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Air Quality Assessment and Management: a Practical Guide/Owen Harrop P

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Air Quality Assessment and Management: a Practical Guide/Owen Harrop P Air Quality Assessment and Management Other books in Clay’s Library of Health and the Environment: E Coli: Environmental Health Issues of VTEC 0157—Sharon Parry and Stephen Palmer 0415235952 Environmental Health and Housing—Jill Stewart 041525129X Also available from Spon Press: Air Pollution—Jeremy Colls 0419206507 Clay’s Handbook of Environmental Health 18th Edition—edited by W.H.Bassett 0419229604 Decision-making in Environmental Health—edited by C.Corvalán, D. Briggs and G.Zielhuis 0419259406 HB, 0419259503 PB Environmental Health Procedures 5th Edition—W.H.Bassett 0419229701 Groundwater Quality Monitoring—S. Foster, P.Chilton and R.Helmer 0419258809 HB, 0419258906 PB Legal Competence in Environmental Health—Terence Moran 0419230009 Monitoring Bathing Waters—edited by Jamie Bartram and Gareth Rees 0419243704 HB, 0419243801 PB Statistical Methods in Environmental Health—J.Pearson and A.Turton 0412484501 Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water—edited by Ingrid Chorus and Jamie Bartram 0419239308 Upgrading Water Treatment Plants— Glen Wagner and Renato Pinheiro 0419260404 HB, 0419260501 PB Water Pollution Control—Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol 0419229108 Water Quality Assessments—Deborah Chapman 0419215905 HB, 0419216006 PB Water Quality Monitoring—Jamie Bartram and Richard Balance 0419223207 HB, 0419217304 PB Urban Traffic Pollution— D.Schwela and O.Zali 0419237208 Air Quality Assessment and Management A Practical Guide D.Owen Harrop London and New York First published 2002 by Spon Press 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Spon Press 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2002 D.Owen Harrop All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Publisher’s Note This book has been produced from camera-ready copy supplied by the author. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Harrop, Owen. Air quality assessment and management: a practical guide/Owen Harrop p. cm. —(Clay’s library of health and the environment) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Air—Pollution—Measurement. 2. Air quality—Measurement. 3. Air quality management. I. Title. II. Series. TD890.H37 2002 628.5’3–dc21 2001042024 ISBN 0-203-30263-X Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-34451-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-23411-5 (pbk) ISBN 0-415-23410-7 (hbk) Clay’s Library of Health and the Environment An increasing breadth and depth of knowledge is required to tackle the health threats of the environment in the 21st century, and to accommodate the increasing sophistication and globalisation of policies and practices. Clay’s Library of Health and the Environment provides a focus for the publication of leading-edge knowledge in this field, tackling broad and detailed issues. The flagship publication Clay’s Handbook of Environmental Health, now in its 18th edition, continues to serve environmental health officers and other professionals in over thirty countries. Series Editor: Bill Bassett: Honorary Fellow, School of Postgraduate Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, and formerly Director of Environmental Health and Housing, Exeter City Council, UK Editorial Board: Xavier Bonnefoy: Regional Adviser, European Centre for Environment and Health, World Health Organization, Bonn, Germany Don Boon: Director of Environmental Health and Trading Standards, London Borough of Croydon, UK David Chambers: Head of Law School, University of Greenwich, UK Michael Cooke: Environmental Health and Sustainable Development Consultant, UK, formerly Chief Executive of the CIEH Contents Preface xiii Dedication xiv Acknowledgements xv 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Air pollution—a concern 1 1.3 Book format 3 2 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES AND TYPES 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 Composition of the atmosphere 4 2.3 Air pollution sources 5 2.4 Types of pollutants and their sources 7 2.4.1 Carcinogenic pollutants 9 2.4.2 Carbon monoxide 10 2.4.3 Carbon dioxide 11 2.4.4 Lead 12 2.4.5 Nitrogen dioxide 13 2.4.6 Ozone 14 2.4.7 Particulates 16 2.4.8 Sulphur dioxide 17 2.4.9 Dioxins and furans 19 2.4.10 Other pollutants 21 2.5 Trends in air quality 23 2.5.1 Carbon monoxide 23 2.5.2 Lead 23 2.5.3 Nitrogen dioxide 23 2.5.4 Sulphur dioxide 24 2.5.5 Carbon dioxide 25 2.5.6 Ozone 25 2.6 Indoor air pollution 25 2.6.1 Smoking 29 vii 3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Human health 30 3.2.1 Smogs and air pollution episodes 30 3.2.2 Assessing health effects 34 3.2.3 Asthma 35 3.2.4 Health effects of specific air pollutants 35 3.3 Flora 41 3.4 Fauna 42 3.5 Ecosystems 43 3.6 Materials 43 3.7 Visibility (particle haze) 45 3.7.1 Visual range 46 3.8 Strategic air quality issues 46 3.8.1 Acid rain 46 3.8.2 Ozone depletion 48 3.8.3 Greenhouse effect 49 4 EMISSION INVENTORIES 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 The purpose of emission inventories 53 4.3 Atmospheric emission inventory initiatives 54 4.4 Types of emission release and sources 56 4.4.1 Industrial emissions 56 4.4.2 Domestic emissions 58 4.4.3 Agricultural emissions 59 4.4.4 Motor vehicle emissions 59 4.4.5 Aircraft emissions 61 4.5 Information requirements 61 4.6 Examples of national emission inventories 63 4.6.1 UK national atmospheric emissions inventory 63 4.6.2 European emission inventories 65 4.6.3 Canadian national emission inventory 66 4.6.4 US national emission inventory 67 4.7 Transboundary emissions 67 4.7.1 Terrestrial 67 4.7.2 Marine 69 4.8 Pollution emission trends 70 viii 4.9 Exercise 73 5 AIR POLLUTION MONITORING 74 5.1 Introduction 74 5.2 Forms of monitoring 74 5.3 Site selection 74 5.4 Monitoring strategies 75 5.5 Monitoring standards and accreditation 77 5.6 Monitoring methods and techniques 77 5.6.1 Methods of measurement 77 5.6.2 Measurement techniques 81 5.6.3 Particulate measurement 82 5.6.4 Carbon monoxide 86 5.6.5 Sulphur dioxide 86 5.6.6 Oxides of nitrogen 87 5.6.7 Ozone 87 5.6.8 Volatile organic compounds 87 5.6.9 Lead 88 5.7 Odour measurement 88 5.8 Other equipment 89 5.9 Monitoring networks 89 5.9.1 GEMS 89 5.9.2 National and municipal air quality monitoring networks 93 5.10 Source monitoring 97 5.10.1 Point source monitoring 97 5.10.2 Mobile sources 99 6 IMPACT PREDICTION 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Mechanisms for dispersion 102 6.2.1 Wind speed and direction 103 6.2.2 Atmospheric turbulence 104 6.2.3 Temperature inversions 105 6.2.4 Topography 106 6.2.5 Plume formation 107 6.3 Air dispersion modelling 108 6.3.1 What is a model? 110 6.4 Model characteristics 111 6.4.1 Time and space scales 111 ix 6.4.2 Frame of reference 112 6.4.3 Pollutants and reaction mechanisms 112 6.4.4 Treatment of turbulence 112 6.4.5 Topography 112 6.4.6 Plume additivity (treatment of multiple sources) 112 6.4.7 Model accuracy and limitations 112 6.5 Data requirements 114 6.6 Air dispersion modelling procedures 114 6.7 Stack height determination 115 6.8 Plume rise 117 6.9 Gaussian modelling 118 6.9.1 Extrapolating time average concentrations 120 6.10 Box models 120 6.11 Linear models 121 6.12 Physical models 121 6.13 Types of air dispersion models 121 6.14 Exercise 123 7 IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE AND LEGISLATION 126 7.1 Introduction 126 7.2 Impact significance 126 7.2.1 EU air quality standards 127 7.2.2 World Health Organisation air quality guidelines 129 7.2.3 National air quality standards 131 7.2.4 Derived air quality standards 133 7.3 Air pollution indices 134 7.4 Risk assessment 137 7.5 Nuisance 140 7.5.1 Particulates 140 7.5.2 Odour 141 7.5.3 Visibility 145 7.6 Flora 146 7.7 Indoor air pollution 147 7.8 Pollution episodes 147 7.9 Air pollution legislation 148 7.9.1 Greenhouse gases 149 7.9.2 Ozone layer 149 7.9.3 International conventions 150 x 7.9.4 European Union 151 7.9.5 World Health Organisation 153 7.10 National air pollution control regimes 153 7.10.1 UK air pollution control regime 153 7.10.2 US air pollution control regime 155 7.10.3 Japanese air pollution control regime 156 7.10.4 Singaporean air pollution control regime 156 7.10.5 People’s Republic of China legislative system 156 7.11 Public awareness 157 8 MITIGATION, CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT 159 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 What is mitigation and control? 159 8.3 Control of fugitive emissions 159 8.3.1 Fugitive dust control 160 8.3.2 Fugitive gaseous control 161 8.3.3 Visual inspections 162 8.4 Techniques for the control of gaseous emissions 163 8.4.1 General abatement techniques 163 8.4.2 Control of oxides of nitrogen 168 8.4.3 Control of sulphur dioxide 168 8.4.4 Odour control 169 8.4.5 Control of dioxin emissions 170 8.5 Techniques for the control of participate emissions 171 8.5.1 Gravity settler 172 8.5.2 Cyclone 172 8.5.3 Fabric or bag filters 172 8.5.4 Electrostatic precipitators 173 8.5.5 Wet scrubber 174 8.5.6 Equipment selection 175 8.6 Control of emissions from agricultural practices 176 8.7 Flaring 176 8.8 Control of emissions from motor vehicles 177 8.9 Cost effectiveness 179 8.10 Air quality management 180 8.10.1 AQM process 180 8.10.2 Air quality
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