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Annual Business Meeting Human Rights and the Environment 1 Reference Paper APF 12 The 12th Annual Meeting of the Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions Sydney, Australia, 24-27 September 2007 1 This Reference Paper was originally provided to the Advisory Council of Jurists (ACJ) as background for its consideration of the reference on human rights and the environment. The current paper has been supplemented by comments from the Jurists. The paper was prepared by the Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions (APF) Secretariat, in particular, staff and interns: Stephen Clark, Kieren Fitzpatrick, Greg Heesom, Sorcha O’Carroll and Christina Trahanas. Contents Preface 7 The Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions ............................................... 7 The Advisory Council of Jurists................................................................................................ 7 Terms of Reference on Human Rights and the Environment .................................................. 7 Structure of the Paper .............................................................................................................. 9 PART 1 - CONSIDERATION OF ISSUES IN THE TERMS OF REFERENCE 10 Section 1 – The Development of International Environmental Law 11 International Environmental Law ~ From 1800 to 1972 ......................................................... 11 International Environmental Law ~ From 1972 to 2007 ......................................................... 12 Regional Environmental Developments ~ Asia-Pacific Region ............................................. 19 Regional Environmental Developments ~ Europe ................................................................. 19 Section 2 – Sources of International Law 22 Section 3 - Whether a Right to an Environment of a Particular Quality Exists 25 A Right to Environment in International Human Rights Conventions .................................... 25 A Right to Environment in Regional Human Rights Conventions .......................................... 25 The African Charter........................................................................................................... 25 The Protocol of San Salvador ........................................................................................... 26 Other Regional Instruments .............................................................................................. 26 Environmental Protection in International Humanitarian Law ................................................ 26 A Right to Environment Derived from Custom ....................................................................... 28 General Principles of Law ...................................................................................................... 31 A Right to Environment Derived from Judicial Decisions.................................................. 31 A Right to Environment in the Writing of Publicists........................................................... 32 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 33 Section 4 – Use of Existing Rights to Address Environmental Harms 35 The Right to Life..................................................................................................................... 35 The Right to Health ................................................................................................................ 35 Privacy and Family Life .......................................................................................................... 37 Noise Pollution .................................................................................................................. 38 Industrial Pollution............................................................................................................. 38 Property.................................................................................................................................. 39 Cultural Rights........................................................................................................................ 40 Discrimination......................................................................................................................... 42 Indigenous Peoples’ Rights.................................................................................................... 43 Self-Determination and State Sovereignty............................................................................. 44 Refugee Protections............................................................................................................... 45 Procedural Rights................................................................................................................... 46 Access to Information........................................................................................................ 46 Access to Information in International Environmental Law.......................................... 47 Access to Information in Regional Environmental Instruments ................................... 49 Participation in Decision-Making....................................................................................... 50 Access to Justice .............................................................................................................. 51 Section 5 – Use of the Right to Life to Address Environmental Harms 53 - ii - The Right to Life in Human Rights Treaties ........................................................................... 53 Interpretation of the Right to Life............................................................................................ 53 Positive Obligations to Protect the Right to Life..................................................................... 55 Obligation to Introduce Legislation or Other Measures .................................................... 56 Obligations to Investigate and Provide Remedies ............................................................ 57 Consideration of the Right to Life and the Environment ........................................................ 58 The UN Human Rights Committee ................................................................................... 58 The European Court of Human Rights.............................................................................. 59 The Inter-American Court and Commission...................................................................... 61 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 62 Section 6 – State Responsibility 63 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 63 Basic Statement of State Responsibility ................................................................................ 63 What Is an Internationally Wrongful Act?.......................................................................... 63 When Is an Act Attributable to a State? ............................................................................ 64 Organs of the State ........................................................................................................... 64 Ultra Vires Activities ..................................................................................................... 65 Private Actors in Public Roles ................................................................................................ 66 State-Owned Or Controlled Companies? .............................................................................. 66 Private Actors Undertaking Public Functions......................................................................... 66 ‘Effective Control’ .............................................................................................................. 67 Private Actors Undertaking Private Functions ....................................................................... 69 General Principles............................................................................................................. 69 Specific Requirements ...................................................................................................... 70 Obligation to Introduce Legislation or Other Measures .................................................... 70 Obligations to Investigate and Provide Remedies ............................................................ 71 Circumstances in Which Obligations Arise ....................................................................... 71 Qualifications on the Obligations of States ....................................................................... 72 Section 7 - Non-State Actors 73 International Human Rights Instruments................................................................................ 73 Precedents for Holding Private Actors Liable for Human Rights Violations........................... 73 Environmental Treaties That Have Attempted to Introduce Corporate Accountability .......... 74 Recent Efforts to Create Specific Instruments for Corporate Accountability ......................... 74 Alternative Mechanisms ......................................................................................................... 76 Alien Tort Claims Act (United States of America) ............................................................. 76 Summary ...............................................................................................................................
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