REFLECTIONS

Words Connect Us with Others by Nichiko Niwano

We humans are unique among all liv- the compassion based upon that wis- Nichiko Niwano is president of ing beings, as we are the only ones to dom that brings peace of mind to other Rissho Kosei-kai and an honorary communicate with words. There is no people. Because the use of words can president of Religions for Peace. denying that our being able to encoun- lead us to wisdom, they are important He also serves as special advisor ter the Buddha Dharma is thanks to the tools of liberation. to Shinshuren (Federation of New many people who have transmitted the For that reason, we should now take Religious Organizations of Japan). Truth and the Dharma through words this opportunity to ponder our grati- over the course of some twenty-five tude for words, as it is important that rudely, we bow our heads and sincerely hundred years. we employ this precious gift from the apologize by saying, “I’m truly sorry.” The Precisely because we have benefited gods and the buddhas to show consid- exchange of such expressions back and from their efforts at transmission we can eration to those around us. Doing so is, forth makes social actions go smoothly, now lead lives worthy of human beings in and of itself, one way of transmitting and human relationships become warm and follow the Buddha Way, but we usu- the Dharma to them. and gracious. It is such words of gratitude ally take this for granted. that connect human hearts and minds. Broadening the topic a little, someone Words that Reach However, here I must add one more once said, about human beings having the Heart and Mind important point: it does not matter a heart and mind, “There is no deny- what kind of words you use, but rather ing that, even allowing for the theory We should not forget our gratitude for what kind of “you” speaks those words. of evolution, human beings were born the gifts received by human beings, Frankly, what matters is whether your from the original principle of the heav- including words. What we should do words match your actions. Whether what enly and the natural known in Japanese first of all, in order to show our thank- you say reaches the heart and mind of as tenchi shizen, and that it is possi- fulness, is not to lose sight of the real the other person depends on this. For ble to think of humans as its agents to importance of “self.” words to inspire confidence in others reveal their hearts and minds.” This In the past, I was profoundly depends upon the way of life of the per- means that human beings are able to impressed by the phrase, “The self is son who speaks them. think about things and talk about their one’s portion of the natural world,” and Also, there is no one among us who thoughts because the original principle in light of what I have mentioned above, can know everything about this world, of the heavenly and the natural, that is for us human beings born of the orig- and even if someone spent eternity try- the gods and the buddhas, entrusts us inal principle of the heavenly and the ing to do so, it still would be impossi- with those thoughts and enables us to natural, this fact encourages us to real- ble. Seen from the eyes of the Buddha, put them into words. ize that the self is only one tiny piece of we are all novices who can attain but a Buddhism teaches us that when each the entire universe. little knowledge, so when we are talk- and every one of us awakens to our own Once we realize that as human beings ing with other people, we should never wisdom and cultivates the heart and we are just a small fraction of the whole forget our humility. mind of compassion, we are able to pur- and that our lives are sustained by the From long ago in Japan, we have sue life with a true sense of purpose. If gods and the buddhas, the words from said that words have the power to bring we really think about this, there is no our mouths become imbued with the happiness. And one way they do so is greater use of the generous gift of being heart and mind of gratitude, as we nat- through our working to transmit the able to communicate with words than urally say “thank you” or refuse to take Truth and the Dharma that we hope to understand the true nature of things, credit by saying, “It’s all thanks to others.” will liberate as many people as possi- which is wisdom, as well as to practice When we make mistakes or have behaved ble from their worries and suffering. ≥

Dharma World October–December 2014 1 OCT.–DEC. 2014 VOL. 41

FEATURES: Buddhism and Language

1 Words Connect Us with Others by Nichiko Niwano Dharma World presents Buddhism as a practical living religion and 3 Buddhism and Language: promotes interreligious dialogue Th e Lotus Sutra for world peace. It espouses views by Gene Reeves that emphasize the dignity of life, seeks to rediscover our inner nature 7 Embodying Buddha-Speech and bring our lives more in accord by Natalie Gummer with it, and investigates causes of 10 A Buddhist Paradigm human suff ering. It tries to show of Language how religious principles help solve by Dennis Hirota problems in daily life and how the least application of such principles 13 Subverting Words: has wholesome eff ects on the world Impasse and Breakthrough around us. It seeks to demonstrate in Zen Kōan Practice truths that are fundamental to all by Ruben L. F. Habito religions, truths on which all people 16 Buddhism and Language: can act. Th oughts on the Relationship between Word, Writing, Publisher: Moriyasu Okabe and Performance in Buddhist Cultural History Executive Director: Jun’ichi Nakazawa by Brian Ruppert Director: Kazumasa Murase 19 Why Gautama Buddha Hesitated to Preach: Senior Editor: Kazumasa Osaka Challenging the Constraints of Language in Buddhism Editor: Katsuyuki Kikuchi by Hiroyuki Sato Editorial Advisors: Miriam Levering, Gene Reeves, Yoshiaki Sanada, 22 Jewish and Buddhist Responses to Violence Michio T. Shinozaki by Harold Kasimow Copy Editors: 26 Th e Brighter Society Movement and the Spirit William Feuillan, Gary Hoiby, of the “Universal Gate of Truth” DeAnna Satre, Catherine Szolga by Nikkyo Niwano Editorial Staff : Th e Prism of the Lotus Sutra (6) Ryuichi Kaneko, Satoe Izawa 32 Subscription Staff : Kazuyo Okazaki by Atsushi Kanazawa Layout and Design: Abinitio Design 34 Th e Signifi cance of Lay Buddhism in Japanese History Cover photo: Shutterstock by Masazumi Shōjun Okano Photoshop work by Abinitio Design THE THREEFOLD LOTUS SUTRA: A MODERN COMMENTARY 39 Th e Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Law Chapter 23: Th e Former Lives of the Bodhisattva Medicine King (2)

Dharma World is published quarterly by Kosei Publishing Company, 2-7-1 Wada, Suginami-ku, Tokyo 166-8535. E-mail: [email protected]. Copyright © 2014 by Kosei Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Printed in Japan by Komiyama Printing Company. Change of Address: Please provide both old and new addresses. Six weeks’ advance notice is requested. Requests for permission to reprint all or part of any article in this issue must be made in writing to the editor of Dharma World. FEATURES Buddhism and Language: The Lotus Sutra by Gene Reeves

Gene Reeves has done research and Broadly speaking, I think there are at least two reasons lectured on the Lotus Sutra worldwide behind the Lotus Sutra’s positive view of language, behind for more than a quarter century. its admonition to have faith in and seek to understand the He was a visiting professor at the truthful words of the Buddha: its positive view of nearly University of Peking and a professor everything, and its teaching of skillful means. at Renmin University of China in Beijing until retiring in 2012, and he serves as an international advisor to I don’t know that this has been true Center for Buddhist Translation and Rissho Kosei-kai. His recent works in all times and places, but in general, Research, 2004], p. 90, Taishō 540c; include The Lotus Sutra and The it seems to me, Buddhism has been Taishō references are also provided Stories of the Lotus Sutra (Wisdom highly ambivalent about language, for convenience). In this sutra there is Publications, 2008 and 2010). about words, whether written or spo- the famous scene in which Manjushri ken. Very often sutras and their written Bodhisattva tells Vimalakirti that he words have been objects of religious should explain how a bodhisattva enters In other words, there can be no devotion, representing a very positive the gate of nonduality. In response teaching or preaching of liberation or view of language. Perhaps the Chan/ Vimalakirti remains silent, saying noth- emancipation apart from words. Zen tradition has been most consis- ing at all. And Manjushri responds, The idea of a language beyond tent in using language to denigrate “Excellent, excellent! Not to even have language, the idea of a kind of super- language, using a lot of words to dispar- words or speech is the true entrance language that transcends ordinary lan- age words. Many Zen Buddhists have into the Dharma gate of nonduality” guage, is not exclusive to Zen or to spoken of a dharma transmission that (ibid., p. 159, Taishō 553c). Th is has Buddhism. Richard Kearney, an Irish exists apart from, and even in contrast been widely interpreted as advocating American Roman Catholic philosopher, to, written sutras. But negative views a transcendence of language or words. wrote recently that to truly understand of language can also be found almost On the other hand, in the same sutra another religion, we must seek “at the everywhere in Buddhism, including we fi nd the following: root of each religion, a silent, speech- in the Lotus Sutra. less openness to a Word which sur- Th e goddess said, “Speech and words passes us. If it is true that all religions The Vimalakirti Sutra are entirely the characteristics of involve a special acoustic of obedience emancipation. Why? to a Word beyond our fi nite language, Th is ambivalence is rather stark in the “Emancipation is neither inter- this may lead to a modest ability to lis- Vimalakirti Sutra. On the one hand, nal, nor external, nor intermediate. ten to Otherness.” we fi nd “Th e wise are not attached Words are also neither internal, nor And even within Zen traditions we to letters, and therefore they have no external, nor intermediate. Th erefore, can fi nd very positive views of language. fear” (quotations from the Vimalakirti Shariputra, the explanation of eman- Dogen, the great thirteenth-century early Sutra are taken from the translation of cipation does not transcend words. Zen master and founder of the Soto Kumarajiva’s Chinese version [Taishō, Why? school of Japanese Buddhism, wrote, vol. 14, no. 475] by John R. McRae in “A l l dharmas have the charac- “All buddhas and patriarchs are able to Th e Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion’s teristic of emancipation.” (Ibid., p. voice the Way”; that is, to express the Roar and the Vimalakīrti Sutra [Numata 128, Taishō 548a) truth of the Buddhist path in words.

Dharma World October–December 2014 3 Nichiren far-reaching voice, which is itself another mind by listening to his invisible and coextensive. They there- voice. This is because the physical In contrast to Zen traditions of skepti- fore express the two physical aspects aspect reveals the spiritual aspect. cism about the efficacy of language, tra- of color and form. The Buddha’s pure The physical and the spiritual, which ditions based on the Lotus Sutra have and far-reaching voice, which once are one in essence, manifest them- been generally positive about language. vanished, has reappeared in the vis- selves as two distinct aspects; thus Perhaps the most positive view of lan- ible form of written words to bene- the Buddha’s mind found expression guage, and not only of the words of the fit the people. (The Major Writings in the written words of the Lotus Lotus Sutra, is found in Nichiren. Of of Nichiren Daishonin, vol. 4 [NISC, Sutra. These written words are the Buddhist sutras in general he once wrote 1986], p. 31) Buddha’s mind in a different form. that “each word and phrase is true; not a Therefore those who read the Lotus single passage or verse is false.” Nichiren According to Nichiren, when not Sutra must not regard it as consist- explained this very positive view of lan- intending to deceive, ing of mere written words, for those guage in a brief essay on ceremonies for words are in themselves the Buddha’s the dedication of new Buddhist images a person gives voice to what he truly mind. (Ibid., p. 32) called “Opening the Eyes of Wooden or has in mind. Thus his thoughts are Painted Images.” He wrote: expressed in his voice. The mind Nichiren held a nondual view of represents the spiritual aspect, and mind and speech, a view that he inherited The written words of the Lotus Sutra the voice, the physical aspect. The from the Chinese Tiantai master Zhiyi. express in visible and non-coex- spiritual aspect manifests itself in The contemporary Nichiren scholar tensive form the Buddha’s pure and the physical. A person can know Zencho Kitagawa writes:

4 Dharma World October–December 2014 In Nichiren’s view, the words of the is from the Lotus Sutra. In other words, But such passages are not common, sutras were not merely characters Shakyamuni Buddha is in the Lotus and even in this case, the claim that written in black ink but the Buddha’s Sutra. This involves a version of the bodhisattvas, at least those whose faith pure voice, taking form as the written Tendai idea of interpenetration. The is strong and firm, can understand the words of teachings that work to save ideas of the sutra in the Buddha and dharma is hardly negative. living beings. This understanding the Buddha in the sutra are not in con- There are also passages expressing affirms the statement of the Tiantai flict; they mutually support each other. a generally positive view of language: master Zhiyi (538–597) in his Fahua Thus many generations of Lotus Sutra “Shariputra, all of you should believe, xuanyi (Profound meaning of the followers have understood that the sutra understand, and embrace the words of Lotus Sutra), “The voice does the is the Buddha or at least fully repre- the Buddha with all your hearts, for in Buddha’s work; this is called kyō 経 sents the Buddha, the Buddha actually the words of the buddhas, the tatha- or sutra” (T 33.681c). Nichiren quotes embodied in a text, in words. When this gatas, there is nothing empty or false” this passage from Zhiyi in his Ichidai happens, and it is by no means exclu- (ibid., p. 85). shōgyō taii . . . (The cardinal mean- sive to the Lotus Sutra, the text itself Similarly: ing of the Buddha’s lifetime teach- becomes an object of religious devo- ings) in interpreting the character tion, for the text embodies the Buddha, Only because they trust the Buddha’s kyō (sutra) of the Lotus Sutra’s title. or at least the Buddha for us, for those words, (“The Words of the Lotus Sutra in who can see and encounter the Buddha Can any of the shravakas Follow this Sutra— Nichiren’s Thought,” Japanese Journal in the Lotus Sutra. Potentially, it is the of Religious Studies: The Lotus Sutra Buddha for anyone. Not because they have any wisdom in Japan, 41:1 [2014]: 29) of their own. (Ibid., p. 131) The Lotus Sutra Chapter 16 begins: The Buddha in the Text The Lotus Sutra does not have much to At that time the Buddha said to the In Rissho Kosei-kai’s Great Sacred Hall, say directly about language. There are bodhisattvas and to all the great the central image and object of devotion, passages in it suggesting limitations of assembly, “Have faith in and under- the Gohonzon, is a statue of Shakyamuni language. For example: stand, all you good sons, the truthful Buddha surrounded in the nimbus with words of the Tathagata.” Again he said images of Abundant Treasures Buddha This Dharma is indescribable. to the great assembly, “Have faith in in his treasure stupa and the four lead- Words must fall silent. and understand the truthful words of ing bodhisattvas of chapter 15 of the Among other kinds of living beings, the Tathagata.” And yet again he said Lotus Sutra. Inside that statue is a set None can understand it, to the great assembly, “Have faith in of scrolls with the entire Lotus Sutra Except the bodhisattvas, and understand the truthful words of hand-copied by Founder Niwano. Thus Whose faith is strong and firm. the Tathagata.” (Ibid., p. 291) the Lotus Sutra is in the Buddha, yet (Gene Reeves, trans., The Lotus Sutra almost everything that Rissho Kosei- [Wisdom Publications, 2008], pp. Broadly speaking, I think there are kai knows about Shakyamuni Buddha 76–77) at least two reasons behind the Lotus

Dharma World October–December 2014 5 Sutra’s positive view of language, behind other words, is positive about this saha As well as “arhat,” “dharma,” and its admonition to have faith in and seek world and nearly everything in it. Even “sangha.” (Ibid., p. 99) to understand the truthful words of the idea of this being the saha world, the Buddha: its positive view of nearly a world in which suffering has to be In the Lotus Sutra, words are, or at everything, and its teaching of skill- endured, is transformed in the Lotus least can be, skillful means for teach- ful means. Sutra view of it to a world in which suf- ing Buddha-dharma. fering can be endured with good effect. But we should not understand this to Buddhist Positiveness In the Lotus Sutra, suffering is more an mean that words are mere skillful means. opportunity than a liability. Though Western scholars are inclined The Argentinian Buddhist scholars and The Lotus Sutra is so positive about to make much use of the term mere translators of Buddhist texts (includ- things that one is tempted to say that skillful means, such an idea is nowhere ing the Sanskrit Lotus Sutra) Fernando it is positive about everything. But, in to be found in the Lotus Sutra itself. Tola and Carmen Dragonetti recently fact, it is not positive about those who This is at least in part because schol- published a book on the Lotus Sutra disparage followers of the Lotus Sutra. ars are well aware of the two-truth the- called Buddhist Positiveness (Motilal Probably they, too, can become buddhas, ory attributed to Nagarjuna, according Banarsidass, 2009). While I am not but not without a good bit of overcom- to which there are inferior truths that entirely happy with the very rarely used ing the effects of bad karma. Still, such are provisional, expedient, and par- English term positiveness, I think that negative judgments are relatively rare tial, while above them there is ultimate the idea behind this use of the term is in the Lotus Sutra. truth, which is final and complete. But quite appropriate. The sutra’s generally positive view the authors and compilers of the Lotus The Lotus Sutra is positive or affirma- of our world and nearly everything in Sutra did not read Nagarjuna, who lived tive about almost everything it discusses. it naturally leads to a positive view of later, and were completely unaware of Shravakas are not merely backward or language. But behind this positive view this two-truth theory. wrong, they are to become buddhas. of the world and language is another Accordingly, for the Lotus Sutra, While Devadatta, apart from the Lotus idea that is never articulated directly skillful means are never, ever “mere” Sutra, is generally known as an epit- in the Lotus Sutra but runs through skillful means. On the contrary, in the ome of evil, in the sutra nothing at all it from beginning to end—the idea of sutra they are the means by which the is said of his being evil. Instead we are buddha-nature. Buddha, or his stand-in, saves people. told that he was once a teacher for the They are always wonderful. Buddha and will himself become a bud- Buddha-Nature Thus we can conclude that the dha in the future. central theme of the Lotus Sutra, the All stories in the Lotus Sutra end Buddha-nature narrowly interpreted idea that everything has a potential on a positive note: children saved affirms the potential of every living being, to become a buddha, leads to a gen- from their burning house ride off in especially of human beings, to become erally affirmative, positive approach to magnificent carriages; pilgrims com- buddhas. But it also has a broader mean- whatever we encounter in life. Though pletely discouraged by the very long ing, in which something positive, indeed language is very inadequate for fully road recover and resume their jour- something of the Buddha himself, can expressing our ideas, inspirations, ney after experiencing a magically con- be found in anything at all. feelings, passions—even our sensa- jured city; a poor son inherits his rich tions—language provides an opening, father’s wealth; children stricken by Skillful Means a skillful means both for understand- poison recover after hearing of their ing the Buddha’s words as found in father’s death; the entire family of a non- Since the tranquilly extinct charac- the sutras and for understanding the Buddhist king happily joins the follow- ter of all things world around us, including the minds ing of their buddha; and so on. Cannot be put into words, of our neighbors. Perhaps most important, despite its I used the power of skillful means, Thus we are encouraged by the Lotus lack of interest in metaphysical issues To teach the five ascetics. Sutra to delight in language; to become or speculation about ultimate matters, fluent in the use of language, especially the Lotus Sutra affirms the reality of the This is called “turning the Dharma in teaching Buddha-dharma; and to be things of the everyday world, implic- wheel.” grateful to those who have used language itly rejecting transcendental notions Then I made distinctions to teach us and lead us to the teachings of ultimate reality. The Lotus Sutra, in Using such words as “nirvana,” of the Buddha. ≥

6 Dharma World October–December 2014 FEATURES

Embodying Buddha-Speech by Natalie Gummer

Natalie Gummer is a literary and If “reading” can lead to . . . radical transformations—if reading cultural historian of Buddhism with is a process of incorporating buddha-speech—then it entails a PhD from Harvard University. She much more than silent engagement with the meaning of the is currently Professor of Religious text. The practices advocated in the sutras offer the listener a Studies at Beloit College, Wisconsin. pathway toward the progressive incorporation of the text, one Her research examines the that invites repeated and ever-more-intense engagement performative aspects of Mahāyāna with its words. Buddhist sutras and the ethics of reading, with a focus on Buddhist literary culture in premodern South What happens to us when we read? as well as cognitive and emotional- Asia. She is coeditor of Defi ning Mahāyāna Buddhist sutras present aesthetic transformation. Buddhism(s): A Reader, and us with some provocative answers to Th e metaphors and techniques set the author of several articles on this question. Th e sutras refl ect keen forth in the Sutra of Golden Light, for Mahāyāna Buddhist sutras and textual awareness of the ways in which lan- instance, represent reading (including practices. guage shapes us and our world and off er listening, studying, holding in memory, striking alternatives to commonplace reciting, and preaching to another) as closer examination. Eating involves tak- representations (at least in English) of a process of incorporation. Th e sutra’s ing something that is not oneself into language as a mere vehicle or tool for own oral substance is dharmāmṛtarasa, one’s own body. The process of diges- conveying human ideas. And while they the liquid essence of the immortalizing tion—understood in ancient South were composed in times and places nectar of the dharma (see especially Asia as the progressive refi nement of where “reading” as we know it in our chapters 6 and 10 of the Sanskrit text). nutritive essences in a series of inter- digital and print culture didn’t exist, they Th is essence is like a perfect food that nal fi res—makes food part of the body, set forth sophisticated techniques for enters listeners and fi lls them with life, but it also changes the body: the body engaging with the power of language. energy, prosperity, and pleasure. Th ey now contains, incorporates, the food Contemporary readers, Buddhist or want to hear it over and over again, and consumed. So if we consume a great not, have something important to learn as they do, they begin to glow with the deal of a particular food, our bodies from these ancient texts—both from the golden luminosity of the sutra. are actually scented by it. When we eat, metaphors they use for their own power A number of fi gures, including the our food becomes part of us, but it also and from the practices they advocate. Buddha himself, testify to the process changes what we are. We become more Th is essay explores the potent resources that ensues thereaft er: an avid listener of like it. So it is with the sutra: it infuses off ered by the Sutra of Golden Light, the the sutra becomes a speaker and, even- its listeners with its golden light and Teaching of Vimalakīrti, and the Lotus tually, a buddha—the ultimate speaker— eventually transforms them into bud- Sutra for rethinking our own agency with an immortal golden dharma body. dhas whose bodies are identical with in relation to language and for reex- And that body, the sutra tells us, is none the sutra. And those bodies invite us periencing that relationship. Th e met- other than the sutra itself. Th is is the to read the metaphor as alchemical aphors and techniques employed in transformation off ered by the Sutra of as well: the liquid essence of the sutra these sutras vary, but they share with Golden Light. is also mercury, which immortalizes one another a conception of reading The core metaphor of consump- those who embody it by transform- (broadly defi ned) as eff ecting physical tion and incorporation here deserves ing them into gold.

Dharma World October–December 2014 7 The metaphor of the dharma as transformative food is literalized in the Teaching of Vimalakīrti. In chapters 8 and 9 of the Sanskrit text, the lay bodhi- sattva Vimalakīrti sends a golden-­bodied bodhisattva to a distant buddha-field called Sarvagandhasugandha (Where All Scents Are Sweet) to fetch an inexhaust- ible bowl of delicious-smelling food from the buddha Gandhottamakūṭa (Pinnacle of Finest Perfumes). Vimalakīrti and his entourage consume the ambrosial meal and emanate its exquisite scent throughout a forty-nine-day period of digestive cooking. At the end of this time, all those who partook of the food have advanced significantly on the path to buddhahood. As Ānanda remarks, the food accomplishes the work of a buddha. The food is like the sutra, the teachings of the Buddha, and the sutra bodhisattva Bhaiṣajyarāja’s fiery self- We generally recognize (if sometimes is like the food, entering the bodies of sacrifice. The bodhisattva wishes to its audiences and furthering their prog- make an offering to the Lotus Sutra have material form, but the invisibility ress on the path to buddhahood. and to Candravimalasūryaprabhāsaśri and evanescence of sound make it seem Like the Sutra of Golden Light, the (Luster of the Spotless Moon and Radiant Lotus Sutra evokes alchemical processes Sun), the buddha of his time, so he, like in representing their own oral substance to depict its transformative power. It rep- Vimalakīrti’s entourage, digests fragrant - resents its own oral performance not as substances. After twelve full years of cible, challenge this assumption and help mercury, however, but as the fire through consumption, he has constituted him- listeners to sense the sound as it enters which listeners are transformed (liter- self as the perfect offering and sets him- them, to taste the sutra’s sonorous sub- ally, “cooked to perfection”; pari-pac in self alight. When he is subsequently stance or feel its transformative heat. Sanskrit—a term that occurs more than reborn at the time of the same bud- forty times in the sutra). The golden- dha’s pari­nirvana, he is again inspired an awareness of the visceral presence of bodied bodhisattvas who emerge from the spoken sutra in the body as it reso- the cracks of the earth in chapter 15, nates in the chest and pours forth from for instance, have been forged in the truth statement, he both restores the one’s mouth to enter the ears of others. fire of the Buddha’s preaching of the arm and gains a golden-colored body. And it draws attention to its material sutra. Images of heat and light abound - in descriptions of the sutra’s effects on ful language in this story mirror the one’s spine, hairs suddenly standing on its listeners and in the praise heaped end) and hidden (the changes wrought on those preachers of the dharma (like story goes on to assert that even bear- in one’s mind through this encounter Pūrṇa in the eighth chapter) who are ing in mind a single verse of the Lotus with language). particularly skilled in perfecting beings Sutra is just as powerful and meritori- Second, the view of language in these through their performance of the sutra. ous as burning parts of one’s body: the sutras turns on its head the conven- Preaching the sutra has even more aston- - tional metaphor of language as con- ishing physical effects than hearing it: ogy for self-perfection. tainer or conduit for the communication witness the remarkable bodily transfor- - of ideas. By contrast, the image of sutra mations listed in chapter 19. sentations of what it means to engage As with the redolent meal in the with a sutra are several. First, our atten- Teaching of Vimalakīrti, the meta- tion is drawn to the material qualities of with and transformed by the language phor is literalized in the story of the language, especially spoken language. of the sutra. Agency is located not in

8 Dharma World October–December 2014 the listener or speaker but in the potent undermined in yet another way by to before. Depicting the sound of the words that he or she embodies. In this engagement with these sutras: through sutra as an ambrosial liquid enables lis- way, the different practices advocated in the connection formed to all others, past, teners and speakers to taste it; depicting the sutras—hearing, reciting, holding in present, and future, who have engaged it as fire enables them to feel its golden memory, and so forth—can be powerful or will engage in the same bodily prac- glow. Depicting it as the body of the techniques for eroding the delusion of tices. The sutras themselves (especially Buddha makes possible a series of prac- self and self-power. Paradoxically, then, the Golden Light and the Lotus) draw tices aimed toward progressively eras- agentive engagement with the sutra ide- attention to this connection by antici- ing the distinction between one’s own ally leads to a kind of surrender to the pating their future audiences (including body and that of the Buddha/the sutra. text and its agency. those now present) and recalling those Recent research in the neuroscience If “reading” can lead to such radical of the past. In the world of the sutras, of reading (see, for instance, Paul B. transformations—if reading is a process and in many contemporary contexts Armstrong, How Literature Plays with of incorporating buddha-speech—then involving sutras, “reading” is a commu- the Brain [Johns Hopkins University it entails much more than silent engage- nal practice, one that enhances the for- Press, 2013], and Maryanne Wolf, Proust ment with the meaning of the text. The mation of human relationships through and the Squid [Harper, 2007]) indicates practices advocated in the sutras offer the shared ritual performances. When peo- that this activity we take so much for listener a pathway toward the progres- ple chant together, they are both listen- granted involves nothing less than the sive incorporation of the text, one that ers and speakers, both producers and ongoing transformation of our brains: invites repeated and ever-more-intense consumers of the food or fire of the the creation of new neural pathways engagement with its words. Moving from sutra’s sound. And by embodying the and structures and the development listener to speaker necessitates commit- text together, they all become part of the of new capacities for experience. Even ting the sutra to memory so that it lit- perfect dharma body that is the sutra. works we no longer recall having read erally becomes part of the mind. And Significant strands of Buddhist have left their mark on us, shaping us in that process epitomizes the paradox of thought identify language as the source ways of which we are largely unaware. agency: the volitional act of memorizing of delusion, leading us to misperceive the In an important sense, everything we a sutra—no small feat, in most cases— constant flux of experience as discrete, read changes who we are and what we results in a loss of control over the text. As nameable entities with static essences, are able to think and experience. But Charles Malamoud notes in Cooking the separate from one another and from our Mahāyāna Buddhist sutras had no need World, “a text, once learned by heart . . . “selves.” The sutras illuminate the other of a concept of neuroplasticity to rec- cannot be consulted, leafed through, put side of the same coin: if language is so ognize the tremendous power of our aside and taken up again like a book. It powerful as to obscure reality, then it is engagement with texts—the power to asserts its unmoving presence and rip- also powerful enough to liberate. In this delude but also to liberate, to burn but ens in the mind that welcomes it with- sense, metaphors are never “just” met- also to illuminate, to poison but also out that mind being aware of the stages aphors. They make possible new expe- to invigorate. The metaphors of trans- of its maturation” ([Oxford University riences and understandings and draw formation in these sutras suggest that Press, 1996], 256–57). attention to aspects of our experience when it comes to reading practices, you Notions of the sovereign self are that we might not have paid attention are what you eat. ≥

Dharma World October–December 2014 9 FEATURES

A Buddhist Paradigm of Language by Dennis Hirota

Language is the medium in which our For Pure Land Buddhists, the way leads not through existence in the world takes shape and dispelling discriminative thought and speech by meditative our thoughts are formed; it ordinarily praxis but precisely in and through language. functions in the lives of unenlightened persons to affi rm a false, ego-centered Language has always been at issue in set out to convey the path to others. It apprehension of the self and world. At Buddhist traditions, for Buddhists have is not that the teaching is abstruse and the same time, as the Chinese Pure Land never assumed the transparency of the diffi cult to grasp intellectually but that master Tanluan (476–542 CE) states: word. Th e fundamental problem is sug- our ordinary language use is tied to a “Great bodhisattvas, having awakened gested in the narrative of the aft ermath delusive grasp of things. Nirvana tran- to formless reality, constantly abide in of Gotama Buddha’s awakening. While scends the conceptual horizon of unen- profound samādhi. For this very rea- enjoying the bliss of enlightenment, lightened beings. son, they are able to display freely in he pondered whether he should try to Buddhist masters of the various tra- all worlds numerous and diverse bod- impart his realization to others. Doubting ditions have, down through history, cau- ies, supernal powers, and ways of com- he would meet with understanding, he tioned practitioners about the need for municating truth.” was inclined to remain silent within an appropriate mode of understanding Language, which ordinarily forms the the joy of his own awakening. It was the teaching. Nagarjuna’s well-known tissue of our delusive perceptions and only aft er the god Brahma entreated the formulation admonishes: “Rely on the judgments, can paradoxically become Buddha to teach the dharma, assuring meaning, not on the words. . . . Rely on the vehicle of awakened ones for guid- him that there would be beings who wisdom, not the working of the mind.” ing beings to truth. would benefi t—lotuses rising above Words, he states, are but the fi nger point- In the following, I will focus on the the pond’s surface undefi led—that the ing to the moon: “Why do you look at Japanese Pure Land tradition, for it is Blessed One rose from meditation and the fi nger and not at the moon?” here that the contrary aspects of lan- guage—as medium of false, conceptual thought and as manifestation of truth— emerge most sharply. In many Buddhist paths, the mind is stilled and delusive language use eradicated through the performance of meditative practices and disciplines, so that the practitioner touches suchness or reality. In the Pure Land traditions as developed in Japan, however, persons of the nembutsu say the Name of Amida Buddha, entrust- ing themselves to Amida’s vow to bring all beings to enlightenment in his Pure Land. Practitioners do not extricate themselves from the realm of delusional language use but, instead, in encoun- tering Amida’s vow, simultaneously

10 Dharma World October–December 2014 Dennis Hirota is Professor Emeritus of Shin Buddhist Studies at Ryukoku University, Kyoto. He was Head Translator of The Collected Works of Shinran (1997) and has published several books on Japanese Buddhist thought, including No Abode: The Record of Ippen (1997), Wind in the Pines: Classic Writings of the Way of Tea as a Buddhist Path (1995), Shinran: shūkyō gengo no kakumeisha (1998), and Asura’s Harp: Engagement with Language as Buddhist Path (2006). He is currently completing a book on Shinran’s thought in the light of Heidegger.

awaken to their own ineluctable fini- understanding of engagement with We find in Buddhist traditions, however, tude and incapacity—the impossibility sacred texts, whether the words of the another kind of functioning of language, of transcending the false discriminative Buddha or the revelation of God in scrip- offering a correspondingly distinct par- thought and language of human exist- ture: teaching, faith, and truth. adigm of religious engagement. ence. In this way, their lives come to First, regarding the teaching, it is Pure Land Buddhist thinkers in Japan embody the Buddha’s practice in the often assumed that the significant con- focused on the issue of authentic prac- form of the linguistic act of saying the tents of religious texts are truths regard- tice. In the formulation of the Buddhist Buddha’s Name. ing the sacred, human existence, and path as the three pillars of teaching, prac- the proper conduct of life, and further, tice, and awakening, one first encounters Modern Conceptions that this teaching can be set forth in a the dharma as teaching and embraces of Religious Language series of propositions. the aspiration for buddhahood. Then, Second, the reception of the teaching in accord with the teaching, one under- Despite the concern with language is often understood in terms of “faith” takes practices and disciplines, and by throughout Buddhist history, this topic or “belief.” To have faith is understood incorporating the teaching into one’s offers at present a fresh opportunity for to mean accepting that what is written existence through practice, one is able casting light on Buddhist traditions in a in sacred texts accords with what is the to attain enlightenment. Practice forms contemporary context. This is because case, even though we may be unable the nexus by which the dharma taught recent philosophical thought has focused to verify this correspondence through in the tradition comes to be embodied much attention on language and often direct experience. in the practitioner’s life. presents resonances with Buddhist think- And third, this notion of accord As long as the practitioner’s will is ing that allow us to appreciate anew between the assertions of the teach- tainted by ambition or self-attachment, the role of language in Buddhist paths. ing and the way things actually are is however, even though the aim may be Some thinkers have sought to effect a often taken to be the meaning of truth. enlightenment, the practice becomes kind of Copernican transposition of In other words, truth is a matter of cor- futile. Yet it is to purify one’s existence perspective with regard to the relation- rectness. It comes to us as though a kind of such self-will that practice is nec- ship between the speaker and language. of possession transmitted by means of essary. This contradictory circularity This is an aspect of the deconstruction language. in religious endeavor is not restricted of the notion of the autonomous self— to Buddhism, of course. In a sermon the self as transcendent, reified subject Language in Japanese on the genuine poverty that the Bible that perceives itself as the center of the Pure Land Buddhist teaches as blessed, Meister Eckhart indi- world, grasps and appraises all things cates a negative example: “That man from that standpoint, and employs lan- Tradition has a will to serve God’s will—and that guage as an instrument for expressing The Pure Land path—as a textual tra- is not true poverty! For a man to pos- its thoughts. It is argued instead that dition teaching Amida Buddha and his sess true poverty he must be as free of language itself, not our subjectivity, at vow of compassion—is often regarded as his created will as he was when he was once conditions and enables our appre- exemplifying this commonsense model. not” (The Complete Mystical Works of hension of things. In this view, people who have faith in Meister Eckhart, trans. Maurice O’C. Before turning to language in the the teaching accept as true that they can Walshe [Crossroad, 2009], 421). Pure Land Buddhist tradition, I will attain birth into Amida’s Buddha-field in In the Pure Land tradition, self-will mention three aspects of a common the afterlife through saying the nembutsu. aimed at religious attainment is termed

Dharma World October–December 2014 11 “self-power,” and Shinran characterizes passions, a person may, through the thinking in a moment of beckoning and it as “calculative thinking” (hakarai). The language of the path, encounter what is heeding, and the interchange continues, question, of course, is how it may be pos- true and real. It is in our home ground so that “to say Namu-amida-butsu is to sible to cast off self-will without becom- of language that wisdom-compassion praise the Buddha . . . to repent all the ing entangled more deeply in the web emerges to engage us. This cannot, karmic evil one has committed since of one’s own intentions. For Pure Land however, be in the manner of our usual, the beginningless past . . . to give this Buddhists, the way leads not through ego-centered notions of faith and prac- virtue to all sentient beings.” dispelling discriminative thought and tice. Gadamer identifies the vital qual- speech by meditative praxis but pre- ity of language that allows it to lead Truth as an Event cisely in and through language. Here toward awakening when he speaks of of Disclosure we may draw on resonances with recent its “I-lessness.” He means that when philosophical thought. I will touch on we consider our everyday engagement Finally, truth in the Pure Land Buddhist three aspects. Regarding the first two, with language, we see that our ordi- path is not a matter of the correctness of I refer to the philosophical hermeneu- nary experience is quite removed from assertions. Rather, it is an event of disclo- tics of Hans-Georg Gadamer. the abstract image of the isolated indi- sure in and as language. Thus, Shinran vidual marshaling words like coun- states that the truth of the Larger Sutra A Buddhist Paradigm ters to represent already-formed ideas. of Immeasurable Life, which teaches of the Functioning Rather, “to speak means to speak to Amida Buddha’s Primal Vow, is shown someone.” Speaking is not self-cen- not by literal correspondences but by of Language tered but belongs “in the sphere of the its emergence from Shakyamuni’s deep- First, there is the recognition of the lin- ‘We.’” Thus, “the spiritual reality of lan- est samādhi. He emphasizes that Amida guisticality of human existence. In con- guage is that of the Pneuma, the spirit, “comes forth” into the world of forms trast with the modern notion of the which unifies I and Thou” (“Man and “from suchness” or formless reality, and transcendent ego-self that stands apart Language,” Philosophical Hermeneutics, that out of “dharma-body as dharma- from the world of objects and employs trans. and ed. David E. Linge [University nature,” form is manifested, giving rise language as a tool to communicate its of California Press, 1976]). to the Primal Vow and the Name. inner thoughts, Gadamer depicts lan- Gadamer describes our typical expe- Further, he uses the term jinen— guage as encompassing and informing rience of language as dialogical. Our “naturalness,” unwilled spontaneity—to the entire sphere of human existence. conversations are a dynamic process, indicate reality in its working as wis- Further, just as existence as human is possessing their own flow like a game dom-compassion to bring all beings to social, so language is thoroughly social that carries its participants along, so that awakening: “Supreme Buddha is form- in its acquisition and use, and because “it is no longer the will of the individ- less [beyond conceptual understanding], it functions as the medium of human ual person” asserting private ideas that and because of being formless is called apprehension, our grasp of things is dominates. Thus, what is necessary for jinen. . . . In order to make it known wholly conditioned historically and cul- participating in the interaction of lan- that supreme Buddha is formless, the turally. In Buddhist terms, the finitude of guage is “that we free ourselves from name Amida Buddha is expressly used. human subjectivity that Gadamer por- the customary mode of thinking that . . . Amida Buddha fulfills the purpose trays is understood in terms of discrim- considers the nature of the game from of making us know the significance of inative thought and perception, craving the point of view of the consciousness jinen.” and abhorrence. When the Pure Land of the player.” Engagement with the Pure Land tradition speaks of “the foolish, unen- The language of the Pure Land path Buddhist path is not the common notion lightened person possessed of afflict- likewise functions, not as a monologi- of belief but entrance into a mode of ing passions,” this may be understood cal exposition of creeds for intellectual existence in which the self and the in terms of the linguisticality of human assent, but in the manner of coming near things of the world are experienced as awareness. through dialogue. Thus, Shinran speaks finally porous and ungraspable. It is the Second, the Pure Land path may be of the Primal Vow “calling to and sum- emergence of our universe in which summarized by borrowing a phrase of moning us” in the Name of Amida, and our language is at once inescapable and Shinran’s in Tannishō: “the attainment of of the practitioner’s saying the Name untrue, and of which Shinran neverthe- Buddhahood by the person who is evil” in response to that call. This dialogical less can say, “My thoughts and feelings (akunin jōbutsu). Even while habituated engagement uproots us from our cus- flow within the dharma-ocean, which to false discrimination and afflicting tomary mode of egocentric, calculative is beyond comprehension.” ≥

12 Dharma World October–December 2014 FEATURES

Subverting Words: Impasse and Breakthrough in Zen Kōan Practice by Ruben L. F. Habito

Ruben L. F. Habito teaches world Kōans are not about doctrinal content, nor are they moral religions and spirituality at the guidelines or ritual performance. Rather, they are to be Perkins School of Theology, Southern taken as confi gurations of words whose entire function is to Methodist University, and serves as overturn the conventional use of words and lead a spiritual Guiding Teacher of the Maria Kannon seeker toward a transformative experience. Zen Center, both in Dallas, Texas.

The Zen (Ch., chan) literature handed (For a masterly treatment of the sub- Th e Emperor asked, “Who is this down through centuries of tradition ject, I recommend the essay by G. Victor before me?” includes collections of kōans (Ch., Sōgen Hori, “Kōan and Kenshō in the Bodhidharma said, “I don’t gong an, literally, “public document or Rinzai Zen Curriculum,” in Th e Kōan: know.” The Emperor did not record”) used in the practice of seated Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, understand. meditation. A kōan can consist of a ed. Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright Bodhidharma then crossed the story, verbal exchange, anecdote, short [Oxford University Press, 2000], pp. Yangtze River and went on to the statement, or simple question meant 280–315.) Kōans are not about doctrinal kingdom of Wei. to bring about an intellectual impasse content, nor are they moral guidelines Later, the Emperor took up this and lead a practitioner to an experien- or ritual performance. Rather, they are matter with Duke Chi. Chi said, tial breakthrough in the spiritual path. to be taken as confi gurations of words “Your Majesty, do you know who whose entire function is to overturn the that was?” conventional use of words and lead a Th e Emperor said, “I don’t know.” spiritual seeker toward a transforma- Chi said, “Th at was the Great tive experience ushered in by subvert- Guanyin, conveying the mind-seal ing the power of the words themselves. of the Buddha.” Th e Emperor felt regretful, and The Emperor Meets wanted to send an emissary to invite Bodhidharma Bodhidharma to return. Chi said, “Your Majesty, don’t Let us consider a well-known case or say you will send someone to bring story of Bodhidharma meeting with him back. Even if everyone in the the emperor Wu in imperial audience whole country were to go aft er him, upon his arrival in China, the opening he would not return.” (Translated by case of the collection Hekiganroku (Ch., Robert Aitken, with adaptations) Piyenlu, “Blue Cliff Record”). The emperor Wu is said to have Emperor Wu of Liang asked the great been a devout follower of this religion master Bodhidharma, “What is the of Buddhism that came from India and fi rst principle of the holy teaching?” took root and received wide support Bodhidharma said, “Vast emp- in China aft er several centuries of its tiness, nothing holy.” transplantation. A generous benefactor

Dharma World October–December 2014 13 who lavished financial support for the has the authority over your fate as long word pointing directly to the Matter construction of temples, endowments as you are in this land? of Great Importance. for monastic communities, and other Bodhidharma’s response to this sec- Vast emptiness, nothing holy. What? Buddhist projects, he was apparently ond question is another setback and Is this telling me that my entire life, my asking an earnest question of this heightens the impasse. “I don’t know.” whole purpose of being, is just vast emp- reputed sage who came from the west- With this, the emperor dismisses the man tiness, that there is nothing holy at all ern parts. “Tell me please, sir, what is from his sight. Bodhidharma quickly in this life, or in any life, here or here- the ultimate teaching of the Buddhist takes leave. after? Impasse upon impasse. Our intel- religion?” lectual quest is stopped in its tracks. In asking the question, the emperor Who Is the Emperor? We are disappointed. We are dumb- seemed to be conscious of his own sta- founded. All becomes vast emptiness, tus as ruler of this empire that this sage Kōan practice takes us beyond discourse no holiness. had come to settle in, presumably to about historicity or related matters. spread the holy teaching of Buddhism. Whether this is about an actual his- Who Is Bodhidharma? An undertone of this exchange was that torical person or not, and whether, if he was seeking affirmation of his merito- indeed there was a ruler called Emperor The only viable way to take this response rious deeds in supporting this religion, Wu of the kingdom of Liang, that ruler of Bodhidharma’s is to continue sitting which would earn him a good rebirth had such an encounter with a sage from in stillness, paying attention with each in the next life and auspicious bless- India named Bodhidharma, is beside breath, in and out, and letting the mind ings in this one. In any case, he had an the point insofar as kōan practice is come to a point of stillness and letting open mind seeking to learn from a wise concerned. The story is presented in it resonate in that stillness. The ques- teacher, perhaps with the thought that the context of the practice of seated tion looms in the horizon of one’s mind: he might provide him with support in meditation (zazen) to one engaging “Who am I?” Bodhidharma’s answer to the latter’s endeavors in spreading his in this practice motivated by nothing the emperor’s second question jumps to Buddhist teaching. less than the resolution of the Great the fore. “I don’t know.” But Bodhidharma’s response takes Matter of Life and Death. The practi- The kōan has the emperor asking, him aback. “Vast emptiness, nothing tioner is to put him- or herself in the “Who is this before me?” Seated in still- holy.” What is this? This is one of the place of the emperor, asking, “What is ness, paying full attention, the practi- subverting words among those found the highest principle of the holy teach- tioner is now asking: “Who is this that in this kōan. Bodhidharma throws the ing?” In other words, the practitioner is breathing in and breathing out and emperor off his guard entirely with such “merges” with the emperor, asking in paying attention, hearing that sound an unusual response. Contrary to what earnest, “What is the Matter of Great from outside the window, feeling a pain the emperor had been taught to believe, Importance?” “What is the point of it in the knee, an itch on the back?” it seems he is being told that all of his all?” Ultimately, “Who am I?” Bodhidharma’s “I don’t know” res- good deeds, all of his meritorious acts, Being confronted by such a question onates in the silence. His response to are all a “vast emptiness,” that there is is likened to having one’s hair on fire. the emperor’s first question reverber- no such thing as can be called “holy.” One cannot find peace unless this fire ates throughout. “Vast emptiness, noth- All the money gone to the temples and is quenched. We are not dealing with an ing holy.” As these two responses merge the support of the monks in his domain: abstract philosophical theme calling for into one, a breakthrough can occur, down the drain. His whole worldview a conceptual answer but with an exis- opening up to a boundless horizon, set- and belief system is challenged, sub- tential question of ultimate import— ting everything in the universe in lumi- verted, by this response. He stands at indeed, a matter of life and death. In nous clarity. What is the Matter of Great an impasse and now does not know being confronted with such a question, Importance? Who am I? I don’t know! what to do with this “holy” man who one is called to engage it with no less Vast emptiness, nothing holy! was before him in privileged imperial than the totality of one’s being, toward Let us go back to the story. After audience. its resolution. the departure of Bodhidharma, the He is led to question the very iden- Bodhidharma’s response goes right emperor is approached by a confidant, tity of this purported sage in speaking to the heart of the matter: “Vast empti- Duke Chi. “Your Majesty, did you real- to him like this. “Who is this before ness, nothing holy.” This is no academic ize who that person was who just left me?” Who are you, saying such things discourse about “the first principle of from our midst?” The emperor gives an to me, ruler of this great empire, who the holy teaching.” It is a subverting honest and forthright answer. “I don’t

14 Dharma World October–December 2014 No reliance on words or letters A special transmission outside of Scriptures Directly pointing to the Mind Seeing one’s true nature, becoming Awakened.

In proclaiming “no reliance on words or letters,” Zen, through centuries of of the world.” Guanyin tradition, has developed skillful ways is one who sees and of using words that subvert those very hears freely and without words themselves in a way that may trig- restriction in space and ger a breakthrough in a practition­er’s time across the entire way of seeing. Kōans are ways of using universe, with eyes and words that overturn the conventional ears of compassion (in meaning of those words, leading to an Sanskrit, Guanyin is impasse, whereby there is no way to Avalokiteśvara, mean- move forward as long as one remains ing literally, “the sover- caught in the web of meaning or con- eign who gazes down [at ceptual content of those words. What the world]).” In Buddhist we have referred to as subverting words iconography, Guanyin are also called turning words in Zen is portrayed as having discourse. eleven faces that enable In this case we have considered, her to see in all directions every word of the emperor, every word and a thousand arms that of Bodhidharma, as well as the words of extend throughout all the Duke Chi, can become a turning word. regions of the universe, Overturning conventional meanings know.” This again leads to an impasse. offering a hand in response to every sit- of the words used, and having sapped The emperor gives an answer from the uation of need. To the hungry, food; to them of their intellectually enchant- heart. It comes from a place of humil- the thirsty, drink; to the lonely, compan- ing power, the kōan creates a concep- ity, of total openness, of willingness ionship; to the grieving, comfort; and tual impasse. The seeker is stumped, left to receive the Dharma. A seeker who so on. To be Guanyin is to embody the facing a blank wall of meaninglessness, is able to say, from the heart, “I don’t dynamic activity of compassion itself in and with nothing to hold on to. It is this know,” is now ripe for a breakthrough. one’s very being. impasse that can thereby usher an ear- The wise Duke Chi tells the emperor, The emperor is told: no matter how nest seeker into a wide and open hori- and us, that is no other than the great hard you try, no matter if everyone in zon that is beyond the boundaries of Compassionate One, Guanyin, who this country went after Guanyin, there time and space, the realm of vast emp- embodies the heart and mind of the is no way she would come within your tiness, nothing holy. Buddha. Here again an important hint grasp. The more you try to grasp, all The kōan could have ended right is offered. That one who, when asked, the more will she flee from you. All there, with Bodhidharma’s response “Who is this before me?” replied, “I that is left is vast emptiness, noth- to the first question, and would have don’t know,” and the one being asked ing holy! done its work. But it goes a step fur- about, to whom the emperor (qua the ther and, with grandfatherly kindness, practitioner) refers in saying “I don’t In Conclusion gives an added hint, using Duke Chi as know”—that is the same One. Subject a ploy. “Who is this before me?” The and object merge, and the entire uni- Zen is a school of spiritual practice one you seek with all your heart, that verse of vast emptiness, nothing holy among the Buddhist family of tradi- is, Guanyin, Hearer of the Sounds of merges with I don’t know! tions, distinguishing itself with four the World. Beyond the impasse, the Who is Guanyin? The characters for hallmarks, summed up in the follow- floodgates open out to the Ocean of Guanyin mean “hearer of the sounds ing verse: Compassion. ≥

Dharma World October–December 2014 15 FEATURES

Buddhism and Language: Thoughts on the Relationship between Word, Writing, and Performance in Buddhist Cultural History by Brian Ruppert

was the consistent language of the earli- Just as the Gospel of John offered a new interpretation est texts (circa second to fi rst centuries of language with its discourse of logos at the time of BCE), texts associated with Mahāyāna its completion near the end of the fi rst century CE, the traditions written in Sanskrit began to appearance of the Mahāyāna sūtras constituted a watershed appear within decades thereaft er, and moment in the history of the ritual and narrative role of Buddhist texts were routinely translated language in Buddhist belief and practice. into Chinese from the second century CE, if not a bit earlier. Among the so-called Th ree Baskets One of the initial diffi culties when something akin to the authority of scrip- of the Pali scriptures promoted by considering the relationship between ture to them. Moreover, Buddhist tra- groups we now call the Th era school Buddhism and language concerns the ditions focused on one or more fi gures (Th eravāda)—the only complete early connection of such an investigation to who were seen as having awakened to a canon extant—it is clear that the sutta modernity. Th at is, what do we mean complete understanding of certain truths (Skt., sūtra; hereaft er sūtra) basket was, by “language” and related concepts such regarding our world, and institutionally, together with that devoted to the pre- as “scripture”? Moreover, more basi- these traditions featured professional cepts (vinaya), the oldest set of sacred cally, how do we understand “religion” practitioners (that is, the saṅgha) who texts. Although the vinaya included as the unspoken backdrop for such an were trained in the tradition and guided numerous and very old stories con- enterprise? lay believers who supported them—all cerning the Buddha, the sūtras, as dis- Of course, language, scripture, and characteristics common to prominent courses by Śākyamuni Buddha given at religion are originally Western concepts religious communities historically, such distinctive times and places—embodying and thus in a sense foreign to the pre- as Christianity. the Buddha’s Dharma and also authen- modern Buddhist world. However, given One thing to recognize initially is that ticating it through a kind of histori- that we are communicating in English there seems to have been no eff ort among cal attribution by the reporter-hearer and our traditions of religious study— followers of the Buddha to fi nd or create Ānanda (marked by the phrase “Th us both academic and otherwise—began a single sacred written or ceremonial lan- have I heard”)—arguably held the high- with refl ections on Christianity, it makes guage to be used in ritual, such as Vedic est authority among scriptures. sense that we employ these concepts so Sanskrit, later Hindu Sanskrit, or Latin. With the Mahāyāna movements, long as the social phenomena we ana- It is thought that the Buddha taught in which began to appear at roughly the lyze have characteristics that promi- his local language of Māghadī rather than beginning of the Common Era, however, nently approximate these. In what we Sanskrit, apparently partially in connec- the power of sūtras became all the more call Buddhist traditions, we fi nd what tion with the fact that Sanskrit was the prominent. Written in Sanskrit rather is clearly of use as well as refl ection on language of the Brahman priestly class than Pali, the Mahāyāna sūtras empha- issues directly related to language, such (Rupert Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha: A sized the ritual and illocutionary force as translation and practices of textual Selection of Suttas from the Pali Nikāyas of the Buddha’s words as much as their interpretation. Similarly, we fi nd that [Oxford University Press, 2008], xxiv; referential meaning. Sūtras such as the Buddhist traditions have variously seen Robert E. Buswell Jr., and Donald S. Lotus Sutra, the Heart Sutra, and oth- certain individual works and groups of Lopez Jr., Th e Princeton Dictionary of ers included spells (mantras) or longer texts as more central than others and Buddhism [Princeton University Press, mnemonic incantations (dhāraṇī) that thus, by implication, have attributed 2014], 612b). Moreover, although Pali oft en invited the protection of buddhas,

16 Dharma World October–December 2014 Brian Ruppert, PhD (Princeton), is Associate Professor in the Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures and the Department of Religion, University of Illinois. He is the author of Jewel in the Ashes: Buddha Relics and Power in Early Medieval Japan (Harvard University Press, 2000), “Buddhism in Japan” (in Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed., Macmillan Reference, 2005), “Buddhism and Law in Japan” (in Buddhism and Law: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2014), and numerous articles in Japanese. He is coauthor of the forthcoming A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015).

bodhisattvas, and guardian deities. These Daoistic vocabulary to suit the Chinese Buddhism, 942b). Although, as noted, invocations would become part and context—or to directly transliterate this concept is more famous in the parcel of esoteric Buddhist sūtras and rather than translate significant ele- Mahāyāna, it was also present in the tantras (so-called Vajrayāna) later, per- ments in the sūtras, including invoca- Pali. By implication, the Buddha con- haps in part related to the fact that the tions retaining their Sanskrit or Hybrid sciously chose to teach in a language dif- semantic meaning of their content was Sanskrit pronunciation. Indeed, as Victor ferent from that of the elite Brahmans typically obscure or incomprehensible, Mair has noted, the Buddhist texts were (Richard P. Hayes, “Buddhist Philosophy but they were common much earlier in engaged not only with issues of transla- of Language,” in The Encyclopedia of the Mahāyāna scriptures. tion but also with vernacular Chinese, Buddhism, ed. Robert E. Buswell Jr. Just as the Gospel of John offered a and it is evident that even in the ear- [Macmillan Reference USA, 2004], new interpretation of language with its liest period of translation, vernacular 451b), a practice that would match discourse of logos at the time of its com- Chinese was included in varying degrees the general strategy of translation of pletion near the end of the first century in the Buddhist works in China—and Buddhist works later. CE, the appearance of the Mahāyāna that, moreover, the voluminous Buddhist It is well known that the Buddha, sūtras constituted a watershed moment works of medieval China (circa first to according to Pali texts, taught the truth in the history of the ritual and narrative seventh centuries CE) incorporated ver- of nirvāṇa as beyond all linguistic dis- role of language in Buddhist belief and nacular language to a far greater extent tinctions—in fact, transcending fini- practice. Although this began in India, than did “secular literature” (Victor Mair, tude, the world of duality. It does not it would soon prove extremely influ- “Buddhism and the Rise of the Written seem, however, that he was suggest- ential in East Asia, where Mahāyāna Vernacular in East Asia: The Making of ing a “revealed” truth but that he was Buddhism came to greatest prominence. National Languages,” Journal of Asian instead using language at what is some- Figures such as the particularly active Studies 53, no. 3 [1994]: 709–10). times called the level of relative truth central Asian monk Kumārajīva (344– At the very least, as Mair and many to point toward absolute truth that is ca. 413) translated works such as the others in Buddhist studies have empha- nondual in character. Thus discourses Lotus Sutra into Chinese. However, sized, the Buddhist concept of expedi- of the Buddha in Pali literature about it is significant to note that they did ent devices (Skt., upāya), most clearly nirvāṇa, which are few, most com- so in a variety of ways, albeit almost represented in the Lotus Sutra (chap- monly use negative rather than posi- invariably through the patronage of ter 2), would help enable us to under- tive terms—for example, the absence sovereigns and, often, with the help of stand that Buddhists would make the of or cessation of dukkha (suffering, groups of unnamed translators (Tōru effort to present the Buddha Dharma dissatisfaction), which is undoubtedly Funayama, Butten wa dō kanyaku sareta in ways accessible to local audiences. related to what David Kalupahana called ka [How were Buddhist scriptures trans- That is, the Buddha is thought to have the Buddha’s “anti-essentialist” posi- lated into Chinese?] [Iwanami Shoten, consciously used language accessible to tion focused on language as an activity 2013], 55–57). Kumārajīva’s translations those around him, skill in means being rather than a signifier. Kalupahana noted, are known for the beauty of their clas- implied in the Pali scriptural corpus in moreover, that the Buddha had made sical Chinese style, while other transla- parables like that about the raft con- clear distinctions reflecting that posi- tions reveal varying tendencies to use, structed to cross to the “other shore”— tion concerning languages in countries for example, Buddho-Daoistic language where the importance of nonattachment outside his own (David J. Kalupahana, (an amalgam of Buddhist and Daoist to the teachings is emphasized (Buswell The Buddha’s Philosophy of Language terminology and the like)—borrowing and Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of [Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha, 1999], 49, 51).

Dharma World October–December 2014 17 We can see, for this very reason, that profits; in other words, he presumably there seems to be a common discursive did not object to their use if it were for and, presumably, practitional thread appropriate purposes (Hayes, “Buddhist in the Pali scriptures and those of the Philosophy,” 452a). The very verbaliz- Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions, includ- ing of Abhidhamma (Skt., Abhidharma) ing the esoteric traditions: teachers com- commentaries was seen as having a kind municate to their disciples that, when of talismanic power in Buddhist tradi- ultimately understood, the world of kar- tions (Rupert Gethin, The Foundations mic relativity that is referred to in Pali of Buddhism [Oxford University Press, textual traditions as dependent arising 1998], 204). The Mahāyāna formulas, (paṭiccasamuppāda) can be seen as essen- for their part, were used in connection tially empty (Skt., śūnya) in character, with the notion that sūtras had not only lacking an ongoing individual identity referential capacity but also, when prop- (essence) distinct from the surround- erly enunciated, talismanic, medicinal, Thus, the Buddha and Buddhist ing world or rebirth. Although there is a or other powers, and the notion was thus traditions seem to have promoted the series of scholastic debates about these presumably related as well to the “cult use of translation and presentation of concepts, it is clear that the discourse of the book.” The Chan (Kor., Son; Jpn., the faith in local language. They were that came to be called the Two Truths Zen) lineages would attempt to hear- always vigilant, bearing in mind the offers an implicit answer to thorny ques- ken back to what might be called the limitations inherent in language use, tions concerning the connection between anti-essentialist position of the histor- but meanwhile understood that lan- enlightened understanding and life in ical Buddha, but it is important to rec- guage was necessary for communica- the finite world. The most succinct pre- ognize that even a figure like the Sōtō tion of the Dharma. The Buddha lived sentation of the notion that language/ lineage proponent Dōgen (1200–1253) in the late Vedic era (1000–500 BCE) thought (relative) and enlightenment held sūtras—especially the Lotus Sutra in the Indian subcontinent and seems (absolute) are, despite a seemingly infi- and the Heart Sutra—in very high regard to have seen, in perhaps very practical nite gap, ultimately nondual is that of and would not have questioned the use terms, medicinal and other benefits of Nāgārjuna (second century), who wrote: of mantras or dhāraṇī in the works nor, the use of talismanic and mnemonic “Whatever is dependently co-arisen presumably, their liturgical use. incantation. Hence we see a series of / That is explained to be emptiness. / Thus, as has been recently noted, it traditions that, while they often empha- That, being a dependent designation, / would be incorrect to associate the use sized the inability of discursive language Is itself the middle way” (Jay L. Garfield, of dhāraṇī, for example, primarily with to express that which is ineffable, recog- Empty Words: Buddhist Philosophy and tantric, that is, esoteric Buddhist tradi- nized the need for its continued use as Cross-Cultural Interpretation [Oxford tions such as in Tibet or the Shingon skillful means in teaching, whether in University Press, 2002], 174, transla- (Chn., Zhenyan) school of Japan. These the case of Chan, Lotus Sutra–focused, tion of Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 18). devices indeed seem to have been pan- Pure Land, or esoteric Buddhist tradi- Although the historical Buddha Buddhist historically, since even the non- tions. They also respected the power of might be described as anti-essentialist Mahāyāna Dharmaguptaka lineage in nondiscursive invocative language, with in his general view of language, with early India featured dhāraṇī (Buswell and its liturgical and sometimes thauma- the appearance of Mahāyāna Buddhist Lopez, Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, turgical power. It is precisely, I would sūtras, which included invocative spells 242a). And as we saw above, study of suggest, for this series of reasons that (Skt., mantras) and typically lon- Pali works suggests that the historical we see that even the Chan (especially ger mnemonic formulas/incantations Buddha accepted mantra use, if used for Zen) and esoteric Buddhist traditions (Skt., dhāraṇī), a mode of ritual lan- positive purposes. Moreover, although (Tibet, Japan), which are known for guage became increasingly prominent mantras are technically distinct from their emphasis on direct transmission in the Buddhist world. The Buddha is mnemonic incantations, the terms were of enlightened realization—beyond lan- described in a Pali sutta to have forbade often used interchangeably, and so we guage—from teacher to disciple, pro- the use of mantras, which were asso- see an evolving tradition of incanta- duced extremely large quantities of ciated with Brahmanical practice and tion, dating from the period of earlier narrative and ritual texts. They under- views on language, but it is thought that Indian schools of Buddhism to the rising stood, from their perspective, that using his focus was not on their use per se but prominence of Mahāyāna sūtras to the language in multiple modes is neces- on efforts to use them to gain financial varied lineages of East Asia and Tibet. sary along the Buddhist path. ≥

18 Dharma World October–December 2014 FEATURES

Why Gautama Buddha Hesitated to Preach: Challenging the Constraints of Language in Buddhism by Hiroyuki Sato

Hiroyuki Sato, LittD in Indian Buddhism’s establishment is . . . inextricably tied up with Philosophy and Buddhist Studies, is words in a relationship based not on the belief that everything a Professor in the Faculty of Human can be conveyed through words but on the determination Sciences in the Distance Learning to push words to their limit precisely because Buddhism (Correspondence) Division of recognizes that words cannot convey everything. Musashino University, Tokyo, where he teaches Buddhist Studies. He is a research fellow at the university’s As a religion, Buddhism places a strong the Dharma—exhibited by Gautama Institute of Buddhist Culture and emphasis on practice, as is evident serves as a councilor of the Japanese from the life of its founder, Gautama in Bodh Gaya. Association for Comparative Buddha, who attained enlightenment e devaluation of words in Philosophy. He is the author of many Buddhism and the view that they are books and articles on Buddhism and tice asceticism. Since then, wherever merely a means can be observed in the Indian philosophy. Buddhism has taken root, it has been historically closely associated with prac- parable, a man comes to a river where there is no boat or bridge, so he builds carry it with him, simply because it has the role ascetic disciplines and other monastic and lay practices—such as was to get him somewhere and not to zazen and other forms of meditation, nembutsu (recitation of the name of teachings of Buddhism must also be dis- Amida Buddha), and copying of the sutras—have typically played in the spread of contemporary Buddhism. At the moon, which reminds us that it is the same time, however, there exists a tremendous body of Buddhist writings should be looking. called the issaikyō (Buddhist canon) or Buddhism’s view of words is readily daizōkyō (great collection of Buddhist apparent from these two metaphors, in scriptures), leading to Buddhism’s being recognizable as representing words and ple set little store by words in compari- language. Gautama attained enlighten- son with practice in Buddhism, arguing ment and expounded his teachings using that Buddhism cannot be understood solely from the written word; rather, it something to throw away and, like the is understood through direct experi- viewed merely as a means. In this essay, teachings may very well be unique to I will explore the question of words and Buddhism, found in no other religion, language in Buddhism, taking as a cue and it is undoubtedly one of Buddhism’s the “hesitation” to preach—to expound major attractions.

Dharma World October–December 2014 19 While there thus exists the Buddhist Consider, for example, the impossibility view that words are means, words of conveying in words the pain of losing have nevertheless played a crucial a close relative to someone who has not role in bringing Buddhism into being. had a similar experience. Similarly, it Buddhism consists in essence of what is impossible to explain in words what are called the Three Treasures—the the color red is like to someone who is Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. color-blind. It is through experienc- Not only are these three important in ing the death of a close relative or see- themselves as “treasures,” but each is ing the color red that one understands. also a prerequisite for Buddhism to exist. Gautama’s preaching was thus just like Without any one of the three, Buddhism trying to communicate what it is like would not have come into being. The to lose someone close or see the color Buddha element of the three was real- red to someone who has not had those ized through Gautama’s attainment of experiences. enlightenment under a bodhi tree in This is why Gautama was hesitant Bodh Gaya. However, the other ele- to preach. Rather than believing that ments—the Dharma and the Sangha— what he had to say was too difficult arose only through the preaching of to understand, he recognized that the Gautama in Sarnath. In other words, constraints of language meant that he Buddhism did not come into existence could not convey what he wanted even The reason that teaching through solely as a result of Gautama’s attainment if he tried. The constraints of language words has come to be seen as a of enlightenment. It was brought into arise not, moreover, from an inability means that Buddhism discards is that existence by preaching. For Buddhism, in to choose the right words but from the Buddhism’s objective, or end, is to a sense, Gautama’s preaching is of even intrinsic limitations of the words them- achieve enlightenment. In other words, greater importance than his enlight- selves, since it is impossible to relate there is an element of Buddhism that enment. However, the stories of the everything through words. Gautama places an extraordinary emphasis on Buddha’s life tell us that he was hesi- understood this and so was hesitant to experience, and this tendency is par- tant to preach, because enlightenment ticularly pronounced in Zen and eso- to truth is not commonplace but subtle, teric Buddhism. Further, the idea that profound, and hard to grasp. The fool- teaching using words is a means to be ish who are consumed by desire can- abandoned is—viewed through the lens not understand this truth. Certainly the of the relationship between ends and nature of Gautama’s enlightenment is means—an indication of the strong ten- hard for us to grasp. However, his hesi- dency to stress Buddhism’s final objec- tancy to preach stemmed not only from tive. The end is important in itself, and this difficulty but also from another rea- the means of achieving it are just that— son related to words. simply means. Buddhism may thus Preaching consists of conveying be regarded as a religion that empha- to others what one has experienced, sizes ends. In the course of its history, and this can be done in many ways. Buddhism has in fact evolved in var- Experiences can also be communicated ious ways in each of the regions that through song, dance, and painting, but it has reached, but these are all con- Gautama chose words as his medium sidered forms of Buddhism because for conveying the experience of enlight- common to all of them is an empha- enment. However, those with whom sis on the end, which is enlightenment. Gautama had to communicate had yet to Buddhism may truly be described as have such an experience. Just how great consisting not only of teachings of the a challenge this was becomes apparent Buddha but also of teachings on how when we consider the difficulty of com- to become a buddha (the term buddha municating even quite ordinary experi- meaning “enlightened one”). ences to those who have not had them.

20 Dharma World October–December 2014 preach. Recognizing this limitation, he words and letters) and kyōge betsuden words, while yet recognizing its empha- was nevertheless undaunted and boldly (independent transmission outside the sis on experience. Naturally this does decided to begin preaching, and his written scriptures)—has also generated not mean that we should regard words greatness lies in his determination to a huge body of classical Zen literature. as absolutes through which Buddhism challenge the constraints of language. When considering Buddhism, there- can be understood. At the same time, Gautama was not simply someone who fore, we should perhaps pay a little more however, we should not reject words but attained enlightenment, nor someone attention to words and language. We must accept that the essence of Buddhism who guided people to liberation from must be wary of interpreting Buddhism cannot be grasped without a basis in suffering. He was someone who sought solely in terms of the world beyond language. ≥ to communicate through words. Had he not communicated through words and challenged the constraints of language, he would have been just an ordinary man called Gautama who happened to exist in the past, and Buddhism cer- tainly would not have come into being. Buddhism’s establishment is thus inextricably tied up with words in a relationship based not on the belief that everything can be conveyed through words but on the determination to push words to their limit precisely because Buddhism recognizes that words can- not convey everything. The idea that we must transcend words and that there is a world beyond language is an extremely enticing one and excites a yearning for an unknown world. However, I think we should be wary of assuming that there is a natu- ral divide between a world expressible in words and a world beyond words, and of overemphasizing experience as a result of attaching too much value to the world beyond words. The world beyond words—or in Buddhist terms, the experience of enlightenment—is not something that can be so easily experi- enced, and it is for this very reason that Gautama chose to preach using words. Only Gautama had experienced what he had attained. In order to draw others to that state, he needed words. While words are not substantive, they are by no means unnecessary. This is indi- cated by the fact that even Zen, while it emphasizes practice and advocates shikantaza (“just sitting” or “single- minded sitting”)—suggesting that the essence of Buddhism is to be found in the maxims furyū monji (no reliance on

Dharma World October–December 2014 21 ESSAY Jewish and Buddhist Responses to Violence by Harold Kasimow

captain ordered them to fi re, and In spite of the radical differences between the Buddhist and once more they did not fi re. Th e Jewish religious traditions, their responses to violence are Russian captain began to scream surprisingly similar. The profound reverence for life that at the students, commanding them Nikkyo Niwano stresses in his book A Buddhist Approach to to fi re their rifl es, cursing them with Peace is as central to Judaism as it is to Buddhism. every anti-Semitic epithet he knew, and listing the punitive actions that would be taken against them for In spite of the radical diff erence between that hovered over the fi eld of bat- refusing to follow orders. Finally, one Judaism, with its stress on a command- tle. Without warning, the German of the students turned to the captain ing God, and Buddhism, which is not troops began to charge, advancing and said, “We’d be happy to fi re, cap- interested in a creator God, the two toward their trenches. Seeing this, tain. But there are people in the way. religious traditions have very similar their Russian captain ordered them As soon as the men running toward responses to violence. Th is affi nity may to fi re. But the yeshivah students us get out of the way, we shall fi re.” seem surprising, since the sacred texts remained crouched in the trenches, (Byron L. Sherwin, In Partnership of the monotheistic religions, including their rifl es cocked, but without pull- with God: Contemporary Jewish Law Judaism, contain more violence than do ing the triggers. Again, the Russian and Ethics [Syracuse University Press, the sacred texts of Buddhism. 1990], 180) I will begin with a tale that illustrates a Jewish view of violence and helps us Jewish views on violence are evident to understand the sanctity of the human in the Talmud, especially in a discus- being in the Jewish tradition: sion between two outstanding Jewish scholars on what constitutes the klal During the First World War, the gadol ba-Torah, the great principle of Czar’s army needed troops to fi ght the Torah. According to Rabbi Akiva, the army of the Kaiser. In order to one of the shapers of Rabbinic Judaism, help meet the draft quotas of the the great principle of Torah is found Russian army, Jewish students at in Leviticus 19:18, which states: “Love many yeshivot were forced into serv- your neighbor as yourself.” Ben Azzai, a ice, and were sent for a brief but scholar known for his saintliness, wish- intensive basic training. Th e students ing to stress the unity of all humanity, of one particular yeshivah surpris- claimed that the great principle of Torah ingly proved themselves to be expert is found in Genesis 5:1: “Th is is the book sharpshooters. On the target range of the generations of man. In the day at the training camp, they surpassed that God created man, in the image of all other recruits with their marks- God created He him. Male and female manship. Because of their skill, they created He them” (Jerusalem Talmud, were sent to the front-line trenches. Nedarim 9:4). Th ey crouched with their rifl es in Th e discussion between Rabbi Akiva the trenches gazing into the mist and Ben Azzai took place soon aft er the

22 Dharma World October–December 2014 Harold Kasimow is the George A. Drake Professor of Religious Studies Emeritus at Grinnell College, Grinnell, Iowa. This article is a revised version of an article originally published in Interreligious Insight: A Journal of Dialogue and Engagement 2, no. 22 (April 2004). Among his previous contributions to Dharma World are “A Buddhist Path to Mending the World” and “Mount Sinai and Mount Fuji: The American Jewish Fascination with Buddhism.”

blood, diminishes God’s presence in the world” (Mekhilta d’ Rabbi Yishmael, quoted in Sherwin, 174). Such is the preciousness of human life that a person is even permitted to sin in order to save life. For example, a Jew would be permitted to eat pork in order not to starve. However, one may not commit murder even to save one’s

of the man who came before the great Rabbi Raba, who lived in the fourth cen-

my town has ordered me ‘Go and kill so-

rabbi replied, “Let him kill you rather than that you should commit murder. What reason do you have for thinking that your blood is redder? Perhaps his blood is redder” (Sanhedrin 73a).

I was introduced when I began my stud- ies at Yeshiva Israel Salanter on Webster destruction of the Second Temple in 70 human being at the time of creation?” Avenue in the Bronx when I was a young CE. Since that time the fundamental boy. Israel Salanter (1810–83), one of the Jewish statement, the central teaching man created alone: to teach that whoever - of Judaism, is that God created human destroys a single soul, scripture imputes ers of the nineteenth century, founded beings in God’s image (bzelem elohim). to him as though he had destroyed an the Musar movement in Lithuania. It is entire world. And whoever preserves an ethical movement in Judaism that is is precious in God’s eyes. To murder a single soul, scripture ascribes to him known for its stress on self-perfection. another human being is against the sixth as though he had preserved a complete In my view the Musar movement has commandment: lo tirtzakh, which means world” (Sanhedrin 37a). For the rabbis, “you shall not murder,” rather than the who stress that human beings are cre- tradition in its stress that the primary ated in God’s image and are holy, human goal of human beings is to strive for shall not kill.” According to Rabbinic life is precious and irreplaceable. For - Judaism, the classical source for the Rabbi Akiva, God is a god of pathos ment, like Buddhism, advocated med- Jewish tradition, to murder another itation on death as a way to obliterate human being is to destroy the entire do to each other. To use violence against the ego. Israel Salanter believed that it human beings is to use violence against “Why did God choose to create only one to change even a single character trait.

Dharma World October–December 2014 23 59b), does not teach absolute paci- a tragic necessity. But when it does, it fism. We also find in Ecclesiastes the is always seen as a time of grief, not joy. following statement: “A season is set The rabbis believed that not opposing for everything: a time for every expe- evil and violence may in fact contribute rience under heaven. A time for being to injustice and violence. So they were born and a time for dying. A time for actually opposed to absolute pacifism. silence and a time for speaking. A time The Buddhist tradition, with its for war and a time for peace” (3:1–8). stress on compassion, mercy, and The rabbis who shaped the Jewish tradi- peace, condemns all violence. Yet in tion looked and prayed for the coming practice, if not always in theory, the of the Messiah, who would bring com- Buddhist response to violence has a plete peace: “They shall beat their swords strong affinity to the Jewish response. into ploughshares and their spears into Although there are Buddhists, such Yet he never gave up hope in the possi- pruning hooks. Nation shall not lift up as Thich Nhat Hanh, who teach total bility of a radical transformation of the sword against nation, neither shall they nonviolence, most of the Buddhists individual: “Yet let no one say: What experience war anymore” (Isaiah 2:4). whom I have encountered seem to be God has made cannot be changed. He, But until the Messiah comes, a open to the possibility that there are may He be blessed, has infused an evil human being is not permitted to mur- circumstances in which violence is drive in me; how can I ever hope to der anyone; he or she does have the permitted. In an article titled “War or eradicate it? It is not so. Man’s drives right to self-defense. A well-known Peace?” José Cabezón points out that can be subdued and even changed. . . . rabbinic statement on this issue says: “in some Mahayana texts, there are It is within his power to conquer his “If a man comes to slay you, forestall rare justifications for violence to pro- evil nature and prevent its functioning, by slaying him” (Sanhedrin 72a). You tect the lives of others, but the per- and also to change his nature to good by certainly may not kill the person who son acting must be motivated by pure study and training” [quoted in Dov Katz, comes to kill you if you can somehow compassion and be very advanced on The Musar Movement, trans. Leonard stop the person without killing him or the path, so that in a sense we are no Oschry (Orly Press, 1977), vol. 1, part her. But if that isn’t possible, as a last longer dealing with an ordinary act of 2, 65]. For the most accessible book resort you may kill the person to pro- violence” (Tricycle [Spring 2002]: 53). on Musar, see Alan Morinis, Climbing tect your life. So violence may become Professor Robert Thurman, an expert in Jacob’s Ladder: One Man’s Rediscovery of a Jewish Spiritual Tradition [Broadway Books, 2002]). The movement’s aim is to make a human being truly human, a mensch. For a mensch it is inconceiv- able to use violence. Teachers of the Musar movement encouraged their stu- dents to meditate on the biblical book of Ecclesiastes, one of the most diffi- cult books of the Bible. Many of us are familiar with the constant refrain in Ecclesiastes that begins with, “‘Vanity of vanities,’ said the preacher. ‘Vanity of vanities. All is vanity’” (1:2). One of the reasons everything is vanity is that everything in life is impermanent. Musar places a great stress on impermanence and, like Buddhism, encourages peo- ple to go and meditate in the graveyard. Yet Judaism, which teaches that “the whole of the Torah is for the purpose of promoting peace” (Talmud, Gittin

24 Dharma World October–December 2014 Tibetan Buddhism, in a con- My teacher Abraham versation on war and peace, Joshua Heschel sup- explains that the Buddhist ported the traditional perspective on nonviolence Jewish response to vio- is complicated. He tells us lence. In his essay “The how the Buddha, when he Meaning of This War,” was a bodhisattva, had to kill written during World a person to save five hundred War II, Heschel teaches people. Thurman claims the right to self-defense, that “if you stand by while and he does not oppose one guy kills hundreds, and the war against Nazism. you can stop him, and you However, Heschel, who are not hating the person viewed war as “a supreme who is doing it, but on the atrocity” (“The Reasons other hand, you feel those for My Involvement in 500 lives are valuable, and if the Peace Movement,” you don’t take that kind of in Moral Grandeur action, sitting there all lily and Spiritual Audacity: white—from the Buddhist Essays, ed. Susannah perspective you’re actually Heschel [Farrar, Straus, an accomplice. Of course, Giroux, 1996], 225), you should try to stop the states that “tanks and guy without killing him. But, planes cannot redeem say, the only way you could humanity” (“The stop him was killing him— Meaning of This War,” then you are supposed to” in Moral Grandeur, 211). (quoted in William Meyers, He asks us to meditate “War and Peace and New on the words of the Baal York City: A Conversation with Robert were in Auschwitz and had a weapon, Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism: “If Thurman,” New York Spirit [April and he might have killed a few SS men in a man has beheld evil, he may know May 2002]). order to save a large group of people that it was shown to him in order that In his book Mahayana Buddhism: (Dalai Lama, Beyond Dogma: Dialogues he learn his own guilt and repent; for The Doctrinal Foundations, Paul and Discourses, trans. Alison Anderson, what is shown to him is also within him” Williams cites scriptural support for ed. Marianne Dresser [North Atlantic (ibid., 209). Heschel felt that humanity Thurman’s and Cabezón’s positions. “In Books, 1996], 111–12). In a recent con- had fallen into a pit: “The mark of Cain the Mahaparinirvana Sutra the Buddha versation with Robert Thurman, the in the face of man has come to over- describes how in a previous life he killed Dalai Lama stated, “Under particular shadow the likeness of God” (ibid.). Yet several Brahmins to prevent them from circumstances, the violent method—any Heschel never gave up hope in the pro- slandering Buddhism, and to save them method—can be justified” (quoted in phetic dream, “a dream of a world, rid of from the punishment they might other- Thurman, “The Dalai Lama on China, evil by the efforts of man, by his will to wise have incurred through continuing Hatred, and Optimism,” Mother Jones serve what goes beyond his own inter- their slander” ([Routledge, 1989], 161). [November/December, 1997]: 31). ests” (“Meaning of This War,” 212; my Williams also points out that “according In practice Buddhists and Jews may emphasis). This prophetic dream is fully to the Mahaparinirvana Sutra lay fol- defend themselves or others to save life. supported by the lifework of Nikkyo lowers should take up arms to defend However, as José Cabezón makes clear, Niwano, the founder of the Buddhist the monastic community” (159). His in Buddhism it can be done only from a lay organization Rissho Kosei-kai. Holiness the Dalai Lama, the recipient heart of compassion. The Jewish sources Let me make it clear that I am not of the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize, when do not place as much stress on motiva- arguing that Judaism and Buddhism are asked, “Would you have also refused to tion, but to take a life is always a time identical. However, with regard to the take up arms against Hitler?” responded, of sadness and should not be done with use of violence, the Jewish and Buddhist “I don’t know.” He speculated that if he hate in one’s heart. traditions are remarkably similar. ≥

Dharma World October–December 2014 25 FOUNDER’S MEMOIRS

The Brighter Society Movement and the Spirit of the “Universal Gate of Truth” by Nikkyo Niwano

In March 1999 an autobiography by Rev. Nikkyo Niwano (1906–99), the founder of Rissho Kosei- kai, was published in Japanese under the title Kono michi: Ichibutsujo no sekai o mezashite (The path that we have walked: Aspiring to the world of the One Buddha Vehicle). The book is a lively account of the life of Founder Niwano as a leader of an international lay Buddhist association and a pioneer of interreligious cooperation who dedicated himself to liberating all people from suffering with fi rm faith in the Lotus Sutra. Dharma World will continue to publish excerpts from the book in installments.

It was in 1969 that I made a proposal to I was convinced that there were in the endurance to accomplish the ground- set up the Brighter Society Movement. wider society large numbers of people, work, who would never give up. Th is was At a time when members of Japan’s reli- both with a faith and without, who were the task we asked of Rissho Kosei-kai gious community were calling on reli- seriously involved in solving society’s members. Creating a Land of Eternally gious leaders around the world to work problems, and I wanted to bring them Tranquil Light within society as a whole for peace, I thought it would be shame- together. Japan’s one and only path in would no longer be just a dream if only ful if my own country were spiritually the world from now on, one that alone we could show people that true human impoverished. would allow it to contribute to the world nature consists of serving others and While Japanese society had become at large, was to build a country with increasing the numbers of those able materially rich during a period of high moral qualities that would win the trust to do so. Th is represents keeping the economic growth, people had become of people around the world. Rissho Kosei-kai Members’ Vow: “We increasingly self-centered as a result of Even today, those ideas have not pledge ourselves to follow the bodhi- their single-minded pursuit of mate- changed. Any person at all had to be sattva way to bring peace [the Land of rial wealth. To counter this social cli- able to have the chance to participate in Eternally Tranquil Light] to our fam- mate of spiritual desolation, in which creating the brighter society that would ilies, communities, and countries and social problems could be engendered lead to building such a country. It was to the world.” by prosperity, I called on people to seek important that the movement’s activities Th e fi rst chairman of the Brighter out a richness of spirit that matched should begin close to home, brighten- Society Movement was Yoshinori Maeda, material wealth and think deeply about ing the immediate community, before a former president of NHK, Japan’s what we could do to make our society expanding from there to the wider soci- national public broadcaster, who was rich in humanity. To set about achiev- ety. Japan’s ability to sustain itself into in agreement with my ideas. (Th e sec- ing this goal, I advocated the Brighter the future would depend not on vain dis- ond chairman was Masaru Ibuka, the Society Movement. I hoped that the cussions of national politics or appeals president of Sony; the third was a former leaders of other religious groups as for world peace, but on people realizing prime minister, Takeo Fukuda; and the well as local organizations would add the importance of accumulating small fourth chairman is the writer Shintaro their efforts to those of Rissho Kosei- individual actions, one by one over time. Ishihara.) kai, transcending particular ideol- Th is was not something that could Th e members of Rissho Kosei-kai ogies and isms in order to combine be accomplished in a night and a day. supported my proposal and enthusi- our strength to make Japan a truly We needed people from the grass roots astically began appealing to regional bright society. of society who had the patience and leaders throughout the country.

26 Dharma World October–December 2014 Nikkyo Niwano, the founder of Rissho Kosei-kai, was an honorary president of Religions for Peace and honorary chairman of Shinshuren (Federation of New Religious Organizations of Japan) at the time of his death in October 1999. He was awarded the 1979 Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion.

but rather have become progres- sively vocal in their demands for more and more. As a result, however much time passes, they will never feel peace of mind. When we think only about material objects, our desires keep on growing until they escalate into conflict. True happiness is not found in things but in our spiritual and mental state. Buddhism teaches that all living beings are endowed with the buddha-nature. The road to true happiness lies in cultivating that buddha-nature, as does the path to brighten society.

I appealed fervently to people in this way wherever I went.

Building Fumon Hall

Chapter 21 of the Lotus Sutra, “The “The Material and Spiritual Realms.” The Brighter Society Movement as an Divine Power of the Tathagata,” says: After that, conferences promoting the organization was launched through a “So this man, working in the world, Brighter Society Movement opened series of Brighter Society promotion can disperse the gloom of the living.” at various places around Japan. I was conferences and Brighter Society con- “This man” refers to those who endeavor invited to speak at many of them and ferences. They took shape in prefectures to liberate both themselves and oth- talked about my anxiety concerning the and cities on the initiative mainly of ers from suffering. As a result of the times in which we were living. I said: Rissho Kosei-kai members. That does approaches by Rissho Kosei-kai mem- not mean to say, however, that it was bers, people who sympathized with the Shakyamuni saw ahead to the chaos necessarily easy to gain the agreement idea of a Brighter Society Movement of the present time, when he told us of people in a community to the prin- emerged in rapid succession all over that, as knowledge grows, people ciples of the movement. There were Japan. Conferences of community lead- become more and more egotistic and those who warned that the movement ers promoting the movement were held society more and more inhumane. was just a means of proselytization, so up and down the country. The greatest cause of this is insa- that Rissho Kosei-kai could increase I was invited to speak at a regional tiable desire. Japan has the second- its membership. However, when peo- conference in the city of Takamatsu, largest GNP among the countries of ple saw how firm ordinary members at in Kagawa Prefecture, in Shikoku, on the free world. However, there are the grass roots of society were in their April 27, 1969. I gave an address that increasing numbers of people who commitment to the religious practice lasted about an hour on the theme are not grateful for this prosperity of humbling themselves as they quietly

Dharma World October–December 2014 27 served their local communities, many came to understand the true intention of the Brighter Society Movement. The Sutra of Forty-Two Chapters tells us that “those who rejoice in see- ing others follow the Way and aid them in it will obtain great karmic reward.” I wanted each and every member to expe- rience inner joy and a sense of accom- plishment by creating something good that would be of wide use among all members of society. The Sutra of Forty- Two Chapters goes on to say that this karmic reward “is like a lighted torch whose flame is shared among all the torches carried by myriad people, who cook food and dispel darkness therewith, yet the original torch remains burning just the same.” Hundreds, even thousands, of peo- ple come to a place where a fire burns. They light their torches from it to carry fire home. Even though they use the fire to cook food and light their houses, the original flame does not diminish but keeps burning brightly. Karmic reward (merit) is just like this. As this metaphor suggests, each indi- vidual can make his or her community a comfortable place to dwell by taking some kind of action, however small, and then getting others to join in, one by one. Their combined strength will then be great enough to move politi- cians and local leaders. About 10 percent of the people in a community are strongly committed to doing good, and another 10 percent to doing bad. The remaining 80 per- to set up the Brighter Society Movement was not directed just at those who already cent could go in either direction. Since stemmed from a similar concern. had an interest in beliefs and religions the masses are drawn in the direction I celebrated my sixtieth birthday but was, rather, a call for people of all of those who have the greatest sway on November 15, 1966. One’s sixti- classes to learn how to live a truly human at any one time and are influenced by eth birthday is considered an auspi- life, in peace and happiness with others. them, the character of the people in cious occasion in Japan. On the day I This was none other than the spirit of positions of leadership can alter soci- received congratulations from the mem- Fumon, the Universal Gate of Truth. By ety in a large way. bers of Rissho Kosei-kai, I set out two opening widely the gate of faith that had Ryotaro Shiba (1923–96), a popular objectives for activities for the follow- till now often been closed, the move- Japanese essayist and author of historical ing year—the development of the Faith ment would lead people to a way of liv- novels, stated toward the end of his life to All People Movement and the build- ing based on the Truth. This had in fact that Japan’s future was at risk because it ing of Fumon Hall. been my ultimate aim from the time of had lost its moral direction. My proposal The Faith to All People Movement Rissho Kosei-kai’s founding.

28 Dharma World October–December 2014 To make the Faith to All People these organizations sat on the board on Tokyo and other large cities around Movement a reality, as well as to foster and took an annual turn as chairman. I the country. The day after the deadly interreligious cooperation, we had to be had become chairman of Shinshuren in raid on Tokyo of March 10, large parts able to receive people from around the 1965, succeeding Rev. Tokuchika Miki, of the city had been reduced to ashes world. I proposed constructing Fumon head of the Church of Perfect Liberty, and countless pitiful dead bodies lay Hall to meet this need. There are those and it was now my turn to act as chair- all around. who say that religion is not in its build- man of JAORO. On the battlefields in Southeast Asia ings but that it dwells within the human That was also a dispensation of the and the Pacific, tens of thousands of sol- heart. Of course this is true, but I became gods and the buddhas. diers died from the twin afflictions of ill- aware of the importance of a building At the Japanese-American Inter- ness and starvation, while many young after the Great Sacred Hall was built. Religious Consultation on Peace, held in lives were lost by drowning during naval This is because the public’s attitude to Kyoto in 1968, it was agreed that prepa- battles. People who barely escaped with Rissho Kosei-kai changed greatly after rations should be made to hold a confer- their lives during the atomic bombings the hall was completed. ence where representatives of the world’s of Hiroshima and Nagasaki still con- However much members fervently religions could meet together for the tinue to suffer from radiation sickness. seek the path of Truth and seriously sake of world peace and that regional practice their religion, outsiders see committees should be set up in Asia, With such tragic experiences still fresh nothing of this. It is only when mem- the Americas, and Europe. This was a in their minds, the Japanese yearned bers’ practice is made public in concrete golden opportunity to first strengthen for peace from the bottom of their form that the public becomes aware of the bonds between people of religion hearts. Religious leaders now bitterly members’ efforts and can begin to sym- in Japan. reproached themselves for not having pathize with them. With the completion A committee was set up within had the courage of their antiwar convic- of the Great Sacred Hall, religious cir- JAORO to prepare for a conference of tions to challenge the government but cles, as well as the public at large, gained religionists for peace, to which the board instead cooperating with the war effort a broad appreciation of Rissho Kosei- of directors and the council gave their by sending their followers off to fight. kai as a religious organization and saw full cooperation. After the Japanese-American Inter- its true value. Religious Consultation on Peace in In this sense, in order to go one step Soon after I founded Rissho Kosei- Kyoto, Japanese religious circles became further and open a gate to the world, kai, Myoko Sensei [Myoko Naganuma, strongly convinced that the time was developing our dissemination activities cofounder of Rissho Kosei-kai, who ripe for Japan to cooperate actively in in order to open the Universal Gate of died in 1957] said she had received a a conference of world religious leaders, Truth to all people, a new building was divine revelation that “around 1942 or because they realized that they them- necessary to express that spirit and pro- 1943, people will all eat the same things, selves had a role to play in work for vide facilities for those people. and soon fire will fall like rain from the peace and should do everything in their heavens.” power to bring it about. An Opportunity for I could not understand at the time Japanese Religious what this meant, but from around 1943 The Istanbul there was rationing of all foodstuffs. Then Conference Leaders air raids grew more and more severe In April 1969 I was elected chairman of and incendiary bombs fell down on us An interim advisory committee met in the board of directors of the Japanese like rain. Everywhere people were suf- Istanbul [formerly Constantinople] in Association of Religious Organizations fering from injuries, and many burned February 1969 to discuss when, where, (JAORO). to death. Large numbers of people also and on what scale the World Conference JAORO was made up of five member lost their homes and possessions. on Religion and Peace [now the World organizations: the Association of Shinto When conscripts came to the head- Conference of Religions for Peace] Shrines, the Federation of Sectarian quarters after receiving their draft should begin. Shinto, the Japan Buddhist Federation, notices, we sent them off only with I was among the Japanese represen- the Japan Confederation of Christian prayers for victory, petitioning that they tatives at the meeting. The committee Churches, and Shinshuren (Federation would be safe. In the air raids of 1945, discussed, among other things, concrete of New Religious Organizations of more than half a million people died issues such as the budget and how to Japan). A representative of each of as a result of attacks by B-29 bombers run the preparatory committee.

Dharma World October–December 2014 29 More than sixteen hundred years have passed since the emperor Constantine established Constantinople as the capital of the Byzantine Empire. I saw that its Western-style buildings and the domes of the mosques were in surprising harmony with one another, and that Turks, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews lived side by side. When our group arrived at the Hilton Hotel, where the meeting was to take place, we were greeted by the outstretched arms of Dr. Dana McLean Greeley and Dr. Homer Jack. “Istanbul is exactly half way between Japan and America,” Dr. Greeley said happily to me. “We are meeting again at the place where Asia and Europe come together.” Twenty-four religionists from seven countries took part in the meeting, including committee members, staff members, and observers. During the three-day meeting, we discussed the topics on the agenda from difficulties were foreseen in holding a Japan as the site. On the second day, early morning until ten at night. The conference where representatives from following careful scrutiny, Kyoto was schedule had been organized by Dr. Jack, many different religions would take part. unanimously elected. the secretary-general of the consulta- In the case of India and Thailand, it was The moderator of the conference tive committee, and he ran the sessions felt that the local religious community declared, “In the autumn of 1970, the in the American style, swiftly, precisely, of either country was not ready to cope world conference will be held at Kyoto and energetically. with more than two hundred delegates in Japan. I would ask that Japanese rep- The most important outstanding from around the world. resentatives act to convene the world question to be decided was where to Japan, by comparison, had friendly conference.” On behalf of the Japanese hold the world conference. relations with both the United States representatives, I replied, “We are very The suggested sites, besides Kyoto, and the Soviet Union, and its people happy to accept. The success or oth- which Japan proposed, were Geneva, were strongly opposed to nuclear weap- erwise of the conference will depend Vienna, New Delhi, Bangkok, and ons. Also, Japan’s peace constitution on the enthusiasm of the participants. London. Finally opinions narrowed renounced war. Another point in Japan’s We will put every effort into ensuring down to Japan, from a number of points favor was its tolerant cultural environ- that success.” of view. ment, where all religions are viewed as Dr. Greeley stood up. “As well as At a time when the confrontation one, which would enable Japan to wel- enthusiasm, we need wisdom and fund- between the United States and the Soviet come representatives from many differ- ing,” he said. Union had become the main threat to ent religions. I told myself that if we were to con- world peace, it was clear that if the con- Kyoto, the old capital of Japan, known sider world peace seriously, besides pas- ference were held in the United States, around the world as a Buddhist city, sion and wisdom we would need funding religious people from the Soviet Union seemed to be a fitting place where reli- more than anything, and exceptional would not be able to come. If the confer- gious leaders from all over the world perseverance too. ence could not include representatives could gather for a conference for world The conference’s budget was around from both of those countries, it would peace. I vowed to myself that Japan would $250,000. If Japan as the host country be meaningless. Then too, Christian take responsibility for the conference. could contribute $100,000 and the United absolutism still had strong roots in the Gradually more of the other repre- States the same amount, it should have countries of Europe, and considerable sentatives grew more vocal in favoring been possible for representatives from . 30 Dharma World October–December 2014 at the time of his historic meeting with Paul VI. Seeing me look at it, he said, breaking into a smile, “Paul VI is a cham- pion of peace.” When we landed at Tokyo’s Haneda airport on our return from the Istanbul meeting, snow was flying in Tokyo. Seeing the snowy landscape, my secre- tary remarked, “It’s a snow of purification, isn’t it.” It seemed to me to be an intima- tion of the difficult trials that lay ahead. The decision of the Istanbul meeting to hold the world conference in Kyoto in the autumn of 1970 was reported by such news agencies as the Associated Press and United Press International throughout the world, and of course the news reached Japan as well. I at once reported the decisions of the Istanbul meeting to the board of JAORO. At the Istanbul conference, I had been elected an executive com- mittee member for convening a world assembly. If we were to hold an interna- tional conference, gathering representa- tives from religious groups around the world in one place, regardless of East the other countries to raise the remain- legate to Constantinople excommuni- or West, North or South, or religious der. “But the question remains whether cated the Greek Orthodox patriarch, differences, we had to look at inviting Japan can actually provide the sum of and the patriarch in turn excommuni- 250 people. Whom should we invite and $100,000,” I thought. At the time, the cated the legate. This was the beginning how should we issue the invitations? exchange rate was 360 Japanese yen to of a nine-hundred-year schism between This was our starting point. the US dollar. the two Christian churches. In February We had absolutely no previous expe- Before we left Japan for the Istanbul 1964 Pope Paul VI and Athenagoras I had rience to draw upon. I decided to myself conference, we had obtained an informal a historic meeting in Jerusalem and in that we had to begin by meeting with consent to hold the conference in Japan the following year the so-called anath- the leading religious figures in Japan from the board of directors of JAORO, emas of 1054 were nullified. and urging upon them the importance which was acting as Japan’s represen- The patriarch, with a long white of such an international gathering. By tative in the planning. But could they beard that reached far down his chest, happy fortune, I had just been appointed undertake to raise the money required? greeted us warmly when we visited chairman of JAORO and used the occa- Rev. Toshio Miyake, one of Japan’s rep- the Church of Saint George, a smile sion to visit the head temples of the tra- resentatives, was deeply worried about wreathing his face. For an hour, we spoke ditional Buddhist denominations and the it, but I was determined that we should together congenially. He said to me, “As headquarters of various other religious be prepared. “Let’s send our acceptance. a fellow religionist, I thank you deeply organizations to ask for their coopera- I am sure everyone will support us.” for your endeavor. All of our holy scrip- tion in holding the world conference. Another major outcome of the tures speak of peace. The task of priests And so began my peace pilgrim- Istanbul conference was our meeting is to bring people closer to God and to age. Through it I was able to meet a with Athenagoras I, the ecumenical patri- perform the work of God together. I too large number of leaders and like-minded arch of Constantinople, at the Church of am a member of the human race.” In the people who recognized the importance Saint George, the city’s principal Greek room where we were quietly convers- of peace. Orthodox cathedral. In 1054 the papal ing, there was a photo of the patriarch To be continued

Dharma World October–December 2014 31 Atsushi Kanazawa is a Professor in The Prism the Faculty of Buddhism at Komazawa University, Tokyo. He specializes in of the Lotus Sutra (6) the Indian philosophy of language and by Atsushi Kanazawa the history of Indian philosophy and culture.

The Bimba Fruit white, even, close, and ever shining; his lips are red and beautiful as bimba fruit.’” The bimba is an annual or biennial (All excerpts from the Lotus Sutra are climber belonging to the gourd fam- from The Threefold Lotus Sutra [Kosei ily, and it is known for its small fruit, Publishing Company, 1975], with slight which turns red when it ripens and can revisions.) be eaten. In Indian works of literature, the “World-honored” and “tathāgata” full, red lips of a beautiful woman have are among the ten epithets of a buddha. often since ancient times been described But at some point it became customary as being “like the bimba fruit.” In this in the world of Buddhism to enumer- connection one is reminded of the fol- ate the (in a certain sense outstanding) lowing passage in “The Story of King physical characteristics of the Buddha Resplendent” chapter in the Lotus Sutra, as preacher of the Dharma in the form a somewhat unusual chapter, similar in of thirty-two major and eighty minor structure to a jātaka, or a story of one marks, which are also found in the Sutra of Shakyamuni’s previous incarnations. of Innumerable Meanings. The list in The “Virtues” chapter of the Sutra of “King Resplendent thereupon the latter includes “lips like the bimba Innumerable Meanings says the Buddha’s descended from the sky and said to the fruit.” Does this mean, then, that some- “lips and tongue appear pleasantly red, [Buddha Thunder Voice Constellation one without these characteristics can like a scarlet flower.” Here, his “pleas- King of Wisdom]: ‘World-honored never attain buddhahood? No, there is antly red” lips and tongue are likened One! Rare indeed is [the sight of] the no need for such pessimism. We should not to the bimba fruit but to a scar- tathāgata; by his merits and wisdom the make it our practice, wherever we are, let flower. In this connection I would protuberance on his head shines bril- to think of the Buddha, the source of like to point out only that, in scholarly liantly; his eyes are wide [open] and deep the true Dharma; to listen to his ser- terms, this passage provides an impor- blue; the tuft between his eyebrows is mons with an open mind; and to digest tant clue for inferring the origins of the white as the pearly moon; his teeth are them properly. Sutra of Innumerable Meanings. ≥

The Turtle river or in a reasonably large park or Shakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, garden. The turtle possesses the spe- was a human being with a human body. Readers may recall that in an earlier cial ability to retract its head and legs In the Therīgāthā, an early Buddhist text, installment of this series I took up into its hard shell when threatened, and we read: “Remember the parable of a the udumbara flower, said to bloom it also appears frequently in folktales. blind turtle in the eastern seas thrust- only once every three thousand years. In a Buddhist context, the analogy ing its head through the hole of a yoke The topic this time is the turtle, which of a blind turtle in midocean putting its drifting from the west: so rare as this appears in a figurative expression of head through a hole in a floating log is is the chance of human birth.” similar import, that of a blind turtle particularly famous. One might suppose This tells us that we must first of and a floating log. The turtle is a reptile that any living being could become a all be grateful to be born human. In with which all people are fairly famil- Buddhist and follow the path to buddha- the Lotus Sutra, this analogy has been iar, easily coming across them along a hood. But before he became the Buddha, adapted as follows in “The Story of King

32 Dharma World October–December 2014 Resplendent”: “A buddha is as hard to meet as an udumbara flower, or as the one-eyed turtle meeting the hole in the floating log.” This hints at the complex history of the spread of Buddhism over a very long period of time, but it should also be noted that the “blind” turtle has become a “one-eyed” turtle. Ever since the time of Prince Shōtoku in the early seventh century, the Japanese have set great value on the Lotus Sutra. I think it is interest- ing that the following love poem by collection of poems ancient and mod- the turtle out on the ocean, as in that Fujiwara no Teika (1162–1241), who is ern), is based on this same analogy of simile? Unlikely to meet, still you have renowned as the compiler of antholo- the turtle and the floating log in the come on how many nights, wet with gies such as Shin kokin waka-shū (New Lotus Sutra: “Am I the floating log for tears.” ≥

Bamboo the Lotus Sutra. Here bamboo, together have penetrated all meanings, and can A thicket of lush green bamboo rus- with rice, hemp, and reeds, is used as an ably preach the Law, [abounding] as tling in the breeze has a special charm example of something that grows ram- rice and hemp, bamboo and reeds, filled all of its own. Today this has become pantly and abounds in great numbers. the world in every quarter, [if] with a scene that is very rarely encountered “Indeed though the universe were full one mind by mystic wisdom, through in Japan, but in India at the time when of beings like Śāriputra, and the rest of kalpas like the sands of the Ganges, all Shakyamuni was alive it would have [my] disciples filled the world in every of these were to ponder together, they been more common. Consequently, quarter, [who] with utmost thought com- could not know the Buddha-wisdom.” bamboo and bamboo groves figure in bined to measure it, they also could not This passage explains that even if many scenes described in Buddhist scrip- understand. Though pratyekabuddhas of intelligent and able followers of the tures, and among the general popu- keen intelligence, in their last faultless Buddha’s teachings such as Śāriputra, lace, who at the time wished above all bodily stage, also filled every region of said to have been foremost in wisdom, for the continuation of the family line, the universe, numerous as bamboo in were to spend interminable aeons exer- the word for bamboo was even used to the woods, [if] these with united mind cising their wisdom all together, they signify “lineage” or “family line,” per- through infinite koṭis of kalpas wished would still have trouble understanding haps because the way in which bam- to ponder the Buddha’s real wisdom, the Buddha-wisdom of Shakyamuni. boo grows straight up with regularly [they] could not know the least part. We should also give thought to the role spaced nodes was thought to symbol- Though newly vowed bodhisattvas who played by this statement in the Lotus ize a family’s unchanging and continu- have worshipped countless buddhas, Sutra as a whole. ≥ ous prosperity. All of this was inspired by bamboo’s vigorous rate of growth. It is impossible to envisage a sin- gle bamboo stem growing in isolation. Since early times people have spoken of clumps or thickets of bamboo, and for better or worse, the various spe- cies of bamboo shoot up in next to no time. In a Buddhist context, the Bamboo Grove Monastery, which was offered to Shakyamuni by King Bimbisāra, is especially well-known. Nor should we forget the following passage near the start of the “Skillful Means” chapter in

Dharma World October–December 2014 33 LAY BUDDHIST CONFERENCE The Signifi cance of Lay Buddhism in Japanese History by Masazumi Shōjun Okano

The International Lay Buddhist Forum held its seventh world assembly April 23–29 at Rissho Kosei-kai headquarters in Tokyo. Some fi fty people, including leaders of lay Buddhist organizations in Australia, Europe, North America, South Asia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, discussed “Varieties of Lay Buddhism.” The following is a keynote speech at the opening session by Rev. Dr. Masazumi Shōjun Okano, president of Kodo Kyodan Buddhist Fellowship, a lay Buddhist organization based in Yokohama.

My speech will give a brief history of To explain how lay organizations is handed down from father to son, or Japanese Buddhism and discuss the sig- came into being, let me fi rst discuss the nowadays sometimes from father to nifi cance of lay Buddhism in the his- history of Japanese Buddhism, espe- daughter. The main social role of the tory of Japanese Buddhism. cially of the traditional denominations. priest is to perform rites, especially Buddhism was offi cially introduced Unlike many other Buddhist coun- funeral and memorial rites for parish- to Japan from the Korean Peninsula tries, Japan has had no unifi ed national ioners. Many priests think that their and China around the sixth century. sangha and no unifi ed national ordina- primary role is to maintain their tem- Over the centuries, Buddhism in Japan tion procedure. Th ere are more than ple physically, fi nancially, and ritually. went through great changes. One of the sixty traditional Buddhist denomina- Only very few priests do spiritual train- prominent features of these changes was tions, and each has its own ordination ing to attain nirvana. diversifi cation. procedure. Also, unlike in many other Running the temple has become a Th ere are two types of Buddhist orga- Buddhist countries, most of the ordained family business, and the young successors nizations in Japan: traditional and lay. are not celibate, and only a very small of the temple priests may not have the Most of the traditional Buddhist proportion of them lead a monastic life- right motivation to keep up the temple. denominations were founded between style. Th is means that almost no one As a family business, however, running the sixth and seventeenth centuries. in Japan follows the vinaya that is fol- a temple is not completely a bad thing. Th ose include Tendai, Shingon, Sōtō, lowed by the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis Many temples have closer relationships Rinzai, Jōdo, Jōdoshin, and Nichiren. of other Buddhist traditions. with the laypeople than do monasteries Th e Japan Buddhist Federation is an occupied by celibate monks and nuns. association of about sixty traditional Hereditary Priesthood Th e wives of the priests especially play Buddhist denominations. At least a dozen in Traditional important roles in maintaining good other traditional denominations are relationships with parishioners. not members. Denominations If it were not for the hereditary sys- Many of the lay organizations have Since the Meiji period (1868–1912), the tem, many temples would have been been founded since the beginning of priesthood in traditional denomina- forced to close down by now because the twentieth century. Th ere are hun- tions has become largely hereditary. A of a lack of priests to run them. Factors dreds, including some with fewer than large proportion of traditional temples such as secularization and institutional- a hundred members. Some have very are small temples that are found in all ization have contributed to the serious large memberships. Prominent among corners of the country. Smaller temples decline in the number of people wish- these are Soka Gakkai, Rissho Kosei- are usually run by the priest and his ing to become priests. Although the kai, Reiyukai, and Shinnyoen. family. In many cases, the priesthood hereditary system does not guarantee

34 Dharma World October–December 2014 Masazumi Shōjun Okano is president of Kodo Kyodan Buddhist Fellowship. After graduating from Keio University in Tokyo, he received his DPhil from Oxford University in the United Kingdom and spent time teaching at universities in the United States and Hong Kong. Rev. Okano serves on the Executive Committee of the Japan Buddhist Federation and the Advisory Committee of the International Network of Engaged Buddhists.

the quality of the priests, it has at least Ordination Procedure Buddhism and secured the maintenance of the temples. A recent development of the hered- Let me go back in history. Two centuries Political Authority itary system in some denominations after the official introduction of Buddhism Let me first discuss how political author- is the increasing role of priestesses. In to Japan, the national ordination plat- ities, especially since the seventeenth these denominations, many daughters of form based on the traditional Four-Part century, have subjected Buddhist denom- temple families are succeeding to their Vinaya was established in the eighth cen- inations to strict political control. The temple’s priesthood. In the past, the tury. It was established with the help of feudal government skillfully incorpo- parishioners did not accept women as the renowned Chinese monk Jianzhen rated Buddhist denominations into the temple head priests, but this is changing. (Jpn., Ganjin). After that, however, it is political system during the Edo period said that many self-ordained monks were (1603–1868). It banned Christianity and The Problems not trained within the official system. required every household in Japan to Traditional Buddhist In the ninth century, Saichō, the establish formal ties with a Buddhist founder of the Japanese Tendai denom- temple to prove absolutely that none of Temples Face ination, gained the government’s per- its members was a Christian. Buddhist Although the conditions at tradi- mission to establish a new ordination temples were ordered to become regis- tional temples differ greatly, depend- platform based on the Mahayana bodhi- trar offices of local villages. All births, ing upon their geographical locations, sattva precepts. This procedure was deaths, marriages, and movements in their sources of income, and the qual- formed independently of the Four-Part and out of the village had to be reported ity of their relationships with parish- Vinaya, so there were now two separate to the local temple. The temples were ioners, traditional temples in general ordination procedures in Japan. thus assigned by the feudal government are in decline, and the role of Buddhist Many of the denominations that were to oversee the local villagers. The vil- priests and temples in society has been established later in history adopted the lagers, in turn, were obliged to sup- deteriorating. bodhisattva precepts exclusively, and port their local temple financially. In Unfortunately, the future of many eventually the Four-Part Vinaya pro- this way, the temples were guaranteed of these temples looks grim. This is cedure was almost abandoned. In this financial protection—but in exchange especially so for those in rural areas. process each denomination formed its for giving up proselytization outside Excessive urbanization, falling birth- own ordination procedure. Unlike many their villages. rates, and a rapidly aging population other Buddhist countries, Japan was The feudal government set up this have caused a big demographic change never successful in establishing a uni- system to prevent the rise of rebel- in Japan. Many traditional temples are fied national ordination system. lious religious movements that might in rural areas and for centuries have With this in the background but not try to overthrow the government, as been supported by local residents. Rural as a direct result of it, today most of the had happened in previous eras. In this areas, however, are suffering from depop- ordained are no longer celibate and only way, Buddhist priests within this sys- ulation, putting local temples in seri- a very small proportion of them lead tem lost their skills and incentive to ous financial difficulty. Many priests a monastic lifestyle. Let me now dis- propagate the faith among the people. need second jobs to maintain the tem- cuss the history of how this came about, Instead, their religious role was confined ple and provide for their families. It is because it is relevant to understanding to performing rituals for the local vil- predicted that many of these temples the emergence of new lay organizations lagers, such as funerals and memorial will soon go bankrupt. in the twentieth century. services. In this way Buddhism during

Dharma World October–December 2014 35 this period became a “funerary religion.” The Edo feudal government was over- thrown by the new Meiji government in 1868. The new regime established a Western-style modern nation-state sys- tem for the first time in Japanese history, but at the same time it relied on more traditional sources of political author- ity. The Meiji government reinstated the emperor as the head of state for the first time in centuries and made Shinto the de facto state religion. Buddhism, on the other hand, was severely perse- cuted, and many temples were destroyed. The Meiji government was intent on curbing the power of Buddhist denom- inations and succeeded by allowing Buddhist priests to marry and give up for performing the rites have become for merit transfer, Helen Hardacre points vegetarianism. The government encour- many traditional temples’ main sources out the following: aged priests not to follow their tradi- of income. tional precepts and monastic rules. The According to the Buddhist idea of The priest accumulates merit through priests were not forced to violate their karma, every action (karma) has conse- observing the precepts, which require precepts but were just told by the secular quences, either good or bad. Buddhism renunciation, notably of marriage. authorities that they need not keep them. originally taught that all living beings Renunciation is a source of power However, this was enough to change are self-created and self-creating, mean- linked to the nonhuman worlds of the nature of the Buddhist priesthood ing that their current state resulted from existence. . . . This is the priest’s quali- entirely. Eventually, many priests mar- their past actions. Thus, they had to fication for mediating between ances- ried and changed their way of life. In the face the consequences of their actions. tor and descendant. The layman’s process, they lost their spiritual power, But the idea of self-creation was life is dedicated to the things of this because its legitimacy had been based on modified when a theory developed that world; he does not observe the strict a spiritual lifestyle different from that of merit from virtuous acts could be trans- precepts requiring renunciation of the laity. This loss of spiritual authority, ferred to someone else in order to lighten marriage, but he too can accumu- especially in performing funeral rites, the person’s karmic burden. This is the late merit, by giving to the priests. To contributed partly to the emergence of idea of merit transfer. Although the Pali give with no expectation of return is major lay Buddhist organizations later, canons do not call it merit transfer, they dāna, . . . and such an act produces in the twentieth century. contain the basic idea (Udana 8.9, the merit. Such a gift is understood to Mahavagga, and the Petavatthu). For be a form of repentance for wrong- Merit Transfer example, the idea that when a lay dev- doing, which itself has the poten- otee wishes to transfer merit to a recipi- tial to undo the effects of karma. The performance of funerals and ances- ent he is unable to contact directly, such (Lay Buddhism in Contemporary tral liturgy by the traditional denomina- as an ancestor, he should give alms to Japan: Reiyūkai Kyōdan. ([Princeton tions is thought to have gained significant the sangha, which in turn transfers the University Press, 1984], p. 130) popularity among the public during the merit of that act of charity. Kamakura period (1185–1333), when These ideas were developed further Thus, regarding the practice of merit it was offered by the new denomina- in the Mahayana sutras. A sutra often transfer, the clergy occupied a special tions that were successful in spreading referred to in Japan regarding the the- position based on their observance of their faith among the public. The hold- ory of merit transfer is the Ullambana the precepts, and the laity had to depend ing of those rituals became common in Sutra (Jpn., Urabon-kyō). upon them. However, as mentioned, in all Buddhist denominations during the The Ullambana Sutra indicates that Japan the great majority of the Buddhist Tokugawa period (1603–1868), regard- an assembly of monks can transfer merit clergy now marry. In Japan the qualifi- less of their doctrines. Since then fees to other beings. As to the qualification cation for merit transfer is therefore no

36 Dharma World October–December 2014 longer based upon the clergy’s renun- Lay Organizations’ percent of Japanese considered them- ciation of a worldly lifestyle but upon Decline selves middle class. This has changed, their special training in ritual. however. Members of the lay organiza- Until some lay Buddhist movements The situation has changed, however, in tions who were once effective in propa- emerged in the nineteenth and twentieth the past decade or so. With the exception gating cannot deal effectively with these centuries, the clergy in Japan monopo- of a few, many of these organizations new sets of social problems. lized the holding of funerals and other are losing membership, for a number of Traditional and lay organizations’ rituals for the dead. The lay movements reasons. Some of the factors are inter- loss of confidence for propagation is advocated that there was no obstacle to nal to the organizations and some of also attributed in large part to factors the laity’s transferring merit, since lay- them are external. In fact, the same fac- in the wider society. Let me discuss a people could meet the necessary quali- tors are also causing the decline of tra- few of these. fication. Butsuryūkō, in the nineteenth ditional denominations. century, was one of the first lay groups For both traditional and lay orga- Separation of arguing that the clergy had in fact no nizations, the main internal problem Religion and the State special capability to transfer merit and is institutionalization. Although I shall that laypeople must take an active part in not go into the details, let me just point Currently the most pressing issue in these rites, in the performance of which out that for the traditional organiza- Buddhist institutions’ relationship with Butsuryūkō ascribed special potency to tions, the rigidified institutional struc- the state authority is separation between the Lotus Sutra. This philosophy was ture creates a system that tends to keep religion and the state. The postwar bequeathed to the later lay Buddhist the status quo rather than take on new constitution’s separation of religion movements based on the Lotus Sutra in challenges. Because of this they cannot and the state was intended mainly to the twentieth century, such as Reiyukai. undertake the drastic changes desper- protect religious freedom. The consti- Reiyukai emphasized the importance of ately needed to revitalize themselves. tution aims to defend religious prac- laypeople’s practice of merit transfer to The lay organizations are also suffer- tices and religious institutions against the spirits of their ancestors. ing from institutionalization. Many of undue intervention by the state. It also their members belong to families that protects them from the state’s trying to Growth of have been members for three or four use religion for its own political end Lay Organizations generations, and the organizations are and prevents the emergence of a state losing the confidence and the motivation religion. Many of the lay organizations grew to propagate. Moreover, the membership Nevertheless, the Japanese govern- rapidly between the 1960s and 1980s, is aging, and some older members are ment, especially the bureaucrats, tend especially in urban areas. There were experiencing difficulties in transmitting to misinterpret separation between the large-scale demographic changes during their faith to younger generations. The state and religion. Officials think it means this time, especially in terms of urban- organizations themselves are also having only that religion must be excluded from ization and industrialization. For exam- difficulties in dealing effectively with the the public sphere at all levels, includ- ple, the urban-rural population ratio changes in the wider society. Japanese ing central and local government. For in 1950 was 3 to 7, but ten years later society has become more complex, and example, religion is not taught system- it was 7 to 3. Within these ten years a new sets of social problems have arisen atically at public schools at all. Some large number of people migrated to the from the changes in the post-economic- local governments prohibit the use of urban areas, leaving behind their rural growth period since the beginning of public buildings and facilities for reli- lifestyles. They left behind lifestyles based the twenty-first century. For example, gious purposes, such as for memorial on an extended family system, closely more than thirty thousand people have services for those who perished in the knit local communities, and traditional committed suicide every year since 1998, March 11, 2011, earthquake and tsunami. religious cultures. These people settled and Japan’s suicide rate is one of the It must also be mentioned that in urban areas where they had no rela- highest among industrialized nations. reconstruction programs in some of tives or no prior communal and cultural The number of people with mental ill- the disaster areas have discriminated ties. The new lay organizations func- nesses has also increased greatly in the against religion. In the city of Sendai, tioned as new communities for these past two decades. The Japanese are also the local government announced that people. At the peak times, the largest experiencing a widening gap between it cannot use its reconstruction funds groups had a membership of more than rich and poor for the first time in sixty for rebuilding religious facilities, such ten million people. years. In the 1970s and 1980s about 98 as Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines,

Dharma World October–December 2014 37 decline of traditional village lifestyles we in Japan are at a juncture where brought about by drastic demographic we have to rethink the ways in which changes has been a major factor. Religion Buddhist teachings and practices for was deeply ingrained in the cultures of the laity are presented in a world that traditional local communities. With is rapidly secularizing. urbanization, the proportion of peo- It is generally thought in Buddhist ple who were brought up in these com- societies that laypeople cannot attain munities has diminished. Instead, an the perfect enlightenment. This is not increasing proportion of the popula- true, because there are descriptions in tion has been born in secularized urban the old texts of the Buddha leading lay- areas. These people usually have very people toward attainment of nirvana. little chance to come in contact with Moreover, it is clear that the Buddha that were destroyed by the disaster, since religious customs, practices, and teach- himself preached not for the sake of the it would violate separation of religion ings. Secularization is accelerating even few but for all humanity. In theory, it and the state. more because the government actively might not be impossible for laypeople In another instance, residents of a excludes religion from the public sphere. to attain the perfect enlightenment, but highly contaminated evacuation zone The mass media have also been it is very difficult. This does not mean, in Fukushima were not allowed reentry responsible for painting negative pic- however, that it is a waste of time to when they declared that their purpose tures of religion. This has been espe- train on paths to nirvana such as the of reentry was to place family members’ cially so after the Aum Shinrikyō sarin Threefold Learning, the Four Noble ashes in an ancestral tomb. They could gas attack in 1995. The incident drasti- Truths, and the Eightfold Path. Many obtain reentry permits to the zone only cally changed the public image of reli- people would agree that these teach- for brief visits to their homes. Visits to gion to something potentially antisocial ings and training practices are benefi- ancestral tombs were banned as reli- and extremely dangerous. cial for laypeople. gious activity. A government official For these reasons, it has become Unfortunately, not many Japanese lay told residents the government could not increasingly difficult to propagate the groups have emphasized learning and possibly “champion” religious activities Buddhist teachings in contemporary practicing the Four Noble Truths and because it would violate separation of Japanese society. the Eightfold Path. The importance of religion and the state. understanding suffering as the means Since many civil servants are unaware Lay Buddhism in to overcome suffering is therefore con- that the purpose of separation of reli- the Secularized World spicuously absent from their teachings. gion and the state is to defend religious Meditation practices are also absent from freedom, they systematically exclude Let me conclude with a few remarks their training. I think it is important for religion from the public sphere. about the roles of lay Buddhism in a both lay and traditional denominations secularized society like Japan’s. to go back to the roots in order to face Secularization It is evident that the ultimate goal current problems. of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis is nirvana. The Japanese religious world cannot How about the goal for lay Buddhists? Let me conclude by saying that I hope the afford to leave this situation as it is Traditionally the laity’s goals have gatherings of kalyāna-mitra such as this, because religion is rapidly losing its included rebirth in a better world, such the International Lay Buddhist Forum, influence in society, which is widely as in a heaven or a wealthy human family. will help spread the teachings and prac- secularizing. Religious worldviews and In Japan, however, this idea has not tices of the Buddha so that the sufferings institutions have lost their influence taken root. The Japanese lay groups of all sentient beings will be relieved. As on the general public. In Japan, secu- instead have emphasized happiness in you know, kalyāna-mitra means “good larization has gone very far—even fur- this life, especially in terms of improv- friends”—the good friends who walk ther than in many Western European ing their followers’ material lives, curing the Way together. In the Sigālovāda nations. The influence of not only reli- illnesses, and being successful in soci- Suttanta, the Buddha teaches that “a gious organizations but also religious ety. Some groups have advocated that genuine friend is one who is a help- worldviews, religious culture, and reli- people could improve their karma in mate, who is a friend in happiness and gious customs has greatly diminished this life by merit transfer, repentance, sorrow, who advises for one’s welfare, in contemporary Japanese society. The or some magical means. I think that and who is sympathetic.” ≥

38 Dharma World October–December 2014 THE THREEFOLD LOTUS SUTRA: A MODERN COMMENTARY

The Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Law

Chapter 23 The Former Lives of the Bodhisattva Medicine King (2) This is the 118th installment of a detailed commentary on the Threefold Lotus Sutra by the founder of Rissho Kosei-kai, Rev. Nikkyo Niwano.

TEXT Having attained this contemplation [the Bodhisattva sandalwood, which filled the sky and descended like a cloud; Loveliness] was very joyful and reflected thus, saying: ‘My [he] rained also incense of inner-seashore sandalwood; six attainment of the contemplation of revelation of all forms karshas of this incense are worth a saha world. [All this he is entirely due to the power [resulting] from hearing the did] in homage to the Buddha. Dharma Flower Sutra. Let me now pay homage to the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance and the Dharma Flower Sutra.’ COMMENTARY Enter into this contemplation. This con- templation is the samadhi of paying homage. The bodhi- COMMENTARY Reflected. In the original Chinese text, the sattva concentrated on offering wholehearted devotion word translated here as “reflected” means literally “speak- and gratitude to the Buddha and the teachings of the ing to oneself.” It clearly shows how much people depend Lotus Sutra. on words when they think. In this case, the bodhisattva • Mandarava flowers, maha-mandarava flowers. These are silently affirms his devotion. flowers that bloom in the realm of the gods and are believed to be so beautiful that whoever sees them cannot help being TEXT No sooner did he enter into this contemplation delighted in spirit. than [he] rained from the sky mandarava flowers, maha- • Fine powder of hard and black sandalwood. Powdered mandarava flowers, and fine powder of hard and black sandalwood makes superior incense.

Dharma World October–December 2014 39 • Inner-seashore sandalwood. This is an extremely precious but for dissemination of the Buddha Dharma. Obtaining variety of sandalwood. In the ancient Indian view of the divine powers and freely proclaiming and spreading the world, the center of the world is Mount Sumeru, which is teachings of the Buddha are the greatest homage one can surrounded by seas, in which there are four continents. pay to the Buddha. The southern continent is where human beings live and is called Jambudvipa in Sanskrit. It was said that the “inner- TEXT whose buddhas simultaneously extolled him, say- seashore,” facing Mount Sumeru, was the coast of the con- ing: ‘Good, good! Good son! This is true zeal and the tru- tinent of human beings, and along it grew sandalwood trees est devotion to the Tathagata. of exquisite fragrance. • Six karshas of this incense are worth a saha world. Even COMMENTARY Zeal. This means single-hearted devotion six karshas, a light measure of weight, of this incense are to an endeavor for a correct purpose in Buddhism. However as valuable as the earth itself. much one might endeavor, if the goal is not good, it is not zeal in a good cause. However admirable one’s purpose, TEXT “Having made this offering, he arose from contem- half-hearted efforts are not zealous. People today should plation and reflected within himself, thus saying: ‘Though I give particular thought to this. by my supernatural power have paid homage to the Buddha, • The truest devotion to the Tathagata. As we noted earlier it is not as good as offering my body.’ (see the October-December 2013 issue of Dharma World), there are various ways to worship the Buddha, and the tru- COMMENTARY By my supernatural power. This divine est is to vividly demonstrate the wonders of the Buddha power is of a kind that can be manifested through contem- Dharma to humanity through acts of self-sacrifice and plation, of a kind that causes the flowers of heaven or fine inspiring devotion to him. incense to come falling down. Before, we read that the Bodhisattva Loveliness immo- • Offering my body. This means an offering of self-sacri- lated himself, and that the bright flames of his immolation fice. The most realistic manifestation of this is acceptance universally illuminated worlds as numerous as the sands of hardships in practicing the teachings. of eighty kotis of Ganges rivers. This means that the minds of people in that vast realm were purified by the beauty of TEXT Thereupon he partook of many kinds of incense— the act of the Bodhisattva Loveliness, inspiring their devo- sandalwood, kunduruka, turushka, prikka, aloes, and resin tion to the Buddha Dharma. incense—and drank the essential oil of the campaka and An act of self-sacrifice to spread the teachings of the other flowers. After fully twelve hundred years, he anointed Buddha lights up the darkness of this world and fills people his body with perfumed unguents, and in the presence of with radiance. We should take very careful note of these words. the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance wrapped himself in a celestial precious garment, bathed in perfumed oil, and by TEXT Offerings of flowers, scents, necklaces, incense, san- his transcendent vow burned his own body. Its brightness dal powder, unguents, banners and canopies of celestial silk, universally illuminated worlds fully numerous as the sands and incense of inner-seashore sandalwood, offerings of such of eighty kotis of Ganges rivers, various things as these cannot match it, nor can the giving of alms, countries, cities, wives, and children match it. COMMENTARY Kunduruka, turushka, prikka. These are various kinds of incense. COMMENTARY These words are of course a continuation • Aloes. This is a fragrant wood heavy enough to sink in water. of the praises of the various buddhas. They emphasize that • Resin. This is also an incense from another variety of aro- “worship through offerings” and “worship through reverence,” matic tree said to be similar to maples. which could be figurative—for example, offering one’s wife • Campaka. This is a fragrant flower from which perfume and children in the service of the buddha—do not surpass is made. “worship through deeds” which is practice of the teachings. Burning many kinds of incense and drinking the aro- matic oil of flowers symbolize purifying oneself. This sym- TEXT My good son! This is called the supreme gift, the bolic deed teaches us that we must first purify our conduct most honored and sublime of gifts, because it is the Dharma before paying homage to the Buddha. homage to the tathagatas.’ Here we learn that in his desire to obtain divine powers, he made offerings to the Buddha. The “transcendent vow” COMMENTARY This passage declares clearly the high- does not mean that he uses these divine powers for himself, est form of donation.

40 Dharma World October–December 2014 suddenly metamorphosed, sitting cross-legged in the house of King Pure Virtue, to [whom as] his father he forthwith spoke thus in verse:

‘Know, O great king! Sojourning in that other abode, I instantly attained the contemplation of The revelation of all forms, And devotedly performed a deed of great zeal By sacrificing the body I loved.’

COMMENTARY We have discussed rebirth, or trans- migration, in detail in an earlier section (the November/ December 1998 issue of Dharma World), and in this instance the Bodhisattva Loveliness, in reward for his supreme act of self-sacrifice for the Dharma, is reborn as a prince. That he was reborn sitting cross-legged, or in the lotus position, means symbolically that he was reincarnated with mastery of the Buddha Dharma and the possession of exalted virtues. His immediately speaking to his father in verse means that even as a child he had the power to instruct adults, such as his parents. Therefore, we should not assume that our children are inferior or decide unilaterally that we should be leaders and our children followers. We are often taught and led by our children, so it is important always to listen with humility to what they say and watch over what they do. • That other abode. This refers to the abode of the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance. • Devotedly performed. “To devotedly perform” means to do something diligently, wholeheartedly, and steadfastly. • By sacrificing the body I loved. This is a truly significant expression. Everyone holds himself or herself dear. As a living being it is instinctual to think of oneself as the most important being in the world. TEXT After making this statement they all fell silent. Human beings, however, differ from other living things “His body continued burning for twelve hundred years, in possessing a spirit and engaging in community life, which after which his body came to an end. is based on mutual assistance, consideration, and prosper- ity for all. Since human beings are a higher form of life, COMMENTARY Silent. When we read this passage we are they often must sacrifice that precious self. As I have just of course grateful for the Buddha’s preaching of the Dharma, pointed out, whether to a greater or lesser degree, soci- but we are also struck deep within our hearts by the immea- ety is possible because people are willing to make sacri- surably deep meaning of the Buddha sitting silently. fices for one another. If we were not willing to do that, This is important even in maintaining our daily practices. our way of life would be no different from that of birds, We should always set aside moments for sitting silently. At beasts, and insects. such times our consciousness deepens and concentrates on one thing that is invisible. It is a precious thing. TEXT “After uttering this verse, he spoke to his father, saying: ‘The Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance is still existing as TEXT “The Bodhisattva Loveliness, after making such of yore. Having first paid homage to that buddha, I obtained a Dharma offering as this, on his death was again born the dharani of interpreting the utterances of all the living, in the domain of the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance, being and moreover heard this Dharma Flower Sutra [in] eight

Dharma World October–December 2014 41 hundred thousand myriad kotis [of] nayutas, kankaras, TEXT “Thereupon the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance vimbaras, akshobhyas of verses. Great King! I ought now addressed the Bodhisattva Loveliness: ‘My good son! The to return and pay homage to that buddha.’ time of my nirvana has come. The time of my extinction has arrived. You may arrange my bed. Tonight I shall enter COMMENTARY The dharani of interpreting the utterances parinirvana.’ of all the living. This is the power of clearly understanding the spoken words of all living beings, which enables reli- COMMENTARY This scene reminds us of the close rela- gious leaders to adapt their teaching to the capacities of tionship between Shakyamuni and his attendant Ananda all people so that they will keep what is good and discard in the Kushinagara forest when Shakyamuni died. what is evil. • The time of my nirvana has come. This is parinirvana, in • Nayutas, kankaras, vimbaras, akshobhyas. Each of these other words, leaving this world. is an infinite large unit of measure. The Lotus Sutra clearly • The time of my extinction has arrived. This also means that does not have an infinite number of verses. As I have noted his life in this world is at an end and he will enter extinction. repeatedly, the Lotus Sutra referred to in this instance is not the scripture but the quintessence of the Buddha’s teachings, TEXT Again he commanded the Bodhisattva Loveliness: the supreme Dharma which he taught. An infinite number ‘My good son! I commit the Buddha Dharma to you. And of teachings spring forth from the Dharma, and because I deliver to you all [my] bodhisattvas and chief disciples, the Buddha is the one who imparts them, his teachings are [my] Dharma of Perfect Enlightenment, also [my] three- referred to as the nayutas, kankaras, vimbaras, and akshob- thousand-great-thousandfold world [made] of the precious hyas of verses in the passage. seven, [its] jewel trees and jewel pedestals, and my celes- tial attendants. I also entrust to you whatever relics may TEXT Having said this, he thereupon took his seat on a remain after my extinction. Let them be distributed and pedestal of the precious seven, arose in the sky as high as paid homage to far and wide. Let some thousands of stu- seven tala trees, and on reaching that Buddha, bowed down pas be erected.’ to his feet, and extolled the Buddha in verse: COMMENTARY Commit. As was explained in detail in COMMENTARY Seven tala trees. The tala is a variety of chapter 22, “The Final Commission,” this means to entrust tall hemp palm. The tala was used in India as a unit of mea- something into the care of another, to delegate to another sure. Seven times the height of this tall tree would be, in a task that is arduous. other words, high up in the sky. • Dharma of Perfect Enlightenment. This refers to the teach- ing for attaining the Buddha’s wisdom and enlightenment. TEXT ‘Countenance most wonderful, / Radiance illumi- • Jewel trees and jewel towers. Of course this means wonder- nating the universe: / Formerly I paid homage to thee, / Now ful trees and towers, but it also connotes a place where one again I return to be in close fellowship with the Buddha.’ awakens to enlightenment, as described at the beginning of the present chapter, “The Former Lives of the Bodhisattva COMMENTARY Wonderful. The Chinese for this word Medicine King,” where the text says “under all these jewel is ch’i-miao, which means rare, exceptional, beautiful, and trees bodhisattvas and shravakas were seated.” precious beyond words. • Attendants. This means those who attend the Buddha and perform various services. But this is following his extinc- TEXT “Then the Bodhisattva Loveliness, having uttered tion, so it is better to interpret this as rendering service to this verse, spoke to that Buddha, saying: ‘World-honored protect the Buddha Dharma and spread its teachings widely. One! The World-honored One is still present in the world.’ • Stupas be erected. The Buddha tells the Bodhisattva Loveliness to let his relics be distributed and receive hom- COMMENTARY At a glance, this simply means that the age far and wide, but he means to cause, through this hom- World-honored One is still dwelling in this world. But age, all living beings to cherish a deep longing, a thirsting included within these words is emotion beyond measure. heart, and reverence for the Buddha. The disciple’s unspoken longing desire, thirsting heart, and He also tells the bodhisattva to build stupas, and by this reverence for the Buddha permeate these simple words. he means for all living beings to engrave the teachings in His feelings of longing for the Buddha and the Buddha’s their minds. The stupas are to be built for the purpose of compassion for living beings are perfectly blended in an extolling the Buddha’s virtues. If a stupa is built with con- exquisite state of religious exultation. cern only for its form and appearance and without the

42 Dharma World October–December 2014 spirit of engraving the teachings in people’s minds, the act the host, saying: ‘Pay attention with all your mind, [for] I of building it would not accord with the Buddha’s mind. am now about to pay homage to the relics of the Buddha The Buddha is pleased by true substance rather than form, Sun Moon Brilliance.’ by actual practice rather than empty theory. It is most regrettable that the stupas we find here and COMMENTARY Pay attention with all your mind, [for] there today have degenerated into objects of art appreci- I am now about to pay homage to the relics of the Buddha ation and tourist destinations. At the very least, it is to be Sun Moon Brilliance. When we interpret these words, we hoped that people who visit and appreciate these stupas are see that they mean, “Everyone, consider this carefully. I told the true meaning of a stupa. will now pay homage to the relics of the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance, and I want you to think very carefully about the TEXT The Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance, having thus meaning of my homage.” commanded the Bodhisattva Loveliness, in the last divi- sion of the night entered into nirvana. TEXT Having said this, he thereupon before the eighty- four thousand stupas burned off his arms, with their hun- COMMENTARY People who have attained great virtue dred felicitous signs, for seventy-two thousand years in through the accumulation of religious practices can become homage to him, and led a numberless host of seekers after clearly aware of the approach of their own death. This is shravakaship and countless asamkhyeyas of people to set obviously true of buddhas, and was true of the Buddha Sun their minds on Perfect Enlightenment, causing them all to Moon Brilliance, who became extinct at the date and time abide in the contemplation of revelation of all forms. he had predicted, as did Shakyamuni. COMMENTARY His arms, with their hundred felicitous signs. TEXT “Thereupon the Bodhisattva Loveliness, seeing His arms are beautifully adorned with every blessed sign. the buddha was extinct, mourned, was deeply moved and The latter half of the passage above will be better under- distressed, and ardently longed for him. Then piling up a stood in the following way. He “led a numberless host of pyre of inner-seashore sandalwood, he paid homage to the seekers after shravakaship to set their minds on Perfect body of that buddha and burned it. After the fire died out Enlightenment.” That is, the bodhisattva encouraged shra- he gathered the relics, made eighty-four thousand precious vakas, who had wished to study the Buddha’s teachings urns, and erected eighty-four thousand stupas higher than in order to rid themselves of delusion and defilement, to a threefold world, adorned with banner towers, hung with seek a higher state, the supreme enlightenment attained banners and canopies and with many precious bells. by the Buddha. Naturally, the “countless asamkhyeyas of people” are the COMMENTARY “Eighty-four thousand” indicates a very innumerable bodhisattvas and he caused them “to abide in large number. The teachings imparted by the Buddha are the contemplation of the revelation of all forms.” In other called “the eighty-four thousand doctrines.” The bodhi- words, these bodhisattvas were enabled to abide in that sattva’s making of the eighty-four thousand precious urns exalted state of contemplation. and building a stupa for each one symbolizes his endeavor It is certainly true that to extol the virtues of the Buddha to establish the teachings permanently in every country so worldwide, to spread his teachings and ensure that they that everyone, everywhere, would revere, commemorate, will be preserved forever, is great homage to the Buddha. and extol the virtues of the Buddha Sun Moon Brilliance. However, for true practitioners of the Lotus Sutra, that is still insufficient. Needless to say, the greatest homage TEXT Then the Bodhisattva Loveliness again reflected they can pay to the Buddha is to practice his teachings within himself, saying: ‘Though I have paid this homage, assiduously. my mind is not yet satisfied. Let me pay still further hom- Therefore, the Bodhisattva Loveliness burned off his age to the relics.’ arms. In other words, he devoted himself to practice of the teachings without thought of what might happen to him. COMMENTARY Further homage to the relics. He wishes His practice became a great light that illuminated the dark- to pay even deeper homage by superior means rather than ness of people’s minds. People thereby came to recognize only to pay homage once more. that they were mired in an unenlightened state of mind, and they aspired to and attained an exalted state. TEXT Thereupon he addressed the bodhisattvas and This vividly shows us the great power of the merit of chief disciples, as well as gods, dragons, yakshas, and all assiduous practice of the teachings.

Dharma World October–December 2014 43 TEXT “Then all those bodhisattvas, gods, men, asuras, and preaching the Dharma in this saha world and liberating others, seeing him without arms, were sorrowful and dis- multitudes of people. tressed and lamented, saying: ‘This Bodhisattva Loveliness After finishing this preliminary narrative, the Buddha is indeed our teacher and instructor, but now his arms teaches the following. are burned off and his body is deformed.’ Thereupon the Bodhisattva Loveliness in the great assembly made this TEXT Star Constellation King Flower! If anyone with his vow, saying: ‘Having given up both my arms, I shall [yet] mind set on and aiming at Perfect Enlightenment is able to assuredly obtain a buddha’s golden body. If this [assur- burn off the fingers of his hand or even a toe of his foot in ance] be true and not false, let both my arms be restored homage to a buddha’s stupa, he will surpass him who pays as they were before.’ homage with domains, cities, wives, children, and his three- thousand-great-thousandfold land with its mountains, for- COMMENTARY ‘Having given up both my arms, I shall ests, rivers, pools, and all of the precious things. [yet] assuredly obtain a buddha’s golden body.’ After sacri- ficing himself to practice the teachings of the Buddha, he COMMENTARY Able to burn off the fingers of his hand has awakened to his own buddha-nature (the golden body or even a toe of his foot in homage to a buddha’s stupa. To of the Buddha), which is at one with the Original Buddha. actually practice the teachings of the Buddha in a way that involves even a small sacrifice of the self is a significant way TEXT As soon as he had made this vow, [his arms] were of paying homage to the Buddha. of themselves restored, [all] brought to pass through the Such homage is superior to every kind of material offering. excellence of this bodhisattva’s felicitous virtue and wisdom. At that moment the three-thousand-great-thousandfold TEXT “Again, if anyone offers a three-thousand-great- world was shaken in the six ways, the sky rained various thousandfold world full of the seven precious things in hom- precious flowers, and gods and human beings all attained age to buddhas, great bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas, and that which they had never before experienced.” arhats, the merit this man gains is not equal to the surpass- ing happiness of him who received and keeps but a single COMMENTARY The restoration of the Bodhisattva fourfold verse of this Dharma Flower Sutra. Loveliness’s arms symbolizes that the self will never be harmed or lose anything through an act of self-sacrifice. COMMENTARY Arhats. Arhats are people devoid of all It is true that since people have physical bodies they delusions and worthy of the world’s respect, and “arhats” are subject to physical laws, but their true nature, which here refers to shravakas, who are often mentioned with is their buddha-nature, is not. So although the physical bodhisattvas and pratyekabuddhas. body may be harmed or diminished, the buddha-nature— • A single fourfold verse. This is a verse in four lines, like the intrinsic quality of humankind—is neither harmed nor one we have just read: diminished at all. People who fully realize this truth can remain serene ‘Countenance most wonderful, because they are fully aware that however great their self- Radiance illuminating the universe: sacrifice, their true nature is the golden body that is the Formerly I paid homage to thee, buddha-nature itself. Now again I return to be in close fellowship with the Buddha.’ TEXT The Buddha [then] addressed the Bodhisattva Star Constellation King Flower: “What is your opinion? Was the TEXT “Star Constellation King Flower! Suppose just as Bodhisattva Loveliness some other person? It was indeed amongst all brooks, streams, rivers, canals, and all other the present Medicine King Bodhisattva. His self-sacrifice waters the sea is supreme, so is it also with this Dharma and gifts were of such countless hundred thousand myr- Flower Sutra; amongst all the sutras preached by tathaga- iad kotis of nayutas in number as these. tas it is the profoundest and greatest.

COMMENTARY For the first time Shakyamuni revealed COMMENTARY Now begins a series of ten similes which that these were things done by the Bodhisattva Medicine signify just how wonderful the Lotus Sutra is. The series is King in a past life. It signifies, in other words, that because known as “ten similes praising the Lotus Sutra.” The sim- the Bodhisattva Medicine King obtained these divine pow- ile in this passage is the first. ers through that sequence of causes and events, he is freely No river, however large, can rival an ocean. Rivers by

44 Dharma World October–December 2014 their nature cannot compare with oceans. This is because Among other religions and even within the Buddhist an ocean swallows up the waters that flow into it from riv- teachings that preceded the Lotus Sutra, there are severe, pes- ers large and small and makes them all one. Moreover, an simistic teachings that people are sinful and life is suffering. ocean enriches the waters of the rivers, changing them into But once we arrive at the Lotus Sutra, we see an unfath- something deeper and heavier in content. The oceans spread omable brightness which affirms humanity, glorifies life, all over the planet forming one continuous, boundless body and praises the buddha-nature. Further, the Lotus Sutra is of water and furthermore become the basis for all life. not only the Dharma for Buddhist clergy, but for all people, In a similar way, all the teachings flow into the Lotus Sutra, without exception. It is a teaching through which all people where they blend together and are condensed. They become may love life and cheerfully live it to the full. Consequently one great teaching of great benevolence and deep compas- no other teaching shines on the world so brightly. It is sion which gives life to everything in this world. The Lotus surely true that among the many sutras, the Lotus Sutra is Sutra is a body of teachings that is truly like a great ocean. the most illuminating.

TEXT And just as amongst all mountains—the Earth TEXT Further, just as the princely sun is able to disperse Mountain, the Black Mountain, the Small Iron Circle all darkness, so is it also with this sutra; it is able to dispel Mountains, the Great Iron Circle Mountains, the ten pre- all unholy darkness. cious mountains, and all other mountains—it is Mount Sumeru which is supreme, so is it also with the Dharma COMMENTARY As we have repeatedly noted, darkness Flower Sutra; amongst all sutras it is supreme. is nonsubstantial. It is merely a state in which there is no light. Consequently, when light shines, there is no darkness. COMMENTARY According to ancient Buddhist cosmol- In similar fashion, sin and evil are unsubstantial. They ogy, the Earth Mountain, the Black Mountains, the Small are merely states in which wisdom is obscured, and good- Iron Circle Mountains, the Great Iron Circle Mountains, the ness of mind is concealed. So when the rays of the sun of ten precious mountains, and Mount Sumeru were moun- the teachings shine forth, wisdom reveals itself, the mind’s tains in India. Mount Sumeru was not only the highest of goodness shines, and in an instant sin and evil vanish into these mountains, but was believed by ancient Indians to be thin air. The teachings of the Lotus Sutra are like the sun. the center of the universe. The appropriateness of this simile is unparalleled. The Lotus Sutra is not only the supreme and most noble of all sutras, but it contains the greatest of all the teachings, TEXT Again, just as amongst all minor kings the holy revealing and fostering their supreme value. wheel-rolling king is supreme, so is it also with this sutra; People sometimes become overzealous in their devo- amongst all the sutras it is the most honorable. tion to the Lotus Sutra to the point of self-righteousness, and disdain other teachings of the Buddha. But this is a COMMENTARY The holy wheel-rolling king is the king major error, for the Lotus Sutra is not a sutra to rival or be who governs the world virtuously (see the November/ compared with other sutras. Rather it is the core of all the December 1991 issue of Dharma World). In other words, he teachings and helps them manifest their intrinsic value. is a great king who does not govern by strength, but rather, Unless one is aware of the worldview of ancient Indians, with the power of exceptional virtue, he leads people in cre- who regarded Mount Sumeru as the center of the world, ating a peaceful country of their own accord. and delves deeply into this passage, it is easy to fall into Like the holy wheel-rolling king, the Lotus Sutra, with such a misunderstanding. its great influential powers, leads all living beings imper- ceptibly to the Way of the Buddha. For that reason, it is the TEXT Again, just as amongst all stars the princely moon most precious of all the precious teachings. is supreme, so is it also with this Dharma Flower Sutra; amongst thousands of myriads of kotis of kinds of sutra TEXT Again just as what Shakra is amongst the gods of teachings, it is the most illuminating. the thirty-three heavens, so is it also with this sutra; it is the king of all sutras. COMMENTARY There are countless stars in the heav- ens, but it is the moon that is closest to the human world COMMENTARY The so-called heavenly deities were orig- and shines brightest on that world. The Lotus Sutra is pre- inally the gods of Brahmanism and were believed to have cisely the same, a teaching that adheres closely to human great divine powers to control humans. Shakra (Indra), along life and brightens it. with the Brahma Heaven, was held to be the main deity and

Dharma World October–December 2014 45 chief of the other thirty-two gods. The Buddha incorporated them all as benevolent deities that protect Buddhism, but there remained a folk belief, never strongly contradicted, that they possessed divine powers to save people from their sufferings on occasion and grant them good fortune. Comparing the Lotus Sutra, which is the king of all sutras, to Shakra in the thirty-three heavens seems to suggest that all of the teachings of the Buddha have the extraordinary power to liberate humankind, but it means the teachings of the Lotus Sutra are the greatest of all.

TEXT Again, just as the Great Brahma Heavenly King is the father of all living beings, so is it also with this sutra; it is the father of all wise and holy men, of those training and the trained, and of the bodhisattva-minded.

COMMENTARY The Great Brahma Heavenly King was believed to be the chief deity of Brahmanism, and people believed him to be the father of all living beings. In general in India, as in other countries, fathers are held in high regard, and even in the Lotus Sutra we find many such expressions as “I, too, being father of this world” (in a verse of chapter 16, “Revelation of the [Eternal] Life of the Tathagata,” in which the father is represented as guide and savior). The same is true here. All people—whether they be sages, saints, trainees (shaiksha, practitioners who have more to gently leads ordinary adherents of other religions to the learn about the Buddha’s teachings), the trained (ashaik- Way of the Buddha. sha, practitioners who have fully mastered his teachings), bodhisattvas—when they have resolved to attain the supreme TEXT Again, just as amongst all the common people, enlightenment of the Buddha, have the Lotus Sutra as an srota-apannas, sakridagamins, anagamins, arhats, and pra- august and affectionate father to teach and guide them to it. tyekabuddhas are foremost, so is it also with this sutra; The word father suggests this distinctive meaning. amongst all the sutra teachings expounded by tathagatas, One point should be clarified here. Ancient Indians bodhisattvas, and shravakas, it is supreme. So is it also with believed the Great Brahma Heavenly King, that is, a god those who are able to receive and keep this sutra—amongst of a heavenly realm, was the father of all living beings; in all the living they are supreme. other words, that he governed all the living. Such think- ing is fundamentally incompatible with Buddhist ideas. COMMENTARY Srota-apanna, sakridagamin, anagamin, Buddhism does not recognize the existence of any god in arhat that kind of relationship with human beings and therefore - strongly denies the idea that gods govern humans beings. However, Shakyamuni does not impetuously attack this ascend through these stages step by step from a beginner’s mistaken idea and oppose its adherents. Instead, he warmly state of mind. embraces these gods of another religion as guardian deities of the Buddha Dharma. joined a group following the Way and has just begun to be This spirit is manifest here in his not opposing the error that the Great Brahma Heavenly King rules the liv- ing. Instead Shakyamuni taught ancient Indians that the of delusion in the realm of desire and is guaranteed only no Buddha Dharma, like the Great Brahma Heavenly King, more than one rebirth in the realm of desire. was the spiritual father of all the living. It is characteris- tic of Buddhism that it embraces all correct religions and to the state of ordinary beings by being reborn in the realm

46 Dharma World October–December 2014 of desire. The anagamin is guaranteed to reach the stage living from pains and sufferings; this sutra is able greatly of the arhat, the highest stage of shravaka enlightenment. to benefit all the living and fulfill their vows. The arhat is known as “a killer of bandits” for having at this stage vanquished the “bandits of delusion.” Strictly COMMENTARY “To benefit” means to bestow both mate- speaking, such a person is called an arhattva, meaning one rial as well as spiritual blessings. If one is spiritually liber- who is completely rid of delusion and has achieved libera- ated, this will always be reflected in material ways as well. tion, deserving the respect of all humanity. It is wrong to associate the word “vows” with concrete • Amongst all the living they are supreme. We should pay ways of material liberation. “Vows” here does not mean special attention to the final section of this passage, which efforts to gain material satisfaction or a comfortable life. says that among all living beings, those who can receive and As explained earlier (in the July/August 2000 issue of keep the sutra are supreme. It is we who receive and keep the Dharma World), a vow is made to accomplish an ideal goal sutra, so it is we who are most exalted among living beings. in life. A vow, in Buddhist terms, however, is not quite the We must always cherish this pride deep within our- same as an ideal. A vow has two senses in Buddhism. The selves. That we believe in the supreme Dharma and actu- first is ultimately the altruistic endeavor to benefit human- ally practice it means that, however inferior to all others ity and the world. The second is a strong commitment to we may be in other aspects, in this one aspect we are supe- an ideal. rior. If we keep this self-confidence to ourselves and deal Hence, we must bear in mind that in the phrase “fulfill with everything confidently, we will be able to live with their vows,” “vows” is used in the first sense above. Some dignity, unconcerned by social position or material things. people misinterpret the meaning of vow in the Lotus Sutra Of course this does not imply that we should be arrogant as meaning the pursuit of immediate desires based on greed. or self-righteous, showing our feeling of spiritual superior- Nothing is further from a correct understanding of the ity. Our self-confidence and pride remain within our hearts. teachings of the Lotus Sutra than the belief that practice of its teachings brings immediate, worldly benefits. TEXT Amongst all shravakas and pratyekabuddhas, bodhi- sattvas are supreme; so is it also with this sutra; amongst TEXT Just as a clear, cool pool is able to satisfy all those all the sutra teachings, it is supreme. who are thirsty, as the cold who obtain a fire [are satisfied], as the naked who find clothing, as [a caravan of] merchants COMMENTARY Bodhisattvas are not grouped with shra- who find a leader, as children who find their mother, as at vakas or pratyekabuddhas, so the meaning of “amongst all a ferry one who catches the boat, as a sick man who finds shravakas and pratyekabuddhas” should be understood to a doctor, as in the darkness one who obtains a lamp, as a mean all the disciples of the Buddha. poor man who finds a jewel, as people who find a king, as merchant venturers who gain the sea, and as a torch which TEXT Just as the Buddha is king of the teachings, or dispels the darkness, so is it also with this Dharma Flower dharmas, so is it also with this sutra; it is the king of sutras. Sutra; it is able to deliver all the living from all sufferings and all diseases, and is able to unloose all the bonds of COMMENTARY The king of sutras. In ancient times, kings birth and death. were absolute rulers. The fortunate of a nation depended largely on the king’s virtue. The Buddha is compared to a COMMENTARY It is difficult to understand this passage, good king who brings happiness to all his people, and he and one may even misinterpret it unless one understands is called the “king of the teachings” in the sense that he is India’s geography and daily life. the “ruler of the Dharma,” who expounds all the teach- Take for example the expression “just as a clear, cool ings, making free and full use of them to instruct and lib- pool is able to satisfy all those who are thirsty.” In Japan one erate all people. would use the word “spring.” But in India, rainwater is col- In the same manner, the Lotus Sutra, which gives life to lected, and river water is drawn into reservoirs. The water is all the teachings and helps them fully manifest their life, is used for drinking and bathing, which are essential for life. truly the “king of sutras.” The merchants referred to here are in a caravan, and their The following brings to a conclusion the ten similes leader is well acquainted enough with the territory to guide praising the Lotus Sutra. the caravan through boundless deserts or dense forests. People today may not fully grasp the importance of TEXT “Star Constellation King Flower! This sutra is that a ferry, but anyone who visits northern India, where the which can save all the living; this sutra can deliver all the Ganges and Indus rivers and their tributaries form a meshlike

Dharma World October–December 2014 47 TEXT “If anyone, hearing this Dharma Flower Sutra, either himself copies or causes others to copy it, the limits of the sum of merit to be obtained cannot be calculated [even] by the Buddha wisdom. If anyone copies this sutra and pays homage to it with flowers, scents, necklaces, incense, sandal powder, unguents, banners, canopies, garments, and vari- ous kinds of lamps—ghee lamps, oil lamps, lamps of scented oil, lamps of campaka oil, lamps of sumana oil, lamps of patala oil, lamps of varshika oil, and lamps of navamalika oil—the merit to be obtained by him is equally inestimable.

COMMENTARY Lamps of campaka oil . . . lamps of nava- malika oil. These are votive lights which use scented oil taken from highly fragrant flowers. Up to this point, the Buddha has commented on the greatness and the wondrous merits of the Lotus Sutra as a whole, and from now on he refers specifically to the merits described in this chapter, “The Former Lives of the Bodhisattva Medicine King.” He emphasizes the merits of receiving and keeping network and there are virtually no bridges across them, will this chapter because the teachings cannot be brought to see how essential ferries are. Seeing these large rivers also life unless practiced, and this chapter extols primarily the makes it easy to comprehend the idea of “the other shore holiness that one displays in one’s personal practice of the of enlightenment.” teachings of the Lotus Sutra. “Merchant venturers who gain the sea” means traders. Therefore, we should on no account interpret his state- One may wonder why traders would be so appreciative of ment as urging us to receive and keep this chapter alone. a sea route. The reason is that land travel in India is a series Such a shallow interpretation often produces self-righteous of unimaginable hardships—intense summer heat, empty faith. We cannot make this mistake if we devote ourselves waterless wastelands, and rugged mountains infested with to reading the sutra very carefully and deeply. beasts and poisonous snakes. A reader aware of these cir- For example, we will later read that the buddhas say, cumstances may feel great poignancy on reading this sono- “Excellent, excellent! Good son! You have been able to rous passage. receive and keep, read, recite, and ponder this sutra in the This passage in the Lotus Sutra is well known as the Dharma of Shakyamuni Buddha and to expound it to others.” “benefits of the twelve similes,” which explain the benefits The buddhas call our special attention to the importance conferred by the Lotus Sutra. When we carefully exam- of receiving and keeping, reading, reciting, and pondering ine each one, we realize that it does not merely extol the this sutra, which belongs to Shakyamuni’s Dharma, and of benefits of the sutra. The phrase “is able to unloose all preaching it to others without forgetting that this chapter the bonds of birth and death” has an especially impor- is part of the Dharma. tant meaning. Consequently, we always must receive and keep the “Birth and death” here refers to transmigration through Lotus Sutra in its entirety as representing the whole of the repeated cycle of birth and death. “The bonds of birth and the Buddha Dharma. This is especially necessary for us to death” means the snare of the sufferings of transmigration. remember when reading chapter 25, “The All-Sidedness of However, once people know the Lotus Sutra, which is the Bodhisattva Regarder of the Cries of the World,” when the quintessence of the Buddha’s teachings, and receive and I will reiterate this caution. keep it, they can free themselves from those sufferings. In To be continued short, they can attain buddhahood. In terms of daily life, this means that we can become In this series, passages in the TEXT sections are quoted free and attain true peace of mind, unperturbed by any of from The Threefold Lotus Sutra, Tokyo: Kosei Publishing the changes around us. Company, 1975, with slight revisions. The diacritical marks Being “able to unloose all the bonds of birth and death” originally used for several Sanskrit terms in the TEXT sec- is truly wonderful. tions are omitted here for easier reading.

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