire, see also imperialism, French, 14, 18 London Missionary Society, pirates and, 129 Napoleonic wars slave demography and, 102 African-born slaves in, 16 carreira da India, 49 colonial linguistics in struggle with Cartagena, 14 France and, 178–95 Carvaille, 303 Comoro islands and, 345 Cassini, 344 conquest of Mauritius and, 178 castaways, 49 emancipation of slaves in the Indian Catechisme abrege en la langue de Ocean and, 238–92 Madagascar (1785), 133–42 English language and, 178, 184, 192, catechisms, see also colonial linguistics, 254, 275 translation Francophone Mauritius and, 204, Catholic Church, history of, 89 207, 211 David Jones and, 189 King Radama and, 196–200 language acquisition and, 97 Malagasy letters as legacy of, 347–8 Lazarists and, 89, 92 Malagasy speech varieties and, 186–95 Malagasy language and, 133 Protestant forms of vernacular literacy Pere Flageollet and, 249 and, 195, 238–92 produced in Anosy, 91 Welsh missionaries and, 177, 178, Protestant, in French creole, 250 260, 316, 348 racism and structure of, 142 British Library recruitment of new missionaries and, 97 Froberville’s manuscripts in, 156, 164, 194 slavery and, 112, 133–42 British missionaries, see also Anglican vernacular literacy and, 90 mission, London Missionary Society Catholic missionaries, see also Jesuits, Welsh missionaries and, 185–95 Lazarists British Museum, see British Library French and Iberian Atlantic and, 14 Brown, Joseph, 44 Madagascar and, 181 Bulletin de Madagascar, 170 monolingualism of, nineteenth century, Bunyan, John, 282 249 burials, slaves, 111 opposition to vernacular evangelism Burton, Richard, 227 and, 254 Byam, Edward, 206, 207 seen as equivalent to ombiasa diviners, Byrne, LMS missionary, 239 76–7 cattle Cabral, Pedralvarez, 49 Anosy and, 54 caffres, 108, 114, 233, 236 counting of, 293 Cameron, James, 284, 300, 305, 308, ecclesiastical plantations and, 116 310, 311, 317, 323 oceanic trade in, 104 Campbell, Gwyn, 38, 40 sacrifice of, 76 Canham, John, 238, 240, 245, 247, 252 theft of, 71 Cape of Good Hope traded to Europeans, 28 African diaspora at, 10 Cauche, Fran¸cois, 64 enslaved population of, 241–5 Caulier, Philippe-Albert, 109, 111, 119, multilingualism at, 242 174, 188 Cape Town, 238, 300, 308 baptisms performed by, 111 Malagasy-speaking population of, catechetical training and, 112 239, 244 language competence of, 113, 114 vernacular evangelism at, 254 multilingual evangelism and, 117 Cape Verde islands, 32, 63 resistance of slaves to message of, 119 Capmartin, 155 short catechism by, 133–42 Carcass, 44 censuses, see also colonial demography, Caribbean, 350, see also Atlantic Ocean population creole studies and, 10–11, 100, 220 ex-slaves’ names and, 289 creolization theory and, 18 ^le Bourbon, 108

360 Index

censuses (cont.) upper, of Antananarivo, 219 Malagasy, 38 Claver, Pedro, 15 Mascarene, 102, 147, 231–5 clocks, 74 Cerneen, Le, 248 clothing Ceylon, 42, 44, 68 British military uniforms, 201 Challan, Claude Bernard, 121, 163, 174 gifts of, 308 linguistic racism and, 138 lamba totorano, 219 vocabulary of, 119–33 langoutis, 219 Champ de Lort, 204 Code Noir, 142, see also Lettres Patentes Champmargou, Governor, 63 code shifting, 6, 8, 321, 346, see also Chapelier, Louis-Armand, 156, 164, 175 linguistics vocabulary by, 164 coffee, 113 charms, 47, 83, 127, 219 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 54, 58 distributed by ombiasa, 47, 76 Cole, Lowry, 260 Ratsitatanina and, 202, 212 Colin, Epidariste, 152, 155 writing and, 53, 85, 86, 87 Collector of Customs, 264 Chaudenson, Robert, 24, 102, 142, College of S~ao Paolo, Goa, 51 220, 221 College Royal, 199, 214 children professorship of Malagasy language baptism and, 82, 83, 84 at, 194 Belleombre plantation and, 187 Colloqve entre le Madagascarois & le Francois¸ catechisms and, 89, 189 (1651), 64 competence in Malagasy and French colonial demography, 146, see also of, 233, 272 censuses, population creole population and, 105 African languages and, 16–18, 223 Lazarist instruction and, 84, 86 colonial publishing and, 144 literacy education and, 195, 338, 345 creolization and, 231–5 Mauritius schools and, 251, 256, 262, languages of publication and, 144 266, 268, 269, 272, 277 colonial knowledge, 170, see also colonial metis, 58, 158 linguistics, ideology, knowledge, race multilingual, at Cape Town, 239 Challan and Caulier’s works and, schools at Cape Town and, 239 136–42 slave trade and, 254 Flacourt’s work and, 96–9 slaves in Madagascar and, 234 Froberville’s work and, 170, 173–4 speech varieties and, 34 slavery and, 161 Chocal, 155 colonial linguistics, 100, 121, 353, see also Christianity, see also praying imperialism, race, vernacular association with highland Malagasy, imperialism 330 Britain and, 178 creolite and, 120 Froberville and, 159 Madagascar, prohibition of, 195, racial thinking and, 22, 136–42 252, 303 study of African language and, 13 Madagascar, vocabulary for, 6 tensions and disagreements in, 143 parochialism in the Comores and, 339 Colonial Office, London, 260 slaves and, 141 colonialism, see imperialism verbal practice in Anosy and, 85 coloured population, South Africa Christians, see also refugees, Lazarists, Malagasy-speakers subsumed within, London Missionary Society 240, 245 Anosy and, 69 colportage, 283 as vazaha, 96 Comaroff, John and Jean, 81 letters by, 293–316 Comedie, 229 of Moka, 284 commands class, social phrasebooks and, 130 Anosy and, 53 commerce, see also merchants, slave trades planter, 207 creolite and, 156

Index 361

Fort Dauphin and, 55 Council of Trent, 89 Mascarene policy and, 158 counting, see numeracy usefulness of colonial lexical projects to, couriers, letters, 303–5 120, 167 courts Commerson, 155 Vice Admiralty, 196, 235 commodities creole languages, see African creoles, conveyed with letters, 308–12 creolization, Dutch language, French vernacular books as, 286 creoles, Malagasy creoles, communication multilingualism, Portuguese language between master and slave, 120, Creole politics, see also Creoles 123, 166 amnesia of Malagasy origins and, 236 difficulties in, 61 interpretations of Ratsitatanina and, goals of merchants and, 159 207–13 Comoro islands, 45, 313, see also Mahore, creoles Mwali, Ndzuwani, Ngazidja Malagasy definition of, 130 compared to Mauritius, 336 Mascarene populations and, 147 Madagascar and, 330–4 creoles malgaches, 230, 233, 276 Malagasy people and identities in, 298, Creoles, Mauritius, 209, 228, 230, 236 330–46, 347 association with Malagasy identity and, compartmentalization, 161 276, 277, 290 Congregation de la Mission, see Lazarists definition of, 207 contact languages, 222, see also African creolite, see also creolization, creoles, French creoles, Malagasy multilingualism creoles definitions of, 149 Brazil and, 15 Euro-, 13, 22, 25, 137, 144, 153, 156, classical theories of creolite and, 106 227, 350, 352 Malagasy, at the Mascarenes, modern association with Africanite 107, 108 and, 237 conversation, see also oracy, translators subaltern, 24, 196, 226–8, 235 between priest and slave, 139 variety promoted by Froberville and creolite and, 121 Mayeur, 155, 156 evangelistic strategy and, 70 creolization, see also creolite, foundation of Malagasy letters multilingualism and, 71 archives and, 229 Froberville’s work as an aid to, 171 Brazilian Portuguese and, 14 letters and, 300, 298–302 Caribbean studies and, 10–11 Malagasy in the Mascarenes and, classical theories of, 8, 19, 21, 23, 143, 119, 216 220, 221, 223, 290, 352 Mascarene phrasebooks and, 165 colonial demography and, 231–5 news and, 312 colonial linguistics and, 21, 143 production of catechisms and, 95, cultural/linguistic agility and, 24, 225, 89–99, 133 226, 228, 231, 352, 354 religious translation and, 73–80 language instruction and, 272 Cooper, Frederick, 230 Malagasy identity and, 291 Coppalle, Andre, 199 Malagasy language and, 220–31, 278 correspondence, see letters, writing Mascarenes, early theories of, 25 Corroller, Aristide, 197 race thinking and, 137, 223 cosmopolitanism rethinking classical theories of, 220–31, Malagasy in the Indian Ocean and, 354 347–8 revisionists and, 24 Cossigny, Jean-Fran¸coisCharpentier segmentary, 227 de, 151 vernacular projects and, 21, 22, 120–1, Cossigny, Joseph-Fran¸coisCharpentier 133, 150, 353 de, 151 zero-sum games and, 23 Coste, Pierre, 62 Creve Coeur, 270, 274

362 Index

crowds, see also conversation, oracy drugs, 311 creolization theory and, 221 Duala Bible, 30 Lazarist missionaries and, 74, 75, 77, Dumaine de la Josserie, Julien Pierre, 78, 81 155, 163 Malagasy at the Mascarenes and, Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar, 201, 229 175 Cuba, 16, 232 Durocher, Pere, 115, 155, 164 currents, 234, see also sailing, sailors, winds Dutch East India Company, 54 sailing and, 104 Cape Town, slave lodge of, 243 Indian Ocean and, 243 da Gama, Vasco, 27, 350 Madagascar and, 68 Dacres, Admiral, 326, 343 Mauritius and, 102 Dapper, Olfert, 68 slave trade and, 56, 242 dar al Islam, 45, 330 Dutch language, 23, see also Cape of Good Darling, General, 179, 205 Hope De Lastelle, Napoleon, 313 basilectal, Cape, 8, 19, 26 Decaen, Governor, 157, 158, 179 creoles, 18 Dez, Jacques, 122, 129 European expansion and, 11 dhows, 43, see also sailing Malagasy speakers of, 245 constructed by Malagasy at Mwali, 336 Malagasy vocabulary in, 66, 129 dialects, see Malagasy language, speech multilingualism and, 245 varieties of reading by Malagasy at the Cape and, Diaz, Diego, 49 239 Dick, George, 262 dysentery, 58, 140 dictionaries, see also books, colonial linguistics, translation, translators, East Africa, see also African languages, vocabularies Bantu languages, Emakua, blueprints for new colonies and, 98 Mozambique, slave trades enslaved translators and, 188 Austronesian expansion and, 37 first book in the Mascarenes and, 21 biblical translation and, 30 Froberville and, 162–77 caffres and, 236 multiple glosses for single terms in, 132 languages of, 36, 38, 113 multiple sources of, 99, 163, 173 languages of, at Mauritius, 222, 223 politics of publication and, 183, Malagasy raids upon, 331 185, 193 Malagasy slaves and, 42 produced by Protestant missionaries, Mozbieker identities and, 10, 246 177 slave trades from, 40, 42, 104, 106, requested by Malagasy, 281, 311 108, 234 sleeping, 72 sources of Mascarene slaves and, stated purpose of, 164 147, 233 translating, 90 ecumene, Malagasy, 26, 297, 298, 312, Dictionnaire de la langve de Madagascar 330, 346, 354, see also Malagasy (1658), 93, 123, 163 diaspora Diego Suarez, 278 Efaho River, see Fanjahira river diviners, see ombiasa Ehret, Christopher, 37 doctors, see also health Eisenlohr, Patrick, 252 Rafaravavy and, 6 Ellis, William, 202, 300, 303 Ranavalona and, 306 Emakua, 36, 106, 222, 223 slaves and, 115 emancipation, 251, see also abolition Dorval, Captain, 334 abandonment of sugar estates and, 261 double consciousness, 8, 24 African-born ex-slaves and, 17 Drian-Manangue, 59 ex-slaves’ choices and, 261 Drian-Ramaka, 56, 75, 82, 93 ex-slaves’ wages and, 263 in Goa, 51 French Convention and, 148 Droit, Madame, 344 identities and, 8

Index 363

indentured prize negroes and, 241 Ratsitatanina, 196, 206, 211 land purchases and, 247, 266 Razakarivony, 199 language loss and, 291 ex-slaves, see also apprentices, Malagasy Malagasy at the Cape and, 245 language, reading, slaves, villages, Malagasy identities and, 277, 286, 291, writing 297, 329, 347 choices about names and, 289 Malagasy language and, 221 labor of, 262, 263, 279 Mauritius and, 17, 247–8, 261, 262 land purchases by, 262, 263, 264, 266 name changes and, 290 schools and, 252–86 Nosy Be and, 314 vernacular reading and, 1, 279–86, 295 Protestant evangelism and, 250 writing and, 295 Reunion and, 17 embassies fandraka, 47, see also soratse Andriantsimistra to Mauritius, 192 Fanjahira river, 52, 56, 71 Antananarivo to Europe, 324 Fanjahira town, 75, 82 Rafaralahy Andriantiana to Mauritius, fanompoana, 327 200 farming engagees, 228 Anosy and, 54 England, see also British empire ex-slaves and, 263, 265 Christian refugees in, 1 refugees and, 271 English language, see also Welsh Farquhar, Robert Townsend, 175, 205 missionaries British empire of letters and, 186–95 British imperialism and, 185 departure from Mauritius of (1823), 250 Malagasy vocabulary and, 129 firing of Edward Byam and, 215 Mauritius governor’s favor of, 255 Froberville’s linguistic work and, 178–86 Mauritius, marginal position of, 255 interpretation of Ratsitatanina’s alleged Radama’s court and, 178 revolt and, 211 refugees and, 275 return to Mauritius of (1820), 189 Epinay, Adrien d’, 205 Farquhar, Walter Minto Townsend, 194 epistolary networks, 292, 297, see also Fatima, Jumbe, see Sody, Jumbe letters, writing Fenerive, 103 Equiano, Olaudah, 44 Filliot, Jean-Michel, 104 Eriksen, Thomas Hylland, 224 ﬁrenena, 315 Errington, Joseph, 21, 353 Flacourt, Etienne de, 34, 61, 163 etablissements (trading posts), 157 governing strategy of, 56, 71 ethnic identities, see also Malagasy knowledge of Malagasy and, 91, 92 identities production of dictionary and catechism African, in diaspora, 297 and, 90, 97 Malagasy in Mauritius and, 217 relationship with Catholic missionaries Malagasy national identity and, 326–9 and, 73, 90 post-emancipation Mauritius and, return to France of, 63 266, 267 soratse and, 88, 93 ethnonyms, 324 Flageollet, Antoine, 146, 175, 188, 249 Betsimisaraka, meaning of, 266 Fletcher, Alison, 296 Froberville’s work and, 167 Flinders, Matthew, 156 Etienne, Pere, 59 Foisy, Jacques Nicolas, 151, 178 evangelism, see also Lazarists, London Fon language, 30 Missionary society, refugees vocabulary produced in Brazil, 15 roles of literacy and oracy in, 85–9 Fort Dauphin, 103, 349, see also Tolagnare~ slaves in the Mascarenes and, 110 as nursery for other French settlements, ex-apprentices, see ex-slaves 58 executions colonization of ^le Bourbon and, 101 James Hastie and, 198 colony of settlement or commerce, Malagasy prisoner, Cape, 238 55, 57 Mary Rafaravavy and, 7 difficulty of procuring food for, 56–8

364 Index

Fort Dauphin (cont.) Froberville, Barthelemy Huet de early history of, 54–60 archives of, 156, 163 end of, 59 biography of, 147–9 French-speaking Malagasy at, 73 British empire of letters and, 178 Mayeur’s travels to, 35 collaboration with Nicolas Mayeur, memory of killings at, 157 153–8 origin of Malagasy letters and, 113 Governor Farquhar and, 178–86, slave trading at, 56 186–95 Foulpointe, 103, 303, 306, 310, 311 lexicographic works of, 162–77 bombardment of, 316 marriage to Fieux de Mouhy of, Fouquet, Nicholas, 54 148, 149 Freeman, Joseph John, 279, 282, 298, opposition to missionaries examining his 300, 301, 311, 313, 321, 323, 326, manuscripts, 191 328, 339 publishing aspirations/difficulties of, portrait of Rafaralahy and, 202 174–7, 184–6, 194–5 visit to Mauritius in 1850 of, 280, 284 slavery and, 160–2 French creoles, see also creolization, slaves of, 161 French language theories of the Malagasy language and, classical theories of creolization and, 221 35, 158–60 cultural/linguistic agility and, 229 working methods of, 162, 171, 182 earliest publications in, 121 Froberville, Leon de, 184 instruction in, 249, 272 Froberville, Philippe de, 182 Le Brun’s early mission and, 250 Fula language, 17 Malagasy identity and, 329 Malagasy language influences in, 102, Gaiqui, commander of the bagne, 213 106, 142, 352 Galaisiere, Le Gentil de la, 152 spoken in colonial courts, 215 Games, Alison, 68 texts printed in, 25, 144 Gbe languages, 42 timing of emergence, 107 gender division of labor, 264, 265 zero-sum games and, 352 genetics, see human genome studies French East India Companies, 54, gens de couleur, 235, 250 57, 127 Gerbeau, Hubert, 20, 110, 350 agreement with Lazarists and, 115 German language French empire, see also Catholic publications about Madagascar in, 66 missionaries, imperialism Geyser, HMS, 343 Britain’s empire of letters and, 178–95 glottochronology, 33, see also Malagasy Comores and, 333, 336, 344 language, linguistics creolite and, 196–237 Goa, 51, 62, 93 early outposts in the Indian Ocean of, 54 God, see also Zahanhare Fort Dauphin and, 54–99 Anosy and, 74 Froberville’s linguistic work and, catechisms and, 141 146–77 discussions about, 77, 78, 83 Mascarenes and, 145 expressions utilizing, 125 French language, see also French creoles glosses for, 79, 95, 125 exclusion from Radama’s court of, 178 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 149 learned by people in Anosy, 73 Gondree, Nicolas Mascarenes and, 107 arrival in Anosy, 61 French missions, see Catholic missions, death of, 73, 75 Jesuits, Lazarists early Malagasy language study and, 69 French Revolution, 109 gossip, in letters, 312, 317, see also letters, confiscation of ecclesiastical plantations news and, 117 grammars, see also colonial linguistics destruction of archives and, 61 David Jones and, 188 Lazarists and, 110, 146 Edward Baker and, 269 Fressange, J. B., 155 Froberville and, 159, 173

Index 365

Malagasy, 69 Madagascar’s place in the Indian Ocean Malagasy speech varieties and, 136 and, 38 Grand Baie, 270 Malagasy language in the colonies and, Grand Comore, see Ngazidja 122 Grand dictionnaire de Madagascar (c. 1816), Queen Ranavalona and, 296 166–71 Ratsitatanina in Mauritius and, 207 British missionaries’ examination of, slaves’ languages at the Mascarenes 189, 192 and, 106 publication history of, 175, 183 History of Madagascar (1838), 202 Grand Port, 116, 257, 270 Hodgson, William, 16 Grandchamp, Fran¸cois, 72, 73, 91 Hofmeyr, Isabel, 29 Greek language, 186, 189 Holland Grey, Sir George, 297 Ceylon and, 44 Griffiths, David, 190, 191, 192, 307, 310 Indian Ocean navigation and, 43 Guardafui, Cape of, 40 hospitals Gueunier, No€el, 90 slaves and, 115, 117, 119 Guy, Gregory R., 14 Houtman, Frederick de, 66 Hova, 218, 267, 326, 327, 330, 340, 341, Hadhrami rulers, see also Arabian see also Ambaniandro, Amboalambo peninsula human genome studies, 26, 33, 42 Comores and, 333 Hall, General Gage, 188 Ibo island, 331 Hamond, Walter, 68 identity, social, see also ethnic identities, handwriting, Malagasy identities, national identities Froberville’s manuscripts and, 171 language and, 21 James Hastie and, 213 letters and, 317 Lazarist archives and, 163 identity theft, 305 Malagasy letters and recognition of, ideology, see also race, colonial linguistics, 301, 305 imperialism Hannerz, Ulf, 227 French republican, 18 happiness Igbo language, 42 Lazarist missionaries and, 80 Igou, Pere, 113 longing for Madagascar and, 6 ^le Bourbon, see Reunion Haring, Lee, 24, 220 ^le de France, see Mauritius Harries, Patrick, 10, 19, 246 illness, see health Hastie, James, 193, 196, 198 images, see also paintings host to Rafaralahy Andriantiana, 201 evangelism and, 76, 87 opposition of Malagasy soldiers to, 198 missionaries and diviners and, 77 poison ordeals and, 200 Imerina, 103, 301, 327, see also relations with Radama and, 196–200 Antananarivo search for Ratsitatanina and, 213 connections with Comores and, 340 Hatier, Claude, 72, 91 literacy education and, 177 health, see also doctors reading and, 293 conversation in Anosy and, 80–4 refugee Christians and, 335 conversation with slaves about, 140 source of Mascarene slaves and, 103 Hebrew language, 186, 189 speech varieties of, 31, 190 Hermitage, L’, 285 synecdoche for Madagascar and, 317, historiography 318 African languages in slave colonies imperialism, see also British empire, and, 13 colonial linguistics, French empire, creolization and, 18–20, 220, 351 vernacular imperialism divergent historical memories and, 198 African languages and, 22, 23, failed 1821 military expedition and, 197 230, 354 Indian Ocean diaspora and, 9 archives and, 194 lost colony of Fort Dauphin and, 59 catechisms and, 98

366 Index

imperialism (cont.) theories of creolization and, 23, 100, colonial linguistics and, 21, 22, 28, 120, 223, 351 124, 125, 133, 143, 185, 194 ink, 308, 310 European, in Indian Ocean, 7 letters and, 305 French and British in Madagascar, 198 intellectual organizations importance of intellectual detours in the colonial Mascarenes, 150–3 and, 350 interpreters, see translators language standardization and, 260, Irodo, 45 286, 352 Islam, 44–46, see also Qur’an Madagascar and, 26 Anosy and, 46 Protestant missionaries and, 181 assemblies for prayer and, 76 revisionists and, 24 Christian religious vocabulary and, 93 significance of vernacular letters to, 351 Comoro islands and, 336 silences and, 162 conversions of Malagasy and, 332 vernacular literacy and, 29, 30, Madagascar and, 52 290, 353 religious vocabulary and, 99 Welsh missionaries and, 185, 192, 195, seen as obstacle to Malagasy nation, 341 260, 316, 348 indentured laborers, 228, 262, 264, see also Jamaica, 16, 33, 227, 232 liberated Africans, prize negroes Jamet, Captain, 306, 310 Indian Ocean, see also African diaspora, Java, 42 British empire, creolite, creolization, Jeffreys, John, 193 emancipation, ex-slaves, French Jesuits, 34, 36, 43, 62, 74, 93, 249 empire, historiography, imperialism, Anosy and, 51 Malagasy diaspora, multilingualism, ^le Bourbon and, 147 slave trades, slaves vernacular evangelism and, 14 African and Malagasy languages and, Johns, David, 245, 253, 255, 257, 30, 38 261, 266 Afro-Malagasy heritage of, 19 Ambongo and, 334 as ecumene of commerce, 58 death of, 271, 273 Atlantic historiography and, 18 land purchase at Moka and, 270 Austronesian diaspora and, 37 Nosy Mitsio and, 335 British imperialism and, 178, 184, 200 Johns, Mary, 248, 270, 271, 272, 273 colonial linguistics and, 21 Jones, David, 186, 263 comparison with Atlantic, 104, 350 death of, 274 concepts of African diaspora and, 9 linguistic theories and methods of, connections to Atlantic of, 69, 352 186–95 cultural plurality and, 350 professorship of Malagasy language defined by space and time, 31 and, 194 early French empire in, 54 return to Mauritius in 1837 and, 258 historical role of Madagascar in, 8, Journal des ^sles de France et de la Reunion 26, 350 (1802–4), 149 historiography of Atlantic and, 18 language loss and, 25 Kaf populations (Reunion), 228, 230, 236 letter writing and, 292 Karembola, 168 longing for return and, 5 Kikongo, 30, 42 Malagasy diaspora of, 9, 10, 144, Kilwa, 331 260, 324 Kimbundu, 30, 42 Malagasy travelers and, 297 Kiswahili, 36, 38, see also African languages multilingualism and, 143, 222 number of speakers of, 38 navigation in, 27 knowledge, see also colonial knowledge, politics of creole distinction and, 149 colonial linguistics, ideology, race slave colonies of, 17 Christianity and, 141 slave trades of, 40, 103, 241 farming, 56 slaves’ languages and, 13, 22, 230 glossed in Malagasy, 53

Index 367

historical, 8 Le Brun, John ﬁls, 269, 271, 273, 276, Madagascar and, 121 306, 310, 327 mercantile, 167 Le Brun, John pere, 250, 264, 269, 285, sacred, 79, 99 299, 300, 307, 319 visibility of Malagasy and, 245 Le Brun, Pierre, 271, 283, 285 Koelle, Sigismund, 100 Lebel, 155, 164 Kuruman, 346 Leger, Prefet, 156 Leguevel de Lacombe, B. F., 198 La Rochelle, 61 Lescallier, Daniel, 152 labor, see also ex-slaves, gender division of Letord Captain, 334 labor, indentured laborers, slaves letters, see also epistolary networks, literacy, ex-apprentices and, 279 Malagasy language, reading, writing ex-slaves and, 262, 263, 264 commodities and, 308–12 Laborde, Jean, 317 conversation and, 298–302 Laizafy, Jean, 204, 210, 211, 215, 226 correspondence between Froberville spared execution, 207 and Mayeur and, 154 land couriers and, 303–5 price of, Mauritius, 262 creolization and, 297 purchased by ex-slaves, 262, 263, 264, Europeans and collection of, 296 265, 266 Malagasy identities at the Comores purchased by missionaries, 270 and, 347 language acquisition, see also books, Malagasy language, 1, 267, 278, 280, catechisms, dictionaries, grammars, 281, 282, 284, 286, 301, 302, 304, translation, translators, vocabularies 308, 313, 321, 324, 326, 327, 328, enslaved helpers and, 137 337, 339, 345 Lazarists and, 69–73, 113 Malagasy national identity and, 347 Malagasy partners and, 58 Mascarene intellectuals and, 155 mortality and, 86 news conveyed in, 312–16 slave hospitals and, 115 passwords and, 305–7 usefulness of catechisms to, 97, 136 Queen Ranavalona and, 1, 4, 314 language competence Lettres Patentes (1723), 109, see also Code modern researchers and, 223, Noir 249, 353 lexicostatistics, 33, see also linguistics, language loss, 225, see also French creoles, Malagasy language Malagasy language, multilingualism liberated Africans, 196, 235, 252, 264 see classical theories of creolization and, also prize negroes 221, 224 Cape Town and, 240 Malagasy speakers and, 268, 292 Caribbean and, 17 Lasalle, Jacques de, 155 linguistics, see also African creoles, African Latin, 134, 136, 137, 138 languages, Bantu languages, code literacy of Malagasy in, 63 shifting, colonial linguistics, contact Lazarists languages, creolization, dictionaries, archives of, 70 Dutch language, French creoles, early history at the Mascarenes of, 109 grammars, lexicostatistics, Malagasy ecclesiastical plantations and, 115 creoles, Malagasy language, evangelization of slaves and, 111, 139 multilingualism, orthography, French Revolution and, 146 Portuguese language, vocabularies language acquisition and, 69–73 African languages in slave colonies literacy and orality and, 85–9 and, 16 Malagasy language at the Mascarenes geographic location of language studies and, 109–19 and, 13, 100 Malagasy language competence of, 73 Linta River, 56 Mascarenes and, 100–45 Lionnet, Fran¸coise, 24, 220 southeast Madagascar and, 89–99 Lisis Le Maire, Auguste Hubert, 201 standing evangelism of, 86, 87, 89 Lisis Le Maire, Jean Pierre Auguste, 201

368 Index

Lislet-Geoffroi, Jean Baptiste, 155 Machado, Pedro, 104 literacy, see also letters, Malagasy language, Madagascar, see also Malagasy diaspora, numeracy, reading, schools, writing Malagasy identities, Malagasy Arabic alphabet and, 46 language charms and, 76 attacks on Comoro islands and, 331 Christian refugee identities and, 338, banning of Christianity and, 303 343 British policy and, 179–81 clerical uses of, 137 colonial archives of voyages to, 153 colonial knowledge and, 121 Comoro islands and, 330–4 conversation and, 89–99 dar al Islam and, 330 French and British imperialism and, 195 European imperialism and, 26 Imerina and, 293 European navigation and, 62 in French by Malagasy persons, 63 Mascarene economies and, 102 Lazarists and, 85, 86, 85–9 Mascarene intellectual organizations Malagasy identities and, 348 and, 150–3 Malagasy language and, 257 passage of African slaves across, 108 Malagasy renaissance and, 257 population of, 33, 38 military officers and, 4 size of, 32 theories of superiority over oracy and, slave trades of, 38–44, 102, 241 137 supplier of slaves to the Mascarenes, 147 Liverpool, Earl of, 180 Mafia island, 331 locusts, 56, 88 Mahajanga, 45 London Mahanoro, 103 journey of refugees to, 245 Mahore, 332, 337, 338 proposed publications at, 183, 185 Andriantsoly at, 332 vernacular publications at, 279, Malagasy language at, 26 280, 282 Malagasy speakers and, 333 London Missionary Society, see also Welsh sold to France, 333 missionaries Maintirano, 45, 103, 234 Christian refugees and, 1 Malagasy Comores and western Madagascar and, as a noun, 320–5 334 as an adjective, 325–6 Farquhar’s early contacts with, creation of vernacular works and, 124 182, 183 origin of identity term, 318 first printed French creole catechism Malagasy creoles (language), 132, 136, see and, 250 also African creoles, contact languages language standardization and, 190, 260, Malagasy diaspora, see also ecumene, 286, 316, 348, 352 longing, refugees, returns, slave trades, linguistic politics and, 186–95 slaves Madagascar and, 179–81 Comores and, 330–46 Malagasy language and, 175, 186–95 heterogeneity of, 292, 329, 351 Malagasy letters and, 293–6 historiography and, 8 Mauritius and, 247–92 identity thinking and, 294 provincialization of coastal speech imagining a homeland and, 325 varieties and, 192 Indian Ocean and, 38 South Africa and, 238–47 letter writing and, 293–316 longing, 8, 353, 354, see also Malagasy Mascarenes and, 100–45 diaspora, returns Mauritius and, 196–237, 247–92, material, 312 316–29 missionaries and, 97 rulers in Madagascar and, 324 personal, 301 South Africa and, 238–47 refugees and, 2, 5, 7, 343 two branches of, 272, 276, 317 Louis XIV, 54, 55, 57, 110 Malagasy identities, see also ethnic Lovejoy, Paul, 24, 40 identities, Malagasy language, national identities

Index 369

ex-slaves and, 266 loss of, 25, 225, 268 inclusive and exclusive formations of, Mahore and, 333 318–20, 346 Malagasy diaspora and, 276, 325, 335 Mascarenes and, 105 Malagasy partners and, 58, 155 Mauritius and, 316–29 Mascarenes and, 104–9, 161 national, 347 Mauritius and, 253, 279–86 post-emancipation Mauritius and, 263 merchants and slavemasters and, 123, post-emancipation villages and, 261–7 157, 166 principles of, 317, 322, 324 missionaries’ command of, 189 reading and, 279–86 music, 34, 217 streets of Mauritius and, 217 names in, Mauritius, 286–92 sub-national or ethnic, 326–9 politics of creole distinction and, 151 travelers and, 297 post-emancipation villages and, 261–7 vernacular books and, 282, 286 professorial chair of, Mauritius, 194 Malagasy language, see also letters, literacy, shifting geography of literacy in, 32 Malagasy creoles, Malagasy speakers, South Africa and, 238–47 reading, writing speech varieties of, 33, 34, 35, 33–6, 69, acquired by Africans, 108, 234 103, 105, 123, 141, 163, 165, 167, acquired by missionaries, 63, 69–73 174, 185, 268, 316 as a contact language, 106, 107, 108, spoken in the streets of Mauritius, 137, 222 213–19 Bantu loanwords in, 37 standardization of, 31, 132, 185, 190, Bible, 30, 182, 185, 194, 252, 275, 280, 191, 260, 286, 316, 348, 352 283, 284, 325 writing at the Mascarenes in, 120 Cape Town and, 254 Malagasy speakers, see also Malagasy Challan’s theories of, 123 creoles, Malagasy language colonial publishing and, 144 Comores and, 330–46 colonial theories of, 138, 136–42 ethnic differences among, 246 Comoro islands and, 330–46 ex-apprentice population and, 248 competence of Mauritius-born children invisibility of, Cape, 246 in, 272 linguistic versatility and, 34 conversation and literacy in, 89–99 number of, Mascarenes, 233, 235 creolite and, 22, 278 number of, Mauritius, 252 creolized forms of, 108, 231 post-emancipation Mauritius and, early composition in, 118 247–92 early European publications and, malaise creole, 208 60–9 malaria, 58, 130, 197 early Latin-alphabet literacy in, 293 Malay language, 189 early settlement at ^le Bourbon and, 102 malnutrition, 58 early vocabularies of, 159 Malte-Brun, Conrad, 152 European vocabulary in, 129 Manafiafy, 53, 55, 103, 349 evangelization at the Mascarenes in, 113, Manakara, 45 109–19, 133 Manampanihy River, 52 Froberville’s promotion of, 150 Manantenina, 51 Froberville’s theories of, 170, 174, Mandrare River, 51, 59 162–77 Manier, Pere, 59 grammars of, 269 Manoro River, 163 gubernatorial opposition to, 252–60 Mariana, Luigi, 34, 43 letters, 267, 278, 280, 281, 282, 284, markets, see also commerce, merchants, 286, 301, 302, 304, 308, 313, slave trades 321, 324, 326, 327, 328, 337, conversation and, 78 339, 345 ex-apprentices and, 263 literacy, multiple uses of, 144 Imerina and, 309 literacy, relation to colonial demography lexicons and, 164 of, 144 Port Louis and, 266

370 Index

markets (cont.) merchants and, 158 Port Louis bazard, 216 pirates and, 163 subaltern gathering places and, 230 Mico Charity schools, 250, 251, 254, see marriage, 149, see also wives, women also schools liberated Africans and, 264 middle passage, 139 Malagasy in the Comores and, 338, Indian Ocean and, 104 344, 345 Miller, Christopher L., 161 Malagasy women and, 102 Mintz, Sidney, 221, 223, 353 polygamous, 131 Missions des noirs, 292 slaves and, 111 Moffat, Robert, 346 marronage bureau, 201 Moheli, see Mwali Mary Lyon, 320 Moka, 146, 148, 266, 285 Masoala Peninsula, 333 LMS chapel and station at, 270, 272, 284 massacres Malagasy resident at, 2, 6 Fort Dauphin (1674), 59, 157 Moka River, 270 Matatana~ River, 45, 49, 52, 56 Moka Road, 264 Mauritius, see also British empire, creolite, Moncamp, Leonidis Martin ﬁls, 205, 211 creolization, emancipation, French money, 129 empire, Froberville, imperialism, monsoons, 44, 331 Malagasy diaspora, Malagasy Mont Therese, 277 language, Malagasy identities, Montagne Longue, 264, 270, 285 Ratsitatanina, refugees, slave trades, Moresby, Fairfax, 106 slaves Morne Brabant, 282 compared to Comores, 336 Morondava, 234 conquest by Britain, 178 mortality, see also burials, health creolization at, 196–237 European merchants in Madagascar emancipation and, 247–92 and, 157 Malagasy identities at, 298, 316–29, 347 Europeans at Fort Dauphin and, 58 Malagasy language and, 213–19 evangelization and, 80, 83, 117, 118 Ratsitatanina at, 196–207 French at Manafiafy and, 55 slave trade and, 56, 102–4 language acquisition and, 86 Mauritius Watchman, 274 Lazarist mission to Anosy and, 70 Mayeur, Nicolas, 153–5 slaves aboard ship and, 104 Malagasy language fluency of, 34 slaves and, 113, 243 manuscripts of, 162 Mouhy, Antoinette Genevieve de, 148 Mayotte, see Mahore Mousnier, Juan Francisco, 63, 74, 90 Medea, Laurent, 221, 225 Moyens d’amelioration et de restauration medicine, see drugs (1803), 151, 153 Megiser, Hieronymous, 66 Mozambique, 32, 36, 40, 43, 59, 344 Meilleraye, Duc de la, 54 Mozambique Channel, 27, 36, 313, 327, Menabe, Sakalava, 197 330, 335, 344, 346 Menai, HMS, 200 Mozambique identities, Mascarenes, 106, merchants, see also commerce, slave trades 226, 233, 234 commerce with Madagascar and, 157 Mozambique island, 331 as letter couriers, 306 Mozbieker identities, 10, 246 production of vernacular catechisms Mufwene, Salikoko S., 14 and, 135 multilingualism, see also creolite, slave trading and, 103 creolization Merina (anachronistic), see Ambaniandro, adult schools and, 273 Amboalambo, Hova apprentices and, 257 metissage, see also creolite, creolization Cape of Good Hope and, 239, 245 Anosy and, 52, 58 classical theories of creolization and, 223 cultural, and creolite, 231 LMS mission to Mauritius and, 251, 272 cultural and linguistic, Madagascar, 37 Malagasy at the Comores and, 340 ^le Bourbon and, 101 Malagasy in exile and, 8

Index 371

Malagasy in Mauritius and, 255 New York, 44 Malagasy speakers and, 248 Newell, Stephanie, 29 Mascarenes and, 222 news, see also gossip, letters North American slaves and, 17 conveyed in letters, 312–16 slaves and, 215, 218 Ngazidja, 331, 333 streets of Mauritius and, 213–19, 234 Nicolay, William, 253 murder Nossa Senhora da Esperanca¸ , 51 of French settlers, 50 Nosy Be, 273, 313, 327, 336, 344 of Razakarivony, 199 Nosy Mitsio, 319, 335 music notebooks, 117, 119, 120, 133, 135 African diaspora and, 19, 236 Nouvelle Decouverte, 270, 276, boys’ band at Mauritius and, 192 284, 285 Creole, 208 novels, 149 evangelization at Mauritius and, numeracy, 129, 293, see also literacy 273, 275 Imerina and, 177 Lazarists and, 74 Malagasy at Mauritius and, 214, 217 ody, see charms Mutsamudu, 341 Oldendorp, C. G. A., 13 Mwali, 300, 319, 327, 332, 333, Ollier, Remy, 274 339, 344 oly, see charms Andrianisa at, 343 ombiasa, 47, 46–7, 48, 53, 72, 311, see also Ramanetaka at, 332 soratse mythmaking, see also historiography conflict with missionaries and, 51 creolization and, 20 conversations with Europeans, 75 Ratsitatanina and, 207, 212, 236 defined, 46 duties of, 76 Nacquart, Charles, 61–96 equivalence to priests of, 76–7 arrival in Anosy, 61 glossed in dictionaries, 96 death of, 73 in Mauritius, 213, 328 early Malagasy language study of, 69 Jesuits and, 51 production of a catechism and, 91 literacy and, 86, 85–9 relationship with Governor Flacourt, 90 repertoires similar to missionaries’ and, Nagapen, Amedee, 110 80 names sitting methods of, 86 Malagasy, in Mauritius, 286–92 surveillance of missionaries and, 75 Nantes, 62 visits to Fort Dauphin of, 74 national identities, Malagasy ompanoratse, 46 ascribed by slave owners, 266 oracy, 163 see also conversation early expressions of, 291 grammars and, 137 forged in diaspora, 105 letters and, 298 in theory and action, 297 news and, 312 letters and, 6, 297, 316 Orieux, maroon hunter, 204 post-emancipation Mauritius and, orthography, see also colonial linguistics, 316–29 Malagasy language relation to print capitalism of, 298 Challan and, 127 theory and practice at Comores and, early European works and, 69 347–8 Froberville and, 165 navigation, see also currents, sailing, sailors, speech varieties and, 167 winds standardization of, 317 Austronesian, 37 European, and Madagascar, 27 Pailles, 264, 265, 270, 285 European, and shipwreck, 28 paintings Ndzuwani, 308, 331, 333, 339, 341 portrait of Radama, 199 needles, 310 portrait of Rafaralahy Andriantiana, 201 Nelson, Horatio, 44 Pakion, Pierre, 251, 256

372 Index

Palmie, Stephan, 18 Pondicherry, 44, 58, 109 Pamanzi island, Mahore, 337 population, see also censuses, colonial Pamplemousses, 116, 250 demography paper, 308, 309, 310, see also soratse, Anosy, 52 taratasy Cape of Good Hope, 241–5 charms and, 53, 85 gender imbalance and language, 218 diviners and, 99 ^le Bourbon, 101, 105 gifts of, 310, 312 Malagasy in the Mascarenes, 102 glosses for, 176 Mascarene, 146 Imerina and, 293 Mascarene, and creolization, 231–5 Lazarists and, 77 Port Louis, 216 manufactured in Anosy, 76 population generale, 227 terms for, 46 Port Elizabeth, 245 Paris, 54, 57, 61, 62, 70, 86, 109, 152 Port Louis baptisms in, 63 connections to Madagascar of, 258 speech variety of, 90 ecclesiastical plantations and, 116 Treaty of, 184 hospital of, 115 vernacular publications in, 30, 90, 123 LMS chapel of, 269 pas geometriques, 263 Malagasy residents of, 2 passwords, 305 multilingualism on streets of, 249 letters and, 305–7 population of, 1822, 216 Patterson, Orlando, 227 refugees buried in, 7 Paul, Vincent de, 61, 62, 63, 74, 80, 87, 90 residential camps of, 262, 269 evangelization strategy of, 70 Port Louis Revue, 207 Peabody, Sue, 14 portraits pens, 308, 310 Radama, 199 Persian Gulf, 42 Rafaralahy Andriantiana, 201 Persian language, 189 Portugal, 49, 180 Peterson, Derek, 29 Anosy and, 51 Petit catechisme (1657), 87, 90 Indian Ocean and, 54 authorship and source of vocabulary, Portuguese language 89–99 African creoles and, 15 length of, 97 catechisms in, 51 vocabulary from French and, 95 creolization of, 14, 100 vocabulary from soratse and Qur’an Drian-Ramaka and, 51 and, 93 ^le Bourbon and, 101 petit morcellement, 262 Malagasy vocabulary and, 129 Petite Riviere, 6, 270, 285 manuscript in, 50 Philip, John, 260 names, 83 Pieter Booth, 264, 270 spoken by Drian-Ramaka, 93 Pilgrim’s Progress, 280, 282 Pouce, Le, 204, 265 pins, 310 powder mill, Mauritius, 151 pirates, 129, 163 Powell, Mrs., 302 Malagasy, 331 prayer, see praying Piton, Mauritius, 251, 256, 269, 270 praying, 1, 3, 46, 50, 75, 76, 83, 87, 92, Pitot, Albert, 207 95, 96, 125, 136, 139, 141, 251, plagiarism, 66 254, 267, 273, 275, 278, 328 Plaines Wilhems, 205, 211, 270 as a term for Christianity, 6, 314 plantations, see also land Premieres lecons¸ , 257 ecclesiastical, 146 Price, Richard, 221, 223, 353 missionaries and, 116 prize negroes, 196, 235, 252, 264, see also sugar, 261, 265 liberated Africans Pointe aux Piments, 263, 270 Cape Town and, 240 poison ordeals, see tangena Pronis, Governor, 55 Pompe, La, 215, 217 Propaganda Fide, 61, 133

Index 373

Prud’homme, Claude, 110 Rakalija, 333, 337, 339, 343, 345 publishing, see also Bible, books, Andrianilaina and, 338 dictionaries, Froberville, grammars, Rakotolahy, Christiane, 224, 225 translation, translators, vocabularies Rakotondradama, 305, 308, 313 Antananarivo and, 279 attempted coup of, 318 colonial demography and, 144 Ramanasina, 315 Edward Baker in Mauritius and, 257, Ramanetaka, 332, 333, 336 269, 274 death of, 333 Mascarenes and, 21, 25, 121, 122, 149 Ramanore, 78, 80 Paris and, 30, 90, 93 Ramanore’s wife, 78 Rome and, 119 Ramboavao, 344 Ramiadana, 271, 275, 347 Quebec, 54 death of, 278 Qur’an, 45, 95, 139, see also Islam marriage of, 276 residence at Nouvelle Decouverte of, Rabodomanga, 324 277 Raboky, King, 335, 343 Ramiandrahasina, Elias, 269, 270, 295, race 301, 308, 311 Anosy and, 53 childhood of, 316 catechisms and, 142, 136–42 correspondence of, 345 creolization and, 223 letter to Ranavalona of, 314 Froberville’s methods and, 174 residence at the Comores and, 344 linguistic theories and, 137, 138, 157 Raminia, 52 multilingualism and, 227 Ramonja, Prince, 305, 317 Racehorse, 44 Ranaivo, Flavien, 170 racism, see race Ranavalona, Queen, 1 Radama II, see Rakotondradama archives of, 315 Radama, King armies of, 312, 342 ambassadors to Mauritius and, 192, Christian administrators of, 307 210, 325 correspondence from Cape Colony death of, 332 and, 5 diplomacy with Mauritius and, 185 death of, 32 European languages at court and, 178 Dr. Tavel and, 306 fragile hold on power of, 200 embassy to Europe of, 324 language standardization and, 185, 190 images of, 296 LMS missionaries and, 293 interdiction of Christianity by, 195, 245, military campaign of 1821 and, 196 258, 276, 303 portrait of, 199 Jean Laborde and, 317 Princess Ravao and, 332 letter from Ramiandrahasina to, 314 provincial justice and, 315 literacy abilities of, 4 Ratsitatanina and, 196–200 military control of Madagascar and, 330 slave-trade abolition and, 198 Rafaravavy and, 1, 322 Radaniely, 299 Rainiharo and, 313 Rafaralahy Andriantiana, see Andriantiana Rakotondradama and, 305 Rafaralahy, evangelist, 271, 273, 275 Ramiandrahasina and, 270, 295, 344 departure from Mauritius, 275 refugees’ allegience to, 316 Rafaravavy, Mary, 1, 268, 271, 275, 280, refugees at the Comores and, 332 295, 314, 322 trade policies of, 343 death of, 7 uses of literacy by, 1, 293, 307 England and, 334 Randrianimanana, 299 letters of, 301, 302, 304, 308 Ranofotsy Bay, 53 Nosy Mitsio and, 335 Raombana, 199, 218 Rainiharo, 312, 327 Raondriana, 52, 53, 55 Rainitsiroba, 199 visits to Fort Dauphin, 74 Raissa (Jesus), 78 Rasatranabo, 300

374 Index

Rasoamaka, Josefa, 268, 299, 300, 319, Pere Caulier and, 137 327, 336, 338 Portuguese language and, 51 letters of, 337, 339 Queen Ranavalona’s competence in, 4 Mwali and, 336 refugees at the Comores and, 338, 339, Nosy Mitsio and, 335 340, 341 Rasseline, 155 sacred texts, prohibition of, 1 Ratsarahomba, David, 5–7, 267, 268, social extent of, 294 269, 275, 280, 281, 282, 298, 299, speech and, 300 313, 314 spread beyond Imerina and, 293 death of, 7 standardized language and, 260 English language competence of, 275 Reduit, 183, 186, 205, 270 ideas about nation and ethnicity, 341 refugees, Christian, see also Malagasy letters of, 321, 326, 328 diaspora marriage of, 321 Ambongo and, 330 visit to Comores and northwest Comoro islands and, 334 Madagascar of, 339–43 escape from Madagascar of, 1, 314 Ratsilaingia, 298, 310 ethnic networks in Comores and, 343 Ratsimilaho, 163 evangelization at Mauritius and, Ratsitatanina, 196–207, 226 268, 273 interpretation of his escape and trial, language competence of, 275, 278 207–12 letters of, 294 Malagasy language in Mauritius and, political loyalties to Ranavalona and, 316 213–19 prohibition of Christianity and, 252 mythmaking in Mauritius and, 207 relationship to ex-slaves of, 276, 317 Ravalontsalama, 313 residence at Moka of, 271 Ravao, Princess, 332, 333 return to Madagascar of, 32 Ravelo’Nouahary, 307 South Africa and, 245 Raynal, Abbe, 152 speech varieties of, 316 Razafy, Sara, 334 Religious Tract Society, 280 Razakarivony, 199 respectability, 265 reading, see also Bible, books, literacy, Ressource, La, 147 Malagasy language, schools, writing returns, see also longing, Malagasy diaspora administrative control over, 307 escaped slaves to Madagascar, 117, Arabic language and, 46 210, 218 Belleombre plantation and, 187 ethnogenesis and, 297 biblical translations and, 30 ex-slaves to Madagascar, 5, 8, 259, demand for books and, 310 319, 325 Drian-Ramaka and, 93 longing for, 4, 5 English language and, 238 refugees to Madagascar, 7, 32 European languages and, 239, 273 Reunion, 23, see also creolite, creolization, ex-slaves and, 276, 283, 295, 319 French empire, imperialism, Lazarists, Flacourt and, 93, 98 Malagasy diaspora, Malagasy French language and, 63, 251 language, Malagasy identity, slave Froberville and, 152 trades, slaves Imerina and, 177, 195 African population of, 106, 114 Lazarists and, 86, 88, 91, 119, 120 Caulier’s work at, 119 LMS objectives and, 192, 284 creole slaves at, 233 Malagasy identity at Mauritius diversity of Malagasy population at, 235 and, 279–86 early population of, 101 Malagasy in the Mascarenes and, 118 ecclesiastic plantations and, 115 Malagasy language and, 254, 258, 270, emancipation and, 17 273, 281 engagees and, 228 Nouvelle Decouverte and, 277 enslaved population of, 147 ombiasa and, 47, 53, 77, 86, 87 Fort Dauphin and, 58, 59, 101 paper and, 310 French creole of, 102, 107, 142

Index 375

French Revolution and, 146 knowledge of Malagasy and, 64 Jesuits at, 147 Malagasy, 44, 49, 62, 66, 68, 210, Kaf populations and, 228, 230, 236 235, 280, 281, 312, 325, 331 late creolization of, 231 Portuguese, 50 Lazarists and, 109, 117 Saint Augustine Bay, 28, 67, 336 Malagasy language still spoken English colonization at, 68 at, 225 Saint-Denis, 109, 114, 139 Malagasy speaking population of, 102, arrival of slaves at, 117 105, 107, 108, 113, 137, 147, baptisms and, 111 233, 316 Sainte-Luce, see Manaﬁafy Mayotte and, 333 Sainte-Rose, 212, 229 obstacles to study of Malagasy language Saint-Laurent, 60, 61 at, 18, 20, 101, 236 Saint-Lazare, order of, see Lazarists recent studies of Afro-Malagasy culture Saint-Leu, insurrection, 230 at, 19, 236 Saint-Paul, 108 return to France (1815), 182 Saint-Pierre, Bernardin de, 152 slave insurrections at, 229 Saint-Vincent, Bory, 152 slave trade and, 102–4 Sakalava, 267, 297, 313, 326, 327, 328, vernacular evangelization and, 139 334, 338, 340 revisionists, 230, 353 Ambaniandro literacy and, 335 creolization and, 24 Boina, 332 defined, 24 Mayeur’s travels to, 35 imperialism and, 24 migrants to Comores, 333 rice, 54, 78, 104, 128, 197, 266 Radama’s 1821 military expedition Riche Terre, 270 against, 197 Richelieu, Cardinal, 54 soldiers in the Comores and, 332 Rigault, Captain, 54 speech variety of, 190 Rio de la Plata, 43 Sandoval, Alonso de, 15 Riviere du Rempart, 251 S~ao Louren¸co(Madagascar), 49 Rochebois, 270 Saunders, Christopher, 241 Rochon, Alexis Marie de, 152 schools, see also children, literacy, Mico Rodrigues, 210 Charity, reading, writing Roguet, Martin, 70, 84 adults and, 273 Roman Catechism (1566), 89 Anglican, 274 Rome, 119 apprentices and, 251, 254, 256 Romorantin, 148 Belleombre plantation and, 187 Rondeaux, 155 Cape Colony and, 238, 240 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 152 Fort Dauphin and, 72 Roux, Sylvain, 179 Imerina and, 177 Royal Navy, 178, 234, 241, 311, 331 increase in enrollment in 1830, 262 Rugendas, Johann Moritz, 15 Malagasy in Mauritius and, Ryan, Vincent, 282, 283, 319 252–86 Malagasy language and, 259 sacrifice, cattle, 76 Malagasy, near Signal Mountain, 256 sailing, see also currents, navigation, sailors, Moka and, 272 winds Paris and, 63 between Comores and Mascarenes, 336 scissors, 310 between Madagascar and Mascarenes, scribes, 46, 47, 53, see also ombiasa 104, 209 glosses for, 96 entrances to the Indian Ocean and, 27 secrecy Indian Ocean and, 350 conveyance of letters and, 304 labor supplies and, 12 Sentinelle de Maurice, 274 northward of Madagascar, 234 sewing, 304, 308, 310, see also sailors, see also navigation, sailing bodkins, pins, needles, thimbles, burials of, 111 thread

376 Index

sexual relationships, see also marriage, slaves, see also emancipation, ex-slaves, wives, women liberated Africans, prize negroes, colonization of Mascarenes and, 102, race, slave trades, slave owners 131, 143 alleged rebellion of, Mauritius, 204 Fort Dauphin and, 58 as translators, 115, 117, 118, 122, 162, merchants in Madagascar and, 188, 234 130, 158 catechisms and, 135, 133–42 sailors and, 28 colonial hospitals and, 115 vocabularies and, 131 colonial linguistics and, 160, 162 Seyyid Said, Sultan, 344 conversations with priests and, 139 shahada, 46 crowds of Anosy and, 75 sharecropping, 261, see also ex-slaves ethnic shares of, Cape of Good Hope, 245 Shell, Robert, 241, 243 ethnic shares of, Mascarenes, 102 Sheriff, Abdul, 40 families of, 261 Shindzuwani, 340 health aboard ship and, 104 shipwrecks, 28, 49 insurrections and, 229 Sidner, ou les dangers de l’imagination Lazarists and, 111, 112, 146 (1803), 122, 149 Malagasy, aboard European ships, 62 Signal Mountain, 204, 256, 264 Malagasy, at Mwali, 343 sikidy, 213, 328 marronage and, 209 silence Mascarene populations and, 147 archives and, 141 movement among estates of, 111 government and, 260 multilingualism of, 215, 245 slaves and, 162 names of, 289 silver, 49, 104, 304, 325 sources of, Madagascar, 103 Simonstown, 239, 240, 245 transformed into apprentices, 247 singing, see music vocabularies and, 122, 160–2 slave lodge, Cape Town, 243, 244 Smith, George, 179 slave owners, see also race, slaves Societed’Emulation de l’^le de France, fear of slaves and, 211 151, 155, 179 invisibility of slaves and, 160 Societe des Sciences et des Arts de l’isle de literary societies and, 152 France, 150 market for vernacular phrasebooks and, Societe litteraire de l’isle de France, 150 166 Sody, Jumbe, 333, 336, 339 opposition to vernacular evangelism Andrianisa and, 344 by, 253 soldiers, French, see also armies, wars philosophes and, 155 Anosy and, 58, 59 slave trades, see also commerce, merchants Indian wars and, 148 across Madagascar, 234 translators and, 72 British abolitionism and, 200 soldiers, Malagasy, 318, see also armies, European in Indian Ocean, 44 wars illegal, 232, 233, 241 Comores and, 26, 332 Imerina’s military officers and, 198 Mascarenes and, 235 Indian Ocean and, 38–44 Mauritius and, 201, 217, 283 Madagascar to Cape of Good Hope, Port Louis and, 201, 216 241–5 Radama’s 1821 expedition and, 197 Madagascar to Comores, 327, 343 Sonnerat, 152 Madagascar to Mascarenes, 103 sorabe, see soratse margin of error in estimates of, 40 soratse, 47, 86, 91, 139 see also Islam, mixed cargoes and, 104 ombiasa, Qur’an, writing Mozambique and, 104 Christian vocabulary and, 93 Vaniya merchants and, 104 colonial vocabularies and, 127 slavery, see emancipation, ex-slaves, defined, 46 liberated Africans, prize negroes, race, Governor Flacourt and, 91 slave trades, slaves Lazarists and, 77, 88

Index 377

Qur’an and, 93 between English and Malagasy, 234 restricted distribution of, 47 catechisms and, 135 types of, 93 competition over, 72 South Africa, see Cape of Good Hope, enslaved, 115, 117, 118, 122, 162, Cape Town 188, 234 Southern African languages, 38 Fort Dauphin and, 73, 91 space found unsatisfactory, 74 boundaries of the Indian Ocean and, 31 from Mauritius in Madagascar, 235 Spraeck ende woord-boeck (1604), 66 Lazarists’ attempts to circumvent, 89 squatting (land), 261, 263, 270 Lazarists deprived of, 146 Stellenbosh, 244 Malagasy, 62, 63 stereotypes, 209 Mascarene courts and, 214 Stewart, Charles, 226 Mauritius governor and, 311 Stipendiary Magistrates, 262 prisoners of war and, 71 Strait of Malacca, 27 Sultan of Ndzuwani and, 340 Sumatra, 42, 44, 66 terms for, in seventeenth-century Surat, 58, 59 Anosy, 72 survivals, cultural, 220, 223, 231, see also women as, 72 creolization, Malagasy language travel narratives, 167, 170 Swahili coast, 45 travelers, Malagasy Comoro islands and, 330 cosmopolitanism of, 347–8 Syfax, Jonathan, 44 Treaty of Paris (1814), 184 Tsimandoa, 197 Table Ovale, 151, 179 Tsimiamboholahy clan, 316, 338, 343, Tamatave, 103, 270, 303, 307, 315, 344, 345, 346 316, 343 Tsiomeko, Queen, 313 bombardment of, 307, 316 Tswana Bible, 30 tangena, 199 tuberculosis, 5, 7, 302 taratasy, 46, see also paper Tavel, Dr., 306 Unienville, Antoine Marrier d’, 179, Telfair, Charles, 179, 187, 190, 193, 194 193, 265 thimbles, 310 Union Chapel Thomy, Mr. and Mrs., 277 Cape Town, 238 thread, 310 Port Louis, 269 time boundaries of the Indian Ocean and, 31 Vacoas, 283, 319 Tolagnare,~ see also Fort Dauphin Valette, Jean, 170 defined, 52 Valgny, 155 French settlement at, 55 Vangaindrano, 43 Toussaint, Auguste, 122, 129, 207 Vaughan, Megan, 24, 112, 209, 218, traitants, see merchants 220, 221, 224, 231 Tranovato,~ 50 Verges, Fran¸coise, 20, 24, 220 translation, see also colonial linguistics, Verin, Pierre, 35 conversation, translators vernacular imperialism, 26, 118, 121, 138, biblical, 30, 181, 182, 184, 189 143, 162, 231, 272, 351, 352, see also conversation and, 78 British empire, colonial linguistics, multiple glosses and, 96 French empire, imperialism, Malagasy reflected in soratse books, 93 language, publishing semantic shifts and, 268 creolization and, 123 slaves and, 115, 117, 118, 122, 162, Vesey, Denmark, 212 188, 234 villages, Malagasy translators, see also colonial linguistics, ex-slaves in Mauritius and, 261–7 conversation, translation violence aboard Portuguese vessels, 49 Lazarists and, 71 African, translating Malagasy, 234 literacy and, 53, 61

378 Index

violence (cont.) Fort Dauphin and, 58 seventeenth-century Anosy and, 55–9 Malagasy and European merchants testified in dictionaries, 56 and, 158 Virgin, The, 76, 78, 87 Malagasy, in Cape Town, 238 Virginia, 43 Malagasy vocabularies and, 130 Vitre, Fran¸coisMartin de, 28 marriage at the Mascarenes and, 102 Vocabulaire malgache (1773), 119–33, 149, Worden, Nigel, 20, 241, 243, 244 163, 165 writing, see also letters, literacy, reading, vocabularies, 69, see also colonial soratse, translation, translators linguistics, dictionaries, translation, Antemoro and, 46 translators Arabic language and, 46 employed by planters and merchants, Belleombre plantation and, 187 123, 125, 164 David Jones and, 190 Froberville and, 159 Drian-Ramaka and, 93 quality of, 132 eighteenth-century Mascarenes slaves and, 122, 160–2 and, 120 studied aboard ship, 64 ex-slaves and, 295 Vohemar, 45, 336 French language and, 63 Vohimarina, 336 Froberville’s lexical work and, Voleur Mauricien, Le, 207 171, 182 Vonizongo, 334 Imerina and, 177, 195, 293 Lazarists and, 86, 88 wages, 247, 261, 262, 264, 266, Malagasy at Simonstown and, 239 see also ex-slaves, labor Malagasy in the Indian Ocean and, Walthamstow, 334 347–8 Ward, Sheila, 208 mnemonic devices and, 89 Warhafftige grundliche€ und außfuhrliche€ , 66 ombiasa and, 77, 85 wars, see also armies, soldiers Portuguese language and, 51 Anosy and, 71, 75, 85 Queen Ranavalona and, 4 healing and, 75 Ratsarahomba and, 275 Imerina and, 103, 211 slaves and, 137 Napoleonic, 146, 180, 181, 182, 183, social extent of, 294 200, 241 speech varieties and, 316 prisoners of, 71 Revolutionary, 234 Xavier, Fran¸cois, 93 Welsh missionaries, 178, see also London Xhosa Bible, 30 Missionary Society British imperialism and, 185 Yai, Olabiyi, 15, 354 English chauvinism and, 190 Yoruba language, 42 Malagasy speech varieties and, 192 Bible, 30 winds, 45, 234, see also currents, sailing, vocabulary, in Brazil, 15 sailors monsoon, 44 Zafiraminia, 52, 58 sailing and, 104 Zahanhare, 74, 76, 78, see also God wives, 78, 131, 277, 288, 332, 334, 338, debates about attributes of, 78 344, 345, see also marriage, women word’s origin in soratse, 95 Malagasy, 127, 130, 132, 231, 235, 312 Zanahary, see Zahanhare women, see also marriage, wives Zanzibar, 32, 333, 336 alliances with Europeans, 58 Sultan of, 344 as translators, 72 zero-sum games, see also creolization, attraction to missionaries in Anosy French creoles, Malagasy language, and, 84 multilingualism discussions with missionaries and, 78 language and creolization and, 23, 24, early population of ^le Bourbon and, 101 222, 352, 353