Online service design: A socio-technical perspective to engage an ageing population by Vikki du Preez Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Technology: Design in the Faculty of Informatics and Design at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology Supervisor: Professor Retha de la Harpe, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Co-Supervisor: Professor Satu Miettinen, University of Lapland, Finland Cape Town Revised version submitted November 2018 CPUT copyright information The dissertation/thesis may not be published either in part (in scholarly, scientific or technical journals), or as a whole (as a monograph), unless permission has been obtained from the University. DECLARATION I, Vikki du Preez, declare that the contents of this dissertation represent my own unaided work, and that the dissertation has not previously been submitted for academic examination towards any qualification. Furthermore, it represents my own opinions and not necessarily those of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Signed Date: 20 March 2018 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank: § My supervisors, Professor Retha De La Harpe (Cape Peninsula University of Technology) and Professor Satu Miettinen (University of Lapland) for their support and advice. § The amazing individuals who participated in the study and shared their stories, thoughts and experiences. § My husband Nick Eriksson for his support, interest and curiosity. § My colleague and friend Veronica Barnes, who walked the research path with me, and who kept my spirits up and my panic low. § My family and friends. The financial assistance of the University Research Fund, in providing a research sabbatical, is acknowledged. Opinions expressed in this thesis and the conclusions arrived at, are those of the author, and are not necessarily to be attributed to the CPUT University Research Fund. - 1 - ABSTRACT As online environments become more cost effective, allow for more personalisation and often offer faster solutions, numerous service providers have shifted priority to the development of online user interactions. Many perceive this trend as positive, and welcome services that can be accessed online, anywhere, anytime. However, not all members of society favour the shift to online services, and resistance to technology and online services have been documented among ageing individuals. In order to design user interactions for ageing users more effectively, it is imperative to understand the normative changes that impact ageing users’ interactions with online services. The exploration of user perception and experience links to both physical and emotional involvement - documenting reactions such as frustration, fear, joy and excitement in relation to online services. The study focuses on the exploration of perceived interaction barriers among South African ageing users, as well as those interactions already perceived as appealing, contributing to new theoretical insights and a description of the socio- technical context investigated in this study. The study is completed using a constructivist grounded theory method, with qualitative methods focused on user participation and co-design. In addition to the emerging substantive theory of Ageing User Decision-Determined Engagement (AUDDE), the study adds value to online service design practice by developing a deeper understanding of user perceptions and experiences, within a socio-technical context. Findings from the participatory research sessions informed a set of practical service design interaction guidelines, which can inform the design of more engaging online services for the ageing community. Methodologically the study explores the grounded theory method, within a design research framework, and establishes it as a suitable methodology to generate theory through design practice. Keywords: Ageing, Interface Design, Service Design, Social Actor, Online Services - 2 - GLOSSARY A list of terms and phrases and corresponding definitions, in relation to usage in this research project and dissertation: Term or Phrase Definition, or Theoretical Position Ageing population As defined by Population Europe an ageing population is defined as ‘a population in which the number of elderly (65+) is increasing relative to the number of 20-64 year olds.’ The concept is linked to life expectancy at birth, as the years an individual would live within a population if mortality rates are continuous. (Source: https://www.population-europe.eu/Library/Glossary.aspx) Double Dance of Agency Explored from the perspective of Rose and Jones (2005:31) the ‘double dance of agency’ refers to the model of agency between users (ageing individuals within the context of this project) and machines (online services within the context of this project): The model proposes that: “…that human and machine agency have different properties, but that the outcomes of their operation are emergent from the process of their interaction (rather than being deter- mined by either); and that these interactions take place under conditions that shape outcomes, but may also be transformed by them.“ (Source: Rose, J. and Jones, M. 2005. The Double Dance of Agency: A Socio-Theoretic Account of How Machines and Humans Interact. An International Journal on Communication, Information Technology and Work. 1(1): 19–37 Double Diamond The Design Council’s model for the design process, mapped into a double diamond shape with four sectors, or categories: Discover, Define, Develop and Deliver. Each category moves the design process from divergent to convergent thinking and decision-making. (Source:http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/introducing-design-methods) Development Development, as explored in this project, refers to the stages of conceptualisation within the design process, to reach proposed (visualised) design solutions. It does not refer to implementation, or to the development of software solutions. Gerontology The scientific field of study that investigates the biological, psychological, and sociological experiences associated with aging. Interaction Moment The interaction space refers to the interaction (agency) of a user, taking into account their personal and situational context and an online service. An interaction moment, as proposed in this project, refers to the emotional and psychological reaction as experienced in the moment of interaction (with an online service touch point) Online services The definition of online services is taken from the work by Crossland, Irving, Glaser, Pollock, Prodromu, Sitaker, and Villa (2008) who defines it as: “An online service, also known under the title of Software as a Service - 3 - (SaaS), is a service provided by a software application running online and making its facilities available to users over the Internet via an interface (be that HTML presented by a web-browser such as Firefox, via a web-API or by any other means). With an online-service, in contrast to a traditional software application, users no longer need to ‘possess’ (own or license) the software to use it. Instead they can simply interact via a standard client (such as web-browser) and pay, where they do pay, for use of the ‘service’ rather than for ‘owning’ (or licensing) the application itself.” (Source: http://opendefinition.org/ossd/) Participant Context Participant context refers to the unique experiences and reactions that users and participants have, grounded in their personal, cultural and professional contexts. The consideration of these experiences and reactions within the process aims to establish an approach, with greater empathy, to yield more revealing research results. Service Design As defined by the Service Design Network (2014): “Service design is the activity of planning and organizing people, infrastructure, communication and material components of a service in order to improve its quality and the interaction between service provider and customers. The purpose of service design methodologies is to design according to the needs of customers or participants, so that the service is user-friendly, competitive and relevant to the customers” (Source: http://www.service-design-network.org/intro/) Sociotechnical Systems Sociotechnical system (STS) refers to an approach within organizational structures that acknowledges and explores the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. Within this project STS is used to explore the complex nature of interaction between users and technology. The aim is to understand the human-technology relationship in a more holistic manner, and aid in the exploration of the evolving role of the user within the interaction. Social Actor Drawn from King and Lamb’s (2003:197) description of users as individuals who use ICT, extensive or limitedly in: “multiple applications, in various roles, and as part of their efforts to produce goods and services while interacting with a variety of other people, and often in multiple social contexts.” By considering the user as a social actor, the larger context of an individual’s actions, behaviours and responses as part of a social entity becomes relevant. This enables us to “more accurately portray the complex and multiple roles that people fulfil while adopting, adapting, and using information systems.” (Source: Lamb, R. and Kling, R. 2003. Reconceptualizing Users as Social Actors in Information Systems Research. MIS Quarterly. 27 (2): 197–236) Touchpoints As a user moves through a service (including online services), they connect in