This dissertation has been 64—7022 microfilmed exactly as received

HENRY, Oscar Mervine, 1928- THE DOCTRINE OF AFFECTIONS IN SELECTED SOLO CANTATAS OF ALESSANDRO SCARLATTI.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1963 Music

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by

Oscar Mervine Henry

1964 THE' DOOTRINE OP AFFECTIONS IN SELECTED SOLO CANTATAS OF ALESSANDRO SCARLATTI

DISSERTATION Presented In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

by Oscar Mervine Henry, A.B., A.M. The Ohio State University 1965

Approved by

Adviser School of Music Cfttppt

iV AOKNOWÏiBDGBMENTS

I express sincere thanks and gratitude to certain

persons who have helped me in various ways by guiding me

in bringing this project to its present sta&e; Professor

Herbert Livingston, Head of the Department of Music History

and Literature; Dr. Professor Herman Phelps, Chairman of

Graduate Studies Program in Music; Professor Everett Kircher,

Professor of Educational Philosophy, and Dr. Earl Anderson

of the College of Education, all of The Ohio State Univer­

sity. A special thanks is expressed to Dr. Charles H.

Wesley, President of Central State College at Wilberforce,

Ohio and to the trustees of that college who permitted me

to undertake a program of study at the Ohio State Universi­

ty in addition to carrying a full teaching load at Central

State College. I want to express my thanks to my wife

Jeanne and to my infant daughter Emily, to my father,

William R. Henry, and to my latermother Emily Henry for

the encouragement given me and the sacrifices that they made for me as I worked.

Finally, I express my thanks to members of the

Division of Fine Arts and of the faculty of Central State

College for the assistance that they have given me in bringing this project to a close. Among these are Dr. Anna M. Terry,

Miss Mollie Dunlap, Mrs. Essie K. Payne, Dr. Carleton L. Lee, and Dr. Lewis A. Jackson, Vice-President of Academic Affairs. iii TABLE OP COETEUTS Page ACKNOWLEDGBMEKTS...... ill LIST OF FIGURES , ...... v

Chapter I. lUTRODUOTION...... 1 II. ALESSAUDEO SCARLATTI ; THE MAN AMD HIS MUSIC 11 III. HISTORY OP THE BAROQUE CANTATA DA CAMERA . . 37 Origins of the Chamber Cantata Schools and Composers before Scarlatti . The Neopolitan School IV. INFLUENCES OF RATIONALISM...... 91 Rene Descartes Cartesian Rationalism Rationalism and the Passions The Daoirine of Affections 5 Speculation The Doctrine of Affections: Application V. ANALYSIS OF SELECTED SOLO CANTATAS OF ALESSANDRO SCARLATTI ...... 162 Textual Analysis Musical Characteristics: Forms Scarlatti's Harmonic, Melodic, and Rhythmic Styles Scarlatti's Melodic, Harmonic, and Rhythmic Devices VI. CONCLUSIONS...... 377 APPENDIX ...... 387 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 404

iv LIST OP PIGUEES Pig. Page 1 Prom Andate £ mlel sosplrl ...... 192 2 Prom Amiol s£ vlnto ...... 194 3 Prom nhiusa tra fosche bende ...... 194 4 Prom Patto d*am'or...... 195 5 Prom Anda'iie o mlel sosplrl( 1713)...... 196 6 Prom Lasola dl torment arm! ...... 199 7 Prom nhi'usa tra fosche...... 205 8 Prom Ohlusa tra fosche ...... 205 9 Prom Amlol vlnto ...... 228 10 Prom Amlci se ...... 229 11 Prom Amiol ae vlnto...... 229 12 Prom Amiol se vlnto...... 230 13 Prom Amlcl 36 vlnto . 231 14 Prom Amiol £?.. vlnto...... 231 15 Prom ______Amlcl sevlnto...... 232 16 Prom Amo ma I'ldol m l o ...... 233 17 Prom Da Che Tlrsl...... 235 18 Prom Fllle altera e spletata...... 237 19 Prom pare selve gradlte...... 238 20 Prom pare selve gradite...... 238 21 Prom Andata 0 mlel sosplrl ...... 241 22 Prom Andate ô mlel sosplrl (1712)...... 241 23 Prom Andate £ miel sosplrl (1712)...... 243 24 Prom Andate £ mlel sosplrl...... 245 25 Prom Andate £ mlel sosplrl...... 246 26 Prom La dove"a mergelllne...... 247 27 Eeso.: bTons of Various Augmented and Dll ilshed Phords...... 253 28 Prom Lasola dl tormentarml ...... 266 29 Prom Lasola dl tormentarml ...... 267 30 Prom Amlcl se vinto...... 279 31 Prom Am£ ma I'ldol ...... 281 32 Prom Da Che Tlrsl ...... 283 33 Prom l^llT""adoraia ah ben ...... 286 34 Prom La belta...... 288 35 Prom lA belta...... 288 36 Prom Luml Che In fronts...... 289 37 Prom "SI Che v ^ d o r o " ...... 293 38 Prom "Se non v'aoooglle"...... 294 39 Prom "In fin che un d l " ...... 294 40 Prom "SI ben mlo si anoor"...... 295 41 Prom Amlcl se vlnto...... 296 42 Prom Amd ma"?'idol ...... 296 List of Figures (cout'd.) Pig. Page 43 Prom Î Andate o miei sospiri (1713) 44 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 45 Prom Amici se v i n t o ...... 299 46 - . Prom Lumi Che in Trente ...... 47 Prom iiumi clie in fronce ...... 48 Prom Lascia di tormentarmi . . . . 49 From Lei prati ...... 50 Prom Lascia"dr tormentarmi...... 51 Prom Lascia di tormentarmi. , . . . 52 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 53 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 54 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 311 55 Prom Amici se vlnto ...... 56 Prom imici se vinto ...... 57 From Amici se vinto ...... 58 Prom Amici se vlnto ...... 59 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 315 60 Prom Amici se vinto...... 315 61 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 316 62 Prom Amici se ^ n t o ...... 317 63 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 64 Prom Amici se vinto ...... 65 Prom imici se vinto...... 320 66 Prom A1 fin, al fin ...... 67 Prom n n n : n TÏ5 ...... 321 68 Prom Amo ma l^doimio ...... 69 Prom pilie adorata e spietata , ...... 322 70 Prom Mitilde alma mia ...... 323 71 Prom Miiilde alma mia ...... 72 Prom ïïlle adorata eh ben ...... 324 73 Prom Pilie adorata ah ben ...... 74 Prom Patto d'amor ...... 75 Prom Go lui che fiso ...... 76 Prom Go lui che fiso ...... 325 77 Prom Ghiusa tr fosche ...... 325 78 Prom Amo ma l*idol ...... 325 79 Prom Quando amor ...... 330 80 Prom Quando amor ...... 333 81 Prom Quando amor ...... 82 Prom Quando amor ...... 335 83 Prom 0 mai daT"cielo ...... 84 Prom Quando amor ...... 337 85 Prom Quando amor ...... 86 Prom Quando amor ...... 87 Prom Quando amor ...... 88 Prom Quando amor ......

vl List of Figures (coat'd.) Fig. Page 89 Prom Lmga stagioado ...... 346 90 Prom Lascia di tormentarmi ...... ' 3^7 91 Prom Ai fin, al iln . . " T ...... 351 92 Prom ■Amici se vlnto...... 363 93 Prom ■toiel se vinto...... 364 94 Prom Àn'dat'p. £ miei sosniri ...... 365 95 Prom Mitllde""aima mia...... 366 96 Prom Lumi che in f r o n t s ...... 367 97 Prom Lumi one In j r o n t e ...... 368 98 Prom Lumi che in f r o n t e ...... 368 99 Prom ■told se vinto...... 369 100 Prom toi cl se vlnto...... 370 101 Prom ■told se vlnto...... 371 102 Prom ■Andate o mi'eY sosplrl...... 372 103 Prom se vinto...... 372 104 PronL. 374 105 Prom Andate o miei sosplrl (1713)...... 375

vli CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION 1 2 Though Manfred Buhofzer and Glen Haydon treat the

subject of expression in Baroque music from divergent points

of view, they are in agreement on the existence and validity

of the Doctrine of Affections, the derivative of Rationalism, which was primarily concerned with human passions and their artistic expression. Both recognized the concern which

Baroque musicians, theorists, and performers displayed in devising figures and formulae designed to amplify human passions. Both men point to the fact that Baroque compesers in poesia per musica placed new emphasis on words and rationalized techniques to achieve musical expressio verborum.^

Speculative interest in human passions is at least as old as Aristotle. By passions, Aristotle meant appetite, anger, fear,and varying degrees of pleasure and pain. Still later, the Stoics defined passion as an unnatural, violent, irrational movement of man's soul. Others from ancient

^Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York: Norton, 1947), PP. 389-3901 --- 2 Glen Haydon, "On Problem of Expression in Baroque Music," Journal of the American Musicological Society, (Spring, 1950), pp. 113-119. ^Bukofzer, op.cit.. p. 4; Haydon, op.cit.. p. 113.

1 Greece "wrcte on the subject. Cicero, Seneca, and Plotinus

made references to human passions as states of the body

which may be attached to definite ideas of the soul.

Speculative interest continued until the time of Rene

Descartes who attempted to write, for his patron, Queen

Christina of Sweden, a definitive work on the passions of

the soul,

Descartes’ Passion sur I ’ame is not only a commentary

on the several passions, but it is also a landmark in the A areas of aesthetics and psychology. Among other things,

the book contains a list of seven basic passions: love, joy,

hate, sadness, wonder, desire, and despair. Descartes

recommended that figures and formulae developed from materials

of music were ideal fbr the expression of passions in the same

way that figures of speech were useful to passionate orators.^

Following the model of Descartes and in compliance with the

challenge of Rationalism, musicians began to invent and codify

musical figures in agreement with Cartesian ideals. Melodic

and rhythmic figures, tempos, and meters were recommended 6 for the expression of specific passions; major harmonies

^Rene Descartes, Passion sur I ’ame (Paris: 1659). 5 . Oomnendlum of Musick. translated by A Person of Honour, (London: 165^), p. 1.

fe.g., Thomas Morley, A Plaine and Basie Introduction to Musick (London: 1597); repriniecL by Fellowes, (ionàon: T^3?), quoted in Haydon, loo, cit.. pi 118. were recommended to express happy effects and minor harmonies

to express sad effects;^ while recitative and aria forms were developed and invented to transmit the active and reflective parts of dramatic texts. General warnings were

sounded such as the one which cautioned composers not to

talk of heaven and to point their music downward as if 8 pointing to hell.

The bel canto style of singing which included cantar.

sodo. cantar Eomano. and cantar d'affetto were developed by seventeenth century Italians interested in the expressive renditions of texts. Varying shades of dynamics were mentioned by Christoph Bernhard as a means of heightening Q the various affections in music. Others spoke of vocal ornaments like the anticipatione della syllaba and the cercare della nota ardiere to express joy and anger.

Though the men of the seventeenth century initiated the work which led to speculative treatises on musical expression, the most definitive refinements of musical figures designed to express specific passions, and the most valuable compendiums, come from music theorists and writers

^Christoph Bernhard, Yon der Singekunst. 1619, quoted in Mûller-Blattau, Die Kompositionlehre (Zurich: 1926), pp. 32-37. Q Morley, quoted in Haydon, o£. cit.. p. 118.

^Bernhard, o^. cit., p. 30-37.

^^B. G. Boni, ^ praestansia musicae (Florence: 1647), p. 19. of the eighteenth century like Rameau, Mattheson, Schiebe,

Quantz, and Geminiani, These men will be quoted at length in delineating problems involving the Doctrine of Affections in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti.

The above,men referred to the word passion as a state of mind resulting from some external influence or stimulus.

The term is closely associated with the mental states or human feelings as defined by Descartes. These theorists of the doctrine sought to represent discrete classified and stereotyped human feelings in concrete musical figures.

They felt that such musical representation could contribute immeasurably to the expression of human passions. This is the basis of Baroque tkough^ on imitation and expression of shades of human feeling and the core of Baroque musical aesthetics.

More recently, remarks have been made interpreting the Doctrine of Affections and the subject of expression in Baroque music in most interesting ways. Manfred Bukofzer says.

Peelings were classified and stereotyped in a set of so-called affections, each representing a mental state which vras . . . static. It was the business of the composer to make the affections of the music correspond to that of the words. According to the lucid rationalism of the time, the composer had at his disposal a set of musical figures which were pigeonholed like the affections themselves and were designed to represent these affections in music.11

11 Bukofzer, op. cit., pp. 4-5- Bukofzer here implies that musical figures devised under the stimulation of Rationalism required the strictest observance of composers who expected to achieve expressive results. He later states that musical figures were devised as a "guide to invention" of affective music and as an aid to the composer in his selection of appropriate musical devices 12 to express shades of feelings, emotions, and passions,

Bukofzer gives one the feeling that such doctrinaire solutions properly operate in a rigid framework and that they achieve the designed results ipso facto. If this was his belief, he ignored the subjective element that is requisite in the expressive processes of composing and performing music,

Glen Haydon conceded the necessity of the rational processes and products derived from them in achieving expressio verborum, but he insists that essentially irrational processes and products are vital in creating expressive renditions of texts in dramatic music. He accuses Bukofzer of overstatement, Haydon objects to the assumption that musical figures conceived in a rationalized one-dimensional framework are in themselves adequately expressive. To replace this one-dimensional concept, barren of the human element of intuition, Haydon recommends

^%bid,, p, 388-389. a ■two-dimensional concept consisting of a rational element

and an irrational element. The second dimension, he states

in a very succinct way, emanates from the emotional 1 ^ tendencies inherent in man's intuitional nature.

The term emotion applies to the irrational element in art in contradistinction to the rational or intellectual element. In general it refers to an intuitive perception of an art work as distinguished from a rational perception, which latter tends to emphasize formal rather than expressive values. The situation is complicated by the fact that intellectual perceptions are usually accompanied by emotional overtones, and further by the fact that the line of demarcation between intellectual and intuitive perceptions is not clear-cut.^^

As an irrational element, emotion derives from human

feelings. Stated differently, Haydon recognizes the objective element and its value in solutions to musical problems but insists iTisely that artistic and thoroughly expressive solutions bear- the influence of irrational subjectivity based on human emotions. The ideal for him

seems to be an objective-subjective approach.

The views of these two scholars suggest the direction that this research takes ifith respect to a selected group"of solo cantatas by Alessandro Scarlatti.

13 Haydon, o^. cit.. p. 113. 1A Ibid.. p. 113. The primary aim of this research is to determine whether the

methods of composing music adopted by Alessandro Scarlatti

in these cantatas reflect reliance on stereotype figures and

formulae to achieve expressiveness in his compositions or

whether he used the recommendations and techniques of others

under the influence of the rationalists merely as points of

departure.

Edward J. Dent's biography of Alessandro Scarlatti,

which remains today the most complete study of the composer,

concludes with a list of works containing citations of well

over four hundred solo cantatas. With this information in 16 hand microfilm copies of the canthtas to be used in this research were procured from the British Museum, Paris

Conservatoire, and the Bologna Accadamie Pilharmonica.

Chosen at random, except where noted, the sampling used in > this dissertation is given below.

The thirty cantatas chosen for this research seem varied enough from the compositional and textual points of view to furnish a significant sample of the techniques for musical expression used by Scarlatti, These works represent music composed in several different periods of the composer’s

^^Edward J. Dent, Alessandra Scarlatti ; The Man and His Music (London: Arnold, 1905). 16 A more complete listing of Scarlatti's output is included in a Yale University dissertation by Edwin Hanley. This dissertation was unavailable for use in the present study. SAMPLING OF SCARLATTI'S SOLO CANTATAS

CANTATA TITLE VOICE DATE HOLDING LIBRARY REFERENCE PA

Al fin, al fin S 1718 BM(Add. 14165 31508) 215 (Dent) Amiol s'e vinto S ND BM(Add. 34056) 215 (Lent) Amo ml'idol mio A 1702 BM(Add. 14227) 215 (Dent) Andate o miell? S 1712 BM(Add. 14220) 215 (Dent) Andate o miei S 1713 BM(Add. 14220) 215 (Dent) Bel Prati S ND BM(Add. 315122 215 (Dent) Bella dung.ue S ND BM(Add. 51508 ) 216 (Dent) Care selve gradite S ND BM(Add. 31905) 216 (Dent) Chiusa tra fosche S ND •BM(Add. 14164) 216 (Dent) Olori mia cara S ND BM(Add. 31508) 217 (Dent) Glori vezzosa A ND BM(14212 Add.) 217 (Dent) Co lui che fiso A 1696 BM(Add. 14165) 217 (Dent) Con trasparento 8 1702 BM(Add. 14225) 217 (Dent) Da che Tirsi S ND BM(Add. 14220) 217 (Dent) Del mi£ seno 8 ND BM(Add. 14165) 217 (Dent)

"^Though many poets of Poesla per musica remained anonymous the text for Andate o miei sosplrl was written by Alessandra Scarlatti according to his biographerTfent. op. cit.. p. 140-145. The two settings of this peem were especially selected for the sampling because of the extremes in musical setting mentioned by Dent with regard to Scarlatti's chromatic style. CO

« ■ SAMPLIÏTG OP CANTATAS (continued)

CANTATA TITLE VOICE DATE HOLDING LIBRARY HEPERENCE PA

Entr.0 romlto S ND BM(Add. 3 1 5 0 9 ) 218 (Dent) I^tto d'amor S ND BM(Add. 3 1 5 1 0 ) 218 (Dent) Pilli adorato ah ben S ND BM(Add. 3 1 5 1 0 ) 218 (Dent) Pi111 adorata e speltata s ND BK(Add. 3 1 5 1 0 ) 218 (Dent) PI111 adorata e cara s ND BM(Add. 31510 218 (Dent) lo che del core A ND BM(Add. 29249) 219 (Dent) La Belta S 1701 BM(Add. 2 9 2 4 9) 220 {Dent) L'armi crudeli s ND BM(Add. 2 9 2 4 9) 220 (Dent) Lascia di tormentarmi s 1709 BM(Add. 29249-3 1 5 0 7 ) 220 (Dent) Lumi che in fronts s 1703 BM(Add. 2 9 2 4 9) 221 (Dent) LunKO sta^inodo s 1706 BM(Add. 2 9 2 4 9) 221 (Dent) M.tilde alma mia s 1720 Paris Conservatoire 221 (Dent) 0 mai dal oielo s ND Paris Conservatoire 222 (Dent) Quando amor s ND 1 Bologna Acoademia 224 (Dent) Pilarmonica X Viddi un giomo s ND Paris Conservatoire 226 (Dent)

VO 10

life. If definite musical and textual patterns can be

discerned in the course of the analysis, inferences may be drawn not only about the music of Scarlatti but also about the musical culture of the age in which he lived.

The procedure of analysis for this research involves examination of the textual and musical components. The texts contain the clues used in identifying the governing passions of each cantata. Analysis of the musical style reveals the relationship of special musical procedures and devices to the expression of the governing passion of the cantata. This procedure provides a basis for comparing the recommendations of theorists of the Doctrine of Affections with AJLessandro Scarlatti’s solutions to expressive problems.

As a background to the above, this document includes a biographical review of the personal life and professional activities of Alessandro Scarlatti, a review of the history and development of the cantata da camera from Monteverdi to Scarlatti, and a review of Rationalism and the Doctrine of Affections, In addition to the musical examples found in the text, the complete score of the 1712 version of Andate

£ miei sosniri is found in Appendix A, CHAPTER II

ALESSANDRO SCARLATTI; THE MAN AND HIS MHSIC

Edward Dent, in his 'biographical study of Scarlatti,

failed to establish the correct date of the composer's

birth.^ Prom the scant information found on his

tombstone, the date of his birth was given as I6 5 8 , his age as sixty-six years upon his death in 1725. Similar p deductions were made by Francois Fetis, and repeated by

others in the earlier part of the century who stated that

Scarlatti was born in I658 or 1659. More recently, Paulo

Dotto found Scarlatti's baptismal papers and thus established the date and place of his birth as May 2, 1660, in the city of Palermo. This information is summarized in an article which clearly establishes the Scarlatti lineage and is accompanied by a photographic reproduction of the marriage certificate of Alessandro Scarlatti's mother,

Eleanors Damato, and father, Pietro Soarlata (the name is spelled variously Scarlata, Sgarlata, and Scarlatti in the several dialects)Eleanora Scarlata bore eight children.

^Edward J. Dent, Aless^dro Scarlâtti: His Life and Works (London: Arnold. 1904). passim. 2 Francois Fetis, Biographie Universelle des Musiciens (Paris: Didot Freres, Fils et cie, 1870), p. 427. ^Octavio Tiby, "La famiglia Scarlatti," Joutai of Renaissance and Baroque Music. Vol. X (June, 1947), pp. 275" 2 9 0. 11 12

of ■whom little is laio'wa. Pour of them became performing

musicians: Anna Maria a singer; Tommasco a singer;

Francesco a violinist; and Alessandra a keyboard performer.

Orloff conjectures that Pietro was a musician and assumed

that this musical family was first trained by the father.

Actually, little is kno'wr. of Alessandro Scarlatti's earliest

training, but it has be- a said that he studied with Carissimi,

Legrenzi, and Stradella.^

When only eighteen, Scarlatti married Antonia g Anzalone in the church of Santa Andrea della Pratte, a fact

verified by Ulisse Prota-G-uirlo in 1925, who discovered their 7 marriage certificate. Ten children resulted from this

marriage, and Scarlatti frequently referred to his "numéroso

famiglia" in his attempts to obtain from his patrons addition- g al economic assistance.

Little is kncwn of Scarlatti's professional activities

until the year 1679 when records show that he was" in Rome * directing his first opera, G-li equivoci nel sembiante. from

^Gregorie Orloff, L 'histoire de 3^ musique en Italie. Vol. I (Paris: Lufat et 0hasscrian,"T822), p. 243. c Eugene Schmitz, Geschichte der Weltlischen Solokanta&e (Leipzig: Brietkopf and HartelJ. 1935),~pl 14ë.

^Lent, o£. oit., p. 69. 7 E. J. Lent, "îTew Light on the Scarlatti Family," Musical Times, (November, 1926), XXVI, pp. 982-983. g Dent, Alessandro Scarlatti . . . , o£_. cit.. p. 69. 13

which he catapulted into prominence with the royalty, the

men of the church, and the numerous enthusiasts among the

dilleiante found in and around Rome.^ It is certainly no accident that Scarlatti's early

efforts were directed toward the theatre, for operatic music

was demanded by the populace of Italy because it lay close

to the hearts of her people. It should be constantly kept

in mind that He had to write to make a living, and to write in competition against other musicians for audiences that had been trained for musical drama for nearly a hpndred years. More genuinely and more slavishly enthusiastic over opera than any other nation, then as now, provided that it conform to their particular standards, the Italians are the least patient of audiences towards opera that does not.

The opera patrons of this time were passion-filled,

splendor-loving, and pleasure-seeking; hence passionate music counted for more than literary erudition,^ ^ Thus the

direction in which the composer had to go to be successful is clear.

Among those who admired his first opera was the devoted

Queen Christina of Sweden who resided in Rome at this time.

She employed Scarlatti as maestro di cannella to her court,

the kind of position that was eagerly sought by most

^Thedore Pinney, History of Music (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1948), p. 263 ff.

^^Dent, £2 . cit., p. 195.

^^Ibid.. p. 7. 14

contemporary musicians and that promised Scarlatti economic security. However, almost concurrent m t h his appointment to the Queen's court was the issuance of an edict by Pope Innocent which opposed opera on moral grounds, which forbade female singers from performing on'the stage, and which sought to restrict prima uomo from singing under ecclesiastical spons­ orship. It is Witten that the Queen opposed the edict, but the ensuing battle of words between the two left Scarlatti in a precarious position. As a result, Scarlatti decided to move to Naples where there was no attempt to restrict the activities of opera houses and opera composers. 12 In Naples in 1680, Scarlatti reproduced his first opera successfully and quickly completed arrangements for perform­ ance of his second opera, L'onesta negll amori. Queen Christina's interest in the youthful composer did not wane, and she journeyed from Home to Naples to hear the new and success­ ful. work. For this occasion it is reported that Her majesty . . . much pleased on Sunday, February 6, 1680, by Oontini's comedy desired to hear it again at the Oollegio. Clementine . . . The Queen sent one of her carriages to fetch Scarlatti that he might play in the orchestra.13 Of particular interest are lines from the Avviso al lettore circulated among the audience on that occasion which said simply that . . . the music is the composition of Alessandro . Scarlatti, called the Sicilian, maestro di cappella to the Queen . a virtuoso who at times has deserved

l^ibid.. p. 195. ^^Ibid., p. 30. 15

your applause, and for whose praise it will suffice to say that in the springtime of his years . . . /he/ has begun,where many of his profession would be proud to end.14

Operas were the main musical fere for popular 15 consumption, and Scarlatti continued to produce them.

In 1683, II Pompeo was written, featuring the castrate

Siface, who was a virtuoso singer almost without peer in

his lifetime. Scarlatti was well acquainted with his vocal

powers since he had composed for him while in the services

of the Queen of Sweden in Rome. He i-rrote music ideally

suited for the virtuoso which resulted in greater renown

for Siface and himself. But again, disturbances, this time

of a political nature, gave Scarlatti the notion of changing

his residence. But now, he was producing a minimum of two

operas a year, a feat indicating strongly his productivity

as a musician and the wide acceptance of his works among

the hypercritical dilletantes. During these early years, Scarlatti had experimented with the chamber cantata. The earliest dated cantatas come

from the year 1688. However, Dent expressed the belief that many of them came from a period prior to the performance of

l^lbid.. p. 25. ^^Paul Henry Dang, Music in Western Civilization (Hew York: Horton, 1941), pp. 453-45^. 16

16 Gril equivoèl. Supporting Dent's claim, the Sibley Library

of the Eastman School of Music holds manuscripts of a number

of cantatas, according to Maude Brogan, which come from the

years around l68o/^ These earlier cantatas are in the style

of those composed by such predecessors as Legrenzi, Carissimi,

and Stradella. The musical details were not clearly defined

in the cantatas of these men, a fact which left a wide

margin for the innovations credited to Scarlatti and the

Meopolitan composers. The lyrical element identified with

the chamber cantata had been associated with this genre in

contradistinction to the dramatic element necessary for music.

for the theatre, and the element of restraint required in 18 music for the church. Dent identifies Augellini sospendi

i vanni as one of the earliest Scarlatti cantatas. The

cantata is rather long and straggling; it has an awkward and

angular melodic line; its arias are strophic and the 3/2 meter predominates; it includes examples of recitativo. 1Q arioso, and arias which are used experimentally. ^ Scarlatti

^^Ibid,. p. 38. 17 Maude E. Brogan, "An Analytical Study and Edition of Certain Songs by Alessandro Scarlatti" (tttqpublished Master's thesis. School of Music, State University of Iowa, 1951), p, 1-2. 18 Ruth Rowen, Early Chamber Music (Mew York: Zing's Crown Press, 1948), p. 3-5. ^^Dent, o£. cit.. pp. 12, 14, and 21. 17

seemed unable at this time to centralize his music in a 20 particular key and uses many musical ideas that seem to

point to labors of an unsure musician. Moreover, the cantata

utilizes an ostinato. a technique Scarlatti later found to

be restrictive, and therefore he abandoned it. But later,

Scarlatti mastered the details of cantata composition and

transcended the barriers which hampered him. In Naples,

around 1680-1683, Scarlatti is said to have discarded

the ostinato pattern for his arias, a fact which helps to

date Augellini sospendi 1 vanni prior to 1680. The ostinato

thwarted his style which constantly became more novel and

contained many innovations; it disallowed a free harmonic

approach and militated against freely moving melodic lines p1 that are identified with Scarlatti's later music. At

Naples, his music became more unified in aspects of form, more balanced, and more developed thematically. Bent remarks that during these years, however, though his arias

in the cantatas leave much to be desired, his recitative is

generally most expressiveThis is a compliment which few men deserved, for techniques to produce affective recitative were by no means clearly defined or widespread. It is in these recitative more than in the arias that his tendency to

20lbid.. p. 12.

^^Ibid.. p. 16. 22ibid. 18

23 ezperlmen-t and to be novel is clearly noted. In the cantata Lagrima dolorose Dent refers to Scarlatti's harmonic 24 "asperities" giving rise to contemporary criticism. ' He notes further that such irregularities are restricted to his chamber music. This artistic license was made possible and indeed encouraged by the dilletante for whom the cantatas were composed. Thus, it is clear why he became highly experimental in his chamber music in which he did not attempt to satisfy the taste of a public showing great preferences for opera.

Scarlatti sensed the diverse uses which could be made of various forms such as the arioso. Dent says that some of his most effective movements are arioso in style. "It is these arioso more than the arias themselves which fore­ shadow the style of Scarlatti's maturity.

Though the binary form was as old as Monteverdi,

Scarlatti now began to utilize it in the place of the ostinato and strophic arias which were popular among his predecessors. He realized that the binary aria was one which provided opportunities for presentation and contrast of musical material from the formal, harmonic, melodiç.

^^Ibid.. p. 1 7 .

^‘^I b i d . . pp. 16, 19.

25ibid.. p. 21. 19

and rhythmic points of view. In addition, it was a means of

developing contracting literary ideas inherent in the texts

written for vocal music. The binary form is used often in

the music of the latter part of his early period as he

discarded ènch older forms as the ostinato.

As he developed, the operatic tradition gave him ample

opportunity to be satisfyingly conventional and to create music for the popular taste and spirit found in the opera houses, which at times was unsophisticated and boisterous.

His music for the stage is tuneful, passionate; anything but learned or foreign to popular taste. Moreover, the composer had to provide music in the spirit and style of bel canto. for in this age the singer was the undisputed idol of the stage. Scarlatti could write arresting vocal music at will— a fact verified by Grout who mentions La rosura as a good example of his early operatic style and says about this opera, "The whole is suffused with an aristocratic elegance, avoidance of excess, and perfect understanding of the powers of the solo voice for dramatic expression.Then Grout continues to evaluate a second opera called Pirro e Demetrio.

It also is exemplary of Scarlatti's operatic style in these formative years and is important because in it are to be

26 Donald Grout, A Short History of Opera (Hew York: Columbia University Press, p. 2ÏÏ2. 20

27 foimd. some of his earliest attempts in writing ^ capo

arias that were anticipatory of and ushered in another

epoch in the story of Alessandro Scarlatti, the innovator,

A long tenure of twenty-two years in Eaples came to an

end in 1702 when Scarlatti moved to Florence under the

protection of Ferdinand the pompous and dictatorial amateur

b o m of royal blood. He remained there for only one year 28 for the temperaments of the two men were incompatible.

The nobleman thought, Scarlatti's style too innovative and

learned; thus the musician's desires for adequate economic

independence were not fulfilled. Therefore, Scarlatti left

Florence for another stay in Rome, There he was protected

by Cardinal Ottoboni who made a place for him as assistant maestro di cappella at the church of Santa Maria Maggiorg,

in 1703, and who promoted him to the post of maestro di

cappella in 1704, During this time Scarlatti wrote a large quantity of church music, some of which was in a contrapuntal idioffi "alia Palestrina," including the Ottoboni Mass, bearing his protector's name. He also composed ten motets for one to four voices with accompaniment for two violins and continua, entitled concerti sacri, And he produced other sacred works including several sacred cantatas. Worthy of note are the

27lbid., p, 263, 28 Dent, 2 2 , cit,. p, 39, 21

works 0 d± Betlemme altera, on words by Cardinal Ottoboni,

and the Annunciation Oratorio which contains the provocative

aria “Stessa sie del tranco amaro," and a Sinfonia which

recalls Mendelssohn's oratorio iiili.lah. Scarlatti's

Annunciation Oratorio begins in G minor with a fifteen-bar 2Q introduction marked allegro. Then comes the aria "Sommo dio"

followed by the remainder of the aria much in the same style

of the bass arioso "As God the Lord" in Eli.1 ah. Handel's

oratorio Messiah also contains a plan similar to Scarlatti's

Annunciation Oratorio. Lent calls attention to the fact that

Scarlatti uses Abraham, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezekiel

to prophesy the birth of the Messiah in a series of arias.

He remarks that Handel elected a similar plan for his oratorio. Scarlatti's aria by Daniel, which draws attention to the manger, is in 1 2 /8 time, has a predominant dotted rhythm and parallel thirds similar indeed to the "Pastoral

Symphony" in Handel's Messiah. D e n t says, "The most we can

say of Handel's "Pastoral Symphony" is that it was very probably modeled on this . . . air of Scarlatti's. . . ^

Rockstro added oh this point that it took the German to 32 give old pieces a new life in a new setting. Besides,

29lbid.. p. 97.

3^Ibid.. pp. 98-99.

31pbid.. p. 101.

S. Rockstro, The Life of George Frederick Handel (London: H. P., 1883), p. 108. 22

4 "borrowing" in the Baroque was indeed a common practice. If

Handel borrowed Scarlatti's idea, it was typical of his time.

Dent remarks that in spite of the impressive quantity of music which Scarlatti wrote for the church, the greatest revelation which appeared as a result of his efforts in this vein is the fact that the composer was by nature not a church composer,

"least of all at this period in his life."^^ He added that,

"In his motets and oratorios he is often picturesque and sometimes quite beautiful; but he is too classical in spirit, top much of a poet to write such music as is usually considered devotional.

Constantly broadening his base, Scarlatti turned his inexhaustible energies to instrumental music. The presence of Prancischiello, the 'cellist, in Rome at this time, is considered by Dent 1d be explanatory of this interest, for this man had a positive effect on Scarlatti's music. Burney has remarked about the development which took place in the way he wrote for instruments, about the increasing boldness of his harmonic innovation, and the independence of the musical lines that shows the complete mastery that he had achieved in contrapuntal writing. To this. Dent adds that . . . concerted instrumental music was just beginning to rival . . . the voice and it is interesting to

^^Dent, 0£. cit., p. 93. 3^Ibid., p. 94. ^^Oharles Burney, A Bengal History of Music, Vol. II, edited by Prank Mercer*”(Hew York: Earcourt, Brace and Go.), p. 634. 23

trace the gradual development . . . in the work of a composer whose natural sympathies were with singers.

It was approximately at this time that Scarlatti's interest

in instrumental music stimulated him to complete the form

for a new operatic overture. The Italian Overture appeared

in 1696 in.the opera Dal male il huono.^^ Highly touted

as a rival of the French Overture which was popularized

hy Lully in France, the Italian Overture design, fast-slow- ■

fast, vrith its typical three movement plan became a

prototype for the classical symphony. In his remarks,

Bukofzer referred to this form as the Heopolitan Overture

and showed that Scarlatti used it in his sacred works

(the oratorio Sedecia) as well as in his secular works.

Also it is noted that "Scarlatti re-established the use

of the orchestra in performance of certain recitatives

and thus introduced a type of recitative which is still current, recitative stromentato." This innovative move

■56 Dent, 0£. cit., p. 42.

^^Herbert S. Livingston, The Italian Overture from A. Scarlatti to Mozart (Rochester; University of Rochester Press, c 1952*77 P« 30.

Apel, "Overture," 0£. cit., p. 548; Finney, 0£. cit., pp. 264 -26 5 .

^^Bukofzer, 0£. cit., p. 243.

^^Finney, o^. cit., p. 265. 24

added greatly to the function of the orchestra in theatrical

music and gave some stimulation to its continued development

in other areas.

On April 26, I7 0 6, Scarlatti, along with Corelli and

Pasquini, was initiated into the Arcadian Society, a devout

group of artists, literati, and musicians, an honor indicative

of the esteem in which his peers held him. Scarlatti was

called "Terpander";^^ Corelli was called "Arcimelo"; and

Pasquini "Protico." Cn this precise occasion, Scarlatti

combined talents with the poet Tirsi, in attendance as a member of this society, to compose several cantatas. Tirsi wrote the words, and Scarlatti set them to music immediately, to the delight of all in attendance. Later Scarlatti and

Corelli joined to perform music written by Scarlatti for their induction, and Bumey, Geminiani, and Dent relate that 42 the violinist "broke-down" for a reason that is not apparent.

However, evidence shows that Scarlatti learned much about instrumental technique from his association with Corelli.

In the music of the latter he observed Corelli's methods in composing dance movements, and it is reported that "the lilt of Corelli's gigues siezed him like a saint-vitus 43 * dance."

Dent, Terpander or Music of the Future (London; Dodd, 1 9 3 7), passim. 4? Dent, 0£. cit.. pp. 91-92. ^^Ibid.. p. 93. 25

In Rome around 1706, Scarlatti was associated with

Prince Euspoldi through his patron Cardinal Ottoboni and another official of the church. Cardinal Grimàni. The latter was extremely fond of the serenatas, compositions for one to several voices and for a continuo and/or a band of instruments. Scarlatti, during these years, wrote two very beautiful compositions in this form called Sento un auro and

Endimione e cintia. Record has it that Scarlatti cared little for this form, but his ability to create exciting music in a form for which he had little enthusiasm is a testimony to his superior ability and amazing flexibility.

Scarlatti frequently bent with the winds of the time.

Religious issues raised by the church or such political issues as the Spanish Succession, which virtually enslaved all of* Italy, did not completely stop Scarlatti. He moved his residence at times to avoid controversy, or he relaxed his efforts in the composition of a particular kind of music when compromise was expedient. The edict which the Pope had issued banning opera in Rome had not run its course by 1 7 0 6.

Scarlatti relaxed his composition of opera but turned his attention to the production of cantatas. His patrons

Ottoboni and Grim6 ni backed his efforts, since both favored this kind of music. Ottoboni arranged weekly meetings in his salon where chamber cantatas were the principal fare,^^

^Ibid.. n. 75. 26

in Inordinately large number of. cantatas come from this

period that truly represented the tendencies of his genius.

Dent feels that in this period Scarlatti produced the greater portion of the cantata da camera now left to posterity.

Exemplary of this period of productions, is the cantata

Sarei troppb felice. By now the acceptable form of the

cantata had been achieved— R A R A. Scarlatti had used this form almost constantly since I69O. The form of da capo aria had been settled, and a clear distinction between recitative arioso had been achieved. Scarlatti used his

cantatas in exploring the introduction of new harmonies, techniques for thematic development, sequential ideas, and for solutions of current "problems." His new innovations do not mean that he abandoned all the old ideas, for much that is old is also good. In this period the cantata developed into a more highly sophisticated form. During these years, Scarlatti produced several operas for cities . outside the geographical confines of Rome from which they were restricted, among which were Protolino, Florence,

Venice, and Naples. Operas such as Armino (1703), Aricine

(1704), Lucio MShlio (1705) and II gran Tamerlane (1706) come from this period. In these works Scarlatti again composed music that was clearly designed to appeal to the popular tastes. In sending a score to his ol:d friend Ferdinand he says, "I have paid more attention to the 27

. . . character of the audience than to the natural impulses

of my insipid pen.If this seems a dangerous course for

the composer to have taken, it had reasonable justifications

in the practical considerations which Scarlatti faced in this

"savage age when all was Baroque."

In 1 7 0 7 he moved, but without the usual guarantees.

Various collegia in diverse cities seemed anxious for him to

produce several dramatic works ; and in the course of moving

to Urbino and Ferrara and other cities, he wrote letters to

patrons and performers which give a view of Scarlatti the man.

He usually wrote humbly to his patrons as he did to Ferdinand who criticized his musical style. Humility is expected in the relations between a "court musician" and his protector

"and Scarlatti knew the rules of his age well. Tfhere he failed to seem opinionated and forthright in addressing patrons, he gave precise and bold directions to performers, for he was "anything b# indifferent as to the proper interpretation of his music." For example, he wrote in

1 7 0 7 on the observance of tempo marks in one of his compositions,

. . . where the music is marked grave. I do not mean it to be melancholy; where . . . andante. not fast but with a feeling of melody; where allegro, not at a headlong rate; where allegrissimo. not in a style to drive the singer to despair. . . where andante lento . . . rather tender and charming . . .

45ibid.. p. 102. 46lbid.. p. 105. ^7pent, o£. cit.. p. 104. 28

Dent also said that Scarlatti used the arioso as a guard against singers who would completely distort his melodic ideas. Note the following :

Arioso . . . was used by Scarlatti not as the title of a form but as a direction to the singer to be careful to preserve the melodic sense in music which at first sight seems to demand the declamatory style of recitative . ,

During this time, he composed Mitridate Eupatore and Eraclea; and, while both are important, the latter is particularly significant. Eeopolitan opera was highly standardized in three acts with two scenes each. 49 In Eraclea. Scarlatti violated this tradition by writing four acts for an enlarged orchestra in which the strings.are used as an accompanying medium in places formerly filled by the continuo. This opera is one of his finest and one in which he continued to exercise choices suggested by his own genius. He achieves a new breadth of melody, a new grasp of musical characterization, and exhibits harmonic and instrumental understanding that clearly places him in the category of the great men of his time. His style is now musical, not just dramatic; and his formal ideas are synthetically artistic, not simply well worked out.^^

^ Ibid.. p. 105. 49 "Apel, o£. cit.. p. ^*^Ruth Rowen, Early Ohamber Music (Hew York: King's Crown Press, 1947), p. 15 ff. 29

Scarlatti was persuaded to return to Naples in I7 0 8 ,

just six years after he had taken leave of this same city.

The precise position and title that were offered him are

still somewhat uncertain; but in the following year,

Scarlatti was restored to his old position as maestro di capella. and his yearly stipend increased to approximately two hundred and fifty dollars. Mancini, the great singing master, was reduced to Scarlatti's assistant. During the next span of time, several operas, more oratorios, and even more chamber cantatas were produced.

Still advancing in technique and mellowing with the years, 51 Scarlatti began to abandon the beloved cembalo as a source of harmony in his operas and relied on strings: violins, violas, and celli, reserving the cembalo and double-bass for the ritornello. Teodesia comes from these years beginning in 1 7 0 9 as well as an oratorio ^ trinonfo del valore. an opera L'amor volubile e tirrano. two serenatas Pace, amor. providenza and Le staggione. It is also from this period

(1 7 1 2-1 7 1 3) that the famous exchange of the cantata Andate o miei sospiri with Gasparini occurs. By this time Scarlatti had developed a highly chromatic art in composing, a style reserved particularly for "problems" treated in the chamber cantatas. In discussing the latter cantatas. Dent says.

^^Adam Carse, The Orchestra in the XYIII Century (Cambridge: Heffer, 1950), p. 10. 30

The late cantatas are often concerned with a single problem such as harmony, etc., and are written more as intellectual solutions than as beautiful sounds; although they do have beauty, it is often of a severe nature.52

Diatonic harmonies were used in pieces for public consumption and for ordinary ears; but chromatic and more subtle changes were used in the music for private entertainment of lords, ladies, princes, and for cultivated ears of persons able to appreciate "an experiment," or "an audacity.Heading the list of these are the cantatas exchanged with Gasperini in which it is said Scarlatti took his chromatic art to its most distantly novel point. These two cantatas on the text of

Andate o miei sospiri appear in the years 1712 and 1713.

The 17 1 2 work will be given in the Appendix of this paper.

Architectual in principle with a more than Palladian severity, yet always vigorous in outline and luxuriant in decorative detail, he represents the baroque style at its best, and his working life of nearly fifty years, during which he never failed to maintain an astonishing fertility of production as well as a high standard “ of style, covers the extremely interesting period of transition from the earlier Renaissance of music to the decorous classicism of the eighteenth century.54

During the period from 1713 to 1715 an important aspect of his musical treatment seems to take on new meaning.

Violin playing and improvement in techniques in fingering

^^Dent, o£. cit.. p. 143.

^^Alfred Einstein, Italian Madrigal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949, Vol. l), pp. 2È8-229.

^^Dent, Ibid.. p. 6. 31

seem to bring innovations for string accompaniment. It is

during these years that he attempted to use a group of

strings divided into four equal parts. His purpose in

doing this seems not to point toward four violins simply

playing four-part harmony but toward a medium of performance

in which antiphonal effects could be produced. This

innovation in instrumental writing seemed to affect his

vocal music style, nevertheless, his work gains in

precision, but some feel that during this transition

Scarlatti's music lost some of its early charm.

As 1 7 0 6-found Scarlatti inducted into the Arcadian

Academic, I71 6 found him "knighted" in the Order of the

Golden Spur at the request of Cardinal Ottoboni with the

title "Oavalliere." It may be for this occasion that his

serenata Le staggione was written. It is a brilliant piece

which combined the exotic approach of the opera stage with

the detached and elaborate style of the chamber. An

unusual flute solo imitates a nightingale in this piece

and a quintet, in rondo form, brings the work to an interesting close.

The years 1718-1721 find Scarlatti again at Rome.

This is his fourth period and the period in which the master's attention was turned to writing for a variety of

^^Dent, Ibid.. p. 132-133. 32

performing media. Dent says Scarlatti approached modern treatment for winds in a serenata dedicated to Prince

Stigliano, the overture of which is scored for trumpets, oboes, and strings.In addition, a pastoral piece appearing in the same score includes two flutes, two oboes, two horns, and two bassoons. ' This balance of instruments is anticipatory of the orchestra of the classicists, beginning with Mozart and Haydn. This, Scarlatti's last period, is characterized by masterly technique and brilliant dramatic writing in his stage compositions. His music now seems infinitely more spacious than before. The aspirations of his youth had fully fructified. He wrote during these years his last cantatas and operas, bringing the list of the former to over six hundred and the latter eg to one hundred and fifteen.

In the year 1722, Scarlatti went back to his beloved city of Naples where he achieved his early successes. Now he was headed for partial retirement but consented to take - a few pupils, among whom were Handel, Geminiani, Hasse, and

Quantz. In the winter of 1?25 Quantz related that the elder

Scarlatti was still a magnificent harpsichordist who

^^Dent, Ibid.. pp. 156, 176.

^'^Henry Prunieres, A New History of Music (London: 1 9 2 8), p. 239.

Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 241. 33

"played in a learned style.In that same year Scarlatti

died at the age of sixty-six. At the foot of the altar of

Saint Cecelia in the church of Montesanto is a marble slab

on which is the following epitaph, written by Cardinal

Ottoboni:

Here lies the Cavalier (sic) Alessandro Scarlatti, a man distinguished for moderation, beneficence and piety, the greatest of all restorers of music, who having softened the solid measures of the ancients with a new and wonderful suavity, deprived antiquity of glory and posterity of hope of imitation. Dear above all to nobles and kings, he died in the sixty-sixth year of his age on October 24, 1725, to Italy's utmost grief. Death known no mode or appeasement.

The Gazetta di Hapoli. the local newspaper, reported

simply that, "In the course of last week, there died the celebrated Cavaliere Alessandro Scarlatti, to whom music owes much for the numerous works with which he enriched it."^^

Of Scarlatti's personal character, it is practically impossible to give a true estimate. His letters to

Ferdinand are rather humble, but the court system prominent in the eighteenth century required such submission. However, one detects a subtle tact and strength in these letters to

Ferdinand. This strength is even more obvious in his

^^Kirkpatrick, 0£. cit.. pp. 74-75.

G°Ibid.. p. 75.

Carse, o£. cit., p. 6 . 34

instructions for the rendition of his music. He left little

doubt in the amateur's mind as he gave him the most specific 6 2 details of how his music was to be performed,

Scarlatti was, a man fully aware of the trends and philosophy of his time as applied to music. He followed the rationalistic beliefs that "musical composition is , , , a science, the, daughter of mathematics," While couched in Scarlatti's words, this belief vras held and verbalized by such men as Rousseau and Descartes himself, and could have come from their very lips.

It is noteworthy that Scarlatti was a discipb of the

Nationalistic school and was susceptible to great passionate bents of mind, for he stated to Ferdinand in one of his humble and passionate moments of discernment.

It is almost impossible even merely reading the drama, not to feel stirred by the various passions which it exhibits, I confess my weakness; at some passages while I was composing the music for them, I wept,o4

Though Scarlatti composed in the style of opera which later was criticized and changed by the reformer C, W, Gluck, . the virtues which his dramatic works contained by far out-

Dent, 0£, cit,, p, 204.

^^Ibid,, p, 194,

^^Ibid,, p, 194, 35

weighed the vices. Scarlatti wrote when affect, effect, and sensuous pleasure ruled the day,^^

Some courage is required to defend the baroque . . = style. It was so essentially the expression of the pomps and vanities of its time that the modern spectator, unable to enter into the details of its environment, can see nothing but the dismal wreck of its mannerisms and affectations, . .

Scarlatti speaks the language of passion as sincerely as any composer.Says Dent, "He almost invented it,

/language of passions/^ for none of his predecessors or contemporaries can show the same absolute mastery over it."^®

Scarlatti’s productive life spans more than a half century if one considers that he spent several years composing prior to 1679 when he and his first opera were heard of. During these fifty years he engaged in fearless experimentation with instruments, voices, and musical properties— harmony, melody, rhythm, and form. From his many innovations other worthy composers have built towering superstructures in musical invention and form. Though he is considered one of the more popular composers of his age, he, like Shakespeare, led an early life that was shrouded in obscurity. The shedding of adequate light on the interesting turns which his life took will require much continuous research.

^^Oliver Strunk, Source Readings in Music History (New York: Norton, 1950), p. ^73.

^^Dent, 22. cit.. p. 3. G^T. B. Galloway, loc. cit.. p. 500. ^®Dent, 22. cit.. pp. 203-204. 36

Scarlatti's music is frankly the music of his own time, and the true spirit of his works must be extracted from records of the social habits, the distorted and strange tastes which were cultivated in the eighteenth century by the predominant doctrine reflecting ^ationalism, and finally from the examples furnished in the music that he wrote.

There, one will see the fruits of his labor which, "like

Mozart's," John Edmunds says, "is the music of all times."

^^John Edmunds, "The Mastery of Alessandro Scarlatti," Tempo (Spring 1956-1957), p. 24. CHAPTER III

HISTORY OF THE BAROQUE OMTATA DA CAMERA

Origins of the chamber cantata

The Word cantata is derived from the Italian word

"cantare" which means "to sing." In the early Baroque era,

the word cantata came to mean a chamber composition featuring

the human voice. The text of the cantatas, usually rather

sophisticated, might deal with wonder* love, joy, hate,

sorrow, desire, or any one of a number of subjects of

interest to the dilletante employers in a position to

prescribe what poets and musicians should write for their

own self-aggrandisement. Accompaniment for the vocal line was supplied by a group of instrumentalists called the

continuo composed of two players of the following instruments: harpsichord, lute, chittarone, or therobo, and the viola

da gamba or violoncello.

The Italian cantata da camera originated in the

earliest years of the seventeenth century as a branch of the same movement that produced opera and oratorio. Prior to this, the latter part of the sixteenth century, the term "cantata" had been used to refer to different simple and lyric forms of vocal music. Beginning with the seventeenth century, writers combined monody with lyric and narrative poetry under such titles as cantade of cantate, arie. sonetti.

37 38

madricale. pastorale,villanelle, and canzonette.^ These

parent forms grew less popular as the century progressed.

Gradually, the cantata da camera became a distinct form

rather than a title that could be attached to a variety of 2 types of chamber vocal music. Einstein notes that in the

continuo madrigal one may find the ancestors of the cantata

da camera and points to the numerous madrigals using the •5 title cantata.^ Schmitz singles out Monteverdi's Book 7,

which appeared in 1603 with revisions in 1604, and I6 0 5 , as A containing legitimate forerunners of the cantata.

Further information on the origin of the cantata is

given by Burney who mentioned Giovanni Domenico Poliaschi da

Romano as a composer of several vocal works "in a good style

and . , . the best taste of singing," These compositions

circulated about 1618 under the simple title cantata. Also,

the Englishman referred to a cantata, Ourtio precipatato. written in 1628 by Tarquino Merula.^ A piece of, solo music

1 Paul Henry Dang, Music in Western Civilization (Hew York: Horton, 1947), p. 132.

^Bukofzer, 0£, cit.. p. I7 .

^Alfred Einstein, The Italian Madrigal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947), p. 8 3 6 . \ 4 Eugene Schmitz, Geschichte der Weltlischen Solokantate (Leipzig: Brietkopf, 1955), p. 26.

^Charles Burney, A General History of Music, edited by F. Mercer, 2 Vols. (Hew York: Hareourt. Brace and Co., 1 9 3 5 ), p. 6 0 9. 39

for voice and instrument, it is a burlesque on redundant

Latin declensions— quo, quae, quod, and hie, haec. hoc.^

Bukofzer also mentions cantatas on humorous subjects which,

seemingly, formed a representative part of this literature.^

The composer credited with the publication of the first

"true" cantatas was Alessandro G-randi, a celebrated singer and composer whose book of compositions Oantade. sonetti. Q madricale. e arie. appeared in 1620. These compositions employ one of the earliest acceptable plans for the chamber solo cantatas: strophic variations on an ostinato-bass.

The techniques and plan for the compositions in this collection were not new to the musical world, but, as Dent points out, they appear for the first time in connection with the emerging cantata in this historic collection. In addition to strophic variations and ostinato basses to be found in this collection are examples of ritomelli.

^Ibid.. p. 606.

^Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (Mew York: Morton, 1947), pp. 132-133. O Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed, M. Slonimsky (Mew York: G. Schirmer, 1958), p. 42.*

^Edward J. Dent, "The Italian Chamber Cantata," Proceedings of the Royal Music Academy (London: December. f^2^)T p: ^ 2:------— — ^^Mentioned in Agostino Agazzari, Del suonare sopra il. basso con tutti stromenti (1607), p. 26. 40

1 1 Grandi‘s collection became a model for his contemporaries, Berti, Turini, Crivaletti, Rovetta, Sances, 12 and Ferrari, not to mention a host of other composers interested in this novel music.

Benedetto Ferrari da Reggio used the word cantata to refer to pieces in his Musiohe varie a voce sola utilizing short, lyric, poetic forms. Francesco Manelli da Tiyoli used the term to apply to pièces constructed on lyric texts in his Musiche varie a una a tre voci coie. While the music found in these compositions was significant, both of these collections further helped to establish firm ideas about the type of texts considered ideal for chamber cantatas,

As it will be seen later, the purely academic forms found in lyric Italian poetry were not altogether suitable. At the instant that the purely musical elements were combined with appropriate texts, one could say: the chamber cantata is a solo vocal composition with continuo accompaniment in a strophic setting on a lyric text.

Of primary importance in the development of the solo cantata is the work of the monodists active in the court of the Medici in the city of Florence, Italy. These men under-

Guido Adler, Handbuch der Musikgeschichte (Frankfurt: Frankfurt am Main, 1924), p. 437. 1P Eugene Schmitz, Geschichteder Weltlichen Solokantate (Leipzig: Brietkopf and Hartel, 1955), PP. 54-$9.

^^Burney, o£. cit.. p. 605. 41

took the strenuous task of attempting to rediscover the

manner in which the ancient Greeks presented dramatic

monologues and plays in a musical setting that rendered

,the words in a highly intelligible and tremendously expressive

style. In the course of their search, the monodists, working

at the Medici court, developed the stile rappresentativo

which contained valuable fecundating ingredients for the 14 cantata da camera. These ingredients will be discussed,

beginning with the word monody.

Monody comes from the Greek monos, meaning "one" and

odo. meaning "song." More specifically, monody is that

distinctive type of accompanied song for solo voice which

developed around 1600 as a reaction against polyphonic

music. Further, it is characterized by a recitative-like

melodic style for the voice and a simple accompaniment by

the basso-continuo. Giovanni Battista Boni, 1594-1647,

a Florentine nobleman, used the word monodia to refer to

the music of the Greeks.The poet Grille commended

Oaccini for his settings and performances of certain of his

poems in the monodic style; he was impressed with Oaccini‘s

14 Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 32. [ ^^Apel, "Monody," Harvard Dictionary, op. cit.. p. 455. 42

rendition of pietoso affetti. a monodic song, performed in a "plain" but "impressive manner" that so greatly enhanced the intelligibility of the words.Said Doni,

In short this new music (monody) is not universally adopted by all persons of good ears and taste; from the courts of Italian princes it has passed to those of Spain, France, and other parts of Europe.17

Alfred Einstein adds a statement which contributes to the understanding of circumstances out of which monody emanated that had political as well as artistic implications.

Says the contemporary German scholar,

Florentine monody is a product of the rivalry between the hostile courts of Este and Medici which were contending not only for political and ceremonial pre-eminence but also pre-eminence in culture, in art, and above all in m u s i c . 18

Pertinent literature reveals a treatist on monody, .

Dialogo della musica antica £ della moderna. published in

1 5 2 8 , by the versatile Gallileo, pupil of the master 1Q theorist Zarlino. ^ In that document, Gallileo praised Greek muslo, maintaining that monody was a reaction against

^^Bumey. op. cit.. p. 602.

17Ibid.. p. 602; Alfred Einstein, o£. cit.. p. 847.

I^ibid.. p. 846. 19 Theodore Finney, History of Music (Hew York: Harcourt. Brace and Co.,), p. 229. 43

the intricacies of the contrapuntal music of the Renaissance,

The monodic style encouraged sophisticated forms, simple

harmonies, pertinent instrumental accompaniment, affective renditions of texts,clear declamation, lyric melody, and favored the juxtaposition of various contrastable elements~textual and musical— against each other as a means of heightening the expressive possibilities iiüierent in vocal chamber music. Gallileo illustrated the theories with musical settings of the Lamento di Ugolino in Dante's pp Divine Comedy and the oratorio Lamentations of Jeremiah.

These exemplary settings in the stile rappresentativo— synonymous with monodic music— were performed in 1590 before a private gathering where it is recorded that they were received with mixed enthusiasm. Local reaction to the performance was almost eclipsed by the fact that stile rappresentativo for which composers had been searching had at last been found. Hence, the cause of vocal music and monodic music was greatly advanced.

Buttressed by the theory of Gallileo the men of the Camerata resolved to recreate the drama of the ancients which they knew had been tragedy allied with music. The results . . . are well known: their drama turned out to be the beginning of opera and their monody completely transformed the nature of

20 Einstein, o£. cit.. p. 836.

^^Ibid.. p. 838. 22 Pinney, op. cit.. p. 229. 44

music in the first decades of the 1 7th century. Opera and monody were to become the hallmarks of the musical baroque.^3

Others followed the leads of Gallileo. For example

Giulio Caccini, 1550-1618, composer, singer, theorist,

lutenist, teacher, and author of the famous treatist

Fouve musiche. outlined in his lengthy Introduction to it

his views on monody, expressive singing, vocal ornaments ^ U (gorgia), and the basso continuo. In addition, he

discussed an affective device, sprezzature (nonchalance),

a term for a practice similar to that known today as rubato.

for the amplification of the texts in stile rappre sent at ivo which Ulrich described as "speaking in music. * Emilio Cavalieri, 1550-1600, composed the first

oratorio, Rappresentativo di corpo e ^ amina, in stile rappresentativo and found one more connecting link between monody and music of the church. Direct quotations or adaptations of biblical passages were combined with monody in such a way that neither the music nor the texts could have been as effective without the enhancement of the other. The ideas of Cavalieri were borrowed by composers of secular 26 monodic music; thus, the cantata continued to develop steadily.

"^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 26. 24 Ibid. p. 28. ^%omer Ulrich, Chamber Music (Mew York: Columbia University Press, 1948), p. 38. ^^Einstein, o£. cit.. p. 858. 45

Another important monodist was Jacobo Peri, singer,

composer, and theorist. Peri has left posterity a detailed

statement on monodic theories in his second opera Euridice.

In the first pages of Euridice. Peri lauds the prospects of

monody in^^ the following statement:

Before offering you this music of mine, I think (it is) proper to make known to you what led me to invent this new kind of vocal writing; since reason must be the beginning and source of all human doings, and he who cannot give his reason at once lays himself open to suspicion of having worked at haphazard. Although our music was brought upon the stage by Sig. Emilio del Oavaliere, with marvelous originality, before anyone else I know of it nevertheless pleased Signori Jacopo Oorsi and Ottavio Einuccini (in the year (1594) to have me set to music the play of , Bafne, written by Sig. Ottavio Einuccini, treating it in another manner, to show a simple experiment of wbàt the song of our stage is capable. Wherefore, seeing that I had to do with dramatic poetry, and must accordingly seek, in my music, to imitate one who speaks (and doubtless no one ever yet spoke in singing), it seemed to me that the ancient Greeks and Eomans (who, in the opinion of many, sang the whole of their tragedies on the stage) must have made use of a sort of music which while surpassing the sounds of ordinary speech, fell so far short of the melody of singing as to assume the shape of something intermediate between the two. And this is why we find in their poems so large an use made of the Iambic Meter which does not rise to the sublimity of the Hexameter, Albeit it is said to overstep the bounds of ordinary speech. Therefore, abandoning every style of vocal writing known hitherto, I gave myself up wholly to contriving to a sort of imitation (of speech) demanded by this poem. And, considering the sort of vocal delivery by the ancients to singing, and called by them vox diastematica (as if held in check and kept in suspense), could be somewhat accelerated, so as to hold

^^Alfred Einstein, Essays on Music (Hew York: Knopf, 1954), p. 79 ff. 46

a mean course between the slow and deliberate pace of singing and the nimble, rapid pace of speaking, and thus be made to serve my purpose (as they, too, adapted it to the reading of poems and heroic verse) by approach­ ing the speaking voice called by them vox continuata, as has been done by our modern composers (if perhaps for another purpose); considering this, I also recognized that in our speech, some sounds are intoned in such a way that harmony can be based upon them and that, in the course of conversation, we pass through many others which are not so intoned, until we return to one which is capable of forming a new consonance. And, having regard for the accents and modes of expression we use— in grief, rejoicing, etc.— I have made the bass move at a rate appropriate to them, now faster, now slower, according to the emotions tb be expressed, and have sustained it through both dissonances and consonances (tra le false, e tra le buone proporzioni), until the speaker's voice, after passing through various degrees of pitch, comes to those sounds which, being intoned in ordinary speech, facilitate the formation of a new consonance. And I have done this not only to the end that the vocal delivery shall neither wound the ear (as if stumbling in meeting with repeated chords or too frequent consonances) nor seem, as it were, to dance to the movement of the bass, especially in sad or grave passages which naturally call for others in a more lively and rapid employment of all dissonances shall diminish, or conceal that advantage which is increased by having to intone every note— -an advantage of which ancient music may perhaps have had less need. And finally (though I dare not assert that this was the sort of singing done in the Greek and Roman plays), I have deemed it’ only the sort that can be admissable in our music, by adapting itself to our speech. Receive it, therefore, kindly, courteous readers and though I may not, this time, have reached the point I thought myself able to reach (regard for novelty having been a curb on my course), accept it graciously in every way. And perhaps it will come to pass on another occasion that I shall show you something more perfect than this. Meanwhile, I shall think to have done enough if I have opened the path for the talent of others, for them to walk in my footsteps to that glory to which it has been given to me to attain. And I hope that my use of dissonances, played and sung discreetly, yet without timidity (having pleased so many and worthy men), will 47

not trouble you; especially in the sad and grave ai£s of Orfeo, Arceto and Dafne— which part was taken with grace by Jacopo Guisti, a young boy from L u c c a . 28

This Introduction furnished not only an excellent discussion of Peri's ideas with regard to recitative which the Camerata sought to develop, but also provided distinc­ tive examples of his own musical workmanship in the vocal parts and the continuo and, of equal importance, of affective settings in Orfeo's monologue beginning with the passionate words "funestre piagge" (saddened seashores).

One is convinced that the monodists were aware of the emphasis on the expression of the passions promulgated in the basic documents on the philosophy of Rationalism current in the Baroque. Por example, in Peri's setting one notes that the text is rendered to a simple chordal accompaniment which allows the words to come through clearly. Peri achieves an admirable effect on the words

"Ohi me" and "misero" by the use of various diminshed intervals a kind of musical treatment which became more common in chamber music of a later period. Peri also used the figured bass, which as a tool and a technique, was particularly adaptable to the purposes of the nuovo stile and the monodists.It offeréd relief from the labor of

P8 Pinney, 0£. cit.. pp. 230-232.

^^P. T. Arnold, The Art of Accomnanving. (London: Oxford Press, 1928). 48

copying out music completely and allowed the fecundating

spirit of the Baroque to assert Itself with greater freedom

In the realization of bass lines. Bukofzer notes, In summarizing another monodist*s work, that monody and the basso continuo:

. . . count among the few musical Innovations In which theory antedates practice . . . Oacclnl says In a passage based on Plato that the composer had to start with considerations of word, rhythm, and then tone, not the other way a r o u n d . 50

Seventeenth century composers of vocal chamber music, very much aware of what had been taking place In the fields of opera and oratorio, endeavored to keep the music of the chamber abreast of the trends In the church and the theatre.

They were prodded systematically by the princes, lords, and 4 ladles who, though primarily Interested In their own amusements, nevertheless. Incidentally stimulated the production of more refl&ed vehicles suited for new species of Intellectual music. Vital questions had been raised which had to be answered: could the ihythmlc flexibility of recitative and the more cantablle quality of arioso and the aria be harnessed to the best Interests of vocal chamber music? If so. In what form should they appear? Furthermore, could the principles ushered In by the basso continuo.

^^Bukofzer, op. clt.. p. 26. 49

described as an aristocracy of voices (upper and lower),

contrastable with subordinate inner parts, completely

replace the democracy of the equal and ample sonority of

the older contrapuntal techniques of polyphonic music?

These questions were answered gradually but definitely.

The composers of vocal chamber music sought to

reconcile the "old" with the "new." They began to enrich

the principles offered by their predecessors with greater

formal stabilization of the positive elements of melody,

harmony, rhythms, text, and accompaniment. Chief among the

means they employed are the use of the bass as a foundation

for the melody and the filled-in parts to give formal unity

and coherence to vocal chamber music, and the use of the

concertato principle: a style of "sounding together" and

at the same time contrasting the melody with the accompanying

element.

The ideals mentioned in the preceding paragraph led

to the strophic variations plan, the practice of keeping

the same ostinato figure for every stanza of the text while

deliberately varying the vocal part. This plan was used by

Monteverdi in the aria "Possente spirto" in the third act

of his opera Orfeo. and the technique and form became widespread among early vocal composers. 50

Still later the monodists adopted hompphony and created the concept of the figured bass and fused the elements of harmony, melody, rhythm, and text in a way that completely revolutionized vocal music. Composers interested in the cantata da camera were able thereby to develop progressive principles and practices that were to be influential for the next one hundred and fifty years.

What the monodists forsook in rules from the past they replaced with new theories for the future. They were revolutionary and advanced newer ideals in Baroque vocal music that were simple and immediately appealing, thereby enhancing the representational and pictorial power of poetry allied with music; in this way the monodists contrived to advance the cause of vocal chamber music.

It is readily discernible that the newer trends in musical composition favored homophony instead of polyphony and simple vertical chords instead «jf the horizontal lines.

In the, late Renaissance no musical form was held in greater esteem than the polyphonic madrigal, which displayed the theories of the equality of several lines of music sounding independently and together, the technique of word-painting, and the ideas concerning the supremacy of the music over the text. There were growing reactions to the aggregate effect of some of these characteristics. Ocupled with these 51

reactions it is said that "the a cappella ideal bore within itself the germ of internal discord and finally of inevitable

self-destruction.The trend toward homophony developed with compositions written to be negotiated by the combinations of voices or instruments or voices and instruments. These compositions were called accompanied madrigals. Later, there appeared another species of the madrigal in which an inde­ pendent continuo was to be found. The continuo madrigal arose simultaneously with the monodic publications of Peri, Caccini, and Monteverdi, The latter left fine examples of a continuo madrigal in his fifth book of madrigals,

The continuo madrigal was sufficiently adaptable to permit use of the methods of stile concertante and the stile rappresentativo, Although Monteverdi's^^ first four books of madrigals are purely polyphonic and a cappello. his fifth book becomes more soloistic, and his seventh book is entirely 3 A concertante with basso continuo. In addition to the

Monteverdi works, other solo mddrigals are to be found in

Caccini's Uouve musiche which marks a point of departure

^^A, Einstein, Italian Madrigal, op, cit,, p, 8 3 6 ,

^^Bukofzer, op, cit,, p, 38,

^^Gustav Eeese, Music in the Renaissance (Mew York: Morton, 1954), pp, 437-441, Contains a summary statement of the Monteverdi Madrigals,

^“^Apel, "Madrigal," o£, cit,. pp, 418-419. 52

toward refinement of the seventeenth century aria; this

latter form is of the greatest importance in the development of the cantata and the other vocal forms which come out of this general era and movement. Concerning the lineage of

the cantata Edward Dent states;

If we want to take a good look at the Italian cantata, we must have a look at the madrigal. The latter was the form that best fulfilled the ideals of chamber music,35

Besides Monteverdi and Caccini, there are Gesualdo

and Lucca Marenzio, whose highly chromatic styles and

enharmonic innovations became models for an emerging aspect

of the cantata yet to be fully realized. In the final days

of the sixteenth century the polyphonic madrigal began to

surrender its lofty place to new ideas of melody and harmony,

for the ideas of nuove stile had gained a firm and long

enduring foothold. In contrast to the polyphonic madrigals,

the form of the continuo madrigal follows simple, transparent musical and poetic ideals, noted in the canzonette, vLllanelle ,

arie, and sonetti. These shorter,more lyrical forms offered

relief from the complexity of the overwrought elements found

in the polyphonic form. It appeared that the "old" would be

devoured by the "new," but not all looked hopefully to the

trends sanctioned by Monteverdi and his supporters even though

^^Edward J, Dent, "Italian Chamber Cantata," Musical Antiquary, Vol. II. (July 1910), p, 143. 53

what they advocated was music that was internally much

simpler. Another element used in the continuo madrigals was

the obligato— a continuo part fully written out. Examples of such pieces are found in Monteverdi's Madricale

guerrieri £ amorosi in the fifth book, published and re-

edited betw^een 1605 and 1609.^^ According to Bukofzer,

it was the presence of such obligato parts that exploded

the madrigal from within and the new emphasis placed on the upper and lower lines and the filled-in harmony of these vocal-type pieces that exploded the madrigal from without.

Perhaps the biggest difference between the earliest cantatas and the continuo madrigal is slight but significant.

Madrigal melodies are strophic variations over stilted

sequential bass figures. Cantata melodies are sometimes varied to introduce related but contrastable materials 37 with ostinato basses for each strophe. Without great trouble, the roots of the cantata could germinate in soil from which the continuo madrigal had come. , By the time this species of madrigal had reached full growth the transfer of its most admirable features to the cantatas had begun and another competing form had given way to the flowering of "ZO the cantata da camera.

36 Reese, ££. cit.. p. 40. 37 E. J. Dent, "Chamber Cantata," loc. cit.. pp. 52-53.

* z Q Bukofzer, o£. cit.. p. 35. 54

As late as 1638, Domenico Mazzocchi, published a group

of continuo and a cappella madrigals; thus Mazzocchi, "sang the swan song of the old madrigal.Thence, interest in them,was scholarly and considered antiquarian.

To summarize the discussion of the era of the continuo madrigal as the important ancestor of the chamber cantata, it seems reasonable to say

the cantata properly speaking cannot be considered to have come into existence until it occurred to some composer to combine with it . . . (monody) some kind of strophic f o r m . 4 0

The regular alternation of recitative and aria was not standardized until a later period. Before this took place, arioso-type pieces appeared as a contrasting element to the didactic parlando-type recitative. %hen the arioso began to be replaced with broader lyrical sections alternated with equally clear declamatory sections the final step was taken to complete the transformation of continuo madrigals, to solo cantatas. A much more significant part was taken by the continue in accompanying the voice and in the purely instrumental sections such as the ritornelli. At that point the cantata had all the essential features needed to. identify it for the next one hundred and fifty years.

39 Schmitz, o£. cit.. p. 51. ^Dent, "Chamber Cantata," loc. cit.. p. 152. 55

The foundation for a vast and spectacular artistic era had been laid. An assortment of materials were available on which the early cantata composers could build. All that was necessary were leaders with vision and energy to develop the ideas in this "golden age" Ai of vocal music, leaders who came from all comers of

Italy: Home, Florence, Bologna, Venice, and finally from

Naples.

A prototype for the cantata da camera had finally become distinctively recognizable. The threshold of the seventeenth century had been crossed, and what had formerly been called the continuo madrigal was now called the cantata. In Italy, in the middle of the seventeenth century, the existence of the cantata was firmly justified as an independent form. In tracing the growth of the cantata, Einstein says

. . . we witness the beginning of the heroic struggle that the Italian musicians are left to fight alone and without receiving credit for it; it is the heroic age of Italian music. At the beginning is Monteverdi . . . Rossi, Savioni, and Oarissini; at the end . . . Alessandro Scarlatti. . .42

^^A. Einstein, Italian Madrigal, op. cit.. p. 849. 4P Ibid.. pp. 849-850. 56

Schools and composers before Scarlatti

After the time of Alessandro Grandi and his outstand­ ing publication of cantatas, the further development of the cantata da camera took place in various centers of activity, leadership shifted from the Romans to the Venetians, to the Bolognese, to the Florentines, and finally to the Neopolitan composers in whose hands the cantata developed to its height. Among the Roman composers who played an important part in the development of the cantata in the middle of the seven­ teenth century are Giralamo Frescobaldi, Luigi Rossi, Giacomo Oarlssimi, and Alessandro Stradella. Giralamo Frescobaldi was born in Terrara in 1583 and died in Rome in 1643. Like so many men of his time he was a choir singer as well as keyboard performer in his earlier years. He was an organist at St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome for nearly a gruarter of a century. Though he wrote chiefly for the organ, FrescobaMi published two collections called Arie musicale in 1630 which are of Interest in tracing the lineage of the chamber cantata. They are transitional works between the continuo madrigal and the early cantata. Although it is difficult to make a distinction between the

^^Giralamo Frescobaldi., Primo libro d’arie. ed. Felice Boghen (Florence: Landini, 1630), pp. 1 ff. 57

lyric forms which came before the cantata, there are

characteristics of the Frescobaldi works which are of 44 great interest and assistance. The ostinato figures

found in Aria a voce sola and the Romanesea in the first

book are typical of the earliest cantatas, ranging in length from seventeen to twenty-four measures. They fit the description given in the variations cantata; the melody for each verse changes while the ostinato remains the same. In contrast the sonetto in this volume is through-composed and the passacaglia contains an alternating pattern ARaRa, found frequently in the cantatas before the middle period of

Scarlatti, The texture of Frescobaldi’s music ia homophonie, i.e., made up of simple chords supporting a clear melody solidified by a stalwart bass line. In the Aria di Romanesea, the voice and instruments of the continuo are contrasted with each other with respect to the degree of rhythmic and melodic activity. The works include the ritornello. tasto sections, and make use of a basso seguente.

Three of Frescobaldi's cantatas are for high voice, and a fourth for bass voice. The original scoring is for voice and accompaniment by the gravicembalo and/or therobo.

In the passacaglia. secco recitatives are contrasted with

J i A Schmitz, 02. cit.. p. 12. '58

arioso. The tonality is constant throughout. Unity in

this composition is achieved in large measure in the

balancing of short sections in a major tonality and short

sections in a minor tonality.

Also important in the Roman school is Luigi Rossi,

1 5 9 8 -1 6 5 3 * whose early training in music prepared him for

a profession as a singer, organist, and composer. As a

composer, Rossi engaged in the ifriting of operas’, oratorios,

and cantatas. Hugh Riemann lists more than one hundred 46 Rossi chamber cantatas. Many of these are written for

solo voice and continuo. His cantata Del silentio is a

polysectional cantata of more than ten small divisions.

Seven are of pure lyric quality, while three sections are

arioso. Del silentio resembles early monody, a style of

particular interest to the Roman composers. The composition

usually stays close to A minor and 0 major, its related key,

but at one point the piece is in G minor and a modulation

occurs from G minor to L minor through the supertonic (V of 7)

Ten meter changes help to reveal the tendency of this

composer to amplify the passions found in cantata texts.

The affections noted in the texts in Lei silentio are desire

and love, contrasted with despair and hope.

Walker, "Luigi Rossi," Grove * s Dictionary. Vol. Ill, p. 242.

"^^Hugo Riemann, Kantaten RrÆhling (Leipzig: Siegel's Musikalienhandlung), pp. 50-66. 59

Another of the cantatas of Rossi, S'era alqnanto.

has the ARARA form. It introduces an aria which is through-

composed. Rossi uses ritornelli limited each to two or

three measures which enhances this cantata that begins and

ends in A minor. The melody of S'era alquanto is much more

poignant than the bass line in monodic style. This cantata

contains the unusual leap of an augmented octave in the

voice part and has a high degree of ornamentation in the

rather free melody. The stable character of the bass draws

attention to the free-moving melody. Ifords, affectively

set, include lagrimando, meaning "weeping," scotete. meaning

"trembling," and aspre, meaning "cruel," The first word,

lagrimando. is treated trith a dotted rhythm, the second word,

scotete. is set in a long melisma, while aspre is amplified by an intricate rhythmic figure.

A third cantata of Rossi's Se peni tuo danno. is an example of an aria cantata. It has five metric di vidions, each one having its own tempo marking. In this cantata, 47 the Roman used a form of the early ^ capo aria. ' In S era alquanto a three-measure ritornello figure helps to hold the cantata together. S^ peni uses a similar number of measures for interludes between parts of the aria-like sections; yet, there are fewer tonal divisions in Se peni than in the other

47,ifalker, o£. cit.. p. 243. 60

cantatas mentioned. The effective moods of heni center

* around•sadness and unrequited love— two favorite subjects 48 of writers of cantata texts and composers of this era.

Another important composer of chamber cantatas is

Giacomo Carissimi, who lived in Marino and Rome from 1605

to 1 6 7 4 , hike so many others of this day, he was a singer,

an organist, and a composer in the stile rappresentativo.

He became maestro di cappella at Assisi but left that post

to go to Sant' Appolinare in Rome where he remained until

his death,

Carissimi's five oratorios, of which Jeptha is the

most famous, are pioneer works in the new sacred monodic

style. However, he composed other vocal music including

motets, masses, chamber arias, and many cantatas, A large 49 number of the latter are for solo voice, Hugo Riemann

has included two of his solo cantatas,and the Ridley

Prentice^^ edition of the Carissimi Six Cantatas is the

source of the others mentioned here.

A8 Schmitz, 2 2 . cit,, pp, 20, 17, 35.

^^Bitner, o£, cit, (Band 2), pp, 532-333.

^^Reimann, 0£, cit, (Vol, II), pp, 3-16,

5^G, Carissimi, Six Cantatas (Ridley Prentice Edition, London: Lambrook Cock), pp. 2-3. 61

Two cantatas in the Prentice edition, Eo, no mio

core and Deh contentavi. are in the form AHAEA, Another

form is found in the cantata Tronchisi pensieri which is

divided into nine sections. Seven of these sections are through=composed arias while two sections are in the style of the arioso. In the cantata ^ tramontar. Carissimi utilized the RAEA form and in so doing anticipates the form which is today associated vrith the most sophisticated of the cantata da camera. The Carissimi arias are much longer than the recitatives in these cantatas and are systematically contrasted by the principle of the alternation of an aria -vfith a recitative.

Schmitz declared that Carissimi preferred a bass with specific and individual linear qualities rather than a bass line of less individuality with a simpler harmonic texture.

Schmitz is correct, but Carissimi shared this preference with other members of the Roman School. Their predilection for contrapuntal devices is a carry-over from the church style that is one of the hallmarks of this school.

Carissimi, however, embraced the ideals of the monodists and composed within the framework of their ideals, out­ lining the double polarity of voice?, a fact about which

Gallileo and Monteverdi wrote.

Schmitz, o£. cit.. p. 72. 62

The harmonies of Carissimi include a variety of unprepared dominant sevenths and chords of the ninth,

dissonances, accented passing tones, and diatonic movement,

Carissimi also employs chromatic passages and Tierce des

Picardie, Considerable shifting of tonalities takes place in Deh contentavi and M tramontar but unity is maintained by steadfast adherence to a tonic key emphasized by frequent strong cadences. Occasional endings in a major key when the piece is in minor are noted as an effective device common at this time. Meter changes, which occur one to seventeen times in the course of a cantata, are accompanied by tempo changes also.

Some attempts at word-painting are in evidence: volo. meaning "to fly," spezzo, meaning "to run," and fiero, meaning "fiery," appear in melismatic settings. The passions of love, sadness, despair, and hope are found in the texts of these cantatas. Such poetic ideas as the "fading" rose are compared >3lth the "passing beauty"of â distant beloved as found in the cantata ^ tramontar, In Deh contentavi. the lover compares himself to a river which overflows hopelessly into the sea as his heart is broken by his losses.

Affective techniques of Carissimi are worth noting: the falling fourth is used to express melancholia; words of actions, besides volo, spezza, and fiero, are set so that their meaning is clearly detected. Hence,'his adhérences 63

to the basic doctrinaire ideas on expression in music

seem readily verifiable in this sampling of his worlcs.

Alessandro Stradella, b o m in 1642, was an influential

member of the Roman School until his untimely death in 1682.

His popularity as a musician was somewhat marred by his bold

involvement in an illicit love affair which, reportedly, led

to his assassination at a rather early age. His vocal

compositions include two hundred and fifty cantatas for one

or more s i n g e r s . Riemann's Kantaten Fruhling lists one of

the cantatas^^ mentioned here while the other comes from the

holdings of the Library of Congress. Of Ria di punir it

can be said that it is a polysectional cantata while Gia

nell' Indo is an aria cantata. The former has the form

RARARARA while the latter has the form AA a A. Repetition of

melodic and rhythmic units is a main source for developing

the works. At times, parts of arias or complete arias are

repeated. The first aria in Gia nell* Indo utilizes a plan

, ^^John Hawkins, A General History of the Science and Practice of Music (London : Novello, jBwen Co., H. D. ), pp. 652-653.

^^Eitner, 0£. cit.. pp. 3 0 5 -3 0 6 .

^^Hugo Riemann, ed., Kantaten Pruhling. Part III, p. 37. 64

that is very close to the ^ caho. Stradella was a gifted

melodist and was interested in variations and contrast by

means of rhythm. Also instrumental previews of vocal

melody, as later developed in the "motto" technique used

by the Ueopolitans, are found in this middle Baroque musician's works. Ria di punir has a continuo part quite

comparable to the vocal line in melodic interest. This

seems to be a characteristic feature in the works of later composers of the Roman School.

Diminished ninths, dominant sevenths, as well as the

Neapolitan sixth chord are found in both Ria di punir and

Gia nell Indo. Ria di punir establishes a tonality at its beginning which is not maintained throughout; however,

Stradella is careful to use related keys in the various sections of this cantata. The well-balanced melodies of these works are very singable and are developed with interesting sequences and melodic figures. Stradella utilizes a variety of metrical units in his music; 6/8,

3/2 , 3/4 , 3/8 , and 4/4. Passions of cruelty, love, pity, and suffering are found in the texts and are amplified by appropriate melodic and rhythmic techniques and sequential patterns of development.

Moving from the Romans to the men of another center,

Venice boasted of the work of many composers interested in the further development of the cantata. Schmitz singles out 65

Venice as the most important center for cantata development in the second and third quarters 0"f the seventeenth century.

Among the important composers are found the names of Ferrari, eg Oavalli, Cesti, and Gasparini.^ Tfhile the Romans based their music on the older principles of counterpoint, the

Venetians developed their music ■triLth newer principles of homophony.

Benedetto Ferrari, 1597-1681, was both a musician and librettist. His first publication of cantatas, Musiche varie a voce sola, established the fact that he was a worthy composer of solo cantatas. His cantatas appeared in publications or reprints in 1653, 1657, and 1642. Riemann has included two of Ferrari's cantatas in Kantaten Frflhling of which this study makes use.^^ Ferrari's cantatas have a free-form. Primo il eioæo dal alpi has three sections: two arioso sections are separated by a short aria that is through-composed. Voglio di vita uscir. almost twice as long as Primo il giogo. is unified by a short falling ostinato figure throughout and at its close has a vocal flourish that is remarkably similar to a cadenza. Primo il giogo is for bass voice while the cantata Voglio di vita uscir is for high voice.

^^Bukofzer, 0£i. cit., p. 244.

^"^Riemann, on. cit.. Part I, pp. 1-15. 66

Perrarl's music has a homophonie texture. However,

Primo il giogo has a bass line that is as individual as the

upper line which it undergirds. There is noticeable shifting

of the tonalities in these cantatas. Modulations seem

ineffectual because of the lack of definite cadential

formulae. The shifting seems, therefore, to go on

endlessly. These cantatas end, however, in the same key in

which they begin; in this way a tonal unity is achieved.

Primo il giogo shifts from & minor to its relative B flat

major; Voglio di vita, in G major, shifts to its subdominant

major of 6 .

The melodies of these cantatas are lyric and have

vocal embellishments of a rather intricate nature. Primo

il giogo requires an unusually id.de vocal range. Indeed, the

two and one-half octaves range which it requires is unusual

for that time or the present. In Voglio di vita, the

composer utilized a melody with a more conservative range, but still the range— an octave plus a minor sixth— is extensive for monodic music. The melody is smooth in comparison with that of Primo il giogo whose melody has many ifide leaps and skips and offers many pitfalls for the singer.

Defeated love is the main affection in Primo il giogo. The music amplifies the passions of joy, happiness, desire with high notes; and expresses deep despair and gloom 67

tritli correspondingly low notes. Yoglio di vita contains

the affections of sorrow, love, sadness^ and happiness,

all appropriately set to expressive musical solutions.

Francesco Oavalli, 1602-1676, was a singer under

Monteverdi at St. Mark's and succeeded him there in 1640.

In addition to cantatas, Oavalli composed opera, masses,

and a setting of the vespers. One of his cantatas for

solo voice, 8e_ la gia negli ahissi. is given by Riemann eg in his collection. This cantata follows the RiRA plan and contains a basso ostinato which plays a very important part in molding this work into an integrated whole. The first recitative and aria has eighty-seven measures, sixty of which are recitativewhile the remaining twenty-seven measures comprise the strophio aria found there.

Though the texture of this piece is homophonie, the upper and lower lines exhibit the double polarity principle discussed by Gallileo and others. The instrumental part supplies a basic accompaniment for the melodic line and provides an introduction for both arias as well as a ritomello between sections. The principal tonalities are

D major and A major which are varied in the first recitative by excursions to E minor and A minor. Oavalli composed a

^ Ibid., pp. 23-31. 68

lyric line f-Jlth balanced phrases in the aria. He also used

a rather conservative range for the voices, a type of

conservatism not ali-rays found in the music of Venètian

composers.

Se la gia negli abissi has two words with obvious

effective settings: auita. meaning "help," and tormenta, meaning "torment." The first is set to a rather ornate

figure, while the second has a setting of five measures in melismata. As usual, the affections noted are love»

desire, death, and tearfulness. One cannot be certain that

Oavalli was an exponent of Rationalist thought, but one can

be sure that he committed himself to the idea of the expression of passions through musical media with more than passivity.

The third composer of the Venetian School considered in this paper is Marc Antonio Oesti of Arezzo, 1623-1669.

It is conjectured that Oesti lived in Rome at a very strategic time for him and that he studied I'rith Abbatini and Oarissimi. He was a member of the Florentine Oamerata, for their records show he was dismissed from this group for eg conduct unbecoming a gentleman.^ Oesti composed not only opera but also a number of secular and sacred cantatas.

5^8. T. Worsthome, "Oesti," Grove's Dictionary (Vol. II), p. 144. 69

Nineteen are listed by Eitner,^^ and others are listed by Adler^^ and Eiemann.^^ Two examples are taken from the latter source. Tu m'asnettasti has a plan aRaRA, while La Gorte di Roma has a sixteen-part form. The final aria Tu m'aspettasti has three divisions i-rith separate metrical units. This cantata also utilizes a strophio form in two of the arias. Tu m'aspettasti has no ritomelli or imitative elements between the voice and the instrumental parts. Simple harmonies are noted in each of these cantatas and are amplified by dissonances which occur as passing notes, The diatonic harmony is underscored by a smooth moving bass ■ line. la corte di Roma is much longer than Tu m'aspettasti. the former having more than three hundred and fifty-odd measures including repeats. VThile Tu m'aspettasti has a none too individual instrumental character, it has several poignant instrumental sections. Tonality seems a little diffuse in both cantatas. Lyric melodies, ornaments, and trills seem a natural part of Oesti's style. The vocal ranges of these works are extraordinary, demanding a range in exceis of an octave and one-half. There is a conjunct quality about his melodic lines that

^*^Eitner, Quellen Lexicon. Vol. II, pp. 397-398. ^ 1 Adler, Handbuck der Husikgeschichte. op. cit.. pp, 379-382. o2Riemann, op. cit., pp. 50-68. 70

involves little chromaticism. Intricate rhythms, syncopa­

tions, hemiolas, and melismas are found quite frequently.

Oesti turned his energies to the exacting task of

properly depicting effective words like turbo. meaning

"undisturbed," which he sets to a three-measure flourish.

He also gives special treatment to such words as love, pity, peace, hope, and despondency which are recognized as

the passions recommended by Descartes, Hobbes, and Spinoza.

Burney says, "Here a collection to be formed of the most elegant and striking passages of the best composers of the last century . . . the works of Oesti would supply a 63 very considerable number."

The fourth member of the Tenètian School to be discussed is the talented Francesco G-asparini, 1668-1727.

He was contemporary with Alessandro Scarlatti, a pupil of

Corelli and Pasquini, the distinguished master of Domenico

Scarlatti, and a man respected and honored by his, peers.

Gasparini exchanged compositions with Alessandro

Scarlatti; this exchange ended in a very interesting record of several settings of the "problem cantata" on the poem 64 Andate £ miel sosniri. vrritten by Scarlatti. Gasparini

^^Bumey. on. cit.. p. 615.

^^cf Footnote Ho. 17, p. 8 of this study for addition­ al facts on the Scarlatti-Gasparini exchange. 71

wrote fifty operas, motets, psalms, oratorios, and a

significant number of chamber cantatas. His famous treatise L'armonico pratico al cimbalo discussed problems associated vrith the thorough-bass and was for generations a leading reference on applied harmony in his day.^^

Four cantatas belonging to Gasparini have been examined to determine the methods of the composer.. They are A battaglia. Caro laccio. In profonde repose, and Dove sei.^^ A battaglia and Caro laccio are in the form ARARA;

In profonde repose is in the form RAARAR, while Dove sei is in ARA form.

That this man had a full grasp of the essentials of homophony is demonstrated in these cantatas. Hot only are upper and lower lines indicative of homophonie tendencies, but the antiphonal exchanges underline and heighten this fact. A battaglia has a ritomello that is interesting because it shows Gasparini did not hesitate to use the most modern techniques of harmony k n o m at this time.

Besides the homophonie elements, Gasparini's music contains contrapuntal passages which show his versatility. All the cantatas of Gasparini mentioned above are for high voice.

^^PrancesCo Gasparini, D'armonico pratico al cimbalo (Venice: 1708; 7th edition, 1502).

^^Fraaoesco Gasparini, Cantata da camera (Rome: Mascardi, 1695), 1 ff. 72

ITo'w, the vocal range of these cantatas is fairly conservative,

spanning little more than an octave. However, the highly

decorated melodies point to the time when the singer stood

in the center of the musical world supported by admirers of=

opera. Syncopations appear in Oaro laccio and In profondo

where notes are conveniently tied across the bar lines to

produce interesting rhythmic effects. Metric units in these

cantatas include 4/4, 2 / 4 or alle breve. 3/4, 6/8, and 6/4.

These signatures are found at the formal divisions of the

cantatas. Sections are also marked with tempo markings

such as largo. allegro. and allegretto.

On such words as battaglia meaning "battle," an

appropriate musical figure is used to express the excitement

of warlike action. The same is true of the word tormento.

meaning "torment," set to a long and intricate melodic line.

As usual, the passions of love, laughter, self-denial,

and sadr,ess dominate the thoughts of the poets of the texts

selected for these cantatas; and as usual the musician

attempted to illustrate these passions'as expressively as

possible. Gasparini was not unusual in this regard, as it

is noted that he too capitulated to the recommendations of philosophers and idealists of his age. It is true of

Gasparini and of the other composers of cantatas as well, irrespective of the school liith which they are associated, they aimed to produce art products that were entertaining 73

and of high artistic value; however, this had to he done

through more subtle techniques than those utilized hy opera

composers and for more discriminating ears, for in most

instances the auditors found in the chambers were men of

great learning able to appreciate the exigencies of the

nuovo stile and the doctrines which were derived from

Rationalism.

Vfhat has been said about the men of the Roman and

Venetian Schools is also true of the Bolognese composers

who will be mentioned next. The composers of this school

adapted the dance rhythms, found in the unpretentious

canzonettas and villanelle, to the higher forms of vocal

music, including the chamber cantatas. One of the most

obvious techniques for rhythmic contrast used by the

Bolognese composers in the dance song was the hemiola. As

Bukofzer points out, this device must not be regarded as a

syncopation, for while it was a mensural device (merely

purporting to indicate a division but not the metrical unit

or beats of a given measure), it did not indicate a time 67 unit ner se.

In the Bolognese School, Maruzzio Oazzati and

Giovanni Bassani were important men. It has been difficult to find traces of scores of cantatas by their associates.

^'^Bukofzer, op. cit.. p. 38. 74

Carlo Oossomio and Gulseppi Torelli. Cantatas of the former

men are available and >rill shed some light on the contributions

made by the Bolognese composers.

Maruzzio Cazzati, 1620-1677, served in the court of the

Dutchess Ann' Isabella di Gonzago, at the church of Sant

Andrea, andlln the private chapel of the Duke of Sabionate

of Bozolo, at the Accademia della Morte in Perrara, and

fimlly at the cathedral of San Petronio in Bologna. He was a prolific composer, of masses, psalms, litanies, hymns,

oratorios, solo arias, madrigals, cantatas, duets, canzone, and chamber duets.^Riemann's Kantaten Prühling contains

several of this composer's chamber cantatas. Hon vlfidate has the form Aa Aa Aa A; and Amanti has the form a A a A a A.

In both cantatas arias or portions of arias are repeated for purposes of emphasis. Such repetitions are not strange, but the plan used by Cazzati is a little unusual, for these aria cantatas are composed only of ariosos and arias. The texture of the music is homophonie and the upper part is in dominant focus at all timeç; however, Amanti has a six- measure instrumental introduction which more nearly balances the vocal and instrumental parts. Both cantatas, scored for high voices and continue, seem to follow a trend that reveals

68 The influence of the Roman School on the Bolognese composers, evidenced by their interest in counterpoint, is discussed by E. Schmitz, ag,. cit.. p. 71. - ^^A. Lowenberg, "M. Cazzati," Grove's Dictionary. on. cit., Vol. II, p. 1 3 4 . 75

the preference of the Italians for the higher tessitura

of the soprano and alto voices of women and men.

Bach of these cantatas has been realized by Riemann, and it is his realization of which examiners must be careful. Authorities have questioned the authenticity of the editorial style that Riemann sometimes applies in realizing the music of this period. Unprepared dissonances are found in these works, i.e., notably in diminished chords of the seventh and ninth. Though chromaticism is found in these works, they are essentially diatonic. Here, again, it is noted that this composer utilized devices reflecting idioms of his time considered to be ultra-modern in a masterly fashion. Oazzati*s mèlody in Hon vifidate is punctuated by repeated notes. The melody is nonetheless arresting and smooth-flowing. Its outside limits are an octave and a third.

Oazzati's works are made up of short sections with contrasting meters. Non vifidate contains more than forty sections, while Amanti has only half that many divisions.

In addition, diminutions are found in the melodic lines of the ariosos but not in the arias. Syncopations, as found on such words as giorie. meaning "enjoy," in Non vifidate. are produced by tying notes across bar-lines. This is an interesting detail in this music even though it is found quite freque&tly in the works of many composers of the Italian Baroque. 76

The text settings are predominantly syllabic.

Repetition of words form a kind of internal refrain in Ron vifidate. As usual, the texts of these cantatas deal with the vibrant' intrigue of human experience: love, dissapoint- ment, deception, and other frailties of human existence.

Equally as important as Oazzati is Giovanni Battista

Bassani, 1657-1716. Born in the city of Padua this man was known as organist, violinist, and composer. It is generally said that Bassani was the teacher of the giant violinist 70 of this period, Francesco Corelli. Bassani composed fewer than ten oratorios, exactly ten masses, and many laude; however, it is not known how many chamber cantatas 71 he composed. G. P. Malipiero has edited two Bassani chamber cantatas: Ardo. o Para and ^ dove un ciel sereno.

The first of these cantatas has been the formal scheme of A R Ai, while the latter has the scheme R A R A R. All of the arias are in the ternary form and are built on a separate ostinato that is succinctly presented and/or implied in the instances where its complete usage is impracticable or impossible for various compositional reasons. Ardo o Para makes use of the "motto" technique.

70 Cantata a una voci sola, ed. G. P. Malipiero (Milan: R. P., 1919TT"PP. 1-20. 71 Eitner, o£. cit.. p. 366. 77

which, in the day of Bassani and Scarlatti, with whom

the former is contemporary, was well know,

Bassani makes use of secco recitative in many

instances, hut of particular interest are the final

measures of the atioso in la dove. Here Bassani uses a

vocal flourish that is quite interesting; in many ways,

the vodal Shd instrumental lines seem to he individual and

independent, Ardo £ caro and to dove un ciel employ

antiphonal devices that enhance the interesting melodies

indicated for the voice.

Little douht exists that these compositions were

conceived and written in the latest harmonic styles then in existence. This harmonic quality is elevated hy unaccented passing tones, anticipation, appogiaturas, suspensions; noticeable diatonism, that is conjunct and lyricr also, diminished chords; and the enlivening Heopolitan sixth chord. One of the latter chords is to he found in har seventy-nine of to dove. Modulations and smooth shifts are also to he found in these works which show adherence to modern schemes of harmony. There are modulations from a given tonic to dominant, relative major, and/ or relative minor keys. Both pieces end in the same keys in which they hegan. 78

The range of these pieces, one octave and a third,

seems reasonable; and the average singer could perform

them T-rithout having to worry about extreme heights or

unreasonable depths. Some chromatic writing is apparent,

but tastefully applied. Ardo o caro has five metrical

units, while la dove has four such divisions. The time

signatures 6/4 and 3/2 are employed predominantly.

The common subjects of love, joy, despair, and

cruelty are the main ideas in the texts which are

expressively set. The word lacero meaning " t o m , "

appears beneath a melisma which helps to portray the action involved and to heighten the passions found in the

texts of these cantatas. Bassani iras not only a m o d e m man following the newer tendencies in music, but also a man

completely informed as to the tenets of Rationalism and devoted to the task of helping to make music fit a mold fashioned by Baroque philosophers throughout most of

Europe. However, the Roman, Venetian, Bolognese, and

Florentine composers were not alone in their efforts to perfect the cantata da camera. The Heopolitan School contributed a significant part and it is to this school that attention is now turned. 70

The Ueopolltan School

The most important group of cantata composers in the early eighteenth century were gathered in or connected with the city of Naples. Alessandro Scarlatti, because of productivity, the novelty of his works, and the respect which he earned from his peers, is considered leader of the Neopolitan School. Scarlatti succeeded Provenzale and led the movement that resulted in the greatest era in cantata development. He was surrounded by a group of capable associates dedicated to the task of developing a cantata which was from a formal point of view more coherent than those from other schools, and from an aesthetic point of view was an ideal work of art.

Among the associates of Scarlatti was a select group of men which will be mentioned; Leonordo Leo, 1694-

1744; Leonardo Vinci, 1690-1730; Emanuele d'Astorga, 1680-

1757; Antonio Oaldara, 1670-1736; Nicola Porpora, I6 8 6-I7 6 8 ;

Francesco Durante, 1684-1755; Giovanni Buononcini, 1677-1726; and Benedetta Marcello, 1686-1739.^^

Antonio Oaldara was b o m in Venice in the year I6 7O and died in Vienna in 1736. Oaldara was a pupil of

Scarlatti. After his preparation, he became active in

^^Lang, 0£. cit.. p. 454; Bukofzer, 0 £. cit.. p. 247; Dent, "Italian Oantata," op,, cit.. p. 192. 80

music not only in Italy, but also in Austria and in Spain.

In I7 I6 , he was employed in the court of Emperor Charles 71 of Vienna. He composed works for the church, the chamber, and the theatre. The total number of cantatas that he wrote is uncertain. Ten cantatas of Oaldara*s, however, have been edited by Mandyczewski and Geiringer in Volume XXXIX 73 of DTOe. Geiringer says that the year of composition for

Astri. Ohe prodiæio, and lo crudele is I7 I6 and further states that Titano al inferno. Ohe dite, and Vincino a un rivoletto were composed in 1728 and 1 7 2 9.^^

It is very significant to note that of the ten cantatas mentioned above, six are in the RARA pattern— the pattern which was adopted by Scarlatti for his later cantatas. Oaldara*s continued alternation of the recitative and aria is shoim in other cantatas of the group of ten selected to observe his general style. One cantata alternates ARA, another RARARA, and still another

ARARA. These compositions vary in length from one hundred- odd bars to several hundred measures.

Most of the arias are in the ternary form. However, the second aria of the cantata Dflmprovisso is through- composed. All but two arias have instrumental introductions

7^DT0e. Vol. XXXIX (1894-1938), pp. 1-45.

^^Earl Geiringer, "Antonio Oaldara," Grove * s Dictionary, 0£. cit., p. 19. 81

ranging from one to ten measures. Oaldara*s intense

interest in instrumental music is reflected in the skilled

TrTSLj in which the composer wrote for the continue in these works. Oomhined with this skill is the composer's ability

to create broad, cantabile, vocal melodies. Though Oaldara may be regarded as a progressive composer, he did not discard completely the aria forms. The second aria in

Astri is an ostinato aria. The ostinato figure is short and appears repeatedly on various degrees of the scale trith slight alterations.

Recitatives in Oaldara are short ranging in length from eight to twelve bars. Unlike earlier Italians, Oaldara frequently indicates vocal embellishments, particularly appoggiaturas, in his scores. Such embellishments were usually left out by the composer and supplied in the eztempore renditions of the vocalists of that time. The texture of Oaldara's music contains vestiges of the contra­ puntal style found frequently in the music of the Romans.

However, he employed a masterfully developed familiar style.

Characteristic of this style is the cantata to rosa. Here interest is developed between voice and continue by ritornelli and instrumental introductions. Oaldara's music is clearly tonal. He uses non-harmonic passing tones to obtain smoothness in scalular passages and such coloristic chords as diminished sevenths and the Heopolitan sixth chord for 82

harmonie variety. Generally, the bass lines move oonjnnotly.

However, in the cantata, ^ crudele, Oaldara used a shipping

pattern marked by octave leaps and leaps of the eleventh in

the lower line in the second aria of Astri.

Bight of these cantatas are for high voice— four for

soprano and four for alto— while two are written for bass

voice. Seven of these works begin in minor keys. In the

arias, Oaldara modulates frequently, but usually modulates

back to the tonic key in which the piece began. In

recitatives, Oaldara seems inclined to stray from his tonic

to end in another key, a characteristic noted by others of

his school. In ^ rosa d'improvisso Gaidarâ'.has used such

melodic embellishments as the trill and the harmonic embellish­

ment, the upper neighboring tone. The 4/4 meter is used

frequently and the meters 3/4, 6/4, and 12/8 less frequently.

In the cantata Vincino a un rivoletto an interesting assort­ ment of sixteenth, thirty-second, and sixty-fourth notes

provide interesting rhythmic and melodic contrasts to heighten the passions in the text. Like others of his time,

Oaldara came under the influence of the theory of the affections. Affections which he treated are sorrow in lo crudele. love in Astri. and contentment in Bgualcosa.

Vincinft a im rivoletto. developed around the names of ancient

characters, centers around the affections of love, pleasure, and pain. 83

The text settings are predominantly syllabic, but

Oaldara adds short patterns of melismata for affective purposes on such words as pensate, meaning "to think."

Eeale is affectively set on a high note, perhaps indicating the desirability of truth. These examples are taken from the first recitative of La rosa. The text in Ohe prodigio contains the words np cha diss'io piange te (never again shall I speak of tears. Rests are used to create a distinct kind of animation that is of interest as an affective device.

The word dolor (sadness) is set in a melismatic pattern, pietoso (pity) is set to a series of long notes, and in the cantata WiBôlho a un rivoletto. the word zeffiro (zephyr) is set to a series of sixteenth, thirty-second, and sixty- " fourth notes in the rather ornate continue part. In the cantata Titano all'inferno. a rather disjunct two-measure melisma is found on the word lacrenn. (suffering) which is affectively set.

A second associate of Scarlatti is the composer

Giovanni Battista Buononcini, 1670-1755. Buononcini held posts in Bologna, Monte, Vienna, and Rome as singer and court composer.Like so many of his peers, and in accordance vjith the demands of his time, he was one of many

7^A. Lowenberg, "Giovanni Buononcini," Grove * s Dictionarylary. op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 8 0 6 -8 0 7 . 84

Italians who journeyed far from, his homeland to London and .

other cities to sell his outstanding musical abilities to a

clamoring public. In London he became joint director of the

Royal Academy of Music. Also, in London, Buononcini became involved in a musical contest with the composers Mattel and

Handel. He was held in high repute and great esteem until certain dishonest aspects of this contest were revealed.

Afterward, Buononcini seemed to decline like a fading star in a heaven that had been illuminated brightly by his very own genius. Handel won the contest, and Buononcini was apprehended in attempting to pass off the music of another composer as his otm. It was a case of plagiarism and an act 76 for which he paid severely.

Eitner lists one hundred and twenty-five cantatas along TTith a number of operas, oratorios, masses, and anthems attributed to Buononcini. Three cantatas are to be found in the Library of Congress in manuscript form.??

Like so many others of his countrymen, regimentation and rigidity were distasteful to him. The cantata Eel petto has the fewest formal divisions: ARARA; Qual oggetto has ten parts; ARAARAARRA; while ^ dove anzioni

?^Hawkins, o^. cit., Vol. II, p. 680.

??Eitner, o£. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 120-121. 85

has eight parts; RAARARAR, These cantatas show the

freedom and flexible view which Buononcini held regarding

forms for the cantata.

Although the arias of La dove anzione are for the most

part through-composed. one aria in this cantata is built on

an ostinato figure. Qual oggetto has three arias in the binary

form and three through-composed. In the other cantata, Rel

petto, da capo arias are to be found. In making use of these

varied forms, the composer reveals his versatility, his musical techniques, and his treatments of materials. Through­

out, the aria dominates the compositions. Recitatives are

short and form an infinitesimal part of the cantatas as a whole. There is a variation in the length of these works

from two hundred and fifty measures to five hundred measures, all of which are scored for high voice.

Despite the homophonie texture observable in these

cantatas, there are significant contrasts between the upper part for voice and instrumental part which supplies interest to the fundamental as well as an ornamental part. Cadential chords of the Hr,, Vr,, I^'v s-j^-d I chords are found in La dove r r ^ - anzione. There are also chords of the seventh and ninth which are not new or strange for the middle and late Baroque composers. 86

Among the several vocal ornaments, one finds the annoggiatura, trill, and turn. That Buononcini had a solid grasp of the harmonic ideals perfected in the middle and late Baroque is irithout question. Arias revolve around basic key centers, and contrasting sections are outstanding because of the tonic, dominant relationship. Exceptions to this statement are noted only occasionally in Ba dove and

Qual oggetto.

The balance and symmetry of the musical phrases of the arias in these cantatas are testimony to the feeling that Buononcini had for these aspects of music. Buononcini knew the human voice and created music exemplary in its melodic richness and audience appeal to show off the singer.

Uel petto has a melody that is easy to sing and for the singer provides many interpretative opportunities. ITot only is the melody clear and poignant, but the rhythm provides unique interest. la dove anzione has a melody containing several sequences with I'Jlde leaps, but the conjunct way in which these sequences appear reduces the possibility of difficulty in performance. That is to say, the pattern of notes allows for a consistency in delivery that greatly reduces apparent difficulties. 87

The correlation between tempo markings and affective .

devices in music written according to the Doctrine of 7R Affections has been established by Tfessell, La dove

anzione is marked andante. while Qual oggetto contains the

marking ardito. Other musical devices noted in these

cantatas are found above the word tormenti. meaning "torments"

expressed t'rith an extended melisma that is chromatic and an

extended coloratura over the word voli, meaning "flights,"

Subjects in the texts range from love and hate, myth and

reality, to pleasure and pain, For example, the lover in

La dove anzione deplores his situation but consoles himself

1-rith the idea that the greatness of a man is magnified when

joy and security follow pain and instability, Qual oggetto

tells of a young woman's lamentations over the treacherous

acts of her distant, beloved hero. The texts of these

cantatas reflect the observations of Schmitz in Geschichte 7 0 des Kantaten; most of them deal with sadness, despair,

or unrequited love.

The îTeopolitan School included other great masters,

such as Eicolai Porpora, I6 8 6-I7 6 6. He was the teacher of

at least three of the greatest singers of his day: Farinelli,

Frederick Wessell, "The Affektenlehre in the 18th Century (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Bloomington: University of Indiana, 1955), pp. I6 5 -I6 9. 70 Schmitz, on, cit,, p, 31. 88

Senesino, and Caffarelli; he had the reputation of being one of the greatest teachers of singers, and for the latter, he Rn wote extensively. Eitner lists, in summary fashion, Corpora's.oratorios, masses, operas, orchestral works,and R1 cantatas. The works of Porpora examined in this paper are to be found in manuscript in the library of Congress, They are; Tirsi chiamare a nome. D*amore il primo dardo, Questo ohe miri £ ITice. Scrivo in Te and Ilel mio sonno. All of these cantatas contain four or fewer sections. Three cantatas are in the scheme ARA. The other two utilize the scheme most associated with the mature Italian chamber cantata; H A R A. The arias, iTith the exception of the second aria in D * amore 11 primo dardo in strophic form, are in da capo form. Porpora shows a preference for secco recitatives. However, Tirsi chiamare a nome makes use of recitative accompagnato. Sometimes introductions and interludes that are harmonically conceived, anticipate, elaborate, or imitate phrases or figures taken directly from the melodies of cantatas. like many of his peers, Porpora made use of certain diminished chords of the fifth, seventh, and ninth. Chords with minor sevenths are also used. Pedal points are used as

80 Walker, "Hicolai Porpora," Grove's Dictionary, op. cit.. Vol. VI, p..876.

^^Eitner, 0£. cit., Vol. VIII, pp. 20-24. 89

stabilizing devices by Porpora in the transitonal sections of the secco recitatives. Characteristic of the melodies which are adorned T'Tith non-harmonic passing tones are trills, turns. and melismas. These items became marks of identification closely associated with the style and works of Porpora.

Still further, the. highly ornate character of the

Porpora cantatas and the intricacies of the ornamented melodies help conceal the phrases and tonal units in these works. In addition, such ornate melodies lead to rhythmic problems of some magnitude. But, Porpora always wrote for the virtuoso singer and rarely music appropriate for the amateur performer. His style of writing demanded skilled singers, but it should not be forgotten that he trained some of the greatest of the castrati. It should also be stated that in Porpora's style, there is a reasonableness about such considerations as vocal range that is not duplicated in other aspects of his ornate compositions.

The tempo markings lento, andantino. adagio, and allegretto seem appropriate for the movements at the head of which they occur. The importance of such markings in interpretation has been documented.

The fact has been noted that intricate ornamentations are to be found in Porpora*sivmelodies. This suggests that rhythmic intricacies are likewise to be found. Such 90

intricacies occur between the vocal line and the continue.

It is also to be noted that the texts are set in many different styles, ranging from the syllabic settings in

Queste che miri ITice and Scrivo in to the melismatic settings found occasionally in the other works.

The texts deal t-jith love, unrequited and fulfilled, pleasure and pain, and the other subjects common in cantata literature. The lover in amore il primo dardo suffers, but vows his affection to the damsel who continually disappoints him. The text of Tirsi chiamore a nome deals

•cfith the infidelity of a lover, while Questo che miri is a happy tribute to the belnred ITice. Scrivi in Te is the story of a lover who hopes but doubts that Clori, an alluring maiden i-rith whom he is enamored, i-rt.ll always love him. In his passion there is great doubt of its realization.

This is a theme common in cantata texts. CHAPTER IV

INPLÜEKrOBS OP RATIONALISM

Rene Descartes

Rene Descartes was b o m In La Haye, Prance, in March of 1 5 9 6. He was the son of Prench citizens who were wealthy and influential. The fact that his parents were wealthy proved to be very important ±n his later life as he traveled and gathered his thoughts for the major contributions which he was to make to the field of philosophy. He was educated at the Jesuit College at

La Pleche, one of the best schools of his time, a school established by Henry IV for the education of children of the elite Prench nobles of his time. Because of the persons under whose auspices the school which he attended was founded and because of the purpose it was to serve, it would seem to represent the best in instruction and the ultimate in the search for truth. Even for the precocious

Rene it should have seemed the ultimate, but these sentiments are not to be found in the records which he has left.

At school, Rene earned for himself the title "Little

Philosopher." He went on to familiarize himself with certain aspects of sciences and with books containing cumulative accounts of events of history and the knowledge

91 92

of the ■world. Slowly the boy built up certain doubts

about the information contained in these books glibly

repeated by his teachers. He became aware of conflicting

opinions and theories in addition to incoherent and

illogical systems of deduction. The sciences, especially mathematics, followed a system and logic with which he agreed. The sciences seemed to be based on demonstrable facts and indisputable chains of deductions perfectly clear and acceptable to logical thought. This was not true, so Descartes thought, in the areas of the humanities.

By further comparison, the mathematical system, by its efficiency and validity served only to make other areas of knowledge and academic pursuits seem less reliable and thorough. This opinion is derived from a statement which

Descartes made concerning the certainty of its proofs

(mathematics) and the evidence of its reasonings.

Descartes spent eleven years in military service under Prince Maurice of Hassau as an army engineer during which time he had an excellent chance to refine his theories #f mathematics and physics as well as to form the outlines of his philosophy. It was during the army experience that he met Isaac Beeckman, mathematician and rector of the college at Dortmund, with whom he was in contact for many years thereafter. Finally, he withdrew from military service to devote more time to his writings. 93

Descartes visited Heuberg in 1619, shut himself up dans un poele, "In a well heated room,” for the season where he formulated a plan to reduce physics to geometry and to find a method interconnecting all the sciences.

The setting of winter arrested me in a locality where, as I found no society to interest me, and was besides fortunately undisturbed by any cares or passions, I remained the whole day in seclusion with full opportunity to occupy my attention with my own thoughts.1

In 1622, Descartes returned to Prance, sold his estate in Poitou which he had inherited after the death of his parents to reduce the pressures of earning a living for himself as a mathematician and to enable him to devote more time to his writings. This accomplished, he visited

Switzerland and Italy and returned to Prance in 1625.

These dates are important because, after leaving Paris,

Descartes went to Holland where he spent the next twenty years writing and speculating on the philosophy called

Rationalism,

His lack of confidence in that which he had been taught in school as a young boy brought Descartes to the conclusion that all-inclusive doubt is at the outset the only open road to truth. He proceeded to question all

Rene Descartes, Discourse on Method, translated by J. Veitch. (La Salle: Open Court Publishing Company, 1945), p. 11, Also Donald Butler, Pour Philosophies (Hew York: Harper Bros., 1959), pp. 137-139. 94

opinions about which, there could be any doubt whatsoever,

as well as lines of reasoning which he had theretofore

accepted as truths or demonstrations of truths. Going

further, he began to doubt his senses until he had more

conclusive proof that the world about him was more real

than the illusions of his dreams. So began the lonely

mission, which he elected for himself, of devising a

system of knowledge and the senses. He wished his method

to be independent of accumulated knowledge of the past

mainly because it lacked the assurances of proof and was

therefore unacceptable. The one ingredient to which his

system must submit upon examination and reexamination was p subsequent proof. Knowledge without proof was unreliable.

The moot question for which Descartes had to find the

answer was: how could this system of proof be accomplished? First, Descartes had to establish a method by which truth could be found in any discipline, in any area of

thought; a way of arriving at knowledge which would guarantee the certitude of its products by its order and

thoroughness. The method would be appropriate for investi- ‘ gâtions carried on in all branches of learning and human . endeavors which contribute in gsneral or specific ways to the wisdom of man and the good life.

2 Kathrine Gilbert and Helmut Kuhn, A History of Esthetics (Hew York: Macmillan, 1939), pp. 268-209. By wisdom is to be understood not merely prudence . . . but a perfect knowledge of all that man can know . . . the conduct of his life , . . the preservation of his health and the discovery of the arts.3

Because mathematics offered a logical method and

seemed to be the one discipline which provided incontest­

able proofs of its conclusions by virtue of its well

defined system, Descartes decided to emulate the examples

of the mathematicians in his new philosophy which dealt

with methods of arriving at truth in the sciences and the

arts. He writes, "I was delighted with mathematics on

account of the certainty and evidence of their demonstra­

tions.

The method which Descartes envisioned was to begin with self-evident truths which were to become the initial

principles of his philosophy. By such procedures, he

thought it would be possible to advance through deductive reasoning to knowledge furnished by self-evident principles.

These self-evident principles were to be similar to the axioms upon which mathematical proofs are based. They should be principles and proofs so clear that they would be immediately apparent to the intuitive mind involved in

^Rene Descartes, "Meditations” in Discourse on Method (Veitch), o£. cit.. p. 108.

^Rene Descartes, "Discourse upon Method" in Philosophy of Descartes, ed. Henry A. P. Torrey (Hew York: Holfi and Company), p. 39. 96

the investigation. Moreover, they "would withstand the pressures of whatever doubts and inquiries might arise regarding them. He contended that if the deductive process begins with self-evident truths and includes only those truths and principles concordant "with them, and if each succeeding step in the deductive process is logically derived from the step immediately preceding it, the results must be valid and therefore reliable.

By intuition I mean . . . the conception of an attentive mind so distinct and so clear that no doubt remains to it with regard to that which it comprehends, or . . . that evidencing conception which springs from the light of reason alone . . . It may perhaps be asked why to intuition we add this other mode of knowing, by deduction . . . We are obliged to admit this second step; for there are a great many things which tfithout being evident of themselves, nevertheless bear the mark of certainty if . . . they are reduced from true and incontestable principles . . . These are the two surest paths to knowledge.3

. Further, Descartes sought one line of proof for all academic pursuits, even for physics and philosophy. He noted that in geometry it is frequently possible to construct more than one solution to the same problem, but one proof has no effect on the others, nor do additional proofs increase or decrease the certainty of the solution.

^Ibid.. pp. 64-65. 97

In physics and philosophy one proof should likewise be sufficient. Proof based upon certainty, proof that is 6 logical and deductive is adequate to establish validity.

Beyond his complete faith in the mathematical process and the results obtainable through its application, Descartes envisioned another benefit to be derived from epistemoligical pursuits: the mathematical method is only a phase of the true method; it is a part of a larger, universal method by which truth is extracted through mathematical procedures; the mental culture and habits of thought which eventuate, from such involved activity are vastly important. Man’s thinking faculties are sharpened and become more acute because by using his thinking faculty, he begins to utilize such perfect and logical procedures. When such a benefit is inherent, the sharpening of the mental faculties is as beneficial as the truths which are discovered in the process of "rightly conducting the reason."

For the man Rene Descartes, who matured from the inquiring and doubtful child to a person depending upon reason and sound habits of thoughts, a new role was created; it was the role of expanding and clarifying the ideas of

Rationalism not only by investigating his own existence, the existence of God, but finally that of the universe.

^Ibid., p. vii ff. 98

Partesian Rationalism

. Rationalism is that system of philosophical belief

which holds that human reasdnT"alone is able to attain

objective truth. In its basic form it is an epistemological

doctrine in which reason is contrasted with sense-ezperie&oe, unquestioned authority, and revelations. That is to say

that sensory experiences are not necessarily a just basis

of reality. Rationalism was inspired by the scientific method— especially mathematics; Rationalism stresses the

superiority of deductive reasoning.which.follows the careful planning and initiation of methods of inquiry; Rationalism suggests, because of the fallibility of man's memory, careful enumeration of results as they are observed.

Descartes attempted to enlarge upon his concepts of epistemolo'gy as an important adjunct of his theories. He extracted certain ideas, from the Platonic theories^ and, in addition to this; weighed views expressed by St.

Augustine and Boethius the ancient Roman who transmitted 8 the knowledge of Greek music to the Middle Ages, and St.

Anselm to help complete his ideas. Cartesian Rationalism

7 Plato, Republic; Also "Rationalism," Encyclopedia Brittanica, Vols. VI and VII, (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1946), p. 244. O Strunk, Oliver, Source Readings in Music History (Hew York: Horton, 1950), p. 79. 99

Includes a system of universal concepts of reason obtained

through analysis of basic relationships, logical and

mathematical, which may be applied to all empirical data.

These concepts, according to Descartes, are valid not only

for the actual world, but for worlds compounded in the

course of intellectual speculation. Effect, says the

philosopher, can be determined and understood once cause

is known. He discussed at length the concepts of being,

the ideas of number, time, and space, and finally of figures 9 and motion. Descartes contends that ideas in the mind

and sense-experience constitute no proof of the reality of 10 the external world. It is possible for man to get outside

the system of his own ideas by proving the existence of reality external of himself. This basic idea demands the

concept of a Hecessarv Being— a God concept. To show the applicability of the system, something must also be known

of God. Descartes claims that God is not veracious; will not allow man to be deceived in "rightly conducting the faculties of reason," in orderly and clear thinking. The rationalist says that the world is constructed according to the plan which has been conceived by an Infinite Intellect

^Descartes, Discourse on Method (Yietch), o^. cit.. p. 62. 10 Descartes, "Meditations" (Vietch), o£. cit.. tp, 118-119. 100

which is God. All of nature is the product of a divine concept resembling the orderly system found in the sciences and in mathematics particularly. A summarized view in

Descartes' own words, "Cum Deus calculât, fit mundus," gives some idea of the calculated construction of the world by God in which.he believed.

Reason established the validity of knowledge through the deductive process consisting of a chain of truths linked to each other and anchored to a first truth which is certain and which Descartes contends is easy to know. This first principle represents the point from which his investi­ gation is first generated and must be valid and self-evident.

The first principle must not be based on prior opinions of one's self or of others not having roots in the rationalist method; it must be incontestable so that deductions made after the initial stages may be correct. It must also be a truth that is fruitful if other deductions and conclusions are to arise from it. That is to say other deductive developments must be stimulated from that first principle and must be impervious to doubt. The first principle must allow other truths to have their origin in the fact of its validity. The first truth must be simple and easy to know.

If it is complex, unclear, obscure or the results are too intricate it will not submit to a process of reasoning. It 101

then becomes subject to dispute, misinterpretation, and questionable validity. As such it will not me^et the requirements of Rationalism. '

We must commence with the investigation of those first causes which are called Principles. Row these principles must possess two conditions; In the first place they must be clear and (self)-evident that the human mind , . . cannot doubt of their truth; in the second place, the knowledge of other things must be so dependent on them . , . that , . . the principles themselves may indeed be known apart from what depends on them (and) the latter cannot . . . be known apart from the former.11

In addition, a first truth of a complex nature would be beyond the comprehensive powers of many men and would result in making true knowledge possible to only a few.

What is knowledge that is simple and incontestable?

Descartes found that the process of thinking whereby knowledge is accumulated could be faulty.

We will . , . doubt . . . the things we have before held, as most certain, even of the demonstrations of mathematics and of principles which we have hitherto deemed self-evident . . . chiefly because we have learnt that God who created us is all- powerful; for we do not yet know whether perhaps it was His will to create us so that we are always deceived.^ ^

Physics, astronomy, medicine, and all other sciences that have for their end the consideration of com­ posite objects, are indeed of a doubtful character.13

l^lbid.. p. 108. 12 Descartes, "Discourse" (Torrey), o£. cit.. p. 40.

^^Ibid.. p. 42. 102

(Philosophy has) been cultivated by the best minds for ages and still there was nothing in it which might not be brought into dispute and which was, therefore, not free from d o u b t . 14

Even mathematicians may be in error in their

conclusions, says Descartes, for the proofs they present

result from long chains of deductions, each of which depends

on all that has gone on before. If this, is so, each factor,

as a link in the chain of deductions, must be duly

considered in subsequent reasoning. This places a heavy

responsibility on man? s memory. The memory may neglect to

consider some previously established truth or may recall

items connected with it in a false way. Memory may be

faulty in recalling consequences or meaning of principles.

It seems that man is susceptible to error -even in the

process of trying to reason. Descartes believed that man was finite and that his knowledge was limited. He is, therefore, by definition and capability, limited. Man is fallible I Much that man knows is conditioned by some influences or facts about which he is not certain. Here is further proof that man is subject to error. This fact may seem to be inimical to the base upon which Descartes makes certain assumptions connected with the powers of man's reasoning ability. It would seem that if man's

^^Ibid.. p. 43. 103

thinking process is subject to error, he might exercise imprudence in relying upon it. Yet, Descartes felt that his pointing out the possibility of error would cause thorough persons, seeking valid information and conclusions, to keep the fact of the posAbility of error constantly before him and in his final opinions guard against irrelevancies regardless of their source or origin. It must be carefully noted that that thought need not necessarily be faulty,

Descartes says.that error is possible and that man's mind produces other than cogent facts. It now seems necessary for Descartes to look elsewhere for the incontestable system for the production and detection of truth in academic and intellectual pursuits, Descartes examined the problem of knowledge and found that the senses were a possible source for the production of knowledge, A review of the sensory mechanism revealed that knowledge, having its genesis in sensory-perception, is less reliable than the knowledge acquired through the reasoning utilized in purely mental undertakings. The senses are deceptive, are therefore unreliable, and lead to error. He adds

All that I have up to this moment accepted as possessed of the highest truth and certainty, I received either from or through the senses, I observed, however, that these sometimes mislead 104

us; and it is the part of prudence not to place absolute confidence in that by which we have once been deceived.15 _ .

Again he says ^e will doubt, first, whether all the things that have fallen under our senses, or which we have ever imagined, any one (of them) really exist; in the first place, because, we know by experience that the senses sometimes err and it would be imprudent to truët too much to what has once deceived us; secondly, in dreams . . . we imagine innumerable objects which have no existence.1°

Towers which to our senses seem round at a distance are found, on closer examination, to be square;surfaces

seeming smooth at a distance are rough close up. Yet, at the time these items appear round and rough, there is little doubt that the correct analysis of their shape or surface has been accurately reported by the senses. A closer examination of the objects will allay the discrepancies between what seems to be and What actually is, in reality. Qualities of objects which are directly perceived by man may not be present in the object. The ideas connected with shape, color, texture, or odor.are not necessarily in the objects, but they may be in the mind of the person who perceives them. Such conclusions may represent more subjective musing than objective reporting.

^%ene Descartes, "Meditations" (Vietch), op. cit.. p. 22. 16 Rene Descartes, Principles of Philosophy (Vietch), OP. cit.. p. 131. 105

After the initial examination, it seems apparent that

the senses are not reliable criteria for valid conclusions.

A basic reason for the delusion to which the senses may be

subjected is apparent. They are forced to deal with complex­

ities which they cannot unravel at a given instant. The

properties of objects and matter are too complex to be dealt

with in the way that the sensory mechanism operates. The

three-phase method which Descartes offers as a valid way to

reach the heart of the truth of problems is not followed by

the senses. Thus, conclusions reached hastily and on the

basis of the reports of the senses may prove to be totally

fallacious. If this is the case, information to which man

has become heir that has been recèived through the senses of

those reporting the information must be accepted with caution.

Is Descartes' conviction that the first truth is easy

to know a false assumption? All agree that the senses

constitute one of the first systems of detection applied by

human beings in most situations which require a human

opinion. The recommendation must be made that first truths

are not always easy to know. Secondly, man should always be

aware that he is capable of being deceived by conclusions

based on items reported by the senses. Through the senses man receives approximations of what seems to be at the moment. Seldom is he not deceived by his senses. 106

But what of the questions of revelation and acceptance of the words of past authority? On the latter of these two questions, it has already been states that Descartes rejected the teachings of his Jesuit instructors at La

Pleche because of conflicting opinions which he found in subsequent readings. These men represented authority; authority resulting from their own opinions and from the gatherings of information taught to them verbaturn from past teachers or books. Descartes' view is that past authority must be questioned until it has been proved.

Bound up very closely with the thoughts and preachments of many of his teachers was the idea of revelation. How, revelation is closely bound up with ideas connected with mystical spiritualism— a concept precluding the reality of our world and favoring the idea of supernatural sources available only to God's elect, Descartes rejected both the assumptions of authority and reason. Valid knowledge is received only by way of reason, but revelation does not find reason necessary. Descartes stressed natural and 17 scientific knowledge and opposed revealed knowledge, '

No sooner had I completed the whole course of studies (at La Pleche) than I changed my opinion entirely , , , I found . . . so many doubts and

1 7 'William Benton, "Rationalism," Encyclopedia Brittanica (Chicago: University of Chicago, I960), Vol. 18, pp. 991-992, 107

errors, that it seemed to me that I derived no advantage . . . but only to find . . . how . ignorant I was. °

Such considerations emboldened me to judge all others by myself, and served to convince me that there does not exist in the world any such wisdom as I had been led to hope f o r . ^9

Accumulation of opinions of many different persons (even through revelation) by no means come so near the truth as the plain reasoning of a man of good sense in regard to the matters which present themselves to him.20

On the question of revelation he says^

I do not (include) divine revelation among (my methods of acquiring knowledge) because it does not conduct us by degrees, but elevates us at once (through) an infallible faith.21

Later, however, Descartes adjusts his position to agree with certain dogmas of his church regarding the revealed mysteries of religion. He was a Catholic by faith and it would seem logical to assume that he would not want to make a statement that would cause his church or teachers any embarrassment. In view of this he says,

Ifhat God has revealed is incomparably more certain than anything else . . . even /Though/ the light of reason should . . • suggest to us something contrary to what is revealed. But in things regarding

1 fl Rene Descartes, "Discourse on Methods" (lorrey), on. cit.. pp. 37-38. 1Q ^Rene Descartes, Ibid.. p. 38. 20 Rene Descartes, Ibid.« p. 43.

^^Rene Descartes, "Meditations" (Vietch), on. cit.. p. 11. 108

which there is no revelation, it is by no means ' consistent with the character of a philosopher to accept as true what he has not ascertained to be such. 22

Descartes reviewed revelation on the basis of certain

religious considerations and rejected it on the basis of his new concepts of the principles of Rationalism and of the

scientific method.

Three possible sources for acquiring knowledge have

been discussed; knowledge through thought, through the

senses, and knowledge through authority and revelation.

The Frenchman decided that through each there is a source for error. Yet each had been used in the acquisition of what had been presented to the world as knowledge by one group or another over the ages. Descartes assumed that he must doubt everything presented to him by others and all that he had not learned through the steps suggested by the rationalist methods. Descartes doubted even his own existence. He gave up all prior opinions and knowledge, believed nothing that he saw and nothing that he remembered.

Descartes was in a dilemma; however, one glimmering ray of hope shown through his darkest doubt. One thing remained constant. It seemed to him that when all knowledge had been submitted to doubt, there still was left the doubter.

22ibid.. p. 174. 109

There could be no doubt, thought he, unless there was a living organism engaged in the doubting. Someone had to be present. The same conclusion may be arrived at from another view. When separated from the things that are being doubted, the action of doubting, the question raised in the doubt itself, still remained. The existence of doubt is dependent upon the presence of a mind, of a self, which is engaging in * 4 a thought-process. This process cannot be associated with the lower animal kingdom because it is this capacity that . . clearly differentiates that kingdom from the superior abilities of man. "Je pont donc je suis" are the immortal words which Descartes uttered in the final justification of his own existence: translation, "I think, therefore, I am."

On the question of his own existence,Descartes says*

I am certain that I am a thinking thing . . . In this first knowledge, doubtless, there is nothing that gives me assurance of its truth except the clear and distinct perception of what I affirm.23

Descartes discovered and affirmed that he was clearly aware of his existence: this was immune to doubt. Likewise, he established his belief in God as an all-pervading, almighty force. Descartes investigated his God-concept as a possible cause of various phenomena of which he was aware.

23lbid.. pp. 42-43. 110

His existence established, he deduced that there had to be à'Cause for his existence. It was impossible to create himself, he surmized; it was less likely that he was created by a human equal only to himself. This left one last possibility; he must have been created by some

Perfect Being who is supernatural, i.e., God I This phase of his philosophy became known as the ontological argument.

I am here desirous to inquire, further, whether I, who possess this idea of God, could exist supposing there were no God ...... Prom whom could I , in that case, derive my existence? Perhaps from myself, or from some other cause less perfect than God . . . But if I were myself the author of my being, I should desire nothing, and in time, no perfection would be awanting to me; for I should have bestowed upon myself every perfection of which I possess the idea, and I should thus be God . . . But perhaps the being upon whom I depend is not God, and I have been produced either by my parents or by some cause less perfect than Diety. This cannot be: for . . . it is perfectly evident that there must be at least as much reality in the cause as in its effect . . . it is . . . necessary to conclude from this His existence is most clearly demonstrated.24

And on the question of the perfectibility of man he says

. . . as we do not in any way find in ourselves those absolute perfections of which we have the idea, we must conclude that they exist in some nature different from ours, that is, in God.25

. . . existence can ho more be separated from the essence of God than the idea of a mountain from that of a valley . . . It is less impossible to conceive

oA Ibid.. pp. 57-61. ^^Descartes, Principles of Philosophy (Vietch), op. cit.. p. 139. See also p. 99. 111

of Grod, that is, a being supremely perfect, to whom existence is awanting, or who is devoid of a certain perfection, than to conceive of a mountain without a v a l l e y . 26

In summary, it may be said that the rationalists produced a method based on the assumption that two mutually contradictory situations or states of affairs cannot exist at the same time, that a statement cannot be false and true at the same time, and that if two things equal a third, they are equal to each other. Such situations are self-evident, or it may be said that they submit an appeal to logical reasoning. Rationalism is the view that one knows what one has thought out and that the mind has the ability to discover truth through the faculty of reason. Rationalism takes the position that knowledge is obtained by the method compounded of and relating to solidified ideas as opposed to reliance on opinions gathered alone from sensory perception.

A very important point is raised by the rationalists: the senses by themselves cannot make coherent and universally valid judgments. It becomes evident from this fact that the highest kind of knowledge consists in valid judgments that are compatible with each other, as stated above. Sensations gained by sight, sound, touch, taste, or smell are only some

^^Descartes, "Meditations," 0£. cit.. p. 78. 112

of the materials which, when screened by individual judgment and realigned in order of importance in ideas, become the materials of knowledge. Sensation received first by the body must be organized by the mind and/or connected to other more meaningful subjects and objects to become reliable, rational knowledge. For the rationalist, knowledge is found in concepts, principles, and laws, and not just in the ■ \ experiences of unrefined sensations. Sensations must be connected to something more concrete than themselves. This fact weighs heavily in the whole Doctrine of Affections, the practice of associating musical figures with literary ideas for the obvious reason that the former is ideally suited to imitate, embellish, and express more profoundly the latter and aids in bringing abstractions within reach of concrete associations. But an alarm is sounded;

The danger of extreme forms of Rationalism is that men may substitute their deductive reasoning for empirical observation. In so doing, they may come to accept some system which has logical consistency but little relevance to the world in which we live.27 - Obviously, the system which Descartes established in his Rationalism was more favorable to the methods and interests of scientific inquiry then with artistic endeavor.

For was it not after mathematics that he patterned his whole

^^Harold Titus, Living Issues in Philosophy (Boston: American Book Company, 1935), p. 197. 113

system? By such methods, Descartes felt that he could attain accuracy and specific truth. The arts, such as literature, painting, and music center around generalized truth. Generalized truth and accuracy are different instruments and offer altogether different stimuli at the level of application. The dictates of scientific ideals may he inimical to art, but on the other hand, the knowledge and system found in the sciences could 28 conceivably augment the possibilities of art.

Music in Western Civilization contains the statement 2Q that Rameau was a disciple of Descartes. This theorist, according to Lang, sought to combine intellectuality and sensibility with philosophical speculations. He stated that the text of a newspaper could be set to music, so avid was he a proponent of Rationalism and doctrines of his day which resulted from Cartesian pronouncements. Hot only can this be deduced from the principles of harmony which he authored and ordered, but also from specific things which he said about the power of musical materials to portray different moods of human experience and modes of thought and action. Rameau summed up his views on the emotions, mental

28 Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (Hew York: Horton, 1941), p. 434.

^^Ibid.. pp. 544-547. 114 states and music in this statement: "L'expression de al ponsie, du sentiment, des passions doit etre vrai but de le musique.

That the Baroque musician was challenged by the principles of the Cartesian philosophy is stating the fact mildly. He was challenged in thé most strenuous way.

If absolute music, defined by no other elements outside of musical ones, is the results of pure contemplation, and if such music is received through the sensory mechanism, which is disqualified as a reliable source for the establishment of facts and knowledge, how may these abstractions be represented in concrete symbols and refined into ideas which may be rationalized? The rationalists' answer to this problem was that when human emotions, feelings, and passions were appropriately included in the texts— poesia per musica— which poets and literati provided for composers, these texts could be associated with appropriate musical figures in an attempt to bring intellectualized abstractions into the realm of the passionate concrete. Such notions formed the groundwork on this subject which is minutely treated in the theory known as the Doctrine of Affections.

30lbid.. p. 425. 115

Ratloaallsm and the passions

Although the purpose of the present work is to gain

an understanding of a specific problem concerning the

musical practices of the Italian, Alessandro Scarlatti,

those practices are deeply rooted in a complex theory

consisting of philosophical speculations, historical change,

aesthetic ideas, and the subjective views of men under the

domination of the influences of Rationalism. The theory with which musicians and others wrestled was known as the

Doctrine of Affections. A path must be made through the

complexities of this theory to ascertain the degree to which Scarlatti composed according to its tenets. It is only in following this procedure that the desired under­

standing of the man and his music may be obtained. Further, this understanding hinges on the degree to which definitions are obtainable from available sources. The Doctrine of

Affections must be described in the clearest possible terms so that its potentiality for application in the music of Scarlatti may be measured. The task is not easy for while there are many expositions and treatises on the

Doctrine of Affections, human expediences, and the amplifi­ cation of them in music there is no complete and clear picture to be found in the writings of any one man of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to supply all of the 116

desired answers. Many of these answers will be achieved deductively from sparse statements in numerous documents.

In all likelihood, they will form nothing similar to a universally accepted view on expression in music.

Seventeenth century musicians and philosophers compiled numerous tables, catalogues, and lists of basic human passions also called mental states and perceptions of the soul. Rene Descartes, set the example in his Passion de

L'ame. said to be one of his most pervasive and highly defined works. Some historical facts about this book will be of interest.

Descartes met Queen Christina of Sweden in 1646 and in

1650 wrote a special psychological treatisè listing what he considered to be the passions of the soul. It happened that this was his last work and it holds the key to the explanations and understanding of writers on the subject for almost two centuries. The immediate results of the book dedicated to the Queen on human passions stimulated other writers to compile similar lists, tables, and catalogues of human passions minutely described.

Descartes says in this work that passions of the soul are synonymous with feelings of various degrees and kinds and perceptions through the sensorynmechanism. Passions

3^Ibid.. p. 433. 117

are predicated upon actions of the soul set into motion by

contents of the blood stream. Broadly speaking, all

perceptions are passions of the soul.^^ He discusses

certain basic passions: love, sadness, hatred, desire,

wonder, joy, and sorrow, in great detail. Wonder is the

primary passion. He says it is

. . . a sudden surprise of the soul, which causes it to apply itself to consider with attention the objects which seem to it rare and extraordinary. It is thus primarily caused by the impression we have in the brain which represents the object as rare, and as consequently worthy of such consideration, then afterwards by the movements of the spirits which are disposed by this impression to tend with great force towards the part of the brain where it is in order to fortify and conserve it there; as they are also disposed by it to pass thence into the muscles which serve to retain the organs of the senses in the same situation in which they are so that it is still maintained by them . . .

According to the Frenchman, the soul is excited by

the moving passions which direct man's will. It is on the

passions, good or evil, that life itself depends. Further, he says that passions have an effect on the psyche and reiterates a common idea not only of philosophers but

biologists interested in the innerworkings of the body: passions are found in the spirits contained in the blood

^%ene Descartes, "Passions of the Soul," Philosophy of Descartes, ed. Holdance and Ross, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911), p. 330.

^^Ibid.. p. 380. 118

stream. He is consistent in his rational approach as he

speaks of one's judgment, which, when properly cultivated, acts to direct the passions and forms will. Passions are those perceptions which are recorded by the soul and acted upon by the soul.^^

The originator of this branch of Rationalism said that sensation was the raw material of experience. It is the job of reason to transfer impressions, made on the soul, into logical ideas, thoughts, and judgments. The soul receives its sttaulations and passions through the body which Descartes compares to a machine that is subject to the gemoetric and physical laws governing all natural law.

The vital spirits found in the body, Descartes judged to be the bridge between the physical world (nature) and the spiritual world. Passions are accompanied by distinctive physiological symptoms by which breathing may quicken, the heart may beat faster, etc. By determining the passions which are aroused, Descartes and others believed that it was possible to say what kind of external feelings resulted from internal emotions.

^^ b i d .. p. 426.

^^The word feeling has been used as a substitution for the external motions as used by Descartes in the passages referred to on p. 330 of Passions of the Soul. In the future pages of this paper when this wor? is used." "it will be used as here described. 119

Bernard lamy, a Cartesian devotee, in his book B'art de bien parler. published in 1675, stated that men are moved by passions; men are transported by feelings of love, hate, envy, and pity, Lamy went as far as to say men without passions are men without stimulus for action, Lamy devised a whole theory, based on Descartes' Passion sur I'ame. 36 concerning oratory and music. In his book he asserts that passions are the key to all we do and are said to be the great moving force of our very existence.

Other men influenced by Descartes had their say on passions of the soul, Spinoza applied the term affects which seemed more inclusive than Descartes' passions. An affect is an effect or quality of consciousness and it may be 37 a passion or an action, Whereas passion is a quality of consciousness caused by susceptibility of the mind, it is possible only when judgment is of insufficient strength to limit the passion. Spinoza gives some insight on the passions in the following passage;

, . . Affect, which is called animipathema, is a confused idea by which the mind affirms of its body, or any part of it, a greater or less power of existence than before; and this increase of power being given, the mind itself is determined to one particular thought rather than to another,3%

36 B. Gannon, W. Johnson, W, Waite, The Art of Music (lew York: Crowell, 1961), pp. 247-287,

^^Selected Writings of B, Spinoza, ed. John Wilde, lew York: Scribner, 1930), p7 207. 38lbid,. p, 61. 120

üfhile Spinoza gives a list of forty-eight affects, Descartes' list is not quite so lengthy. More on this subject was to come from other geographical parts of Europe.

Across the English Channel, the new ideas were called empirical rather than rational. However, there were "59 similarities to be found in the two. Thomas Hobbes suggested that passions are the reason for people's actions which he calls "voluntary motions.Hobbes considers endeavors the essence of passion. Passions stem from either aversion or desire. Emotional stability or "immobility or contumacy of the heartis the result of an absence of aversion. Hobbes lists three fewer passions than Spinoza and defines them much in the same manner as Spinoza and

Descartes.

A comparison of the lists of human feelings compiled by these three philosophers will show that these men agreed that anger, joy, and wonder are basic passions or affections.

However, as in the case of the very words, passion and affects, it has been shown that there was not uninimity of agreement on the passions and affects and denotations of human perceptions, feelings, and emotions. In observing the

^^Dang, op. cit.. p. 433.

^^Hobbes, "Leviathan" in the English Philosophers from Bacon to Mills, ed. E. A. Burtt, (Hew York; Modern liïïrary, 1939), p. 1%. ^^Ibid.. p. 149. 121

listings of these three men there is no guarantee that the

■words they use to denote specific feelings represent those feelings in the same degree or kind. It is certain that these three men, operating in different spheres of influence, recognized that separate mental states did exist and they agreed that they could be described in certain basic words, such as Joy, sorrow, and wonder. However, there does not have to be agreement ,on the causes of such mental states nor the intensity of such states.

A partial list, of the passions discussed by the three men is given:

1. Descartes . 42 Despair, Desire, Joy, Love, Hatred, Sadness, Wonder.

2. Spinoza

Ambition, Anger, Astonishment, Audacity, Avarice, Aversion, Benevolence, Commiseration, Compassion, Confidence, Consternation, Contempt, Courtesy, Crudity, Derision, Desire, Despair, Despondency, Devotion, Drunkenness, Emulation, Envy, Favor, Pear, Ferocity, Gladness, Gratitude, Hatred, Hope, Humility, Inclination, Indignation, Joy, Love, Lust, Luxurious­ ness, Moderation, Over-estimation, Pride, Pusillan­ imous, Regret, Remorse, Repentence, Self-Exaltation, Shame, Sorrow, Thankfulness, Vengence.^J

42 Descartes, "Passions of the Soul, (Haldane and Ross) OP . cit., pp. 5 3 8 -3 6 2 .

Selected Writings of Spinoza, loc. cit.. p. 207. 122

3. Hobbes

Admiration, Ambition, Anger, Benevolence, Blushing, Charity, Compassion, Confidence, Courage, Coveteous- ness. Cruelty, Curosity, Dejection, Despair, Diffidence, Emulation, Envy, Pear, Felicity, Fellow-Feeling, Glorying, Good nature. Goodwill, Grief, Hope, Impudence, Indignation, Jealousy, Joy, Kindness, Daughter, Liberality, natural Lust, Luxury, Magnaminity, Magnifying, Miserableness, Pain, Terror, Parsimony,.Jassicfa.. Pity, Praise, Pusillanimity, Religion, Revengefulness, Shame, Superstition, Religion, Vain-glory, Weeping, Wretchedness*44-

One of the things to be gained in compiling these lists is to notice the comparative length of the three. Descartes' list is noticeably shorter than either Spinoza's or Hobbes', * ‘ , and it would seem.that the latter men were trying to elaborate the Cartesian ideas.

It will be noticed that some of the passions are listed by all three, some by only two, and in a few instances some are listed by only one of the three. However, even though there is some agreement in terminology used to describe passions or mental states, it does not necessarily follow that these philosophers use a given word to describe similar passions in the same degree and intensity. It will be noted that when these three men discuss the passion of joy, there is a wide difference.

AA Hobbes, loc. cit.. p. 207. 123

Descartes: . . . the consideration of the present good excites joy in us, when it is a good . . . which is represented as belonging to us.45

Spinoza; Joy is man's passage from a less to a greater (state of) perfection.45

Hobbes: Pleasures or delights . . . arise from the expectation that proceeds from foresight of the end or consequences of things; whether those things in the sense please . . . and these are pleasures of the mind of him that draweth those consequences, and are generally called joy.46

^Vhile Descartes defines joy as that state of mind

which results from some positive influence, Hobbes'

explanation implies that the expectation of a pleasant

consequence induces a state of mind called joy. Spinoza

designates joy as the development of the individual towards

a higher intellectual or ethical perfection. These three

definitions reflects a vast difference of degrees of

opinion among the Rationalists— Descartes, Spinoza, and

Hobbes— on intensity of passions and meanings of passion.

The vast differences of opinion among the principal perpetrators of the philosophy of Rationalism is represent­ ative of the subjectivitylinherent in the idea of the expression of the passions and the rampant verbitage on the

subject which emanated from the age. The brief review of the

^^Descartes, "Passions of the Soul," (Haldane and Ross) OP. cit., p. 362.

Spinoza, o^. cit.. p. 207.

^^Hobbes, o^.. cit.. pp. 148-149. 124

ideas of Descartes, Spinoza, and Hobbes on the intensity

of the word joy, for example, is a signal of what will be

found as an attempt is made to blaze a trail through the recommendations left in records of this strange age on musical theories and devices said to be applicable to achieve expressio verborum— maximum expression of passionate texts.

The Doctrine of Affections t speculation

The Rationalistic practice of isolating the entities. of nature— parts from the whole until they could be understood- led to organized efforts to delineate the components of art and the aesthetic moment which some think remains essentially 48 irrational. It was common in the sixteenth century to find lengthy treatises expounding on the opportunities for . musicians to imitate nature through their art. These treatises became more numerous in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Delineations on the subject took the form of listings of basic passions and musical figures which would embellish these passions. It was hoped that the figures and the ideas they expressed would justly transmit feelings to audiences through a kind of imitation. How, the word imitation was used by Aristotle in his Poetics and

^Dang, o|>. cit., pp. 432-444. 125

again in his Politics. It was incorporated into eighteenth

century thought most completely. In discussing tragedy,

Aristotle used the word imitation and is recorded as having

said that it is

. . . an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of . . . emotions.^®

Rhythm and melody ^ a ^ 7 supply imitations of anger and gentleness and also of courage and temperance and of virtues and vices in general which hardly fall short of the actual affection.

These remarks are later embellished by Cicero,

Quintellian, Longinus and others. Much later in the

Baroque, these original Aristotelian ideas were developed in what is now known as the Doctrine of Affections. ‘ -'However, the extensive elaborations, treatments, and subjective opinions devised to explain the doctrine has led to additional confusion. Consequently, the term cannot be identified concretely with any unified chronological . pattern of development.

Aq ^S. H. Butcher, Great Critics, ed. J. H. Smith and E. W. Parks, (Hew York: Horton, 1939), p. 34.

^^Aristotle, Politics, tr by B. Jowett, (London: Clarenden Press, 1936) Vol. VIII, p. 409.

J. W. Draper, "Aristotelian Himesis in Eighteenth Century England," in Publications of the Modern Language Association. XXXVI, (1921), pp. 372-400. 126

Before an attempt is made to follow the course which the discussions of the Doctrine of Affections takes as it relates the particular qualities which music possessed to facilitate the imitation of nature, a general definition, in the broadest possible terms, is now in order. Affection is literally a state resulting from some external influence.

The term is generally connected with the "mental states" or certain human feelings as defined by Descartes, Spinoza, and

Hobbes. Ethical writers used the word to refer to distinct states of feeling both lasting, temporary, or spasmodic.

Some men contrast affection with passion by the explanation that passion is free from distinctively sensual elements.

To this may be added the thought that music, though it could imitate physical nature, more properly ought to imitate human nature^ representing in concrete musical figures the discrete classified and stereotyped human feelings and emotions which

Rationalistic, philosophers had so clearly identified and described. Such musical imitation could achieve a kind of purgation of the emotions, according to Aristotle, and thereby elevate the soul.^^ One fact is clear, the

^^Encyclopedia Brittanica, o^. cit.. p. 278.

^^Lang, 0£_. cit., p. 432. 127

Cartesian treatment of the passlons^^ provided that ideas

and emotions could he associated with musical figures and

in this context call up the passions to create an aesthetic moment.

This is the basis of Baroque thought on limitation and' expression of shades of human feeling. The process could be started by associating certain ideas of forms, intervals, rhythms, melodies, phrases or tones with certain acts and ideas in-'texts causing the hearers to emote or attain a passionate, state. Both Locke and Addison thought that the basis of such associations was physiological and that they took place when appropriate motion in the body agreeably aroused these ideas in the mind,^^

Humanism reintroduced ancient Greek philosophical ideas and gradually turned attention from other-worldness of the Middle Ages to the earthiness of and after the

Renaissance. The way in which natural law was defined by

Descartes and the way in which explorations for knowledge were undertaken set the example not only for the sciences but for the humanities as well. The die was cast for

^^Descartes, "Passions of the Souls," (Holdane and Ross), 0£. cit.. p. 331.

^^Schueller, "Speculation in British Musical Criticism," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. VIII (March 1950),p. l37: 128

musicians as well as for mathematicians and all others,

Nature, and the imitation of nature and natural law, became the foremost object of the intellectual. The challenge to the musician was tremendous. The idea of such imitation seemed simple and quite appealing but became ideals rather difficult for musicians to interpret in representative musical formulae. In addition, certain formal, harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic ideas were harnessed to imitate or represent acts of nature into discernible musical represent­ atives.^^

Athanasium Kircher (1602-1680), Jesuit priest and historian, who maintained wide interests of varying importance, authored a rather definitive book under the title Musurgia Universalis dealing with many subjects including ideas on the Doctrine of Affections. He discussed various musical styles which he said originated in the physiological and emotional constitution of the individual. Further, he allowed that the emotional reactions of men depended on the state of their health, mental and physical.

Melancholy people like grave, solid and sad harmony; sanguine people prefer dance music because it agitates the blood; choleric people like agitated harmonies

^ Vincenzo Galileo, Dialogo della musica antica e m o d e m a . 1581, pp. 88-89, quoted by Carapetyan, Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music, pp. 55-56. 129

because of the vehemence of the swollen gall; martially inclined people are partial to trumpets ^ and drums and reject all delicate and pure music. .

The kind of thinking represented in the ideas of Kircher was duplicated by other philosophers at what may be called

a higher level of abstraction. National styles, represented in the music of various countries, were explained on the basis of the immediate environment in which people live and the state of their mental and social circumstances.

After reviewing the seventeenth century, it is no surprise to find that two hundred years since the

Renaissance was ushered in, Neo-Aristotelian thought permeated philosophical ideas but the practical means for the application of that thought was indeed difficult to ' find. Moreover, it is important to note that musicians seemed compelled to comply with the tenets of Neo-

Aristotelian thought expanded anew in the documents of the Rationalists. It seems evident that the basis of the

Doctrine of Affections was no sudden creation of the eighteenth century. The path of this doctrine is traceable to the "reawakening" when the resurgence of ancient Greek thought became the ideal of the men of letters. The speculative writings which appeared in this century represent

57Lang, _op. c ^ . , 437 130

the best sources for additional information on this Doctrine

of Affections which swept over Europe like a contagious

disease, originating in Italy without ever being signifi­

cantly recorded in any scholarly fashion in books for

posterity, and gradually spreading to other countries by

various meags and/or persons, more or less qualified to be

representatives of its rather vague requirements.

‘ The most definitive statements concerning the Doctrine

of Affections came out of Germany where musical speculation

was carried .on in profusion and from which country came some

of the most definitive volumes on the abstract ideas

ccnnected with this doctrine. But the well-spring for the

application of ideas on rational thought in music relating

the Doctrine of Affections originated on the soil of sunny

and vibrant Italy.

Johann Scheibe made a rather clear statement on the

German equivalent of the Doctrine of Affection— Affektenlehre,

In making this statement, it is to be noted that some

confusion is found in it, for confusion is almost synonymous with thé theory of the affections. "The figures are of

themselves a language of the affections . . He

continues his expository remarks with suggested technical

A. Schiebe, Kriticus Musikus (Leipzig; Brietkopf and Hârtel, 1^45), P. 145. 131

devices to express the affections and gives a lengthy list,

one of a tremendous quantity to appear during this era in

continental Europe and in Great Britain,

J. 0, Gottsched seemed preoonupied with music for

"morale" purposes. He thought music stimulated virtue.

He is not alone, for Prances Hutcheson, the English writer,

had a similar idea. Both of these men thought that music

would stimulate the best possible responses in individuals.

It seems that Gottsched admitted that music could stimulate

negative responses and it is precisely at this point at

which he is in disagreement with Hutcheson for the Englishman

felt that music could only awaken or sponsor passions of virtue. Somewhat like Descartes and Spinoza, Hutcheson

wanted to see the passions and affections only in the KQ service of virtue.

Frederick Wilhelm Marpurg, a prolific writer of musical criticism ^ d a composer of music as well, left some helpful words on the subject of the affections. ‘He compiled a list as Descartes and his followers had done, mentioning such "states of mind" as contentment, sadness, happiness, and regret among his list of seventeen passions.

Because he recommended that certain basic passions are

KQ Hugo Goldschmidtt. Die Musikeasthetik des 18 Jarhhunderts (Zurich and Leipzig, p. bo. 132

composed of or compounded with other emotions, he sounds

quite like Hutcheson, the Englishman. Both men contended

that expressive figures of music had to be composed of

particularly representative devices which would Include

corresponding elements to be found In music. Though his

list of passloms or emotions Is quite helpful, he has left

no musical examples to better Illustrate his thoughts.

This Is unfortunate. However, Marpurg seemed devoutly

convinced that the listing and systematizing of elements

of particular problems as recommended by the Rationalists

led to an understanding of the problems of the Imitation of

human feelings. Ipso facto. Such detached thinking Is not

objectionable as mere speculation or mental exercises.

However, when the composer came to the level of application, he would find such suggestions devoid of the element of

emotion, a consideration Important In artistic expression. Johann Mattheson, who Is contemporary with the principal musician of this study, Alessandro Scarlatti, as well as with Rameau, another devotee of Rationalism, provided many critical works on the trends of his age

In music and musical thought. According to a recent study by Cannon on this great personality, Mattheson became a 61 prominent representative of the Doctrine of Affections.

Glen Haydon, "On the Problem of Expression In Baroque Music," Journal of the American Muslcologlcal Society. Vol. Ill, Summer, 1950, pp. 113-119. ^^Beekman, Cannon, Johann Mattheson Spectator In Music (Hew Haven: Yale University Press, 1947), pp. 127-1??. 133

In the earliest years of the eighteenth century

Mattheson authored his leu Erflffnete Orchestre which contained his notions of the speculative basis of a highly classified system of human passions. He believed that this rational system would be important to musical theorists and critics. What he projected in 1713 in leu Erflffnete

Orchestre, he continued in ])as Forschende Orchestre (1721),

Pritica Musica (1722), and Vollkommene Kapellmeister (1739) in more elaborate terms. By carefully scanning the literature of Gottshed and Schiebe, it is evident that

Mattheson, in general, agrees with them. His methods of applying the broad principles upon which there is agreement is, as is expected, somewhat different. In Bas leu

Erflffenete Orchestre, he agrees with those who said that it is possible for musical tones to excite and arouse the passions. In the specific examples of minor scales which reportedly portray sadness and major scales which express joy, he chides the commentators because they do not go far enough in explaining the manner in which the process is carried out. He proceeds to examine and comment on the "affective" qualities of the various scales.

^^Johann Mattheson, Ber Vollkommene Kappelmeister (Hamburg: 1. P., 1728), p. 251. 134

Mattheson accepted the current attitude of this time

with regard to the parallelism of mus,ic and speech. Music

was considered to he a kind of "sound speech." Mhttheson

used the pronouncements of thé system of neo-classical

literary criticism which erupted during and after the

Renaissance to buttress his position. This complete system

was designed to assist the musician in selecting appropriate

musical figures in the expression of basic human emotions.

He recommended that particular affections be set forthrightly

at the beginning of à composition by the composer. Also,

he cautioned the composer of the danger involved in using

figures inappropriately to embellish words or phrases

considered secondary to the main affections. Such practices

detract from the impact of the two principal emotions or

principal ideas dealt with in the aria, for example,

containing contrasting ideas and emotions.

The influence and power of the Doctrine of Affections,

was not only emphasized to the composer, but to the performer

as well. The sensitive performers, especially singers, in

this era became the idols of courts, chambers, and theatres

through their passionate renditions and enviable vocal

skills. Attempting to alarm performers one man has said,

Marpurg, quoted in W. J. Mitchell, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (Hew York; Horton, W Ï 9 ) , P.Tl. 135

The musician must therefore play a thousand different roles; he must assume a thousand characters as dictated by the composer. To what unusual undertakings the passions lead us! . . . A musician must therefore possess the greatest sensitivity and the happiest powers of divination to execute^correctly every piece that is placed before him.°4

Not only were the German thinkers aware of the possibilities for producing the affections with the beauty and technique of the human voice. They were aware of the possibilities for expression in instrumental music. According to Lang,

Mattheson has written to the effect that

, . . the instruments became an integral part of the Aff ektenlehre . . . He speaks of the most • magnificently sounding trombones, the lovely pompous horns, the proud bassoons, the harsh comets, the modest flutes, the heroic kettle­ drums, the flattering lûtes, the solid viole . da braccia, the grumbling bass fiddles, etc, . . As certain writers thought that the Doctrine of

Affections was an extension of musica reservata,^^ certain m#h #f the eighteenth century thought that Empfindsamkeit was a continuation of the doctrine. Now, Herbert Schueller

64 ?. Marpurg, quoted in ¥. J, Mitchell, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (New York: Norton. ------

^^Johann Mattheson, Das Neu Ertfffnete Orchestre (Hamburg; N. P., 1713), Vol. I, p. 2 6 6; Lang. o p . cit.. p. 440.

^^Alfred Einstein, 0£. cit.. pp. 848-849. 136

suggests that the simple affect of the Baroque was a

dominant factor during succeeding era; in the period

immediately following the Baroque it is the effects,

and the plural connotation that is important here, and

in the Rococco when Empfindsamkeit became a dominant

factor. Perhaps the transition from one to the other was due mainly to the emancipation of musical expression

from the influences.of literary standards and the influ­ ences of the metaphor, similes, and figures of speech adopted %s the basis for expressiveness in music.

. . Empfindsamkeit, or sentimentality . . . a half-way stage between "objective" expression of the passions, as described in the Aff ektenlehre and the individual expression of feelings expected by the Romanticists.®' .

Many of the principles found in the Doctrine of

Affections.are found in Empfindsamkeit and both, seem to have a common aim; However, there is a difference:

Empfindsamkeit ceased to be a systematized theory of aesthetics which could be taught and applied by anyone.

It became a personalized, self-conscious pursuit of a means for self-expression. The affections furnished a motive power, but Empfindsamkeit changed the meaning and usefulness of the system.

^'^Schueller, "Imitation and Expression in British Music Criticism," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, VIII, March, 1951, p. 564.

^^Lang, o£. cit.. p. 585. 137

Having reviewed the effects of the Doctrine of

Affections in Germany, it would be fair to see what was

taking place in France during the period. The French were

influenced in a restrained manner by the same sociological,

philosophical, and cultural drives as the German?, English, and the Italians, Among the more articulate Frenchmen

commenting on the subject of the affections, Jean Phillips

Rameau, was a leader. He believed that music existed to amplify the feelings of human beings found in the texts of vocal music.

Les paroles que l ’on met en musique ont toujours certaine expressions, soit triste, soit gaie; que l ’on ne peut se dispenser re render; et tel qui ne prend point de paroles pour guide s ’imagine tourjours un sujet qui le trent a peu près dans le meme esclavage.

Rameau has been described by one m o d e m scholar as 70 ”an indefatigable student of Descartes. While his major contributions are in the area of harmony and the theory of music, he succeeded as a writer in connecting theory and tradition with the speculation carried bn by eighteenth century philosophers. He identified musical intervals as possessing certain affective and expressive qualities.

69 p. M. Masson, L*Opera de Rameau (Paris, H. Laurens, 1930), p. 425. 70 Lang, 0 £. cit.. p. 547. 138

The intervals of the major and minor third are singled out and said to be characteristic of joy and tenderness 71 respectively. He says that descending chromatic 72 passages have a sadness inherent in them. Another statement attributed to Rameau is given here: "1'expression de la pensee, du sentiment, des passions, doit etre le vrai but de la musique The French are not usually associated with violent and intense emotional display. They are reputed to be a people able to exercise great reserve and detachment. The expression of extreme passions never found a home with French composers and writers of music. A far greater emphasis was placed on the academic imitation of nature and of natural sounds, Abbe Jean Baptiste Du Bos' attitude toward the theories of the Doctrine of Affections is typical of the French attitude towards overt expressions of emotions. Extreme passions in real life, are accompanied by suffering corresponding to their intensity. He conceded that an emotional experience was better than none at all. Music, he thought, could best do its job when it could stimulate passions in men by imitating nature. Imitation of nature he deduced would save people the experience and after

Masson, o£. cit.. p. 441. "^^Ibid.. p. 439.

"^^Masson, 0£. cit.. p. 425. 139

effects of real emotions. However, it will be recalled

that the sensory mechanism has been disclaimed by

Rationalists as an adequate source for knowledge. Du Bos

contented that his final suggestion did not interfere with f * - fc the process of reason becausje, he thought, reasoning men 74 understood the unreliability of such stimuli.

Du Bos and Rameau produced similar ideas on music

as a means of enhancing the powers of a text. Vocal music

should rely on its ability to make sounds similar to those

fouûd in nature itself. As others had done, Du Bos believed

that vocal music more properly could portray human passions and instrumental music could imitate the sounds of nature.

The idea is not original with Du Bos, but it reflects typical French views on the subject of the Doctrine of

Affections.

Jean Jacques Rousseau, the outspoken musician and philosopher, stated in his article on "Imitation" that music ideally should awaken in the listener the same passions as a dramatic presentation without the assistance

74 ' A. J. B. Du Bos, Reflexions critiques sur la peesie et sur la peintre. Vol. I, (Paris, Hi P. ,1719, tr. from the 5th ed., 1746 by T. Wergent, London: 1748), pp. 634-635.

"^^Brewster Rogerson, "Ut Poesia Musica" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge: Harvard University Press) p. 57. 140

of the techniques of the stage. Rameau and Rousseau

believed a chromatic style to be suitable to express pain 76 and supplication.

Others might be cited to give the views of the French which when distilled are as follows: the purpose of all art was to express, via imitative, devices, particular, discrete emotions by standardized formulae and principles. Certain questions were unanswered by them. Others were simply confused. They are represented in the writings and ideas of Descartes* Keys, intervals, scales, rhythms, etc., best to portray emotions were not mentioned specifically. They contended that music had the power to imitate the passions in a quite unique way. The Rationalists demanded that the arts, as did the sciences, proceed in accordance with natural law. Particular formulae for the accomplishments of these ends remained unsettled.

In England, Thomas Wright authored a book. The PasËiwns of the liinde. in 1604, in which he had the following statement to make regarding the ability of music to raise the passions :

T^Rousseau, Dictionnaire de Musique (2 vols.; Paris: P. DuPont, 1824), Of. Masson, o£. cit.. p. 439. 141

For musicke bath a certaine secret passage into man’s seules, and vrorketh so divinely in the minde, that it elevateth the heart miraculously, and resembleth in a certaine manner the.voices and harmonie of heaven . ,

The ideas of Rationalism and the theory of the derivative

of that philosophy, the Doctrine of Affections, had filtered

into England as it had Germany and Eraace.

Christopher Simpson lists some of the passions and •

suggests the suitability of the discord to express cruelty,

anguish, and despair. The basic idea that has pervaded with

regard to the power of music to imitate the passions and

raise the emotions was found in England. This theory

barkens back to Aristotle and points out that poetic texts,

well adopted in vocal forms, provide an excellent opportu­

nity for the amplification of the words they contained.

Representatives of English thought confirm the statement

just made.

There was John Dryden who wrote on the power of music

to excite the passions. He stated in his ideal poetic manner

that there was no passion, which music could not "raise and quell." He refers to Jubal’s lyre, that mythical instrument about which composers as reknown as G. P. Handel wrote.

^^Thomas Wright, The Passions of the Minde (London; V. Syms, -1604), p. 168.

^^G. P. Handel, Songs and Airs of G. P. Handel (Philadelphia: Oliver bit son, 1^56), p."“122. 142

Prances Hutcheson says.

We denote by the passions . . . raised by the presence of pleasure and pain not by object or event but by our reflection or apprehension of their presence . . . or future existence.'9

He goes on "With the statement that "in the most moving periperties, remembrances, epics, and dramatic poetry 8n certain . . . passions are raised in us"; He agreed with someone who said, "There is in souls a sympathy with sounds.

Anthony Ashley Cooper spoke of the union of music and text to express the passions. His contribution is significant because his views represented the popular philosophy of his age. He enlarged the views of his contemporaries of music and on the ethical and moral implications associated with the doctrine to include the driving forces in human behaviour and the part that art could play in inspiring. Other Englishmen of the eighteenth century wrote on music and the passions. Roger

Forth, Frances Hutcheson, Charles Avison, and James Harris are among these contributors.

"^^Frances Hutcheson, Essay on Fassions and Affections (London; F. P., 1728), p. 28.

GOlbid.. p. 81. fli H. M. Schueller, "Speculations in British Musical Criticism." Journal of Aesthetics, VIII (March, 1950), P. 163. 143 .

Doctrine of Affections : application

Bnküfzer strongly urged that musical figures, solutions,

and ideas recommended to express certain passions are in 82 themselves and in what they purport to do ambiguous. He

says that the theories of disciples of the new ideas on

expression merely "represented* or "signified" various

affections. Due to the theorists’ subjectivity, musical

figures were recommended that were similar or exactly

identical but often associated with wholly contrasting

passions. When this is recognized, it is already an

indication that there is an inherent weakness in this

system. Therefore, it would seem fruitless to isolate

figures and to classify them according to absolute

expressive powers; but, to complete the picture, selected

ideas of men relative to expression, who contributed to

the large number of recommendations in the Baroque will now be given. Particularly useful will be the ideas of

Geminiani, Schiebe, Gottsched, Mattheson, Mersenne, Du Bos,

Rameau, Hutcheson, Marpurg, Antoniotti, Masson, Grassineau,

Pasquali, Holden, Avison, Horth, and James Harris. It is

apparent that the ideas are representative of men from the

leading nations who worked assiduously to achieve in music what Descartes had so avidly recommended in his rationalistic methodology.

82 Bukofzer, o£. cit.. p. 389. 144

EoW; it will be recalled from previous references

that the literati produced, texts designed purposefully to

arouse, amuse, and stimulate musicians and auditors alike.

Texts contain the principal key to the recognition of the

passions, feelings, and emotions that were being amplified

in the cantatas. Because affective musical devices were

selected according to their ability to amplify.the passion­

ate texts, Rameau cautioned the composers, performers, and

auditors not to attempt to derive literal meanings from the

texts of poesia per muslca. He mentioned that one should not attempt to pass judgment as to the validity of the texts

or to their true meaning, but that one must give one's self . 84 up to an intuitive and emotional reception, and experience

of the thoughts molded in the poet's most sensuous language.

Only then must he begin to express himself in the manner suggested by the doctrine as he interpreted it.

Various types of recitativo had been devised to present the active and transitional details in the text. Several types received appropriate names according to their design and function; other types were left unnamed according to gc Apel. Likewise the aria was devised to present the

^^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 19. 84 J. P. Rameau, Observations sur notre instinct pour la musique (Paris: H. P., 1754), pp. 61-62.

^^Apel, ££. cit.. pp. 629-630. 145 reflective parts of the text. Dent speaks of the effective ways in which Scarlatti used the recitativo and arioso; still others note his inventions of the ^ capo aria for contrastable renditions of texts. In addition, the brilliant Italian Intionotti recommended that according to the passion being amplified that one of the twelve aria-types properly employed in a fitting tempo could express the pathetic, brisk, and languid.It will be shown in a future reference that various recommendations of styles, and types of arias were used to express varying dramatic and passionate ideas. Though the possibilities inherent in harmony offered many opportunities to express passions in the framework of the Doctrine of Affections, there was a wide variety of ideas as to how the element could be effectively usedi Wessell located some of these varying opinions on the efficacy of specific triads, chords, and intervals in the expression of specific passions. He agreed that thgse varying ideas are to be expected because they represented ideas of many men, but he said very succinctly that . . . to attempt to systematize the various chords and their combinations (as devisive means to express the passions) would have been a task much too large to be attempted by any one man.87

®^cf Chapter V on the "aria forms." ^^Messell, o^. cit.. p. 142. 1 #

Quantz had a great deal to say about intervals and

chords which he classified as being expressive, very

expressive and most expressive. He did not say which

passions these chords expressed best, but he noted that chords

of the ninth, ninth plus a fourth, ninth plus a seventh, and

chords of the fifth plus a fourth are expressive. Then

Quanta discussed intervals and designated them to be very

expressive or most expressive. Still further the major second

plus a major fourth, a minor second plus an augmented fourth,

a minor third plus a major fourth, a perfect fifth plus a

major third, a diminished fifth plus a minor sixth, a minor

seventh plus a major third, a minor seventh plus a minor

third, and a major seventh are considered by Quantz to be

very expressive. He continues by saying that a minor second

plus a major fourth, a major second plus an augmented fourth,

an augmented second plus an augmented fourth, a diminished

fifth plus a major sixth, an augmented sixth chord, a

diminished seventh chord, a major seventh plus a second and

fourth, a major sixth plus an augmented fourth and minor third are most expressive. In addition, Quantz says that

chromatically chordal progressions are suitable to express go languishing, suffering, and profound feelings. Rousseau

OO J. J. Quantz, Versuch einer anweisung die FlQte Traversiere zu Snielen (Berlin : H. P., 1752), P» 227. 147

3oins Quantz in the belief that chromaticism suitably empifiiyed expressed pain and supplication.®^ Rousseau also stated that chromaticism ascending or descending could be used to express sadness.On the question of intervals

Rameau notèd that consonance should be particularly apparent between the outer poles.He continued by suggesting that sweetness and tenderness could best be expressed through minor dissonances. Rameau also suggested that violent passions such as despair and anger could be amplified best by major dissonances which should be placed in the upper­ most line since it is exposed.

Mattheson suggested that "wide intervals" and "quick qp movement" fittingly express joy; H. Pasquali said that tenderness would best be expressed by simple intervals like the^thirds and sixths; and Grassineau stated that the simple minor third is associated with sadness and moumfulness in

"low and grave sounds" and that the major third is strong and sonorous and should be used often in brisk arias.

®9j. J. Rousseau, quoted in P. Masson, L*opera de Rameau (Paris: Laurens, 1950), pp. 436-450.

^^Rameau, op. cit.. p. 141. 91 Alfred Einstein, discussed the double polarity of the outer voices in his Italian Madrigal. II, p. 848.

^^Mattheson, Vollkommene Kappelmeister (Eamburg: M.P., 1 7 2 8 ), p. 1 9 6; M. Pasquali, Through-bass Made Easy (Edinburg: R. Brenner, 1757), p. 46.

Grassineau, A Musical Dictionary (J. Wilcox, 174o), p. 278. . “ 148

Rameau added to this his opinion that the augmented

second was ideal to express uncertainty and suspense; the major and minor third to express joy, softness, and tender­ ness; the fourth and fifth to express energy, fierceness, and wildness; the augmented fifth to express harshness; and the q a major seventh to express aggression.

On diatonic motion, Mattheson noted that gradüal and stepwise progressions express tenderness and implied that small intervals— half and whole steps— mixed with the third and fourth express tenderness. However, he cautioned against using too many such intervals in succession to 95 prevent redundancy.

An interesting account of the remarks of Rameau which were made of Lully's setting of the words "tristes apprêts" in the opera Armide written in 1686 have been located.

Rameau objected to an appraisal by Rousseau of the setting of these words because they had not been sufficiently amplified. Rameau asks a question and follows it with a, statement:

Do we not suffer the same feeling of oppression as the heroine . . . when the melody drops from £* to f ' at the words tristes apprêts? If the

^^Rameau, 0£. cit., p.14

^^Mattheson, Vollkemmene . . . , 0£. cit., p. 152, 149

f ' were replaced by a £* and the harmony remained unchanged, the emotions would not be a r o u s e d , 96

Rameau summarized his views on the affective uses

which could be made of musical intervals: whole and half

steps could be used in the expression of plaintiveness,

sorrow, doubt, grief, jealousy, violence; small conjunct

intervals in the expression of loveliness and tenderness;

augmented seconds in the expression of uncertainty, and

suspense; small disjunct intervals in the expression of

tenderness; ascending thirds in the expression of loveliness

and gaiety; descending thirds in the expression of melancholia

and supplication; minor thirds in the expression of sadness

and mournfulness; and major thirds in the expression of

loveliness and briskness; descending fourths in the

expression of pathos, dolefulness, and graveness; perfect

fifths in the expression of boldness; diminished fourths in

the expression of pathos; augmentediburths in the expression

of harshness; ascending fourths in the expression of

liveliness, energy, and fierceness; minor sixths in the

expression of lamentation, moumfulness; major and minor

sixths in the expression of plaintiveness; diminished

sevenths in the expression pathos; major sevenths in the '

P. Rameau, quoted in Herman Scherchen, The Rature of Music (Chicago: Regney, 1950), p. 59. 150

expression of aggression; large intervals in the expression of madness; chorded skips in the expression of madness; and 97 conjunct intervals in the expression of joy.

Rhythmic ideas were developed to express various I' states of mind, moods, tempi, and styles. The Italians succeeded in devising a remarkable catalog of terms used sparsely by most men in this age which acted as an important guide to composers and performers. Recently,

Ralph Kirkpatrick^® drew attention to Saint-Lambert*s

Principes du Clavecin which contained many suggestions, though vague, on aspects of rhythm-meter and tempi— of 99 genuine interest to this discussion. Rhythm played an important part in raising the right affection,Accord­ ingly, Lully's setting of various parts of Armide were criticized by Rameau, He said, "A more lively rhythm , , , might make the passage more affective,John Holden had this to say about selecting a proper tempo to express the passions:

^'^Rameau, Traite de l 'Harmonie, op, oit,, p, 14U

^®Ralph Kirkpatrick, "18th Century Metronimic Indica­ tions," Journal of the American Musicological Society. (December, 1938), pp, 30-49.

^^St, Lambert's, Principes du Clavecin. 1702,

^^^^William Trans'ur. Elements of Music Displayed (London: Crowder, 1772), p, 120, 1 01 Rameau, quoted in Jerman Scherchen, Nature of Music. op, pit,. p, 63. 151

Prom hence wé conclude, in general, that slow and quick movements of music ought to be intro­ duced, according as the sentiment intended to be expressed , . . Por instance, sorrow, humility, and reverence require a slow movement with gentle and easy inflections of the voice, but joy, thanksgiving and triumph ought to be distinguished by a quicker movement, with bolder inflections, and more distant leaps, A moderate movement with quick swells and softenings, is expressive of tenderness and compassion; a quicker, more uniform, and strongly accented movement, expresses resolution and fortitude. Anger is generally expressed in movements quick and loud and unconnected; hope and expectation in a more moderate movement soft and easy, and so of o t h e r s . '02

Quantz noted that when a song is more arioso than sade, the tempo should be one quarter note to a pulse;he associated adagio with tender expressions,supplication, and sorrow,and connected allegro with sprightliness and joyously exotic sentiments, Quantz observed that the dotted Lombardic rhythm produced a joyful and saucy feeling and that combinations 107 of dotted notes produced a serious and pathetic expression; that a mixture of half and whole notes with shorter notes

102 John Holden, An Essay Towards a Rational System in Music (Glasgow: H, P, ,”T77 g )", p, 35.

^Quantz, 2 2 . cit.. p. 265. ^°^Ibid,. p. 107 ^^^Ibid.. p. 138. lO^Ibid,. p. 111. TO^Ibid,. p. 199. 152

1 AA produced a feeling of magnificence and sublimity. He also recommended that sustained passages should be slurred while notes that "hopped," were suggestive of ]py.

Like melodies. Intervals, and rhythms, having effective qualities, the amplification of certain passions was linked to the chiascuro (light and dark shades) inherent in certain keys. Quantz explained his views on the inherent qualities of major and minor tonalities in a rather detailed statement which is given below:

Aus den Tonarten, of solche hart Oder weich sind. Die harte Tonart wird gemeinlich zu aus-druckung des Lustigen, Preohen, Emsthaften und Erhabenen; die weich aber zur Ausdruckung des Schmeichelnden, Traurigen und Zartlichen gebrauchet . . . aus den vorkommenden Intervallen, ob solche nahe oder entfemt liegen und ob die no ten geschleift oder gestoszen warden sollen. Durch die geschleiften und naher aneinander liegenden Intervalle wird das Schmeichelnde Iraurige und Zartliche, durch die kurz gestoszenen, oder in ent fernten Sprungen be- stehenden Hoten, ingleichen durch solche Pigurin, da die Punkte allezeit hinter der Ziveyten Note stehen, aber >rf.rd das Lustige und Preche ausgedrucket. Punctierte und anhaltende Noten drucken das Brnsthafte und Pathetio.he die Untermischung langer Hoten, als halber und ganzer Takte, unter die geschwinden aber das Prachtige und Erhabene aus. Kann man die Leidenschaften abnehem: aus den Dissonanzen. Diese thnn nicht alle einerley, sondem immer eine vor der aderen verschifedene.¥lrkungen . . . Die Anzeige des herrschénden Hauptaffects ist endlich das zer Anfange eines j.eden Stuckes befindliche word, als: Allegro, Allegro non tanto— assai— di molto . . . Alto diese Worter wenn sie mut gutem Bedachte Torgesetzet Sind, erfordern jedes einen besonderen Vortag in der Ausfuhrung.^ ^ ®

lOGlbid.. p. 138.

lO^Ibid.. p. 105. ^^^Quantz, 0£. cit.. pp. 138-139, 203. 153

¥essell made a judgment in a summary statement taking

into account all that had been recommended by various

composers on the characteristics of keys to express certain

passions. His reactions immediately bring to mind reminders of mean-tone and just temperament that were pervasive in this era. Says he, indirectly referring to the question of temperament, . There can be little doubt that each scale has its own particular size of intervals, peculiar to it alone and not the same in any other key, then each ‘scale would have its own particular character . . .created by . . . those intervals.Ill

Mattheson recommended major keys to express joy and minor keys to express sorrowfulness and tenderness. Specifically, he recommended A minor, 0 minor, B major, G minor, and P minor to express sorrowful passions; E minor

C minor, P minor, jD major, B minor, A major, and E major to Î12 express temerity, madness, and despair. Mattheson recommended D minor to express the gentle and pleasing; G minor to express lamentations, and E minor to express 1 1 % pensiveness, grief, and sorrow. .

^^^Wessell, o£. cit.. pp. 144-145.

^^^Ibid.. pp. 158, 139, 203. 11-2 J. Mattheson, Das Heu Erdffnete Orchestre (Hamburg: 1713), p. 236. 154

Athanasius Klrcher devoted the ninth chapter of his

De Musurgia Antique Modema in qua de varia utrius que

musical rations disputator to a discussion of the "De

mutations modi, sive Toni, sive stylo metabolici" or the

change of modes as well as the change of keys for,-the

affective (rational).renditions of text. Though his

discussions present few concrete techniques recommended

to express passions, he associated the expression of joy

with major keys and the expression of sadness "With minor

keys. He also favored modulations to raise the passions

since he said modulations produced great changes in hearers.

Modulations "can be varied . . . for any affection . . . ,

he says.

Rameau stated that warmth, light, and cheerfulness are

expressible in all keys moving in the direction of the

dominant while those moving toward the subdominant may

express coldness, darkness, and despair. ^ » Much that is written seems to be directed toward the performer. Geminiani's Treatise contains a valuable state­ ment on embellishments in which he associated with passions and their amplifications.

^^"^Athanius Kir cher. De Musurgia Antico (1619, Chapter IX), passim; Alfred Einstein. Essays' in Music (Hew York: Horton, 1947), p. 120. 1 1 R P. Rameau, quoted in Herman Scherchen, 0 £. cit. p. 59. 155

Following the trends of his peers in listing specific

techniques which he thought would produce certain desired

effects in rendering texts to music, Geminiani provided a

detailed explanation on embellishments, in introductory

remark taken from his treatise assures that suggestions

on effective devices were aimed at the performer as well as

the composer.

To the end, therefore, that those who are Lovers of Musick may with more ease and certainty arrive at Perfection, I recommend the Study and practice of the following Ornaments of Expression which are Fourteen in Number; namely 1. A plain Shake (tr.) 2. A turned Shake 3. A superior Appogiatura 4. An inferior Appogiatura 5. Holding the note 6. Staccato 7. Swelling the Sound 8. Diminishing the Sound 9. Piano 10. Forte 11. The Anticipation 12. Separation 13. A Beat 14. A close Shake

Again, following the trends of other writers of this

time, Geminiani explains each of these embellishments in

detail. This explanation is somewhat confused at times, however, he says.

1. Of the Plain Shake The plain Shake is proper for quick Movements; and it may be made upon any Note, observing after it to pass immediately to the ensuing Note. 156

2. Of the !Eumed Shake. The turned Shake being made quick and long is fit to express Gaiety; but if you make it short, and continue the length of the Note plain and soft; it may then express some of the more tender passions. 3. Of the Superior Appogiatura The Superior Appogiatura is supposed to express Love, Affection, Pleasure, etc. It should be made pretty long, giving it more than half the length of time of the Note it belongs to, observing to swell the Sound by Degrees, it will always have a pleasing Effect and it may be added to any Note. 4. Of the Inferior Appogiatura The inferior Appogiatura has the same Qualities with the preceding, except that it is much more confin'd as it can only be made when the melody rises the Interval of a second or third, observing to make a Beat on the following note. 5. Of Holding a Note It is necessary to use this often; for were we to make Beats and Shakes continually without sometimes suffering the pure Note to be heard, the Melody would not be too much diversify*d. 6. Of the Staccato This expresse^Hest, taking Breath, or changing a word; and for this Reason Singers should be careful to take Breath in a place where it may not interrupt the Sense, 7. and 8. Swelling and Falling the Sound These two elements may be used after each other; they produce great beauty and Variety in the Melody, and employ'd alternately, they are proper for any Expression or Measure. 9. and 10. Of Piano and Forte They are both extremely necessary to express the Intention of the Melody; and as all good Musick should be composed in Imitation of a Discourse, 157

11. Of -Anti cl pat ion inticipation was invented, with a View to vary the Melody without altering its Intention: When it is made with a Beat or a Shake, and swelling the Sound, it will have a greater effect, especially if you observe to make use of it when the Melody rises or descends the Interval of a Second. 12. Of the Separation The Separation is designed only to give a Variety to the Melody, and when the Note rises a second or a third; as also when it descends a second, and then it will not be amiss to add a Beat, and to swell the Note, and,then make the Appogiatura to the following Note. By this, tenderness is express'd. 13. Of the Beat This is proper to express several Passions; as for Example if it be perform'd with Strength, and con­ tinued long, it expresses Fury, Anger, Resolution, etc. If it is play'd less strong, and shorter, it expresses Mirth, Satisfaction, etc. But if you play it quite soft and swell the Note, it may then denote Horror, Fear, Grief, Lamentation, etc. By making it short and swelling the Note gently, it may express Affection and Pleasure. 14. Of the Close Shake This cannot possibly be described by Notes as in the former examples. To perform it, you must press the finger strongly upon the string of the Instrument and move the wrist in and out slowly and equally, when it is long continued . . . it may express Majesty, Dignity, etc. But making it shorter, lower and softer, it may denote Affliction, Fear, etc. and when it is made on Short Notes, it only contributes to make their sound more agreeable; and for this reason it should be made use of as often as possible.

^ ^^Francesco Geminiani, A Treatisë on Good Taste in the Art of Music (London; J. Johnson, 1?4^, pp. 2-3. 158

Other statements on devices producing affection were

made by Frederick Marpurg and are given below:

Sorrow should be expressed with a slow moving languid and drowsy melody; friendship is expressed by fast movement (tempo) and an animated melody, a warmer tone and consonant harmony; hope and confidence are expressed by a proud and exulting melody; fear, anxiety, and anguish are expressed with downward progressions in the lower register; gentle and quiet love is expressed with a consonant harmony and a soft and flattering melody in broad movements; hate is represented through repulsive and rough harmony and a similar melody; daring and audacity are expressed through a defiant, rushing melody. Innocence is closely related to the pastorale style. Impatience and unrest can be expressed, by rapidly changing modulations.'17

An Englishman has properly advised that all of these

ideas were conceived as guides to enthusiasts, composers

and performers alike, for by the musicians* art he says,

"we are often carried into the fury of battle, or a tempest;

we are by turns elated %fith joy or sunk in pleasing sorrow;

roused to courage or quelled by grateful terrors; melted

to pity, tenderness, and love; or transported to the regions

of bliss in the ecstasy of divine praise."

later Avison said that when effective results were

produced, they had to take place in a secret and unsuspecting manner; not in a rigid system of codified suggestions as

1 1 Q some seemed to think.

117 'Frederick Marpurg, quoted in Wessell, 0£. cit.. pp. 297-298. ^^^Oharles Avison, Essay on Musical Expression (London: Davis, 1752), p. '!52. 110 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (Mew York: Morton, 1947), pp. 4-5, 587^88. 159

Georgio ioitionotti ' s speculative ideas seem to warrant a discussion. He staunchly defended the notion of the Rationalists that music properly compounded with poetic ideas including figures of speech was a perfect vehicle for 1 20 the passionate expression of texts. According to him one had only to combine the proper ingredients of the words with the proper ingredients of the music to move and excite the passions. All the powers of the mind, one man 121 relates, were expressible in music. Antoniotti injected another statement that will have greater significance in the final pages of this dissertation. He suggested that one of the reasons that the whole system of the Doctrine of Affections was conceived was that words were more often than not inappropriately set to music by unreasoning musicians. Musicians, whose abilities surpassed those of ordinary talent felt a great compulsion to formulate figures and devices to achieve what Descartes reasoned could be accomplished in the proper alliance of poetry and music.

On this point another important musician said

. . . the Imagination of the Hearer is in general so much at the disposal of the Master (composer or performer) that by the help of variations, movements.

^^^Georgio Antoniotti, L* arte armonica (London: H. P.), p. 102. 1 21 Mattheson, Vollkommene Kapnelmeister. op. cit., pp. 136-138. 160

intervals and modulations he may . . . stamp , . . on the mind what he pleases,122 The extent to which the ideas which have been presented above were used by all composers may be reflected by exami­ nation of the works, of a specific composer as a logical representative of his age. It is possible that composers did not always adhere strictly to preconceived notions and symbolic ideas found in compendiums of this age and through the observations which composers and performers made of each other’. The notion that all did follow the recommendations blindly would indeed be a misconception that is laden with dangers. Such dangers cannot be exaggerated. One danger is that the creative processes requiring as they do the * I rational and intuitive elements would be seriously hampered by blind obedience to any rigid doctrinaire ideas devised under this eighteenth century system; The reason for the summary Ideas' is to blaze a trail through the tangled maze ■ and the chronological developments which influenced the works of Alessandro Scarlatti, Some of these ideas come from theoreticians a quarter of a century after his death, but the very nature of historical review justifies their inclusion as records of the practices of any age often

1 ? 2 Geminiani, 0£. cit.. pp. 2-3. 161

predate principles of that age that are later formulated.

Such a generalization has particular significance in the

case at hand.

The premise is that provisions of the Doctrine of

Affections were not intended to restrict or hamper the

musician. These ideas were intended as references to augment

and embellish whatever original thoughts the composers or

performers may have conceived to treat a given subject,

event, or passion. Now one must go to a body of

representative music to extract the evidences in support

of the fact that Alessandro Scarlatti wrote vocal chamber music revealing influences of the Doctrine of Affections.

Further, one will be able to ascertain the validity of

the proposition that this doctrine was a theory with

continental acceptance in western Europe; that musical

creation was complemented by this doctrine and that the resultant system was in fact a flexible guide to invention and a help in selecting ideas for musical expression; that

through their direct or indirect application a type of unity is achieved in the music by the artistic use of diverse 12'5 elements consistently developed in the amplification of a

single passion or a single passion with the addition of

certain emotions and feelings through special musical media.

^^^Bukofzer, op, cit,, p. 389, CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OP SELECTED SOLO CAETATAS

OP ÀLBSSAEDRO SCARLATTI

The texts of the Scarlatti cantatas are secular poetry Identical with the literature developed as poesia •1 per musica for use in the chamber. Poesia per musica. a special type of literature which appeared after the

Renaissance, contains many special devices to achieve expressive results. As a special type of literature it was contrastable with legitimate belle lettres in form and content. Literature developed for the lyric purposes of the chamber was designed to give the musician the kind of poetry that would take a significant place in the total composition, and that would excite the imagination of the composer, the singer, and the auditors. Critics correctly make a distinction between the great lyric poems of this era and those which were ordinarily used for cantata texts.

A standard that has been applied to lyric poetry, that is exemplary of Selle lettres, is that every word in a fine lyric poem must fit into a design with the precision of the bits of jeweled glass in a cathedral window; a single shade

^Leo Smith, Music in the 17th and 18th Centuries (Toronto: Crowder Press, 19315, p. 25.

162 163

of color or misfit in the proportions can ruin the ■whole

design. At times the sense of the poem may fade, but the

cantelina never.^ In reference to this standard, there are

some cantata texts which stand not one "iota behind the best

poetry that Tasso or Guarini ever wrote.For the most

part, however, the literati produced texts which were

intended to arouse, amuse, and stimulate— through a sort of

iconology of sound— composers who wrote chamber music and

enthusiasts who frequented the chambers where this music was

to be performed.

Of these cantata texts Eugene Schmitz has said.

The Italian poetry has the usual love pinings. It is full of tragic pathos, of all the frightful repetitions of phrases which have been stereotyped for centuries in Italian poetry. It is neatly expressed, nicely rhymed, but frightfully boring. If the lover is pining because he has to leave his beloved, who is frigid, we will always find the same sonorous apostrophes addressed to the cruel objects; always the same exclamations and nobly stylized cries of pain; always "I die" as the last remedy for endless pain.^

Scl^tz correctly continues this criticism,with the idea that such expressions as "disquieted love," "Cupid's arrows,"

"lights of mourning," "my cruel idol," and bther "hollow

p Francesco DeSantis; The History of Italian Literature (New York: Harcourt, Brace sT^o., Inc.,“T95^;, Vol. II. p. 702.

^Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (New York: Norton, 19^7), p. 456, 4 Schmitz, 2 2 . cit., p. 20. 164

expressions of a decaying art" as he labels them are typical of what Is to be found In the cantata texts. Yet, It Is In the settings of these very passionate expressions that

Baroque composers found the stimulation td write chamber compositions.

The texts of the Scarlatti cantatas In the sampling are based on more than one hundred and fifty passions, emotions, and feelings. Differentiations between these classifications have been made on the basis of Descartes* 5 own recommendations, and on the suggestions, contributed In the works of Frances Hutcheson.^ He asserted that passions are not to be confused with subordinate emotions and feelings.

As If arranged In a kind of affective hierarchy, a passion predominates In the whole of a given cantata text; an emotion represents a principal Idea In a given verse or a large division of a poem or narrative; a feeling. In the most subordinate position, derives from an Individual sentence or phrase of a given text.

An attempt has been made to separate the Important affective Ideas of the texts of the sampling In a way that will aid In the analysis of the texts which follow Immediately.

% e n e Descartes, Passion sur I'ame (Paris; 1659), nasslm. 6 Frances Hutcheson, Essay on the nature and Conduct of the Passions (London: n. P., 172ST, p. 251. 165

ANALYSIS OP TEXTS OP SCARLATTI SOLO CANTATAS

c a n t a t a t i t l e PASSION EMOTIONS PEELINGS

Amicl se vinto Love admonition., dis­ conquest, appointment, submission, desire, misery, misery, persl* resignation stance

Amo ma I'idol Love fear, desire, fear, distress, anticipation, happiness, cynicism desire, hope, pretence, con­ templation, torment

Andate mlel sospiri cl712) Desire resignation, fear, amuse­ hope, resolu­ ment, pain, Andate mlel tion, remini­ welcome, sosplrl (1 7 1 3) Desire scence flattery, en­ joyment, pre­ tence, under­ standing, pain, recollection, contemplation

Da Che Tirsl Love anxiety, wonder, pleasure, desire, con­ anxiety, hap­ fusion, reassu­ piness, tor­ rance, anguish, ment, delight, distress, hope, fear, resolution satisfaction, annoyance, un­ happiness, un­ faithfulness, sorrow, pretence, excitement, desire

*The two cantatas on the same title Andate 0, ml el sospirl have the same text. One was written in 1712 (G minor) and the other in 1715 (£# minor). "" 166

ANALYSIS OP TEXTS (continued)

CJLUTATA TITLE PASSION EMOTIONS PEELINGS lo che del cor Love fear, defiance, martyrdom, joy,in­ " w m i ? — sympathy, hope, gratitude, truth, reassurance faith, pity, cruelty, death, oppression, disquietude, mockery, piti­ lessness, hope, comfort, conso­ lation, peace­ fulness

Bella dunaue Sadness distress, delightful­ defiance ness, sorrow, loneliness, oppression, surrender, hope, torment

Clori mla cara Love adoration, des­ martyrdom, pair, suppli­ pleasure, cation, grief destruction, pain, revolu­ tion, ingrati­ tude, secrecy

Care selve Love supplication, peace, repose, ^saite revenge, desire, pain, disconso­ wonder, distress lation, love, deception, hap­ piness, absurd­ ity, solitude, desires, liberty, distress

Chlusa tra Love grief, joy, fondness, fosche bende wonder, resigna­ obscurity, tion, repose destruction, adoration, joy, malice, enjoy­ ment, surrender, contempt 1 0

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS (continued)

CANTATA TITLE PASSION EMOTIONS PEELINGS Glori Vezzosa Love exaltation, fear, happiness, joy, distress delight, pain, pallor, strug­ gling, content­ ment, offense, wonder, pity, pain, sadness, love Celui Che fisc Love desire, hope, sighing, accom­ resignation, modation, love, despair, confu­ adoration, sym­ sion, defeat, pathy, distress, recollection, agitation, self-sacrifice punishment, wickedness, calmness, pity, humility, defeat Lei mio seno Love distress, sym­ deception, sad? la costenza pathy, joy, ness, flattery, exaltation, hope, distress, resignation admiration, condemnation, liberty, faith Con trasnarente Love anxiety, fear, anxiety, tyr­ il velo sympathy, pity anny, sorrow, appeasement, hope, joy, fear, pity Patto d'amor Sadness fear, adoration, peace, tyranny, resignation, oppression, wonder defeat, suffer­ ing, happiness, pain, adoration, weeping, resigna­ tion 168

AUALYSIS 01* TEXTS (continued)

CANTATA TITLE PASSION EMOTIONS PEELINGS

Pilli adorato Love grief, despair, adoration, hope, Consolation understanding, comnrendo inquiry, mel­ ancholia, de­ ception, sick­ ness, sorrow, rejoicing, gentleness, dubiousness, hope, pity, agitation, misery, suffer­ ing, pain, tor­ ment, prayful- ness, jealousy, resignation, consolation

Pille. Pilli Desire Recollection, longing, truth, adorata e cara distress, wonder, wondering, de­ resignation jection, strength, torment, jealousy, fear, frustration, desire

PHLi altera e Desire Tyranny, adora- pitilessness, snietate "" tion, resentment, hate, pity, resignation sorrow, sadness, anger, scorn, adoration, pain, loftiness, jealousy

L*armi crudeli Love Vanity, tyranny. Cruelty, crude- e fi'ero mockery, distress, ness, conquest, distrust, de- tyranny, joy, jection jealousy, desire, distrust Note: Capital letters indicate basic passions; small letters indicate internal or ezternal feelings. 169

AUALYSIS OF TEXTS (continued)

CMTATA TITIiE PASSION EMOTIONS PEELINGS La belta ch'io Love despair, anxiety, delight, jeal- sospero deception, mockery ousy, pleasure, peace, trust, deception, generosity, pain, peace. Jealousy, redemption 0 mal dal cillo Love forgiveness, guilt, freedom, dejection, sorrow, sorrow, torment, misery sighing, sad­ ness, grief, relief Liete bosohl Love desire, sympathy, comfort, e belle repose, futility laughter, sad­ ness, loneliness, languishing, silence, tear­ fulness, sorrow, pity, distress, dilirium, futi­ lity Lunca staaiondo Sadness grief, deception, unfaithfulness, wonder, recol­ deception, lection rejoicing, hatred, jealousy, fear, hope, sadness, pleasure, misery, intelligence, peace, liberty, gratitude, deception Luml oh'in Love adoration, adoration, sad­ fronte exaltation, ness, hurt, love, anguish, lamentation, resignation hope, joy, suf­ fering, torment, pain, happiness, desire, peace, faithfulness, 170

ANALYSIS OP TEXTS (continued)

CANTATA TITLE PASSION EMOTIONS PEELINGS

Luml oh'in fronte (cont'd.) valor, candor, boldness, with­ drawal

A1 fin, al fin Sadness wonder, resigna­ anxiety, remem- inTucciderete tion, national­ bramces, dis­ ism, recollection, appointments, distress sighing, inco­ herence, reason, torment, suspi­ cion, content­ ment, peace, joy, cunning, pain

Lascia di Despair distress, sadness, desperation, tormentar mi di sappointment, sorrow, pain, oppression torment; remem­ brances, hope, sadness, adora­ tion, disdain, pity, vindictive­ ness, fai thful- ness, dubious­ • ness, pain, death, destruction

Bei nrati ' Sadness Remorse, despond­ Dejection, dis­ ency, rejection, comfort, des­ wonder pondency, pain, sadness, fear­ lessness, surrender

Hitllde alma Love adoration, unfaithfulness, mia longing, sad­ pity, depriva­ ness, hope, tion, tragedy, desire, praise, tears, sorrow, resignation imatination, torment, weeping, sadness, felic­ itations, flattery pain, abandonment. 171

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS (continued)

CANTATA TITLE PASSION EMOTIONS FEELINGS

Mltilde alma desire,delusion, mia (cont'd.) exaltation, praise, sadness, pity, resigna­ tion

Entro romito Love distress, torment, peace, sneco sympathy, ingratitude, pity, misery, conquest, disdain, oppression, resignation vision,laughter, joy, felicity, prayerfulness

Quando amor Love admiration, tranquility desire, hope, anxiety, memories frustration, gratitude, pleasure

Tidi un ffiomo Hope admiration, pleasure, pain turbulence, wild joy, calmness, happiness, salvation contentment, suffering, reward, security

The poets seem to have no one special observable scheme for developing the terts. Generally, one finds in each cantata an admixture of the passions, emotions, and feelings blended symbolically so that they produce a vivid 172

expression of the passions In the texts.^ The poets relied upon the principle of the juxtaposition of opposite ideas, passions, emotions, and feelings, love against hate, joy against sorrow and so on, to achieve effects : through such a method, they had an effective means by which each detail in the poem, each object, subject, or thought could be Q exploited.

Some of the poems of such men as Boccacio,

Sannazario, Petrarch, and Dante were revived by the cantata 9 composers. In addition to these, there is a long list of

Baroque literati who contributed significantly to this literature among whom the following can be mentioned:

Apostolo Zeno, Tirsi (Zappi), Parini, Battista Guarini,

Agostino Piovane, Andrea Minelli, Antonio Marchi, Antonio

Luchini, Benedetto Pasqualigo, Passerini Ternose, Francesco

Salvini, Pietro Strozzi, Guadenzio Soberti, Giovambattiste

Marino, Guisto Oontini, Torquato Tasso, Silvio Stamphiglia,

Tjoyce Mitchell, "Symbolism in Poetry and Music" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1944), pp. 51-55. C Dent, op. cit., pp. 49-55.

^Alfred Einstein, Essays in Music (New York: Norton, 1956), p. 90. 173

and Metastaslo. Many who contributed to this literature 10 remained anonymous, Mow, balancing this fact is the knowledge that musicians frequently ifrote texts to which they later added music. Bassani and Gasparini, as well as the principal figure in this research, Alessandro Scarlatti, are among those who contributed. The famous text Andate o miei sosniri. which was set several times by Scarlatti and Gasparini in an exchange between these two men, was composed by Scarlatti.

Bent relates that at a meeting of the Arcadians,

Tirsi and Scarlatti joined forces to produce at least two complete cantatas in an amazingly short time and by so doing delighted the audience of dilletantes gathered to hear them. He says,

Tirsi, also called Zappi, was composing a poem in one of the meetings of the academy. He (Scarlatti) begged Tirsi to complete the poem. Tirsi agreed on the condition that Scarlatti set the pieces to music immediately. Scarlatti agreed; and '(dien he had finished, the verses were sung by those in attendance, and from this all experienced a rare pleasure and surprise."*'

Certain issues were forbidden in this literature, although Bent says cantata texts contained subtle reference to subjects of great political import, such as

^^lang, op. cit.. p. 450.

I^Bent, pp. cit.. pp. 89-91. 174

the edicts of the Catholic authorities in the Counter

Reformation. However, there is a subtle reference to be

found in this sampling showing certain pressures under

which artists operated. The cantata Vidi un giomo starts

out innocently enough talking about "un fuimicello di

smeraldo" (a river of emerald) and progresses to a

description of waves that break high and hard upon the

shore and then flow back to the sea softly, harmlessly.

After this the poet says "Palesava in lingua oscura che

di tutte le ruine, non e sempre infausto il fine" (In

obscure language the waves predict that anything which

starts with great force ends calmly). This statement could

be a reference to the political situation in Italy'at this time. Progressing in a vein of rational thought the poet

says, "Ogni gioia he il modo impura" (Every joy has in it ' ' a modicum of corruption, some bits of impurity). Later, the poet says, in effect, that an oppressed palm tree lives forever; an oppressed people never die* In this text, the poet succeeds in giving his countrymen some consolation or hope for the future. Italy was at this time embroiled in a great social struggle, and was in a state of political oppression from Spain which is difficult to briefly describe 1 2 or assess. But that it impinged on the free creation of

1 2 Lang, o£. cit., p. 438. 175

art cannot be denied or ignored. Ratban than touch

controversial or restricted subjects, usually the

Italians wrote on ancient wars and heroes; on chivalric

subjects; on the "idols": Amarylis, Olori, Tirsi, Irene,

Mitilde, and Phyllss; on the Gods: Venus, Adonis, Cupid,

Minerva, Thor, Jupiter, and Mars; on the seasons of the 13 year; on the stars and the moon; on ungrateful maidens;

on brave heroes; on the shade of the forest and the "hermit"

of the cave in his solitude. They wrote on subjects having

firm roots in mythology, tradition, and sheer fantasy. Most

of all, however, they wrote on the subjects of unrequited

love, sadness, hope, desire, despair, wonder, and joy.

This observation is equally true in this sampling:

love is the passion most frequently found in the sample

cantatas— in fourteen of the thirty; sadness in four

cantatas; desire in four cantatas; while despair and hope

are found in three c^tatas each.

The text of Amo ma I'idol (I love only my idol)

deals with sensual love. The poet discusses the "strane manière" (strange manner) in which the "idol" acts and reacts toward the lover. Aroused by such quotations as

"Oh dio che il cor paventa or che no sappia amor" (Oh God,

13 "^Alessandro Scarlatti composed a chamber cantata under the title ^ stagiondo (The Seasons) according to Dent,- 0£. cit., p. 21. 176

the heart fears that It does not know how to love), the lover is overcome with doubt because he has the feeling that he loves ardently, yet he rationalizes that he does not have the ability to express his intense love to his idol. Immediately contrasting conceptions of love and doubt of inability to express that love, are recognized as an adaptation of the technique of using opposites to create a dramatic moment.

The story progresses with the lover reciting ”11 goder di tormentarmi e di prendenza gioco come Olori lo puo far" (I enjoy the tormenting jokes played by my "idol”

Olori). Olori symbolizes "ideal womanhood," another favorite subject of this age. However, Olori is only one of several names of women found in this literature and used as a symbol to read into a poem those things that can best be portrayed by some iconological means. Other names used for such purposes in those texts are Mitilde, Irene,

Tirsi, Pille, and the "unnamed idol" who could have been either one of these or a combination of all of them expressed in such terms as "tiranno" (tyrant), "angelo mio"

(my angel), "la dove bionda" (the blond dove), or "awerso bionda" (the adverse blond).

It is obvious that the image of womanhood combined with love is a focal point in this literature. Woman formed the ideal concept of beauty, truth, and good; woman 177

was the divine gift to a lustful world. Yet, women, for

purposes of contrast, were depicted as murderesses, torturers, aeductresses; as hardhearted, vainglorious,

selfish, and troublesome. Symbolic of such uncomplimentary feminine characteristics are the names of Olori in the

cantatas Amo ma I'idol mio. Olori mia cara. Olori vezzosa.

Oolui che flso. Oon trasnarente 11 velo. Patto d'amor » seeuace. Larmi crudeli. and Liete boschi £ belle ; Mitilde in Mitilde alma mia; Irene in Andata £ miel sospiri; Tirsi

Da che Tirsi : Pllle in Fille adorata £ cara: Fllle. ah ben comproendo. and Fllle altera e spietata.

Exemplary of the role man is to play in the chivalry of the Baroque which placed womanhood on the highest pedestal are lines from Da che Tirsi repeated by the valiant lover:

"Dentro 11 petto mio sento pavea che fusse gioia ed e tormento" (In my heart I feel both joy and torment); from To che dal cor di Fille. "Oontender vorrei d'amor d'appro martir" (I am doomed to the life of a martyr). One specific qualification of Baroque man is that he must be able to survive under great pain and agony in the pursuit of his beloved idol: Olori, Fill,e, Tirsi, In Bella dunoue. these lines appear: "Eo non possio mio bene vivere senza te.

Ma se non so morire e per che nel martire" (I do not wish to live without the beloved one, nor do I wish to die for to die is to surrender in defeat). Such contrasts are a 178

bit fantastic, but are ideal for building musical drama and artistic intrigue. In Amici se vinto the whole cantata revolves around the foreword: "Amore perduto e ritomato"

(Love lost and returned); in Care selve gradite. the lover drowns himself in the sea because of his great unhappiness; in Vidi un giorno and Care selve gradite. the lover secludes himself and attempts to gain strength through prayer; in

Entro romito sneco. the lover enters the "cave of the hermit"

— through mythology described as a place to which one may withdraw to recover from the wounds of love. Man is pictured as having a glaring weakness for the opposite sex. The lover's last lines in Amo ma I'idol mio carry the thought that Olori is a source of joy because the kind of jokes that she plays with the lover's heart are the kind which only she could create. Perhaps this kind of rationale reflects a negative note but also may express outright cynicism developed with respect to love and its intrigues, numerous examples are supplied in the texts of cantatas demonstrating this point among which are Amici se vinto. lo che dal cor di

Pille. Clori mia cara. Care selve gradite. Bella dunque. Olori vezzosa. Patto d'amor. Pille adorata. Pille altera £ spietata.

Liete boschi ombre. and Entro romito sneco.

Prom the evidence at hand, it can be seen that the passion of love presented many opportunities for lyric expression when combined with Baroque ideas of women, men. 179

and other subjects appropriate for solo chamber music. The

subject of love is conducive to reactions in all who indulge

its potential for drama and intrigue. It is reported that

frequenters of the salons were often left in laughter and more often in tears as a result of various interpretations of passions found in cantatas which were performed by some prima donna or prima uomo. Such reactions were hopefully anticipated by the poets and composers "who worked to produce the sensuous melodramatic texts. Another passion which predominates in the texts of this sampling is sadness. In the cantata Lunga stagiondo (The Long Season) sadness is the basic passion. As in the other texts, this passion is amplified by additional emotions and feelings. The emotions to be noted here are grief, deception, contemplation, and recollection; and the feelings are of unfaithfulness, deception, rejoicing, hatred. Jealousy, anticipation, novelty, remorse, and misery. Lunga stagiondo is written on a theme surrounding the acts of the idol Tirsi, called in this text "d'amovale" (the immovable). Iflhile Tirsi has often been mentioned with the pleasures of love, in other connections, she is mentioned here in connection with sadness.

Tirsi is called "inganno in fedel” (the deceitful infidel), her hair is pictured as gold, a color usually associated 180

with sunshine and happiness. However, her hair and its

color is considered distressing to her lover. Of Tirsi

the lover says,

Che improva al'alma mia She gladdens my heart disprezzo o gelo But I despair with jealousy Sia quei nomi, chi costanza Her name is the theme of di temo di speranza constant fear.and hope.

Bei nrati (near the meadows), the third of the ,

cantatas whose principal passion is sadness^ has as its

setting a place of pastoral beauty— the woods. Such a

place has traditionally been sxeppaa: for lovers disappointed

by the conditions of their lives. The lover deplores the

"crudel perpieta ridite" (the cruel force of pity) and

refers to the wounds he has incurred in his battle with

the potent acts of "I'arciero" (the archer Cupid). The

lover seeks death at a certain point of desperation. Then the sea, the fountains, and rivers ask him to join them so

that they may help to "drown" away his troubles. Death, in

a new role, admonishes the lover to expel the state of mind

in which this poem depicts him and seek a new kind of life.

Finally, the victim surrenders himself to his fate and

accepts his situation which resembles the type of rational­

istic note that ends so many of these texts.

Still another text is built on the passion of sadness.

Al fin, al fin m'ucciderete pictures the idol Clori as a murderess, an incoherent one, daughter of death, the tyrant 181

of love and tormentress of those who fall under her spell.

The lover in this text is pursuing the "apple of his eye"— Olori. He seems to be unable to reach her in any way. His

efforts are vain; his despair is great; his sadness over­ whelming. As far as it is possible for one to ascertain,

this text has its seat in fantasy— pure imagination. In it

one is able to discern towering superstructures of make-believe,

Ending oh a rationalistic note, the lover realizes he has

been foolish in allowing his feelings for his beloved Clori

to overcome him.

He wants relief from his frustration and accepts

death as a welcome sentence to achieve his full emancipation.

However, it is in the last aria that the final note of desire and sadness because of love comes through: The lover requests that in death he may be permitted to linger near his beloved Clori, his idol, and his symbol of beauty, truth, and goodness. This ending is not new, for as in so many of these texts the general plot, the general techniques for development, and the general solution to the problem could have been selected from a body ofcsterpptjtped formulae recommended according to the tenets of the Doctrine of

Affections.

The passion of desire predominates in Amici se vinto

(Friends tif conquered). The author inserted the words "Amore perduto e ritornato" (Love lost and returned) beside the title 182

and by so doing indicated the theme of this worki One finds a recurrence of the juxtaposed opposites in this cantata text, the losing and finding of some lovable person, a perfect situation for passionate expression. Desire is reflected in references to "sua labbro" (her lips), "guancia sua vezzosa” (her cheeks), "quell seno arto celeste" (the heavenly breast), and "crin rete amoroso" (the amorous hairnet), those feminine allurements which the lover would seek to share. These are considered "forbidden fruits" to those interested in escaping the domination of the love of the idol who remains in this text. But brutal love makes a man stronger, according to Baroque thought. At the height of the passion of desire the lover in a rather uninhibited bent of mind says "Ma vi cogliessi almeno" (I will pluck these forbidden fruits anyway). The stronger passion has overcome the weaker lover. Admitting to himself that the knell of his doom has sounded, in good Baroque rationale the lover advises his friends, "Amici io mio son messo, ma quando trovo amor perdo io stesso" (Friends, I have found love and when this happens, I lose myself in that same instant). In this way he substantiates his weakness and implies that this weakness is a human trait. This same passion is the foundation of thought of Andate o miei sospiri (Go my breath). The lover designates his breath to be the emissary Mio takes a message to his beloved one Irene. 183

She is cruel, faithless, hard-hearted according to the text but, alas, most desirable. These feelings and others are to be found in the text of this cantata the first section of which appears below.

Andate o miei sospiri del cor d'Irene Go my breath to Se vedrete il cor di lei, pein del the heart of solito rigor sfortunato non lo dite. Irene. If you see Che partite del mio cor. Che partite her heart is hard ma se poi di nostra a voi, di gradire do not say unfor­ al nostro ardor dite a cor che sieti tunate. But if miei. Eche a la in manda amor. she appears to be receptive say to her you are my emissary and that by you she may send her love.

In the very next aria the lover recognizes that he is daydreaming. He asks himself, "Ma di che mi lusingo?"

(Iflhy do I flatter myself?); the lover knows Irene will never belong to him. He then seems to resign himself to his bad fortune by adopting the attitude that what will be, will bel His initial efforts with Irene were generated by love and pushed by desire,that same human passion found in the cantatas Ellle adorata £ cara. Da che Tirsi. Care selve gradite. Go lui che fisc. Liete boschi ombre amici. and Entro romito sneco.

The passion of wonder is the foundation thought in the cantatas Da che Tirsi. Ohiusa tra fosche bende. Patto d'amor seguace. Pille adorata. Lunga stagiondo. and fin.

Al fin m'ucciderete. Accompanying this passion in these 184

texts are the emotions and feelings of surprise, novelty,

astonishment, and excitement. In ^ che Tirsi one notes

that here the element of surprise Is Implied In the

statement of the lover to a lady, "mlral un occulto placerro” W (I have noticed In you a hidden pleasure). This hidden

pleasure creates the feeling of surprise and curiosity;

of excitement and novelty. But to complete the statement Is

the following, ”. , . mlafalv un occulto placerro . . . ed e

... tormento." The opposites of pleasure and pain (torment are

juxtaposed. The pain stimulates anxiety which Is called

"un foco" (a fire) which leaves the lover with "speranza e

tlmorl" (hopes and fears). All of these are of course

generated by "quello stesso deslo" (the same old desire).

Blenuants of this same passion are found In subordinate

positions In ^ fin, al fin and Bel nratl. However, the

latter cantatas are definitely Influenced by sadness and

supported by wonder,

Hope, mixed with desire. Is the Impression fostered

by the line "0 mlel penslerl da me lontana e Olori, Idol

mio si ramentasso." The lover In ^ fin, al fin thinks of

his Idol, the one whom he cannot forget. Suspicion, fear.

Invective, and anticipation are all a part of this poem.

Olori Is the disappointing Idol judged to be Incoherent,

tyrannical, and unworthy of trust. The lover says "Oon

sospettl si fin, al, fin mi ucclderete o mlel penslerl" 185

(With suspicion to the very end, you murder my thoughts).

Then with certain resignation the lover says "Io marire

contenta per speran cosi" (I die content with hope^ for

these things with which I am faced). Finally, he says

"La pace all alma mia poi da mi parti" (with peace of heart

then I part from you). Peace found in death is the lover’s

choice to end his anxious moments of wonder.

Despite the fact that some of the above texts end

on a morbid note, one must be aware that a morbid ending *

proceeds after a joyous beginning. Olori vezzosa e belle

begins with the lover describing his idol in the most

amorous way: she is beautiful and good, she exudes joy,

love, and happiness; her name awakens in him tender thoughts associated with a lovable infant. But hard on the heels of

this statement is the traditional ending— fear and wonder­ ment which generate great pains in the breast of the lover.

In admiration of Clori he says,

Olori vezzosa e bella Di questo amante petto Solo amor, sola gioia, e diletto.

But of her ignoble qualities he says. Vivo penando e ver ma con contento Dell e stesso tormento.

Reconciling himself to his end, he prays

Amore pietosa al mio dolore 186

The poem begins with a discussion of the beauty of Clori; it

progresses to mention her undesirable qualities; it ends with (dolor) sadness, How a final statement completes this

section on subject matter in the texts and the basic

passions found in them.

Lyric poetry frequently discusses diverse subjects,

but as noesia per musics one has the label suitable to

differentiate it from belle lettres. It uses as its

stimulation passionate lines, an abundance of amplifying

phrases, techniques, devices, and the imagination of the

poet which produced the gems of this literature, about which

Le Sanctis has spoken, even though these gems were made of 14 the ingredients of sensuality, pathos, and artificiality.

Poesia unfolds not as a chronicle or as some obscure report

of history, but as the ideas of the sentimentalist with a new vision described in potent first effusions of his heart.

Musical characteristics : forms

Earlier composers of cantatas for the chamber had

strung together as many as fourteen or fifteen recitatives, ariosos, and arias in the polysectional cantatas, often 15 without pattern and sometimes in poor taste. Many of the cantatas of the predecessors of Scarlatti seem ineffective — E. Schmitz, 0£. cit.. p. 15. 1 R A good example of the polysectional cantata mentioned above is the Rossi work Gelosi^ excerpts of which are to be found in Burney, 0£. cit.„ p. él9. 187

because they rambled needlessly through one section after another. This very weakness, the ih^e^i^^-teness of form,

is one with which Scarlatti showed obvious concern and set

about altering. He began to use shorter schemes for

development consistently until the cantata became a more

composite and artistic form ideally suited to the require­

ments of vocal uhamber music as advocated by Speiss,

Mattheson, and others.

Review of the earlier forms of cantatas has shown

that the ones of greater length come from the time before 16 the mature years of Scarlatti. In noting the works of

this sampling which have dates marked on them it seams that

Scarlatti's cantatas become shorter after I69O when the:; are

found usually to be in the form EARA. The cantata 0 lui che

fiso is dated 1690 and is written in a seven part form, the

cantata ia belta is dated 1701 and is written in a five part

form, the cantata Andate 0 miei sospiri is dated 1712 and

is in the four part form RARA. The same is true of the

cantata ^ fin, al fin m'ucciderete dated 1718.

lilhen one considers that the word form indicates

structure, he has a basis for ascertaining the scheme and

balance by which a composition is put together. If one

16 This fact is confirmed in the writings of Charles Burney, A Genesal History of Music, op. cit., pp. 601-602, 188

conceives of sound as the material of a somewhat amorphous

substance comparable to the flesh and cells of the body,

then form might be said to represent the support by which artistic substance is held together. One aspect of form

covers the highly complex and transitory structure of internal details; the other aspect of form concerns itself with the contour of the external details of a work of art.

This analysis will be aimed at revealing both of these aspects of the Scarlatti cantatas in this sampling. To accomplish the stated aim of this dissertation, one must now consider the external details of the cantata, aria, and recitative as these relate to expression of the passions through musical form and design.

Among the cantatas of this sampling are found eleven varieties of external designs. It will be noted that the 17 recitatives, artoos, and arias are usually alternated but at times appear conjunctly in a quite indiscriminate way.

In the cantata Da che Tirsi. ND, is found an eight-part work in the form RARARARA; in the cantata 0 lui che fiso. 1Ô 1690 to 1 694 is found a six-part work in the form ARARAR; in the cantata Lumi che in fronte. 1703, Pilli adorata £ cara. RD, and Pilli. a ben comprendo. HD, is found the

17 The arioso will be indicated with a small '"a" while the aria and recitative will be noted with capital letters. 18 ©lis information was taken from the photostatic copy of the manuscript which unfortunately is blurred. 189

six-part form EAEAEA; in the cantata Andate o,miei sospiri.

1712; is found a five-part work in the form AEAEAA; in the cantata Amici se vinto. ÎID, is found a six-part work in the form AAARAR; in the cantata to belta che sosniri. 1701

(August, 16) is found a five-part work in the form AARAR; in the cantata Ohiusa tra fosche bende. ED, is found a four- part work in the form RAAR; in the cantata Del mio seno la costanza. ED, is found a five-part work in the form ARAEA; in the cantata Vidi un g i o m o . ED, is found a five-part work in the form ARHRA; in the cantata lascia di tormentarmi. 1709, is foimd a six-part work in the form aRAARA; and by far the most popular is the RARA form found in the following works :

Andate o miei sospiri. 1713, Amo ma I'idol mit). 1702 (June, 9),

Lunga stagionda. 1706, M fin, al fin m'ucciderete. 1718,

Quando amor vuol fior. ED, Bei prati freschi rivi. ED,

Mitilde alma mia. 1720, Bella dunque. ED, Pare selve gradite.

ED, Olori vezzosa £ belle. ED, Oontrasparenteil velo. 1702,

Entro romito speco. ED, Io che del core di Bille. ED, Patto d 'amor. ED, Pille altera e spietata. ÉD, Liete boschi ombre amici. 1704, Olori mia cara. ED, and Mitilde alma mia. 1720.

Deductible inferences, from the dates noted on these compositions, bear out Dent's claim that the earlier chamber solo cantatas of Scarlatti tended to use the longer, indefinite, and more straggling forms— those with six, seven, and eight parts— and that the later compositions, those appearing near 190

the year 17 1 2, tended to be set in the more balanced and

sophisticated RARA form, associated with the matnrest works

of Scarlatti. It is noted that the recitative and the aria are equally balanced numerically. The RARA form is used in

nearly 60 percent of the total number of cantatas in this

sampling. Having considered the external contours of these

cantatas, the discussion now progresses to a determination

of the forms of components of the cantatas: recitatives,

ariosos, and arias.

To better understand the formal aspects of the

recitatives, one may do well to briefly review their functions

by contrasting the three vocal types: recitatives, ariosos,

and arias. Each of the three represents contrastable melodic types, utilizes contrastable accompaniment techniques^

and is ideal for the presentation of different types and

aspects of the texts of the cantatas. The original purpose of recitatives was to follow

the inflections of normal rhetorical patterns and figures of

speech. The recitative was used as a means of projecting

progressive narrative, whether dealing with minute or large

quantities of textual details in a minimum amount of space.

Recitatives utilize a didactic, crisp, pungent, melodic

style of delivery which helps to shift action, enlarge upon ideas, or recapitulate step-by-step items in the texts previously presented. This style is most notably contrasted 191 with thé melodic style of the aria^ Between the two,

perhaps midway, is the arioso. Refinements of the cantabile

style of the aria, the style of bel canto, and the nuances

found in detailed phrasing may be contrasted with the

'^arlando," the rapid-fire delivery of words, in the recitative.

Recitative is performed to a dry chordal accompaniment in contrast to the somewhat limited refinements of accompani­ ment in accompanied recitative, and both are in contrast to the elaborate interaction of the instrument and the vocal part in the aria or the arioso.

Of nearly one hundred and fifty movements in the sampling, sixty of these, or nearly two-fifths, are in the melodic style or type called recitatives; and though several movements appear at first glance to fall in the category of arioso or accompanied recitatives, there are but three instances where these movements have, in the final analysis, not been adjudged to be recitatives secco. These three examples are found in the first movements of Lascia di tormentarmi. Liete b o s c h i. as well as the first movement of the 1712 version of Andate o miei sospiri, given below.

One thing that is common in these movements is that they are short; only eight to ten bars. As indicated, there are several examples of recitative of a rather nondescript classification and contrastable with the best examples of 192

Pig. 1 .— Prom: Andate £ miei sospirl. third movement

Adagio $ . 8 Hr [■ I 7 a J An-da-te, an-da- te al cor d*I-i^e-ne An* da- te, an-da

$ * te al cor d*I-re- ne al cor d'I* re* ne 0 miel 80-

m m m

api- - - rl 0 miel 80- spl- rl

i m i - r 3 = 5

recitative secco: the second movement of Entro romito speco.

the second recitative of Mi tilde alma mia. and the first movement of Lunga stagiondo are representative. However,

the predominant dry, chordal style of the accompaniment and

the quality of the melody forces one to include these among

what is held to be recitative secco. 193

This is a good place to note that it is difficult

to discern a specific form in recitative. It seems far more

sensible to refer to recitative only as a melodic type. The duration of the recitative is not sufficiently long to note

. a specific or unmistakable form.

On a tributary point connected with recitatives, the

Harvard Dictionary indicates many examples of recitative

that contrast sufficiently with secco. accompasnato. and

stromentato to be given specific titular designations

indicative of their peculiar styles.

Pursuing this lead, one notes several examples which

appear to be secco recitative but which have rather extended

lyrical sections (two or three measures or more). These fit

a classification called recitative con cavato. Oavato means

"to hollow out." In this music it is interpreted to mean a specific passion, feeling, or emotion expressed with a

unique musical idea for purposes of emphasis. This type of

recitative is found in the sixth movement of ^g±ol se vinto.

on the words nerdo lo stesso. The movement begins with a

tonic chord in typical style, then proceeds immediately to

amplify the statement of the lover which is "at the instant

one finds love, it seems one begins in that instant to lose it," Then comes the cavato given below emphasizing the word meaning to lose. 1 #

Pig. 2,— Prom: A m i d se vlntc. sizth movement t^ c c f : t > I IK pV! J'-i do per-do ml stes-soper-do stes-so

Another example of the cavato is found in the

cantata Care selve gradite in the first recitative between

two typical secco phrases. Still a third example is found

in Ohiusa tra fosche bende: a fourth example in the second

movement of Go lui che fiso on the words "congiro eterno”

(eternally turning); and a fifth example in the third

movement of Pen;trasparento il velo. on the word "beato"

(beautiful). There are other examples of this technique used in the expression of particularly meaningful words or

phrases, so that one may conclude that Scarlatti relied upon

it to achieve maximum expression of the passions, emotions,

and feelings found in these cantata texts. Reference is

made particularly to such words as "guerriers"(I fight)

in the second recitative of Patto d'amor seguace given as

Pigure 4 following the example on congiro sterna taken from

Ohiusa tra fosche bende appearing as Pigure 3.

Pig. 3 .— Prom: Ohiusa tra fosche bende 195

îlg. 4.— Prom: Patto d'amor 4 guerrle -

That recitative was a logical vehicle by which some

elements of the text should be projected by the time of

Scarlatti is no longer doubted. Burney remarks that

nothing w#s more important to the "progress of narrative vocal 19 chamber music" than dramatic and forceful recitative.

Approximately two-fifths of the movements in this sampling

are rightfully to be called recitative of one kind or another.

It has been pointed out in other sections of this document that greater freedom was accorded the composers of vocal chamber music than composers of opera, for example.

Scarlatti took full advantage of this freedom in composing recitative and about them Dent says, "If his (Scarlatti's) arias are sometimes awkward his recitatives are generally 20 most expressive from the outset." Exemplary of the

Scarlatti efforts is the first recitative from the 1713,

P sharp minor version of the text Andate £ miei sospiri given below.

19 Burney, 0£. cit., pp. 466, 484, 607, 651. 20 Dent, 0£. cit.. p. 16. 196

Pig. 5 .— Prom: Andate o miei sosniri (1713)

An- da- te, an-da-te o miei sospirl al cor al cor d*Irene

--_3];po

m n n r m -trJ—Ar 3 ease dal mlo le pene sappla du vol ben lo sopra se f# ?

dl-te che per ave rlstoro al suo do­ lo­ rs

$

tuttl con vol sen viena an che 11 core en-da-te, an-da-te i i

a quel bel se-no tin-to ch'un sol al me-no essa v'ac- 197

îlg. 5. — (continued)

pp...i . 1 j # T-. ■■S--I RBS --- rV ---J---C-- U - J y tT ' cogla plen

U f ^-.1 . 1 1— — 4— Li ■ . ------:-- 1 u ...... t — ,j. ÿ W

à ■0 # -

an-da-te. an- da-te al cor d*Irene an-

S f i

P -----'m-zgr --- ,------3 7...... r~ ' ' da- te al cor d*Irene o miei 8 0 - spi- ri i , > 1 j I'J ■ ■■ ------j— ------j J----- i

Scarlatti relied heavily on the alternation of the recitatives and the arias and occasionally the arteos in his early works to obtain desired results. Likewise, the fact is indisputable that in the latter years, Scarlatti used the arioso less frequently, though it is conceded that at a certain point in his development as a composer, "beautiful specimen" of ariosos were created by him and included in his 21 cantatas. It is said that where Scarlatti did use specimen

21 Lent, 0£. cit.. p. 12. 198

of the arjffios in the later years he used It for the guidance

of those singers who would prostitute the privilege of music, Dent states that the arioso

. . . which we now use conveniently and logically to denote a kind of music between recitative and air, was used by Scarlatti not as the title of a form, but as a direction to the singer to preserve the melodic sense in music which at first sight might seem to demand the declamatory style of recitative; and it was equally natural that he should use it in a case where the singer might have been tempted to take too many liberties with the time o r ^ o indulge in an excess of extemporary coloratura,^

Dent then re-emphasizes his statement with the thought that

. . . the age of the bel canto was not free from singers who made a specialty of the tearful and mawkish style.29

This, when carried to excesses was objectionable. The arioso, or introductory eight bars in the cantata Andate miei o sosuiri. about which Scarlatti was extremely concerned, since it was to be sent to Gasparini, one of his friends and a reputable musician, as well as one of his competitors, contained careful instructions by

Scarlatti about the way it was to be performed. It served as an example of the innovative spirit of Scarlatti in creating melodic content and harmonic movement, and it served to show that Scarlatti did not hesitate to give directions about how his music was to be performed, even

22 Ibid.. p. 106

^^Ibid.. p. 106. 199

though this movement, specifically, and the cantata, generally, represent the farthest point from conventional ideas on the composition of music to which Scarlatti extended himself. He was fearless, but in musical matters this fearlessness was usually combined with a certain kind of genial novelty most appnpriate for the reason that "fa buon sentire" (it sounded well).

Fife. 6.— From: Lascia dl tormentarmi, firstmovement

# g É Las- cia dl tomentar -

nii'r r Iir - mi dl tormen- - tar- ml a- mor tl-ran-no 200

This example is taken from Lascia di tormentarmi. The serpentine melody used to heighten the feeling of torment associated with the passion of love, as the lover in this cantata proceeds to call the idol "tiranno amore” is noticeable; also noticeable is the dramatic way in which this feeling is portrayed in the minimum amount of musical space. This example shows Scarlatti at his best, using not a form but what one elects to call a melodic type to express the fear and frustration of loneliness, tyranny, and unful­ filled love.

Having addressed itself to a discussion of the recitatives and ariosos as melodic types, the research now turns to a discussion of the aria, that form which in the main deals with the most potent lyric and emotional expression high­ lighted in a vocal tabloid of lyric melodic and decorative accompaniment rendered in the most passionate style of the performer who now stands uncontested before the lords, ladies, and other admirers of the courts of Baroque Italy.

While it is practically impossible to discuss form as it revealed certain schemes which govern the structure-at- large of the recitatives and ariosos, form is the greatest significance in consideration of certain aspects of the arias found in this sampling of cantatas. To understand the arias found in the cantata a sola voce, one should keep 201

in mind that the singer was the executive artist of the time, and though the arias were developed to serve definite functions in the overall balance and fluency of vocal music, the first purpose of the aria was to create a medium through which the noblest of all instruments— the human voice~and the most finished technique of singing, called bel canto, could more adequately express the passions and arouse the emotions. The aria was intended to be, and became, the most elaborate song with basso-continuo accompaniment in existence. Traditionally, the aria in the Baroque is found in two external designs: the binary and ternary. Up to the middle of the seventeenth century, the aria had been an amorphous, continuous type of monodie form in the style of what is now known as the arioso; the aria had elements of contrasting melodic strains, alternat­ ing tempi and meter changes and frequently had a recurring contour of a basso-ostinato as its foundation. This type of amorphous aria was, however, eventually replaced by the binary aria. In this form, contrasting thematic materials appeared in contrasting moods and keys. However, the binary aria left something to be desired. From Bent comes a review of typical binary forms: Bg , Ai Ag Bg , or Ai Ag

Ibid.. pp. 10-11. 202

B-j O2 Cl, The binary aria is frequently used in

Scarlatti’s early period. Considered a better vehicle for the presentations of the passions and the material of the cantatas was the da capo aria identified by historians as one of the most 25 effective and widely used vocal forms in the Baroque. This form included the dimension so obviously lacking in the binary form— the idea of recapitulation of a first theme in the tonic key after its initial presentation in a given key and the presentation of a contrasting theme in a related key. To dramatize the idea of contrast in thematic materials implicit in the term, references to the first theme as containing a masculine character and to the second theme as containing a feminine character are common. At any rate, the form of the ^ capo is ABA. It is supposed that 26 Scarlatti perfected this form in his opera Theodora# but this opinion is held to ba mere conjecture and nothing 27 more.

oc Apel, 0£. cit., pp. 4 9 -5 0 . 26 In Bumey, o£. cit<, p. 586, it is stated that Scarlatti first used the ^ capo in his opera Theodora in 1 6 9 3. However, Burney refutes his first statement by referring to earlier uses of a ^ capo form around I0 6O, O P . cit., p. 6 0 2 .

^^Burney, o£. cit.. p..601. 203

It is certain^ that in the Italian Baroque, the ^ capo

aria became the vehicle for the greatest, most spectacular display of the vocal capabilities of musicians who had

developed amazing techniques of singing— the most perfect

for any instrument at that time which they put on exhibition

with overpowering effects. Hot only was it a better vehicle

for the virtuosic renditions of the castrati but for the

ideal dramatic presentation of the passions and feâings which were frequently juxtaposed for obvious effects of contrast

in the musical fabric.

As ideas of the expression of the human passions

through literary and poetic means led to a classification and codification of techniques and idioms, important in the

Doctrine of Affections, virtuosic amplification of the passions and feelings led to the establishment of recommended types of the aria of which the following are mentioned: cantabile aria, aria di portamento, aria dl mezgo carrattere. aria parlante. aria di bravura, cavatina. 28 aria dell unisono. and aria senza accompagnato. The character of these arias is described at length, and writers felt these aria types could better express one subject or another. The ^ capo contained two strains of the most potent, most contrasting elements of melody of which the

28 Grove * s Dictionary. "Aria" Toi. I, p. 197. 204

composer was capable of creating; the ^ capo aria was

designed for the expression of a tabloid idea; the ^ capo was a central means of intensifying or resolving dramatic situations found in the texts; the da capo aria permitted the

music— vocal and instrumental— to reigh supreme and as the

unchecked master in works which are essentially and cate­

gorically musical. Moreover, the eighteenth century was

the age of the singer lii whose shadow all other musicians pg were obligated to walk. Scarlatti wrote a great deal and well for the singers of this day. Prom conflicting reports,

one cannot be absolutely sure that he invented the ^ capo

form, but there is no doubt of his mastery over it. Examples

in this sampling are sufficient proof of this fact.

Careful observation of the several forms of the aria found in this sampling revealed three principal aria forms; the strophic aria,^^ the binary aria, and the ternary aria. It seems strange that the aria ostinato is not to be found; continuous.searching in this sampling for examples of this form was altogether fruitless.

29 Theodore Pinney, History of Music (Hew York: Haroanrt and Brace, 194?), p. 264.

^^Oomposers in the eighteenth century began to oppose such restrictive forms as the strophic aria plan. The narrow design of this plan created limitations over which the composer found it difficult to overcome. With the advent of the binary form, the ternary form, and the through-composed form the musi­ cians of this time had a broader formal base from which to launch their efforts to make music fully expressive according to Mattheson, Krittlsche-Briefe.op. . p. 263. 205

The cantata utilizing the form of the strophic aria-

one melody to two or more verses— is Ohiusa tra fosche hende. It is found in the first aria (second movement). The first

strofe of this aria has the tezt "Splenda pur splenda sul \1 car^o. " The music given below shows the full instrumental

beginning and some of the vocal line.

Pig. 7 .— Prom: Ohiusa tra fosche. second movement i splen- da pur

Like many of the arias, this movement has a second strain commencing with the words "che sfavilla in montanero." Part of this strain is given below.

Pig. 8.— Prom: Ohiusa tra fosche bende. second movement ^ ^ Cr|î*fl I P che sfavilla in mon-to-ne- ro

The second strofe begins on the words "si fuggido" beneath the same melodic material found above "splenda pur splenda sul carro." Still another cantata utilizes the word strofe before two movements, but on examination "Ma si parciero" in

Co lui che fiso turns out to be a binary aria. 206

Excluding the 8trophic arias, there are approximately elghty-elght additional prias In the sampling. Of these, fourteen, or roughly 16 percent, are arias In the binary

form. These may be noted In the first and fifth movements

of Amicl se vinto. In the second movement of Luml che In fronte. In the second movement of Ellll adorata ah ben

combrendo. In the fourth movement of Andate o mlel (1712),

In the second and fourth movements of Bel nratl. In the second and fourth movements of Entro romito speco. In the third movement of Ohiusa tra fosche bende. and in the first movement of 0£ lul che fiso. By Inference, Dent attaches a chronological note In discussing the da capo arias. He

Infers that arias In the latter form come from Scarlatti’s later period and that after 1690 he seldom reverted to the binary or strophic arias.

To his early period , , . belong arias In binary form, arias on the ground bass, and all arias,In whatever form that were two stanzas,^

Notice Is called to the two arias In the cantata Da che Tlrsl which utilize the same melodic materials In the same style as developed In the strophic arias. The text noted In the above In the second aria Is "non e amore quel che In accendo" and In the second strain Is "e lento foco."

^^Dent. 0£. clt,. p. 12. 207

Coming between the second and third arias is a secco recitative after which the words "Uon e cupido" are followed by "in dolce dardo" in the exact melodic phrase

of the second aria. Perhaps, as in the case of certain of

the ^ capo arias, Scarlatti failed to properly label them.

This might be considered a quasi-strophic composition with an intervening recitative. Further, it may seem that this cantata is put together almost as a scene from an o p e r a . ^2

Dent abhorred the contention that in many ways cantatas were simply "slices" out of opera. However, the juxtaposed and contrasting ideas so arranged for dramatic power achieve thèir aim admirably. The passion of "love" referred to as a

"slow burning fire"in the first of these two arias is pitted against the thoughts of the Goddess of love, Cupid, shooting her "love-tipped" arrows into the heart of some hapless pursuant in the second of these. Dent suggests, and others agree, that Scarlatti generally elected a course of action in composing which was dictated by the affections found in the cantata text. This cantata seems to bear out this point.

Then Dent quotes an example of a cantata in which it seems reasonable to assume that Scarlatti was influenced by

^ Bumey, ££. cit.. û>, 601 and 619, described early attempts to compose cantatas which resembled "scenes taken from opera." 208

practical matters in musical composition, perhaps repetition of words or reiteration of a certain thought in which case he devised a way of repeating or reiterating his materials appropriately.^^ Perhaps this is a good index to the methods adopted hy the Italian when he was convinced that certain items of the texts needed special, even uneonveatÊoaàl attention for such purposes as heightening the drama or placing into a composition greater aesthetic momentum. At any rate, there is a definite formal connection between love, the main idea of the first aria, and the symbolic function of Cupid, the nain idea of the second aria in Da che Tirai, and the technique of repetition of the melodic material to supply 34 continuity and logic.

The remainder of these arias, seventy-four in number, are found to be in several variations of the ^ capo aria form. In most cases the words ^ capo are plainly written out at the end of the second strain, from which point the performer would logically revert to the opening bars at the

"head" of the composition and repeat to the end of the first complete section where is usually found a double bar. How-

33 Dent likewise makes the statement that composition for Scarlatti had reached a precision that was almost mechani­ cal and that in this process Scarlatti used his imagination not only to create but to critize as well. In all that he did, he united purity of style and beauty and sacrificed obtrusive and violent expressive devices. ^^Ibid.. p. 81. 209

ever, in some cases, the first complete section is written

out in its entirety, after the second strain, as in the fourth movement of Fille adorata ah ben comprend©, in the

first movement of Pille adorata £ cara. and in the second

movement of Pille adorata e snietata. In other cases the

words da capo are not found, nor is there a sign to indicate

the section is to be repeated. Attention is called to the

second and sixth movements of the cantata Da che Tirsi as

good examples of what is here stated. But common judgment would force the observer to look back to the first section

if for no other reason than to end it in a logical key.''

It would be well to review the several variations

of the ^ capo form in the sampling. There is the ABA plan noted in the second and third movements of Amici se vinto. first and second arias, Amo ma I'idol mio. and the first aria of the 1712 version of Andate £ miei sospiri; the AABBA plan noted in the third aria of the 1712 version of

Andate £ miei sospiri. and the first aria of Pilli adorata ah ben comprend© and the AABA plan in the second aria of

Pilli adorata £ cara.

Porm, it becomes apparent, had a very close relation­ ship to the expression of passions and feelings. This has been demonstrated in literary forms, and it seems reasonable to conclude that musicians like Scarlatti were hard at work 210

perfecting musical forms by which the passions could better

be expressed. The indefinite character of the ariosos pushed .

forward the perfection of recitative secco and recitative

accompagnato through which large quantities of literary materials could be presented in artistic fashion and in a minimum amount of time. A simple comparison of the number

of words in the recitatives and the number of words in the

arias with the number of bars required to complete their melodic setting shows that there is a correlation between

the type elected for use in a given work and such facts as

the quantity of text that had to be presented. The number of thoughts to be dealt with dictated the way details concerning the melodic type should be used. In this same line of reasoning the strophic aria, the ostinato aria, the binary aria (of the various types already mentioned) gave way to the most obvious advantages of capo aria.

Scarlatti played his part in the development and creation of certain types of recitatives and, according to some, the development of the da capo aria. However, his efforts were generated by the necessity for musical forms commensurate with the requirements affecting literary forms in which texts, poesia per musica, were written. That men of music 35 were concerned about form is pointed out by Burney,

^^Bumey, History of Music, op. cit.. p. 928. 211

36 37 38 39 Quantz, Mattheson, Leopold Mozart, Geminianl, and a 40 host of others of the eighteenth century.

In summary, there are some observations relative to the concept of form as a vehicle in the expressions of passions and feelings found in the cantata a voce sola.

First, the rapid-fire style used in most of the recitatives permitted lengthier details and intricate turns of the taxt to be presented in the minimum amount of space. In comparison, then, recitative was used to present fill-ins, introductions, and postscripts which could not be a part of the aria.

Recitatives elude the general confines of form but adopts various melodic styles appropriate to embellish the details found in the texts. In other instances, recitative secco. of the purest kind, is used in a contrasting way to recitative accompagnato; and both of these melodic styles are used in a contrasting way to recitative con convato.

The presentation of details in great quantity is observable

36 Quantz, J. J., "Autobiography" in Mettl, P., Forgotten Musicians, p. 245. 37 Mattheson, Tollkommene KappellmeSster (Hamburg; 1728), passim. 38 Ralph Kirkpatrick, "18th Century Metrenomic Markings," Journal of American Musicological Society (December, I9 3 8), p. 30 if. 39 F. Geminiani, A Treatise of Good Taste, pp. I-3 . 40 Wessell, "AffektenlehiBIn the 18th Century." (Doctoral dissertation» Cnivereity of Indiana, 1954), passim. 212

41 In the cantatas. Even In several cantatas where the number of arias is greater than the number of recitatives, the

length of the recitative is greater because its specific

function is to handle many details in contrast to the 42 function of the aria intended to deal with a few ideas only.

However, the form of the aria or the melodic type of recitative will vary with the number of contrasting ideas or terms to be found in the poesia per musica and the context in which they must be amplified. Also the form of the aria

41 Aniifti se vinto. fourth movement; Andate miei o sospiri. third movement; £a che Tirsi. third and fifth movements; lo che dal cor ai*"^lle. first and third move­ ments; Belle dunque. first and third movements; Olori mia cara. first and third movements; Pare selve gradite. first, tüird and fifth movements; Ohiusa"tra fosc£e oende. first and third movements; Olori Vezzosa e belie. second, fourth, and sixth movements; Oo lui che fiso. second movement; Bel mio seno. first and tEIrd movements; Oon trasparenti il velo. first and third movements; Patto d'amor. first, third and fifth movements ; Pille. Pille acTorata. first and third movements; Pille adorata ak ben comprendo. first and third movements; Pilli altera e spietata. second and fourth movements ; L'armi crudel"e fiero. first 'and third movements; La Belta. first movement;"Liete boschi e belle. first and third movements; Lunga stagionda. flrst7 third and fifth movements ; Luml che in fronte. first and third movements; Al fin, al fin m'uccIcTerete. first and third movements; Lascia di tormentarmi ! first and third movements ; Bei prati. first, and third movements; Mitilde alma mia. first and third movements; Entro romito speco. first and ibird movements. 4? Amici se vinto. Andate miei o sospiri. Da che Tirsi. lo che del cor di Pille. Olori mia cara. Pare selve gradite. "olori vezzosa £ belle. 213

has been known, to vary with the différant items in the texts. Porm, theiEfore, is closely related to the amplification of

passions found in the literature and the feelings which are

likewise to be found there.

Scarlatti used the element of form in his cantatas

as a means of successfully joining the separate items of

the text into a unified lyric composition. Porm, then for

Scarlatti, was a vital force or agent for the projection of

the cantata texts. As the form of the ballata. idyll. pastorale, and the sonnet had been used by the literati for

texts of the cantatas, form for the arias and the recitatives was used to give unity and organization to the separate musical ideas to be found in the cantata a voce sola: entities that made for entertainment, fluency, and balance which were prerequisites of the chamber style discussed by

Quantz.Also form was used to clarify and lend distinct­ iveness to the cantatas as they were to fulfill the recommendations of musicians under the influence of A A. rationalistic thought.

The passion . . . which had been characteristic of the . . . Renaissance was (in the Baroque) still strong; the characteristic tendency of the Baroque was . . . the attempt to inspire solidity (as in form) and repose . . . with . . .

43 Beekman, Cannon, Johnson, 0£. cit.. pp. 250-257. 44 J. J. Quantz, quoted in Paul Rettl, Porgotten Musician (îTew York: Philosophical Library, 1951 )7 p. 245. 214

restless animation and unrestrained extravagence. The ideal , . , would have been . . . not only- unlimited magnificence, but . . , perpetual movement in every part . . . along with the whole range of human passions and emotions . . .45

A last observation is that no specific form was reserved for the expression of any specific passion insofar as this can be observed. This fact has an important bearing on whether or not Scarlatti followed standard ideas on the ability of a specific form to express a specific passion.

It is obvious that the composer used form "bo weld and unify the materials which he elected to use in fusing together the musical elements to obtain a passionate effect.

Scarlatti's harmonic, melodic, and rhythmln styles

Alessandro Scarlatti was not the first person to write music in which harmony was regulated by prescribed chordal progressions and in which dissonances were prepared.Nor was he the first to apply equal weight to the vertical and horizon*»! aspects of music. He did exhibit a very novel sense of harmony from the chromatic point of view which assisted in enlivening the texts. Some in his own time

Ac ^Dent, 0£. cit.. pp. 4-5. 46 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York: Norton, 194?), p. 17: EàwarTTPent. Alessân&ro Scarlatti , . . (London: Arnold, 1904), p. 153. 215

declared his practices too "severe” and elected to follow

the examples of his contemporaries. Martini and Buononcini,

in harmonic details. Scarlatti’s biographer, Edward Pent,

says that on occasions, the man is guilty of using bold

and "bizarre" idioms that become hallmarks of his style.

This analysis attempts to provide better evidence of the

boldness of which Pent spoke and to review the claims that

some of his music is bizarre. Moreover, the connection

between his techniques and the doctrine which presumably

influenced him will be investigated.

The fact that a key center is discernible in most

of the movements means that Scarlatti wrote completely

tonal music. The key center is not always indicated by

an appropriate key signature, and this explains some of

the apparent inconsistencies: it is not unusual to find

signatures that are incomplete and it seems worth mentioning

that some pieces are without signatures altogether.In

the case of 0 major and its relative MnoroA, such a

procedure would be acceptable for it is by present standards

correct. However, the composer wrote music in such keys as P major, P minor, E major, E minor, P major, P minor 48 without indicating any key sign whatever. It is known

47 J. P. Rameau. Traite de l ’Harmonie (Paris: 1722). p. 12. " 48 The key center is easily deducted from the melodic and harmonic materials that are found. 216

that Baroque composers wrote only what they had to write in

a score; it is also known that composers used the Dorian

signatures to indicate minor keys with flat signatures.

But this procedure does not seem to be applied with any

degree of consistency in Scarlatti's music. It should be

stated that irrespective of the foregoing statements .all of

the tone centers of movements can be ascertained with the

exception of the central tonality in the third movement in the 1 7 1 3 "version of Andate o miei sospiri. It is the cantata written to "puzzle" Gasparini. Why, after intro­ ducing an F sharp minor tonality for three measures, the composer would suddenly begin his notations with flate instead of sharps in the fourth measure of this piece is still a puzzle.

Hone of the movements in the sampling contain a key signature with more than three sharps or flats. When compared to the current system of key signatures, it is apparent that Scarlatti indicates key signatures normally lacking one sharp or flat. An exception is noted to the foregoing statement in the Scarlatti sampling. Specific keys not lacking any of the flats expected in the key signature are the key of G minor indicated by two flats and the key of E flat major indicated by three flats. Specifi­ cally, it is noted: three sharps now used to indicate A 217

major and F sharp major are used by Scarlatti to indicate B

major in the fourth movement of Del mio seno la costanza;

three flats now used to indicate E flat major and 0 minor

are used to indicate A flat major and F minor in the fourth movement of lo che dal core di Fille and the second movement

of Entro romito sneco: two sharps now used to indicate D major and B minor are used to indicate A major and F sharp minor in the third movement of the 1713 version of Andate o miei sospiri; two flats now used to indicate B flat major and £ minor are used here to indicate B flat major in the second movement of A1 fin, al fin m'ucciderete and 0 minor in the fourth movements of Pare selve gradite and Fatto d'amor seguace: one sharp now used to indicate G major and E minor is used here only to indicate G minor in the first and second movements of Belle dunque and B minor in the third movement of Del mio seno la costanza: one flat now used to indicate F major and D minor is used here only to indicate

G minor in the first movement of Fille adorata ah ben comprendo and in the fourth and fifth movements of the 1712 version of

Andate o miei sospiri and E flat in the fourth movement of

Fille adorata ah ben comprendo and the second movement of

Amo ma I'idol mio. Dent has remarked that the music of

Scarlatti looks infinitely more difficult on paper, possibly because of the infinite number of alterations that had to be made in the melodic and chordal structures due to the 218

practices of his time with respect to incomplete key signa- 49 tures, ^ than it is in fact. One other fact is pertinent:

the highly chromatic and modulatory style of Scarlatti leads the music to keys quite distant from the tonal base when

compared to what is expected to take place in the circular

signature connected system. This brings to mind the

discussion by Jan La Eue on aspects of "bifocal tonality"

in Baroque music.

Hot only is a central tonality discernible in the

movements of the sampling, but in a quite artistic way

the composer shows his preoccupation with weaving a related

tonal pattern through the movements of each cantata by

selecting a specific key center to predominate and relating

others to it. That he keeps this thought in mind is borne

out by observing his selection of the same key center usually employed in the first and last movements of a

cantata. It is not strange to find this same key in the

intervening movements as a quick look at the table presented

below will verify. Even the cantatas that follow the most

unusual formal plans are held together by a key center that

is easily observed. Two lists are given from which these

deductions have been made.* Note the interrelationship of keys in movements in the sampling.

*%ameau, "Supplement," Traite de l 'harmonie, op. cit., p. ^®Jan La Eue, "Bifocal Tonality," Essays in Music (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 194^), p. T72. 219

TABLE OF KEYS

Cantata Title Sequence of Keys by Movement Ghlusa tra fosche bende a, a, a, e, A Andate o miei sospiri (1712) g, E flat, A, g, g Luml che In fronte e, G, d, d, C, e Fllli"ltdorata ah ben g, a, ?, B flat, d, g Amo ml I'ldoT mTo d, B flat, g, d Lunga staglonda d, B flat, g, d li ?ln. al fin g, c, b flat, g Bel Pratl fresche rlvo d, e, F, d Ml tilde alma miâ" ~ c, B flat, E flat, c Lascia*‘dl tormentarml a, a, d, B flat, a Quando amor vuol fior G, C, d, G Clorl vezzosa e_ belle d, b, a, d Con trasparente* il velo b. A, b, b, Entro romito speco a, f, B flat, a Bel mio seno A, D, e, E, A L'arml cruiele F, F, d, B flat, F Fatto d'amor seguace E flat, A flat, f, E flat Fllle altera e spletata g, a, B flat, g Clorl mia cara C, G, C, C, Co lul che flso A, B, C , g, A, A Andate o miei sosplrl (1713) f sharp, b, ?, f sharp Amicl s^ vlnto A, B, A, G, A, a

In the second list a close key relationship can be seen between first and last movements.

Llete boschl b, e, G, e lo cheHel core di Fllle c, e, C, f La belta ch^lo sosplrl d, B flat, F, d, E flat Care selve gradite B flat, E flat, B flat F Bella dunoue “ G, G, a, C Ba che Tlrsl b, B, B, a, g, a, e, f sharp

The subject of tonality had specific Implications for

the Boctrine of Affections. Some theorists and composers referred to In Chapter IT of this document believed that major keys possessed a quality that made them specifically well suited to express joy and that conversely minor keys 220

possessed a quality that made them well suited to express

sadness. Scarlatti violated these common beliefs and many

others that were popular. Such individual approaches to

the problems of the affections In these works were the rule rather than the exception.

A review of keys that were recommended by others to express specific or related emotions and a review of those which Scarlatti used to express certain emotions will aid in determining whether he adhered slavishly to existing aedutions, whether he used them on occasions, or whether he composed music In a style that was completely personal and unrelated to the practices of other composers and the recommendations that they made concerning the expressive value of given keys.

The first list comes from the document authored Cl by Wessell It represents collected comments on this subject by eighteenth century theorists; It Is compre­ hensive In that It reviews the most Informative literature that has been found on the subject In the course of this research In spite of the fact that Burney refers to Donl^^ and to the contributions that he made In recommending specific musical devices to express passions and that

Bukofzer recommended Bernhard As one of the men of the very

51 Fessell, 0£. clt., passim.

^^Burney, o£. clt., p. 602. 221

early Baroque who contributed limited information on

specific devices to express specific passions,Examination

of the documents of these men provided little help in

ascertaining specific ideas on musical ddvices to

express the passions. However, as pointed out in Chapter IV

of this document Mattheson, Rameau, Quantz, Geminiani, and others have left in their theoretical documents much valuable information that will be of assistance. The second list will help in ascertaining whether Scarlatti adhered to the recommendations found in the works left by those mentioned above or whether as Descartes suggested he allowed his intuition to come into play in devising techniques for expression of passionate texts.

TABLE OP KEYS AND RECOMMENDED EMOTIONS^^

Keys Associated Emotions

A sobbing, sorrowfulness, mad­ ness, despair, temerity a melancholia, graveness, lamenting, sorrowfulness B splendor, modesty b 0 0 madness, despair, sorrow­ fulness

^^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 388.

^^Wessell, 0£. cit.. p. 157. 222

D sharpness, willfulness d gentleness, pleasure, contentness E despair, sorrowfulness, madness e grief, sorrowfulness F;,’ beautiful, sentiments, love f despair, sorrowfulness F sharp f sharp languishing, sorrowfulness, abandonment G pleasantness g earnestness, gaiety, loving­ ness, 8orrowfulne s s A a B flat disagreeableness, hardness, unpleasantness b flat B flat pathetic, plaintive, mad­ ness, despair, sorrowful­ ness

Bow, the following original table shows the selection of keys used byScarlatti in the amplifio&tion and expression of specific emotions, the number of times he used the key, and the number of times the keys were used repeatedly to express the same emotion. 223

EREQUEKTOY TABLE SHOWIKG KEYS SELEOTBB TO EXPRESS EMOTIOIS

KEY AFFEAHANCSS EMOTIONS TIMES USED

A 11 admoinltlon, desire, dear, desire 2 repose, distress, resigna­ distress 2 tion, hope, recollection, others 1 sacrifice

a 17 resignation, reassurance, resignation 2 anguish, despair, resolu­ distress 2 tion, distress, sadness, despair 2 oppression, supplication, others 1 grief, hope, joy, longing, adoration

B 1 fear 1

b 7 desire, fear, anxiety, sympathy, anticipation, hope, wonder 1 each

C 9 loneliness, resignation, resignation 2 grief, sympathy, adora­ others 1 tion, joy, despair, supplication

c 5 anticipation, cynicism, fear, resignation, sadness 1 each

D 5 resignation, sympathy, desire, uncertainty, disappointment 1 each

d 20 distress, anguish, resig­ anguish 2 nation, mockery, despair, resignation 2 exhaltation, longing, mockery 2 sacrifice, remorse, despair 2 recollection, grief, others 1 cynicism, fear, anguish, love, hope

£ 1 exhaltation 1 224

lEEQUEKCY TABLE (continued)

KBT APPEAEMOES EMOTIONS TIMES USED e 8 distress, adoration, hope, resignation : despondency, resignation others 1 defiance, reassurance

P 7 uncertainty, tyranny, vanity, deception, distress, sadness, dejection 1 each f 4 resignation, sympathy, hope hope 2 a 9 misery, exhaltation, love, joy, adoration, distress, defiance, respose, despair 1 each g 11 doubt, resignation, remini­ resignation 2 scence, contemplation, reminiscence wonder, distress, tyranny, others 1 confusion, grief

B flat 15 hope, desire, deception, desire 3 sadness, supplication, hope 2 fear, pity, anxiety, others 1 distress, resentment b flat 1 pride 1

E flat 6 anticipation, desire, doom, desire 2 redemption, fear f sharp 3 resignation, reminiscence, resolution 1 each

A flat 1 rationalization 1

Indeter­ minate 2 resolution, self-pity 1 each 2 2 0

Presented in alphabetical order and in a tabular fashion the following information is given to show how

Scarlatti used the various keys to express different emotions :

KEYS USED BY SO^LATTI TO EXPRESS EMOTIONS

Emotions Ke^s Emotions Ksza Admonition A Loneliness a. C, e Adoration 0, e. g Mockery d Anguish a» d Misery G Anticipation b, 0, E fiat, E Oppression a Anxiety b, B Self-pity B Confusion g Pride b Contemplation S Rationaliza­ Cynicism c, d tion Dejection Recollection A, d Deception P, E Reminiscence g Defiance e. G Resentment b Despair a. c. D, G, d Redemption E Desire A, a. b. B, E Repose A, G Despondency Resignation A, a, C, D Di sappointment D d» e, g Distress A, a. d. e, g, G RêiSàëuranbë a, e Doom E Resolution a Doubt G Remorse d Exhaltation d, B, G Sacrifice A, d Pear A, B., b, B, d Sadness a, P, B Grief a. 0, g Sympathy b, 0, D, f Hope A, b. e. f, B Supplication a. C, B Joy a. Gr Tyranny P, g loye a, G Uncertainty B, P, e Vanity P Wonder b, G

The chart above shows that Scarlatti used minor keys more than major keys in the expression of a variety of passions. No key is reserved for the expression of any specific passion, nor is a specific passion limited to 226

expression in one particular key. There is the inference

that once a key had been selected for a given cantata, the

composer had the ability to make the music sound as he wished it to sound and that he was loathe to rely on the recommendations of his predecessors and peers who suggested that certain keys projected happy effects or sad effects ipso facto.

The new ideas of tonality, key centers, and other emerging musical concepts opened a vast reservoir of ideas and possibilities within easy reach of the eighteenth-century musician.. Not only did the Baroque composer have a way of rooting his music in specific key centers which were thought to have specific affective qualities, according to Baroque theorists though he did not necessarily follow these beliefs, but he realized that he had the option of using related diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic conceptions to better express the texts.

The cantata Ami ci se vinto is diatonic and centers around the scale of A major. The first movement of Amici se vinto has two sharps in the key signature, but it is apparent that the work begins in A major. The £ sharp on the leading tone conclusively identifies the scale. A

^^Apel, 0£. cit.. p. 208. 227

figure of sixteenth notes in the continue appears on and

emhellshes the tonic with its upper neighboring tone as

well as the dominant with its upper neighbor. One does

not have to await the entrance of the melodic line to make

the decision that thisimusic is tonal and diatonic, for the

fragment of music in the introduction is in itself conclusive, \ Hot only is the movement of the line to a logical cadence

definite enough, but the firm cadential figure, which begins four beats before the voice enters, is proof beyond doubt that this music is diatonic. The music in the instrumental motto is a preview of what is found in the vocal line. The assortment of eighth and sixteenth notes which alternate not only make interesting rhythmic materials but reinforce the principle tonality at the tonic and dominant. The sequences built on sixteenths in the base show Scarlatti's complete understanding of the keyboard instrument which after all played an extremely important role in the solo cantatas.

The vodal line is developed on the dominant tonality and has an individuality of its own. Still, it is obvious that there is a noticeable interpendence between the voice and the continue. While Figure 9 will show how Scarlatti established the principal tonality of this movement and succeeds in getting his music underway, Figure 10 will show the devisive measure that he employed to bring his music to a halt at cadential points. Of interest, the diatonic scale 228

of A ma3or is the foiuidation for the sequential pattern

of notes in bars 7 and 8 which are ingeniously welded and

expressively developed in a sequential pattern.

Pig, 9 Prom: Amici se vinto. first movemsnt

». ? m 7 g cccf .1 rj Id* sf i m

-J?3l ■> 3 CCtf g h g A- ml-ci s'e vin - to s'e vln - - to A-ml-ci Af

g m

S'e vin-to S é vln-toml-ci

7 6 7 6

3 M h ( --- r - h - , ---- f f - W ' . ----- ' 4 - ^ -----.-A-r.------| „y r, M r 1 ^ = ^ ^ 1 " A- mi-ci A- mi-cl S*e vln - to S*e vln - to

— 1“ 4— S ------p~"jii' I fi rTl - - *-p j — y F f f 229 Pig. 10:— Prom: Amlci se vinto first movement

The descending sequences in the next example show the diatonic gravity of the scale of A major in this composition.

The predominance of the established key as the tonal center is further verified by the appearance of the second strain at the dominant.

Pig. 11:— Prom: Amici se vinto. first movement

The evolving tonal system in this time relegated the dominant to a primary position in the major-minor scales con­ cept, and the formula adopted for the ^ capo aria, of - which this piece is a good example, shows the appropriateness of using the dominant, sub-dominant, or relative minor keys for the presentation of contrasting themes if the key of the piece is major and in the dominant, sub-dominant, and relative or parallel major keys. Pigure 12 is the second subject of the first movement of Amici se vinto: it is in the dominant key and built on melodic materials contrasting irriLth those found in the first theme. The new scale of E major is approached and substantiated by the leading-tone D sharp. 230

ïlg. 12:— Erom; Amlcl se vlnto. first movement

; ; I non 8 Isa do A- mo- re dal co-re fug-gl-to spa-rl-to

Any of the movements of Amici se vinto are exemplary

of Scarlatti’s inclihations toward diatonicism but "nella guancia sua vezzosa” is particularly noteworthy, not only for what can be derived from the vocal line, but for the way the instrumental line enhances it. In viewing this aria, one sides with Algarotti who felt that instrumental introductions, interludes, and accompaniments served a genuine usefulness in predisposing, underlining, and reiterating for better comprehension of the auditors the impressions and moods which are contained in the text.

Figure 13 seems a good example of what Algarotti felt so eg keenly-^ in establishing the passionate flavor of this piece in pure tonality.

^^F. Algarotti, Saggio sonra 1 * opera in Musica (Livorno: 1763), p. 26. 231

îlg. 15:— Prom: Amlcl se vlnto. third movement

$

N@l"la gtian« eia su- a ves-so - sa non si in CJ M M ' Ig

The second strain of the aria "lella guanlca”ls

given below as Figure 14, Note the continued use of the rhythmic and melodic motif built around two eighth notes separated by two sixteenths. The contrast between these two strains Is In keeping with the form of this da cano aria. Also the contrasting Ideas of the text beneath the melodic units are suitably set.

Fig. 14:— From; Amlcl se vlnto third movement

Non si ve - de pin a £io- rir e dal crin re-te 232

In the same cantata Amlcl se vlnto. another good

example of diatonic movement Is to be found, "Senza

tronco e senza ramo" (Without a branch or a bough).

Essentially in 0 major, there Is a near modulation outside

the "family of keys" to E major In the latter part of the first strain from which Figure 15 Is taken. However, the

Fig* 1 5 :— From: Amlcl se vlnto. fifth movement

grg:>:7 c

Sen - za tron*co e aen-za ra-mo

£

music of the aria does not stray for long; Scarlatti seemed

to achieve a kind of tonal cohesiveness by remaining close

to the tonic key during the course and at the close of the

aria. The most distant excursions take place on the words

Indurml ad* amar and quando non amo. and before the entrance

of the second strain on the words nomograte ma vletate 233

toward the latter part of the aria. The opinion Of 57 Algarotti-^' regarding dissonances to heighten the affections

seems applicable here, for the potency of the words deserves to be dramatized by some fitting musical treatment or device.

Scarlatti chose these devices well from a large assortment which he had learned during his fifty years as a composer.

One needs not be deluded into thinking that the arias of Scarlatti contain all the evidences of diatonic movement. It should be stated that the arias are more consistently diatonic than the recitatives. Often, a recitative will begin diatonically and then will develop varying degrees of chromaticism. Of this Figures 16 and 17 are good examples.

Pig. 16:— Prom: Amo ma I'idol mio. first movement E = K

A -mo A - mo ml I'idol ml-o con si sCrsne manière

£

mi cor- ris -pon-de oh Dio A:

57Ibid.. p. 26 234

The key center of this movement is held intact by

the use of tied notes in the first example acting as a pedal point at the dominant in the continue. This means

that the indicated notes above those tied, used typically in recitatives, will help to sustain the key center. The melodic line also moves diatonically. However, here and there, altered notes in the melody and continua aid the modulations which take place within the "family of keys" structure. A firm beginning, close adherence to the diatonic movement in the melody, the intervals found in the continue, the full chords predicated on the basso ciferato. and the medial and final cadences in this piece are evidences not only of diatonicism but of modern tonality in every dimension. There is still another example of diatonicism.

This time it comes from the cantata ^ che Tirsi. in the recitative "Ho no'e amor." Without a key signature, the pièce begins with a measure in G major; however, the move­ ment modulates freely and smoothly. All modulations are to •fflae related keys and are accomplished by an upward chromatic alteration of a half step and two downward leaps to altered notes. The smoothness of the modulations is effected by a sharp or flat or both to suggest intervals of the diminished, augmented, and/or minor sevenths. This type of solution seems to be a favorite of Scarlatti and more will be said about chromatically altered intervals 235

Ikter. % e n the deceptive veneer has been shorn away from

this piece, one discovers that it is a good example of

diatonic music. Per perusal, the recitative■Riiich has been

examined is given below. The movement ends in E minor, not

Fig.17(— From: Da che Tirsi. fourth movement

. , _ i ' 111 ' 11 11 No no'e a-mor mo-cer-to mo-men-to del al-ma che rap-pre-sen-ta a'gll

p I P' P p oc-chi Tir-si va-go ma- gna mi- o co- stan- te che i -el -

4- r f g p. G r vuol ben che no puo ve- der- mi a- man- te m jB p i in the key of G major in which it began. However, the relationship between the two keys is obvious. 236

Many examples show that Scarlatti was fully aware

of new tendencies in harmony and that he made full use of

them in his music. There are, as it has been shown, many examples of diatonic movement, and it is assumed that there are examples as well of chromatic movement.

A statement by a Renaissance authority causes one to expect chromaticism in this music for many reasons, but especially since it is chamber music. Lowinsky intimates that in the earlier Renaissance music, the chromatic style^ was reserved for the music written especially for assemblages of special audiences in chambers of royalty whose tastes and erudition as consumers of rare art were established by the courts of which they were a part. The chromatic style was more suited to the chamber than to the church or to the theatre, so that the tradittonali-usg of chromaticism in the Renaissance is a part of the heritage of the Baroque cantata da camera. This same opinion is reiterated by Alfred Einstein in his voluminous writings in the Italian eg Madrigal^^ where he refers to the chromatic style in connection with musica reservata of the Renaissance, a conception which one may logically assume was perpetuated in

eg E. Lewinsky, Secret Chromatic Art in the Nether­ lands Motet (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946), pp. 28-4g . eg -^^Alfred Einstein, Italian Madrigal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949), Vol. I, pp. 228-229* 237 the cantata da camera of the eighteenth century. These are firm bases upon which Scarlatti could justify any uses which he made of chromaticism as with the centuries there developed new ideals for expansion of harmonic techniques and passionate expression which gripped the minds of the composers of esoteric chamber music. Scarlatti's use of chromatic chords caused his contemporaries to call his style learned and pedantic.

In the cantata ^ che del cor di Pille, the first and third movemsnts contain chromatic alterations; in the cantata Pille adorato £ cara, the first movement is chromatic; in the cantata Liete boschi the third movement is chromatic. These- cantatas, while they contain chromatic alterations, are ohly mildly chromatic. However, in the cantatas Pille altera e spietata the fourth aria "Hon ti vantar" offers a good example of Scarlatti's chromatic style.

Excerpts from the aria "Hon ti vantar" are given below in

Pigure 18. In Pare selve gradite in the first recitative

Pig. 6:— Prom: Pille altera e spietata. fourth movement ""

si rigida si rl- gi-da si ri- gi-da e crudel 238

on the words quanto acoerhe e_ dure, and In the third

recitative on the words e_ senza fede vegliante stelle a

vantUTZzar. one finds several rather interesting chromatic alterations that are given below in Pigure 19.

Pig. 19:— Prom; Care selve gradite. third movement

e sen-za fe-de ve-gllan-de atel-le a vln-tuz-zar

Still another example comes from the cantata Care selve gradite in the aria "Per queste vie Romite" comes an example of chromatic writing given here as Pigure 20.

Pig. 20;— Prom; Care selve gradite. third movement

Y IbJ ||J, J I" I / ' I* J I* a

d*ln-si-die e in- gan- ■■gt-P-b.

At least four cantatas in this sampling are consistently chromatic; Lascia di tormentarml. Al fin. al fin m'ucciderete and the two settings of Andate o miei sospiri. written in the years 1712 and 1713. 239

Now It will be recalled that around 1712, after

Scarlatti returned to Naples, Dent reported that his

methods became academic and experimental, and his music

became highly chromatic. As director of the Oonservatorio

^ Ppver;^ Gesu OafiStOo^ (the appointment being made in 1709 in the city of Naples), he had the proper atmosphere in

which to be quite academic, and this period is character­

ized by much harmonic experiment that is interestingly

chromatic. Schmitz claimed that music from this period in Scarlatti's life excited both admiration and criticism 61 among his peers. As a matter of fact. Dent sums up his appraisal of the versatility of the composer by saying that in the two settings of Andate £ miei sospiri. Scarlatti pursued chromatic audacity to its most distant point. With text and music by Scarlatti, one cantata bore the inscription

"in idea humana per capriccio del autore^^ (with the idea to be performed by a singer at the whims of the author) and was treated academically as a problem cantata. It was sent to his revered friend Gasparini for the sole purpose of

Founded in 1589, this institution as others gave an immense impetus to musical activity according to Theodore Finney, History of Music (New York: Earcourt. Brace Co., 1948), p. 2^2. fT 4 E. Schmitz, Geschichte des Kantaten (Leipzig: Brietkopf and Hârtel, 1955), PP. i45-147.

^^Dent, o£. cit.. p. 189. 2#0

impressing the younger musician with his skill as a master composer. After reviewing the manuscript, Gasparini responded with his own setting of this text. Scarlatti immediately completed a second setting, labeled it ^ idea irhumana ma in regolato cromatico. non e_ ogni Professore

(not to be performed by a singer because of the chromatics not known to all teachers), and sent it to Gasparini with the idea of further puzzling him. Pent claims that the latter is "remarkable for nothing except . . . its dryness, but with humble apologies the observation is made that a review of this cantata and of its predecessor by the same title may point to the beginning of the period in

Scarlatti’s life in which the greatest thrust of his inventive genius is manifest; to music which is exemplary of the new vistas he had reached in his development; and to the solution of musical and expressive problems deserving a better description than "dryness." The first setting is written in the key of G minor eind shows an excess of chromaticism in interesting lines and figures, in the use of chromatically altered intervals, and in an alarming amount of imitation that seems to have its roots in contra­ puntal theory. In the instrumental introduction, which the

^ M . Bukofzer, ££. cit.. p. 236, remarks that much of Scarlatti's music looks inconsequential enough ton paper and comes to life through finished, sparklin performances. 241

voice later imitates, one's interest is aroused by the introduction and resolution of a number of chromatic half steps; and interest is further aroused by the vertical and horizontal voice leadings which are dictated by these altered intervals resulting from intra-chord changes.

The introductory material is found below:

Pig.2 1 Prom: Andate o miei sospiri. (1712) first movement

I

Note the falling half-step between B flat and A, and the rising half-steps between D and E flat, and F sharp and G.

Each one of these is important to the central tonality which is clearly G minor. More important, the introduction and resolution of these half-steps are important to the chromatic design of the outer voices of this piece. The introduction contains only the first half of a theme that has two parts. The first part of the theme is given in

Pigure 21 while the final portion of the theme is given in

Pigure 22.

Pig. 22:— Prom: Andate £ miei sospiri (1712), first movement 242

This second part begins in the third bar and is repeated

again at the interval of a minor third below the tonic in

the succeeding bars. Seven chromatic alterations are made

in the two parts. However, because there is no key signa­

ture, Scarlatti was obliged to indicate, by accidentals,

where the scale design demanded, a sharp or flat, and

these changes give this cantata the facade of erroneous

complication. Throughout the movement of thirty-three bars,

twenty-five chromatic alterations are formed in the continue,

The altered notes frequently create diminished intervals,

and the basso clferato indicates "fill-ins” of a diminished

chordal complex. If the assumption concerning voice lead­

ings is correct, the diminished chords created by the

figures in the continue will dictate the resolutions which take place both in the upper and lower lines and in

the filled-in parts indicated by the figures. At bars two and three, B flat resolves to A, and £ sharp resolves

D, while the chord £ sharp B £ B flat resolves inwardly

to the D minor structure producing the interval of a perfect fifth between the lower and upper voices. This kind of chromatic alteration appears frequently in this movement, but not in many pieces of this sampling. In the third bar, there is another example of the voice leading dictated by the formation of diminished intervals. On the 243

first half of the third beat of bar three, D moves to A

and is tied across the bar line to the first main pulse

of bar four given in Figure 22 on the preceding page.

In the bass line, the P sharp has been preceded by

a C. When the E flat resolves to the 3 in the melody, it

forms the interval of a minor sixth with the bass note,

F sharp. The chromatic motion continues from an interval

that implies a diminished triad and after the melody and

bass move a chromatic half-step, the resolution forms the

first of the sub-dominant minor triad 0, E flat, 6, shown

below in Figure 23.

Fig.23:— Andate o miei sospiri.(1712), first movement

f . i ' T

Dent wrote that the diminished chord concept was not new with Scarlatti; however, he goes on to say that the Italian was one of the first to grasp "what might be done with it as an absolute chord.Others had treated the diminished intervals as suspended discords arrived at

64. Dent, 0£. cit.. p. 142. 244

by the contrapuntal process.His employment and resolu­

tion of the diminished intervals give one the feeling of being pushed forward by the chromatic momentum and of relaxing at the resolutions. This feeling could have been grasped by the kind of audiences which frequented the chamber, for they awaited eagerly the kind of aesthetic experience that comes from witnessing such novel effects as the fast moving harmonic rhythms found in Scarlatti.

Whether the movement is contrived contrapuntally or not is an argument that can wait. However, there is a great deal of imitation of the chromatic intervals found in this movement in the outer lines. At first this imitation is spaced widely in the composition but later is written much closer together. In the first bar there is an upward motion of D to E flat which is imitated two bars later with a

P sharp to G; following this, in the same bar there is a movement of 0 sharp to D. Then, there is a downward motion

_C to B natural in the fourth bar which is later imitated

P sharp to P, which forms the horizontal interval of the augmented fourth. Coming closer together, A flat to A is separated by one pulse and then imitated P sharp to G.

This continuous action has value that is quite apparent and quite expressive of the words Andate o miei sospiri (Go my spirit).

G^ibid.. pp. 152-153. 245

Also, there Is the excerpt from the aria "Se non

v'accoglie in seno," Thirteen bars before the end, as the

cadence is approached, there is an interesting chromatic

scheme employed to bring this movement tô its close in the

music partially noted below as Figure 24,

Fig. 2 4 :--From: Andate o miei sospiri. fourth movement

$ W e'un 8ol del suo sd-spl-rl spar* ga spar- ga con me e'un I rcfff rtotfT

=p._, tj p'

me e'un sol-de suoi so- spl- rl spar-ga spar-

like the first setting of the text Andate o miei sospiri. the second is chromatic. If, as Dent suggests, the cantata was intended to puzzle Gasparini, and if that objective was achieved in the eighteenth century, this composition is still creating a puzzle for those who examine it two hundred and forty-nine years after its creation. However, it is soluble even though the figures 246

expected beneath the bass line in this first movement are

quite sparse. The movement of the outer lines suggest

extended chromaticism. Excerpts from the first recitative

are given in Figure 25, as found in the manuscript.

Pig.2 5 :— Prom: Andate o miei sospiri. movement

Ma di chtt ml lu-sin-go Oh Dio.che

pen- 8 0 audlra la cru- de* le ve* dra le vo- sCre g i

The parody is suggested by the excesses of chromatic changes noted by accidental marks, a fact which causes the music

of Scarlatti to look far more complicated and pedantic than it actually is.

Solidifying the arguments that Scarlatti used the chromatic idiom in his writings, the research of certain scholars will be useful. John Edmunds mentions the cantata

0 voi di quests selve in which it is reported that Scarlatti 2 4 7

used twelve tones that could have been a prototype for the dodecaphonic music of the twentieth century composers; he also refers to the cantata Uel centre oscuro previously alluded.to by E, Bent and called by him a labyrinthine study in chromaticism. Bent says Scarlatti came "perilously close" to being unvocal in the cantata la dove a mereelline^?

composed in 1725 , the last year of his life, not only bdcause Pig. 2 6;— From; ^ dove a mergellina

preg-glo del- la bel- I mma Mil pm

- ta of the tortuous sequences it contains # criticism usually not applicable to his music) but also because of its novel chromaticisms. 68 There is one other

66John. Edmunds, "Mastery of Alessandro Scarlatti," Tempo (Fall, 1956), p. 24. 67Example from Bent, o£. cit.. p. I9 0. 68Dent, £2 . cit.. p. 190. 248

example mentioned by Dent to be found in the cantata

Lontanza crudele. It is in the aria "Quanta pane" which possesses lines that are a credit to the genius and understanding which the Italian had of harmonic concepts and which seem to Dent "quite in the spirit of Mozart, and

. . . of Bach.DiatonioismT^ and chromaticism have a special significance for the main problem in this disserta­ tion. These two idioms had calculated, expressive value which agreed with the theory of the Doctrine of Affections, especially as it fulfilled certain of the expectations of the rationalists. Music, said they, had unique properties by which the affections could be expressed and the passions 71 raised. Dent mentions that diatonic and consonant intervals were expressive of joy and gaiety; that suspensions and anticipations, called minor dissonances, were expressive of tenderness, languishing and suffering; and that major dissonances found in the diatonic.and chromatic scales were expressive of despair and anger. John Edmunds says that the diatonic movements are expressive of tranquility and contentment and that chromaticism was expressive of 72 melancholia, in his article on Scarlatti.'

^^Ibid.. p. 152. 70 Schmitz, o£. cit.. p. 15. 7^3. J. Dent, "Italian Chamber Cantata," Proceedings of the Royal Musical Academy (January, 1911), p. Ô6. 72 Edmunds, loo. cit.. pp. 24-26. 249

Each Item in this analysis of the music of Scarlatti has pointed up the expanding style of the Italian to meet not only the doctrinaire demands of his age but the urgings of his genius. His music is developed according to the seconda prattica, developed in a style consistent with the newer and emergent concepts of tonality, diatonicism, and chromaticism, but also according to those theoretic concepts of the Doctrine of Affections which came via the philosophers and which contained many pregnant ideas of musical express­ iveness which the Italian explored.

For whatever practical value these musical idioms were to the theories of the doctrines of his day, Scarlatti seemed to possess the understanding, initiative, facility, and command over them to produce expressive music in a style that was complementary to him as a composer. All three- tonality, diatonicism, and chromaticism— became identified with the other purely musical means of stressing the text of the music in an uninhibited manner to create an aesthetic moment as words and music were united to heighten vocal delivery and arouse the passions. But in expediting the purpose to which he put his noblest efforts, Prunieres says that the music of Scarlatti contained both "delicacy and strength." One must agree that these highly abstract and in­ tangible qualities are fitting in describing the style of

Scarlatti.

T^Henry Prunieres, A Hew History of Music, p. 239. 250

Hew vistas in music favored, besides a fully-

developed tonality, regulated chord progressions,

dissonance treatment (preparation), contrapuntal theories

related to tonality, and the adoption of interchangeable

idioms for voice and instruments. A new age in the history

of harmony had dawned. At the heart of :hese concepts

were tone centers, diatonic and chromatic scales, primary

and secondary chords--ma]or, minor, diminished, and augmented.

Besides these were certain chords of color like the Heopolitan

sixth chord, said to have been named for the school of which

Scarlatti was titular head. A.11 of -these are found in the music of Scarlatti.

The best harmonic practices of the age were 7A crystallized in the treatises of Johann Pux, the Austrian

theorist, born in 1660, and Jean Phillips RameauJ^ the

Frenchman, born in 1683. However, many treatises appeared 76 including one by Scarlatti, all of which have given students much assistance in assembling facts on the harmonic style of the time. Evidence in the sampling shows that

Scarlatti knew the things about which theorists of his time were writing. However, he regarded what was written

74 ' Johann Puz, Gradus ad Pamassum. 1726.

^^Jean Phillipe Rameau, Traite de l'harmonie (Paris: 17 2 2). ^^Alesaandro Scarlatti, "Regole de principanti," (unpublished manuscript), H. D., passim. 251

as rules which could he suspended for artistic reasons when this course seemed feasible.

The style which Scarlatti employed in his chamber cantatas is basically harmonic and utilizes the latest 77 ideas of his time on continuo-homophony. However, here and there he used idioms of tonal counterpoint that reflect techniques that he had learned as a journeyman musician. Characteristic of his style are the fast 7 8 harmonic rhythms which initiate swift modulations, the 7Q 80 high degree of chromaticism, the cadential formulae growing out of harmonic and melodic considerations, and the way in which two decidedly different elements of the musical fabric— melody and bass— initiate, generate, maintain, and fuse the composition, irrespective of the

^'^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. pp. 221, 240, 241. 7ft Andate o miei sospijL A1 fin, al fin m'ucciderete,

Andate miei sospiri. Filli altera e spietata (Aria; "Hon e vantar"), Care selve gradite (first and third recitatives), Lascia di tormentar. Al fin. al fin m'ucciderete. ------fto Bukofzer, op. cit.. p. 241. Particular attention is called to the "falling fourth" cited in Figures 24, 25, and 26. Bukofzer calls this device "the obligatory cliche" and found that it was in common use during the eighteenth century. 252

fact that they are called'"opposite poles" by

authorities.' A real hasso-continuo stands in relation to the upper voice as an opposite pole; it is a firm instrumental foundation; it. releases the upper voice . . . for free declamation or for concerto-like rivalry or both.81 Scarlatti's use of primary chords as the central axis in the formal and tonal scheme of his music is well documented in the sections of this paper discussing these 82 specific aspects. Supporting the primary chords, the secondary chords— constructed on the second, third, sixth, and seventh scale degrees~help to point his harmonic designs. In addition, chords of the seventh, in root position and inversions are indicated by the figures found in the manuscripts. Some of these were figured variously ^ sharp for a basic and the VII chord used in a way simi­ lar to the present use made of a Vg. The passing ^ chord is indicated ^ sharp; the V^ is figured 4 sharp; the second inversion of the V chord is^figured with a 6 of 4 sharp» the

V^ is figured V flat. At times the diminished seventh 3 7 6 chord is figured 5 flat, and the resolution given 4 . Some examples of Scarlatti's methods in figuring various chords will bd given below.

Scarlatti was sufficiently confident at times so that he left some details of interpretation to musicians who performed his music. However, at other times he clearly

Alfred Einstein, Italian Madrigal. Vol. II. (Prince­ ton; 1948), p. 849; Bukofzer, op. cit., p. I7 . ®^cf. "Musical Characteristics," Chapter V (Form, etc.), 253

Pig. 27 :— Rgsolutlona of Various Augmented and Diminished Chords $ r -te o miei so-spi-ri cor d'l-re-ne

§ at # 6 ep T 4 8 s 9 7 4 8

pc- ne sap-pia sap-pia da voi Ip:,- hp

7 5 # f

P If; " ' T 4 3

a g Mi-til-de, Mi-til-de al-ma mia auresti del le notte ei g i o m l 'b; ■ " : ■ '■ .'In'J '=zL g 7P I,: J ,J $ i m trop-po afflig- pe- ne

g m p I I: 25 $

indicated what he wanted to take place in very definite

terms. He has written on certain chords and his remarks

are given in Dent.^

The second inversion of the dominant seventh, figured 6 and theoretically considered a concordant second inversion of the "Imperfect triad," is always to be given the fourth as well as the third in practice when the bass descends conjunctly.oj

Of course, it is obvious that his music contains many diminished sevenths which Dent says were treated in a QA novel style that may have been original with Scarlatti.

He states that Scarlatti conceived of the diminished seventh as an "absolute chord" and treated it not as a chord whose resolution could take place vertically and horizontally, places in the sampling where the diminished chord may be found are numerous, and the following extractions are quoted for they represent a variety of examples that will be of use later in describing approaches and resolu- tions of this highly expressive and flexible chord.

®^Dent, 0£. cit.. p. 154.

®^Dent, ©2 . cit.. pp. 141, 152, 168.

G^ibid.. p. 141. 86 Mitilde alma mia; 1st recitative, bar 9, bar 26; Mitilde alma mia; 2nd aria, bar 73; ^ fin, al fin m'ucciderete: recitative bars 6, 26, and 44; lascia di tormentar: 1st recitative bars 5 and 13; lascia di tormentar : 1st aria ( "Quando amor") bars È; ijascia di tormentar: end recitative, bar 18; Bel prati. isi aSEa bar 25; Mitilde alma mia. 1st recitative, bars 2, 7, 8. 2^^

Frequently, Scarlatti indicated no figürings for chords and

chord resolutions; when there are figures, they are usually

sparsely used; hut he did, at times, figure interesting

series of chords of the sixth and seventh. A good example

of the former is found in Mitilde alma mia in the first

recitative and aria, and in the cantata Entro romito speco

in the aria "Eon di disperato"; a good example of the latter

is found in the cantata M fin, ^ fin, in its first aria.

Hot appearing frequently but found in the cantata Lascia di

tormentarmi in the aria "Tormentar sari" is a chord of the ninth. There are frequent Heopolitan chords and coloristic

chords resembling it.

An important part of the harmonic style of Scarlatti

is the use of embellishments which help to decorate the harmony by way of the melody and occasionally the continue.

Reference is made to the suspensions, anticipations, appogiaturas, and trills. They will not be treated in detail here since their root and definition relate to the melodic aspects of his music. Only rarely are these ornaments written out the manuscript, but such omissions are consistent with t i. notational practices of the Baroque.

However, the idiom and style of vocalization prominent in the era would pre l-ie any consideration that would rule out impromptu embellishments. Performers of that day would 256

87 add those ornaments that embellished the concerto (voice

and continue), about which Geminiani and Agozzari spoke, QQ in keeping with the style of performance in the Baroque.

A few trills,suspensions,^^ and anticipations are written

out, but there are numerous places, especially at cadential points, where appogiaturas^ could be added most effectively go in a style consistent with Baroque performance practices.

Another aspect of his harmonic style cuts across the melodic complex— the motto figure. This practice is mentioned by many men writing on Alessandro Scarlatti and especially by the German, Eugene Schmitz, It is a way of establishing tonality, rhythm, the principal passion, and the harmonic basis of a piece. The motto figures of Lumi che in fronte serves as an introduction for the vocal line which precedes the first strain, as a countermelody to the second strain, and as a ritornello between sections and strains. In addition, it sets the mood of the piece in terms of the pasèion with which it deals.

Rousseau, Bictionaire di musique and B. Marcello, Teatro atta modo, discuss proper s t ^ e of vocal embellishment. QQ Geminiani, 0£. cit.. pp. 2-3. Qq Lumi che in fronte and ^ fin, al fin m'ucciderete. 90 Series given in Figure

^^Appoggiare means to "lean toward." 92 Putnam Aldrich, "Authentic Performance of Baroque Music," Essays on Music (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957), p.' 169. 257

If the contrapuntal technique is on exhibition in

this piece, one may recall that Scarlatti learned the

techniques of counterpoint during his Roman period when he

was in the service of Cardinals Ottoboni and Grimani of the

Catholic Church. This body and these men tacitly demanded

that religious music utilize the contrapuntal style. On

his handling of countrapuntal lines, John Bdmunds^^

reports that Scarlatti’s two part counterpoint is equal

to that of J. S. Bach. It is known that the inner voices

of his contrapuntal music (and his non-contrapuntal music) were frequently neglected. However, this is a practice

common indeed in the period of the thorough-bass. Outer voices were important; inner voices less important.

Though the melody and bass comprise the heart of

the Baroque manuscript and are considered more important than the inner voices, Scarlatti said he favored a free approach in filling-in the harmonies as required by the figured or unfigured basso-continuo. His general views were set forth in the Regole di principanti. though in its original form tiis document is not always useful. Scarlatti left many of his scores unfigured but typical of the style of his day, the performer is left having to create what

Edmunds, "The Mastery of A. Scarlatti," Tempo. (September, 1956), p. 24. 258

was supposed to be on the score and, in his best judgment,

what should be there in keeping with the numerous treatises,

practices, and idioms of his time.

Because of the audacities said to have existed in

his harmonid style, Scarlatti remained a controversial

figure throughout his life and long after his death. His music contained far bolder harmonic treatments than others

like Buononcini whose music was noted for its simple

harmonic style. One historian has said.

Some young composers thought (Scarlatti), . . too severe and complicated and followed , , , Buononcini and Mancini neglecting the ideas of harmony which he f a v o r e d , 94

Very important to the discussion of his harmonic style is

the statement of Dent which indicated that

Scarlatti shows a keen sense of harmony as a means of dramatic expression and it is interesting to watch the development of this (consideration) in his later works, , ,95 In an attempt to find in the writings of the composer a reliable index to the influences which accelerated the harmonic sense and musical genius of Scarlatti, one finds a phrase taken from Regole di principanti which is important.

It is in keeping with the basic requirements that music

Q4 Henri Prunieres, A Hew History of Music, p, 223.

^^Dent, op. cit,, pp. 17-18, 259

had to sound well to be acceptable, and the Italian used

this criterion as a guide for himself in' composition,

saying to his students in effect that certain materials of music are used and do raise the affections per che fa buon

sentire (because they sound well). Dfhat sounded well to

Scarlatti was frequently regarded as audacious by some of q 6 those near him. His boundless imagination in matters related to harmonic experiment stimulated him so that he -

"set the model for the last generation" of eighteenth-century

Italian musicians. His was an imagination used not only to direct but as well to criticize.

Hovel experiments were permitted and welcomed in the chamber because of the,permissive attitude adopted by those who frequented the places in which this esoteric music (musician's music) was avidly supported,which means that Scarlatti's music was received as enjoyable though learned, experimental, and frequently fittingly described as audacious.

The statement cited by Arnold and attributed to

Heinichen sums up the harmonic style of Scarlatti who intimates that the Italian's music entertained bold

^^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 245. 97 Dent, 0£. cit.. p. 105.

9Glbid.. p. 49. 260

QQ harmonic conceptions; to this Dent adds that unexpected

modulations, and free-flowing melodies that caused Scarlatti's

music to be popular not without exciting controversy among

others of his time.^^^ If one is overwhelmed at the

repetitiousness with which chords occur in Beethoven, one

would be equally as astounded at the rapid tempo of the

harmonic rhythm which moves restlessly forward by momentum

in the music of Scarlatti internally generated,

Scarlatti spoke the "language of the passions"

through harmonic experimentation. Whether he rigidly

adhered to the recommendations of the men before and during

his life on which chords or harmonic practices best expressed

certain passions cannot be ascertained at this time. How­

ever, it is thought that specific chords were not related to

the expression of specific passions. Some of these are

given below and these will be used later in determining

the degree to which Scarlatti adhered to the recommendations

of writers of his time. It will be remembered that Roger

north sounded the alarm for the specific uase of music

when he said,

Musick hath two ends, first to please the sence arid that is done by the pure Dulcor of Harmony, and secondly to move ye affections or excite passion.101

go P. T. Arnold, 0£. cit., p. 254. ^^^Burney, op. cit., p. 634. 101 ' Roger north. Musical Grammarian (London: n. P., 1728), p. 80. 261

Scarlatti's melodic and rhythmic styles

In most solo vocal music, melody is an extremely

significant element. It is through the artistic "marriage"

of words and melody that the hidden meanings in texts were brought $Q the surface. Through the design and sweep of

the melody, assisted by harmonies in diatonic or chrom&tic

movement the tessitura of the voice and range of the melody,

the varied use of wide or small leaps, the smooth or dotted

rhythms and sequences, the use of keys to portray moods and

contrasts of moods, the composer sought to continually

expand the affection "real or imagined" introduced in the

music.

Melody may be defined as a succession of tones in

a horizontal arrangement as opposed to a vertical arrange­

ment in a chord. Melody is inseparably associated with

key, pitch, rhythm, duration, and intensity in the types

found in the sampling: recitative, arises, and the aria.

Though it has been stated that Scarlatti's music is pre­

dominantly homophonie, there are evidences that certain

of these works, or parts of them, are contrapuntably

conceived. This contrapuntal stratification has parti­

cular significance in the development of some of the arias in the sampling, and this stratification will be discussed. 262

Also, it is to be noted that melody which, in this

era, enjoyed a hierarchical preference, above the basso-

continuo, with the bass formed the important outer poles 102 about which many authorities have written. The

emphasis placed on the upper part (melody), as opposed to

the lower (bass) and the middle parts (filled-in parts), gave composers every reason to write beautiful melodies for the singers who^ had developed remarkable techniques which they displayed to the delight of the dilletantes.

It should be remembered that the chamber cantata enjoyed the same type of prestige in the Baroque that the piano 10? or violin sonatos did in the time of Brahms and Beethoven. writing on this era one man has said.

We have reached the threshold of the . . , century . . . (when) the composer is subjected to an over­ whelming demand to write music for the soloist . . . his master. Up to now, he has been his own master; leaving it to the virtuoso to arrange . . . himself. How the singer stands in the limelight and the composer supplies him with ready-made goods . . . At the beginning stands Monteverdi . . . a t the end is old Scarlatti.104

1 02 Alfred Einstein, Italian Madrigal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 19^0), Vol. II, p. 849.

^^^Grove's Dictionary, 0£. cit.. Vol. VII, p. 451.

^^^Einstein, 0£. cit.. p. 649. 263

In the music of Scarlatti melody reached a high

stage of perfection. It was Scarlatti who put energy and polish into the recitatives to make them the dramatic tool of declamation;it was Scarlatti who perfected the da capo aria and gave it to the world as a formula for presentation and contrast of the two themes, needed for artistic finish and dramatic perfection of music of the 1 ofi church, chamber, and theatre. This melodic style under­ went careful scrutiny and final adoption by Scarlatti's contemporaries and successors. His style made possible the presentation of a variety of moods for amplification of the stereotype texts found in poesia for the cantata.

This style of creating melodies covers a wide range of moods on subjects from the energetic and heroic to the plaintive and tender. His idioms influenced men who were instructed by Scarlatti, Quantz, Geminiani, Handel, Hasse, and a score 107 more of the lesser masters eager to compose in a manner agreeing with rationalistic demands and eager to learn the secrets of the leader of the Heopolitan School.

^^^Oliver Strunk, Source Readings (New York: Norton, 1947), p. 667. 1 Edward J. Dent, Alessyidro Scarlatti : His Life and Works (London: Arnold, 1905), p. 29.

T°?Leo Smith, p. 29. 264

A severe erltlc of cantata literature, Eugene

Schmitz paid the creative genius of Sèarlatti a direct

compliment in his critical statements. He contends that

these stereotype texts were often saved from obscurity by Scarlatti's marvelous melodic settings. His general impression is that cantata texts were hollow expressions of 1 08 a decaying art. Another man says that Scarlatti showed in his melodic style perfected idioms which became hallmarks of vocal chamber music. The statement below shows the views of this modern writer;

More clearly definÈd, the object seemed to be to depart from the structure of short themes found in (early) monody and to combine certain melodic, rhythmic, and formal elmments from the more elaborate and articulated whole. This ideal . . . enlarged the possibilities of expression by giving greater scope to pathos, grace, and humor (so important in the germ of the chamber cantata. ”*09

Even though Scarlatti's early works, before 1709, when it is said he returned to Maples, are stilted and not fluent, this criticism is not applicable to his later works. In the recitative of the sampling, his melodic style is found to be crisp and pungent as it proceeds to amplify the active, declamatory, and transitional details in the texts.

1OA Eugene SchMtz, G-eschichte der Weltlischen 8 0 I0- kantate (Leipzig; Breitkopf and HËrtel, 1955), p. 145.

^^^Alfred Einstein, Essays on Music (Mew York; Knopf), p. 9 0. * 265

The literary sense is usually kept intact by suitable

musical ideas not less than four bars in length. Note­

worthy is the typical phrase-like treatment appearing many

times in this literature: the first recitative in Lumi che

in fronte on the words ^ vano pretendete far che 1'anima

mia non si struggal calen de vostri ardori. The melodic line

is diatonic and is supported by sparse chords from the

continue and has only the small vocal range QfafClc&th. The

phrase is preceded by a chord in the continue and a rest

in the melodic line. This rest, and the rests which follow

it, outline or set off the phrase. The rests then are

obviously used for affective purposes and take the place

of marks of punctuation used in literature. By describing

the melodic line of the recitatives as crisp and pungent,

one discerns that there is no continuous melodic flow in

them, the tunefulness of which would cause one to remember

these melodies. However, very obviously there is a consistent use of musical ideas following a general pattern and/or

style. Now, as one goes through the phrases of recitatives, one is aware that by artistic use of diatonicism, chromaticism, and possibly other features of melodic elaboration such as embellishments and contrast, the dramatic ideas are continu­ ally spun out in a way that their messages should have been transmitted to the discerning listeners. 266

To heighten the meaning and impact of a text, changes

in register were often effective. Attention is called to

the melody in the first recitative of Lascia de tormentarmi

over the words Di che voi. che voi disnerato. Forse. forse

e poco. Hot onlyiis use made of the diminished fifth over

disperato but over the second forse the music is written an

octave higher adding to the repetition of forse. The

example is presented in Figure 28 below. A similar result

Fig.2 8 :— From: Lascia di tormentarmi. second movement [» T g J I T (In*; pg Di che vuoi che vuoi disperato forse forse e poco

a.------Sp — — ------— 'g------1.:: , T " IT «

is achieved where the words, E non bosta are repeated a

second time on a different figure of the same chord, here

given as Figure 29, and it must be stated that these are

merely two isolated examples of a technique used to heighten

the passion by repetition and contrast within a specific

chord structure. In addition one notes the recitatives in

the cantatas Andate o miei sospiri. lo che del cor di Fille, and Care selve gradite. from which numerous examples could be cited. $ 6 7

Pig. 29:— Prom: Lasoia di tormentarmi. second movement

e non bas* ta e non bas- ta sarla la tua fler-rez-sa ± w ) ■ . . I . . 1 . , „ . . j ' i

tan-to crudelle mar-to-

7

One can further assert that though recitative melody is generally less cantahile than the aria melody, the leaps found in the melodic lines of both species are conservative. Scarlatti wrote especially well for the voice and did not compose for it in an instrumental idiom as is true of some of his peers.The melodic figures in the recitative usually project the rhythmic force of speech that is derived from their texts. Scarlatti will begin a recitative with longer notes on the first few words, said to contain the principal affection and textual

llOof. Chapter III, "History of the Cantata." 268

idea, and will them employ smaller notes in developing

supporting ideas in succeeding parts of the musical phrase.

As in the first movement of Andate o miei sospiri (1712),

the various melodic and rhythmic figures are ingeniously

welded by the continue which Dent claims after 1709 seemed

to play an increasingly larger part in the fabric of the

cantata.

Cadences are firm in the sampling as "beginnings" are firm. Tonic, sub-dominant, dominant, tonic are usually found although variations of the VII chord in root position and inversions are used for this purpose. There are a number of solutions for internal cadences, but special attention is called to the sol-do cadence called by Bukofzer the "obligatory cliche" for recitative cadential schemes.

Little question exists that the sol-do cadence is an effective device of which Scarlatti availed himself as did his peers. This device is to be found in a number of the cantatas, but in the third movement of the cantata

A1 fin, al fin m'ucciderete Scarlatti uses it with compli­ mentary deftness. The intervalle leap of a fourth is found on the rhyming words Olori. splendore. adore. and mori.

Put together, these words have great effective value in the '

111 Bukofzer, op. cit., p. 241 269

text: Glorl« the symbol of ideal womanhood is ‘'splendid,"

"adorable," but candidly considered ultimate "death,"

for those falling into her grasp. The affective relation­

ship between the treatment of these words and the aims of

this music seems to be quite obvious.

The use of this device adds credence to the claims

and testimony of Bukofzer on the sol-do cadence as an

affective device. Such a device could be used in the

recitative many times where its continued use in a broader

cantabilie line might seem redundant and out of place. It

is also used in the examples here given: the first recitative

of Lumi che in fronte in bar seven and the third recitative

of the same cantata in the third bar; in the second recitative

of ^ fin, al fin m'ucciderete in the third,'fifth, sixth,

seventh, nineteenth, and twenty-sixth bars to name only a

few isolated places.

References have been made to standard characteristics

of secco recitative in the sampling, important and isolated

sections of these recitatives, however, reveal some quite

ornate melodic passages which must be discussed in delineating the melodic style of Scarlatti. This technique has been identified as recitative con cavato— a place in a recitative that for dramatic purposes is developed by some melismatic figure. Attention is called to a few of the places in which 270

they occur because they are isolated examples of passages of recitatives which are highly ornate and, in the parlance of

the Baroque, highly dramatic: melodic units affectively contrived are, says one man, the "initial force . . . , lifeblood, (or) primitive cell of the musical organism.^^

These pieces show dramatically the full implications of

Strunk’s rationale when he said that Scarlatti was one of the first to "infuse life, movement, and spirit into the melodic movement ofrrecitatives" in the chamber cantatas in addition to which it is said he clothed their "naked framework with a splendid attire of noble accompaniment.^^

The chordal foundation upon which the melodic lines of the recitative are built and out of which the melodic line emanates seems logical in the concepts of harmony codified in the eighteenth century.Furthermore, it is exemplary of what is in one’s mind when one says that these pieces are generated by the germ of "internal spontaneity," The primary chords are basic in developing recitative, while secondary chords are usually artistically

^ ^ Edward Hanslick, On the Beautiful in Music (New York: Liberal Arts Press; 1^47), p« 105.

^Oliver Strunk, Source Reddings (New York: Norton, 1947), pp. 667, 68b.

P. Rameau, Traite de l ’harmonie. 1722. 271

interspersed; there are chords of color which give impetus

to the textual and melodic lines of the recitative and have

a valuable denotative connection Tfith the melodic style

of Scarlatti: that which "sounded well" to him did in

fact have its roots in the new system of tonality that was clearly in force in the eighteenth century, as it had roots in the Doctrine of Affections. As evidence of

this fact, attention is called to the sixth movement of

Amici se vinto. a movement decidedly secco in character.

Upon encountering the words nerdo lo stesso the composer raises the affections through a unique and ornamental setting of the melodic line; a similar passage is found over the word conglro where sequences give: the effect of

"turning" as is denoted by this word in the text. Still another example is found in Fatto d'amor seguace the second recitative of which contains the words del nerdo noml. meaning the lost names, and the word guerrlro. meaning "to fight." These represent the exception rather than the rule. But what is normal recitative in Scarlatti?

Normal secco recitative and the normal style of

Scarlatti contain simple chords as accompaniment for the continue and simple melodic lines that may easily be declaimed by a soloist as in eJarated speech. The vocal

^^^Rene Descartes, Gomnendium Musicum. 1618. Quoted in Lang, on. cit., p. 32Ô. 272

range is usually rather limited. Exemplary of this point are the recitative in Ellle adorata ah ben comnrendo. the first movement of jllle ad or a ta e snietata. in all recitatives of the cantatas L*armi crudeli and La belta oh'io sospiro. Of course, there are the exceptions to the normal treatment to be given the recitatives. Some of these have been identified and seem to confirm the fact that Scarlatti did not write always according to preconceived and stereotyped ideas^^^ and formulae, but that on occasions he exercised the freedom that was enjoyed in writing music for the chamber which did not have to take into consideration any idea of mass consumption of popular taste. He did write with a view to amplifying the passions in the texts, and the rather exceptional examples here are evidence of the treatment of special situations. However, the melodic style noted in the recitatives generally is proof enough to conclude that generally Scarlatti tended to be guided by the best intents and purposes that recitative served in the general fabric of the composition with which he w h s dealing. Appropo of this idea is the statement of Lang on Scarlatti. His anxiety to give adequate expression to the affections governs the construction of his melodies . . . the music faithfully follows the text not only

1 1 6 Lent, o£. cit.. pp. 203-204. 273

■ by changed tempi but by affective suggestions in the formulation of melody . . .11'

A final statement can be made: the melodic style used by

Scarlatti in the recitatives seems to follow the literary

inflections and accents of the text. Rhythmic values are

derived from speech accents. Pitch levels are suggested from

and coordinated with the levels and intensity at given

points in the texts. The structure of the recitative

follows, the structure of the poetry. The duration of notes is closely related to the weight of the words of

the text and the passions and felings inherent in them,

Scarlatti used secco recitativo where appropriate and when large sections of the text had to be presented quickly or when numerous details had to be spun out; he used the secco style with cavato when an idea deserved to be isolated and amplified by melismata; he resorted to recitative accompagnato and occasionally to the use of arisos for the more lyrical passages of text which did not seem altogether fitting for development in the pure secco technique. He also used the arlcfises as a means of limiting impromptu gorgia frequently added by singers.

lihile the recitatives were more suitable for the develop­ ment of the elements of the text that were active, narrative, declamatory, or only slightly lyrical, the highly lyrical

^^'^Lang, 0£. cit.. p. 454. 274

aria was capable of amplifying reflective ideas of the

text that could beet be presented in eleaborate forms of

extended length or elaborate designs similar to a tableau.

The man from Palermo had perfected the ^ capo as early 1 1 o as 1693 iu his opera Teodora and had begun to use this

form consistently in his cantatas shortly thereafter. 119

The form which Scarlatti perfected followed the old

artistic standard of presentation-contrast-repetition. He

found that the form was adequate for most dramatic situations

and it proved to be a popular form for singers who were

expected to display their exquisite vocal techniques at

some point in the cantata— whether prima donne or prima uomi; it proved to be popular with audiences who openly

pursued satisfaction of their insatiable predelection for

spectacular vocal display and embellishments; it proved to be ideal to composers because it gave them an axis around which could be developed the feelings and passions found in stereotype poesia per musica that formed the basis for cantata literature. Scarlatti had not always used the da capo, and a brief recapitulation of the progress of the aria

118 Charles Burney, A Genral History of Music. Edited by Frank Mercer (Hew"*York: Harcourt, 1935]» Vol. I, p. 601. 119 " Theodore Finney, History of Music fNew York: Harcourt, 1948), p. 264. 275

might be of assistance. His early works between 1678 and

1695, including the cantatas and operas Gli equivoci nel

sembiante and Pirro £ Hemetrio follow rather concise forms,

utilizing appropriate melodic materials that are easily

contrasted with the amorphous type of aria associated with Rossi, Grandi, and scores of earlier experimenters.

Reference is made to the concise form of the continue aria usually in a simple binary plan, to the Ostinato aria with

strict bass lines that are repeated for the duration of

the piece and to the strophic aria, found in two^movements of this sampling. Though concise, these forms proved k inadequate in many ways that the da capo was to be found ideal. Scadatti fused his tremendous gift for creating spontaneous melodies with a more elaborate concerto style between the outer poles of voice and continue and ifith the exquisite techniques of vocalists, among whom were lia Tesa,

Faustina, Farinelli, Ricoloni and other rare executants, the equals of which are said to be no longer with us. He also extended the texture and sweep of the melody to accomo­ date the passions and feelings of the text, and executive ability and temperament of the singer conceded the uncon­ tested master of the stages of the Baroque; Contrasting types of arias are listed below. 276

There was the aria cantahile In which the melodic

movemant was to be smooth to allow the singer chances for

extempore ornaments; aria di portamento, in which the

melodic movement was punctuated by strong and dignified

rhythms and a wide vocal range; aria di bravura, in which the

melodic movement permitted unlimited display of vocal

technique and embellishments; aria di mezzo carattere. in

which the melodic style was restrained, cantahile. and

portamento ; aria di imitazione. in which the outer poles

vied with each other in embellishments and imitations;

aria parlante. in which the melodic style was declamatory;

aria strepito. aria infuriata. and aria agitato in which

the melodic style was highly melismatic; aria concertate. in which highly elaborate instrumental and vocal parts were found; aria senza accompagnato. in which the soloist sings with the aid of the continue, and aria unisono, in which the continue played in octaves with the voice. These varied styles offered a wide range of selection to the composer, singer, anfld the enthusiasts of the chamber. The composers and performers who did not avail themselves of some of these resources to the satisfaction of those in power, at this time.when the court system was in vogue, went the way of all such flesh--without sponsorship and sometimes without ideal sustenance. 277

Most of the arias are composed of two principal

melodies or thematic ideas. These ideas and the melodic

settings given to them help to identify the form in which

the aria is written and the passions they contained. By

contrast, in character, the first theme is described as

masculine and the second theme is feminine. These themes

are presented in contrasting keys that are related. TOien

the key of the first theme is major, the second theme may

be presented at the subdominant or the dominant; when the

key of the first theme is minor, the second theme may be

presented in the parallel major of in the relative major.

After the second section has been completed, the first

theme would be reintroduced in the tonic. This would

complete the ABA form identified with the ^ capo aria.

Striking independence is noticed in the vocal line and in the continue. The last compositions of

Scarlatti seemed to utilize this feature more than the

earlier compositions which relegated the continue to a

simple and rather subordinated role. But as the composer matured, he grasped the idea of utilizing the continue to

its fullest extent, almost as an equal of the voice.

The tessitura of these compositions is noticeably not excessive," Seldom does the soprano voice go beyond

the A flat above the G clef nor lower than middle C; nor

does the alto voice exceed the fourth space E in the treble 278

clef or the G below middle £. Less than 20 percent of

the sampling is composed for alto voice, and none for

tenor or bass voices which might indicate that Scarlatti

was partial to the soprano voice. However, it can be said

that the range of the melodies usually does not go beyond

a tenth and that the range is fairly consistent throughout

the pieces, Scarlatti may be called a friend of the singer

and one who understood the voice very well. He wrote well

for both media, voice and instruments, but he never seemed

confused in writing for these media. Instrumental lines are instrumentally conceived; vocal lines are vocally

conceived. Vocal sequences seem to be those suitable

to the style of the voice.

A special feature of many of the arias introduced by Scarlatti in the sampling used in this study, later adopted by J. S. Bach, is an opening announcement of the initial theme first by the instrument, then by the voice.

Bent calls this feature the motto figure, while later

German writers, including Riemann in the nineteenth century, called this technique a "device.

In the cantata Amici se vinto. the two measures of instrumental introductory material is closely related to what is found in the vocal line. This fragmented material

■j 20 Bent, 0£. cit., passim. 279

is a good example of the motto figure as employed hy

Scarlatti. It can be stated that the whole A section of

this aria is made up of materials from the two measures

of the instrumental motto. Also, this material is used

in the ritornello between sections and at the end of the

composition.

Pig. 30:— Prom: Ami ci se vinto. first movement

$I A-ml-cl se vin­ to se vin­ to a-

Pollowing this section, the second strain appears in E major, a fitting key for the contrasting theme. This is followed by a recapitulation at bar twenty of the melodic materials used by the instrument and the voice In the opening measures. • , ■ 280

There is nothing spectacular about the two themes, but the style which Scarlatti used in unifying this movement is interesting. One notices a difference in the texture of the themes and of course contrasted use of keys; criteria that is used as the basis for development of music in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The third aria of Ami ci se vinto. "ITella guancia sua vezza” is developed in a similar way to the first aria on the words Amici se vinto. A four-bar Instrumental intro­ duction precedes the first theme of this aria given to the voice. With strong rhythm and a conservative melodio line this aria moves smoothly along. The second theme of the aria is an inversion of the first theme. It shows the ability of Scarlatti to vary his ideas and to economize on his materials. This variation and economy are also a unifying force to be admired. Later, the material is presented in sequential patterns that help to produce interest and c'oherence that also give the effect of bringing unity to the diversity:df elements found here. Frequent melodic imitation occurs between the melody and continuo, especially in pieces that are contrapuntally "flavored" and/or which use such schemes ass .the motto figure. The word "flavored" is used because the counter­ point is not . strict. It is known that Scarlatti used the contrapuntal idiom in the composition of cantatas of which 281

Luml che in fronte is a good example. "His two-part counterpointssays John Edmunds, "are equal to the technique of the great German master of the Baroque,

J. S. Bach."^^^

The melodic style of Scarlatti is thoroughly vocal, as evidenced by the smooth diatonic motion found in some of the arias as well as in the recitatives. An example of such smooth diatonic movement is the aria "Seben mi dice" of the cantata Amo ma I'idol mio. the first strain of which is given below as Figure 31.

Fig.31Η From: Amo ma I'idol second movement

:k

se ben ml di- ce ta- lor io t'amo t'ho da-te

t*ho da- -to t'ho dato II car

The second strain of the aria above is contrastable and quite as smooth in its diatonic movement as the first, suggesting again the consistency in Scarlatti's style and treatment. A few conservative skips are observed in this melody which do not exceed the interval of a

121 John Edmunds, op. cit.. p. 24. 282

perfect fifth. It should be said that as the occasion

demands, the melodic style of Scarlatti shifts. In the

first aria of Andate o miei sospiri of 1712, the Italian writes a melody requiring some agility of voice but still entirely negotiably by the able singer. It should not be forgotten that it is in this cantata that the harmonic asperities, described by one of the Scarlatti reviewers, 122 occur. Some say that Scarlatti carried his harmonic and melodic innovations in this cantata and the one of 1713 under the same title father than in any of his other compositions. When reviewed, if one keeps in mind the fact that melody arises out of the harmony, a logical path, through the maze of the strange chromaticisms that are found there, then appears. Attention is called to the augmented fourth and diminished fifth leaps in the phrase ma se poi di nostra. These intervals are affective, but once were called the diabolis da musica (the devil of music) because of the difficulty that singers had in reproducing them. There are leaps of the major seventh in the aria "Se non v'accoglie in seno" from E flat to D to

E flat, down a minor third, down an augmented fourth, down a minor third (E flat to 0 to P sharp to A natural to £).

^^^Dënt, o£. cit.. p. 19. 283

These melodic jumps are. simply outlining the novel hhrmony found in this aria. In the second theme the interval of a full octave is found, but again the passions of the text and the feelings being portrayed are the basis for the style which the composer avails himself.

In the second aria of Da che Tirsi. 'iron, non e amore" the two rather independent lines are on exhibition.

There is imitation in the use of the tied notes, the dotted figures, and the sixteenth notes, but at times each line is independent of the other, yet one line seems to decorate the other. Excerpts from the two lines are given below as

Figure 32, showing the fact that the continuo was beginning to be accepted for more integral assignments than simple accompaniment composed of an obligatory lower line and filled in parts above it.

Pig. 32:— Prom: Da che Tirsi. fourth movement

Non, non e a- mo­ re quell

m che ml accendo lento fo- co 2 8 4

This cantata is interesting because somewhere

someone has made the comment that solo cantatas are

slices "out of o p e r a . "’23 Indeed this cantata seems

to justify such a conclusion. The same melodic materials

are used for a different portion of the text: Uon e

cubido quel che ma dole dardo in the second case. It

occurs that this is one of the strophic cantatas which

were popular early in the life of Scarlatti but which he

abandoned in the later years of his life. The aria in

this cantata has a running bass, which though it is not

an ostinato is peculiarly quasi-ostinato from a rhythmic

point of view. Bukofzer discusses this kind of aria in 124 his invaluable book, and it seams logical to assume that

it was a concept very important in the melodic style of

Alessandro Scarlatti. At any rate, his comments are of

great assistance here. In reviewing a statement of Einstein quoting

Zarlino, the teacher of Gallileo, he notes that

If we examine . . . these parts (melody and continuo) we should find that the soprano, as the part that is higher and more penetrating to the ear than any other, makes itself heard above the others . . . this the composer must §S9 to, it that the highest part of his composition has a beautiful ornate, and elegant pro­ cedure. And just as the earth has been constituted

^^Burney, op. cit., pp. 601-602. 124 Bukofzer, o^. cit., p. 326. 285

the foundation of the elements, so the bass is of such nature that it sustains, steadies, strengthens, and gives increase to the other parts, for it has been constituted the basis and foundation of the harmony; for this reason it is called "bass" as being the basis and support of the other parts.'25

It can be seen that the lower part, in the time before

Scarlatti, was relegated to an inferior position in a

hierarchical arrangement. However, during the time of

Scarlatti, the continuo part was treated more as an equal

of the melody.

With this background, one notes the second aria

of the cantata Pille adorato ah ben, "Agitata navi cella";

one recalls the statement of Einstein as one notes the

interaction betwean the upper and lower parts. Both are

expressive separately and together. While the instrument

uses a rather interesting figure to introduce the movement,

the voice enters in typical style with related material to that found in the introduction. As the voice enters, the continuo concedes dominance to the upper part. The

dotted sixteenth note figure in the continuo is later replaced by a simple and smooth chordal style allowing

the voice to proceed uncontested. The same general principle is observed in the second strain of this 126 aria over the words ma lusingo. and in other excerpts

^^^Einstein, Italian Madrigal, cit.. pp. 8 3 6 -8 3 8 . 126 Pille adorato £ spietata in the aria "Hon no ti vantar." 286

of other cantatas. Examples such as "Hon ti vantar"

and another excerpt both of which are given if Figure

are worthy of note.

Pig. 33:— From: Filli adora ta ah ben, fourth movement

m

Non, non ti vantar auperba

pra la aor-te accerba pie-gar

If it is a fact that statements were made

contending that the continuo is treated by Scarlatti as an independent part, more equal to the upper line, additional proof must be found to substantiate this 287

belief. It is clear today that the continuo-group was

capable of accompaniments, duets, and even of solo parts.

The facts were not quite as clear in Scarlatti's time, but

as is characteristic of the Italian, he gave vent here to

his innovative urges which expanded the role of the continuo

in these particular Baroque scores, A good example of

supporting interaction between the upper and lower parts

is found in the cantata L 'armi crudel e fiero in the second aria

"Se un vola t'alletta," the second strain of which begins

in parallel thirds. The technique is used sufficiently long to establish the fact that Scarlatti made efforts to fuse the instrumental and vocal materials into the concerto about which Aggazzari wrote; and shows he was bold enough to violate rigid idiosyncrasies tacitly observed by composers in the century. It is obvious that the independence of the lower line is firmly taking hold in the style of Scarlatti as shown by other examples in which the line of the continue seems to develop a unique character. Such an example is found in the second aria of ^ belta ch'io sospiri. "Sfido in campo la bellezza, " The melody of the upper line in this piece is expanded by a type of thematic development— a style which Scarlatti reportedly adopted in his latter days, particularly in the Italian Overture, notice the complete independence of these parts and the way in which their appearance in the manuscript is coordinated in Figure 34 given below. As the musical figure is presented in one line. 288

Pig. 34:— Promî La belta. second movement

Sfido In caoqso la belleaz

f r ' f p E f * Sfido in campo la bellezza co auioi vezzi

ij i:. , ^

Pig.35:— Prom: La belta. second movement

$p fU CLJ;CX:-I ; J ^ ben che forte allor m*a- pa- le contre me nella pre-

r> V p^-^r./r.gP-T:

va- le contre me nella me nella 289

the other part is silent but commences activity at the last

moment to keep a steady movement of the continuous sixteenth note figure underway. The two lines of this movement

embellish, punctuate, and heighten the importance of each other. The same holds true for the third aria of the cantata Lumi ^ & o n t e , "Scherzo ride in petto mio" excerpts of which are given lifi Figure 3 6 .

3 6 Η From; Luml che in fronte. sixth movement "

*

Scher- sa

Scher- za rl- 290

The opinion is held that in the arias, Scarlatti's melodic style projects first and foremost beautiful lines for the voice. He utilized a smooth cantible line where it was appropriate, but altered this style when he deemed it necessary for adequate expression of the text. Such other factors as the greater use of the continuo are to be considered in a final analysis of his style. He continually expanded the opportunities for the continuo until an interdependence of the two poles is sufficient to make a 1 27 real "concerto." Occasionally, florid passages are found, but they are always restrained and in good yocal taste.

Pew phrase marks appear in the score. Scarlatti, like others of his time, seemed to indicate these only when necessary in the structure of the melody and the words, a fact of the greatest importance in affective vocal chamber music. Also, he indicated few melodic embellishments as shown in the sampling. However, the researcher should not be deceived into believing that they were not supplied iaa. performance. The idiom and climate of the courts of the eighteenth century, about which a great deal is still uncertain, demanded them.

Proof is extant and chances are that Scarlatti relied upon

127 'Agazzari spoke of the voice and continuo in combination as the "concerto." 291

the singers of his time to add some of these embellishments

in "good taste and in the best style of singing," a phrase

used as the title of a book by Geminiani. In

conclusion, it may be said that Scarlatti composed in a

manner relating the best practices of his day documented

in the many treatises that were written. However, his

great genius in musical invention exceeds the innovations

of his peers. Scarlatti searns to be able to adequately

express the passions by his command of materials unique

to music whether expressing feelings that are joyful, 1 2Q charming, splendid, or magnificent. Specific recommenda­

tions on the types of melodic styles suitable to raise

certain affections are borrowed from Wessell and listed below. '*50

Melodic Styles in Arias Affect

Cantahile pathos . . . Portamento Strength, dignity Bravura Courage, bravery, brilliancy Mezzo Carattere (Between— cantahile and portamento Imitazione Mockery, duplication Parlante Oratorical, shifter, declamatory Agitata . . . Unrest, fury, anger, joy Strepito Involvement, confusion, festifity Infuriata Fury, turmoil, intensity . . . Concertato Agreement, unity, equality . . . Senza accompagnato Loneliness, independence . . . Unisono Splendor, majesty, unity

128 Geminiana, 0£. cit. 1 2Q ^Mattheson, Vollkommene Koupellmeister. op.cit.. p. 138, ^^^Uessell, 0£. cit.. p. 82, 292

Scarlatti * s rhythmic style

Because it is an important aspect of his style, rhythm now must be considered. On looking at this aspect, one may state beforehand that a mere count of figures and/ or rhythmic devices in Scarlatti's music will be detailed but relatively meaningless answers to the question of style related to the passions and their amplification through the agency of rhythm. It is contended that rhythm was used as a basic factor in the continuous type of expansion that took place in this music; and it is one of its most identifiable features; that Scarlatti used the element of rhythm in combination with the other musical elements to introduce, expand, and expend the great drive and energy that was frequently considered a badge of identification for music of the Baroque era. In no way is he considered unique in the use which he made of this element in his music, for composers of this era depended upon rhythmic devices to continuously expand and elaborate their music. Rhythmic motion is as important to Baroque music as the balanced melodic phrases which are found in the sophisticated symphonies of the classicists of the next century. Rhythm is considered the matrix of Baroque music; it provides the drive and adds vigor to the pulse of these worses; rhythmic devices contribute to the elaborate 293

design of the fabric of the music; and rhythm becomes a

means for the édification of the diverse elements of the

music. Motives are adopted that become an indispenable

part of the design and fabric of the music and ultimately

seem to be the very heartbeat of the music. The harmonic

style of Scarlatti is novel and his melodic style is

arresting; neither has greater potency in these composi­

tions than the elements of rhythm which, like pistons of a machine, create a momentum that is a main ingredient, as many agree.

Attention is called to the first aria in Lumi che in frente. "Si che v' adoro" which has a time signature

of 12/8 . A motto figure gets the movement underway, and in that figure one finds the essential melodic idea representing the basic passion of the aria, and the rhythmic character of its figures becomes a means of identification that is noted time and again as the piece progresses. It now seems important to give the rhythmic design Qfcthe melody of the aria,

Fig. 3 7 :— Rhythmic design of "Si che v' adoro" y^r P i j P - _ 294

This figure is established by the continue and is

reiterated in the upper line. It has a character and lilt

that is individual with the combination of eighths,

quarters, and groups of three notes. The design establishes a type of mobility that launches the composition on its way.

The figure is similar to the one found in the aria in 12/8 time in the 1713 version of Andate o miei sospieri. "Se non v'accoglie" which is introduced by the continue before the voice enters. It is immediately discernible that both these figures are potent and devicive means of projecting the affections in this music. The second figure is given below;

Pig.38:— Rhythmic design of "Se non'v'accoglie" ,

r I ) r ) PI X i»] ra i u

still another figure in 12/8 is found in the 1712 version of Andate £ miei sospiri in the aria "In fin che un di":

Fig. 39 ;— Rhythmic design of "In fin che un di"

J p j. j ! > 295

Notice the differences in the long and short notes, the rests, and the groupings of notes. Each has its own

character and provides various types of rhythmic variety, yet among them there are similarities and there is unity.

The latter pattern is identical with the one found in the first strain of the second aria of Olori vezzosa. "Si ben mio si ancor." Another example in 12/8 can be associated with dance rhythms, and this example of meter gives an idea of the varied ways in which the rhythmic patterns of

Scarlatti's music shift to achieve various effects. At this time, an imitative section between the voice and the continue is of interest:

Pig. 40 :— Rhythmic design of "Si ben mio si ancor"

t o c t o / c d

The text of the example is Scherza ride in petto mio and is found in the second aria of ^ fin, al fin m'ucciderete.

It is discerned that here again unity is developed among the variety ofimaterials through the use of rhythm. This point may be dramatized further by noting the rhythmic units which are combined with the varied themes and which are so potent as to be useful in outlining the form of some of these movemsnts. ^ . 296

Attention is called again to the motto in the first movement of Amici se vinto in which the rhythmic units are as identifiable as the melodic units. This observation is made clear by the following example.

Pig. 41 Prom: Ami ci se vinto. first movement iIi

This same type of rhythmic-melodic treatment is noted in the cantata Amo ma 1 'idol in the aria "Se ben mi dice."

The motto figure (a) anticipates the tune and time of the first strain; there is a contrasting section (b) clearly in evidence, and a recapitulation later of the materials used in the first section. Excerpts are given below to outline the tripartite form of this aria. In the meantime, the

Pig. 42:— Prom: Amo ma 1 'idol, second movement ’ -Ô- ..i

A _____ Z azz g p ------2r~ 1 B — - 4 ^ fj 1 3 - B Se ben ml dl-ce ta- lor lo t'amo t'ho date

pur non ml dl- ce d'essea fe-11- ce 297

motto acts as an introduction, a ritornello. and as a

cadential figure. In the second aria of Andate o miei

sosniri (1712), "Se vedrete il core" the rhythmic content

is noted again to be as potent as the melodic content of

this specific aria. The form clearly outlined by the

combination of the two-rhythm and melody is the ^ capo

aria. The former provides the pulse, while the latter

provides the flow for the words of this extraordinary

example.: Clear contrasts of rhythmic idioms are to be found

in the melody and bass of the aria "Se vedrete il core"

from the 1713 version of Andate o miei sospiri. Each line

is well sustained with one using a predominance ofJhalf notes, while in the other there are mixtures of halves and quarters. Frequently, the rhythmic shifts from one line to the other take place: from melody to continuo and vice versa. A look at the figure below will summarize the idea that is mentioned here. Additional contrasts of rhythmic elements between melody and continuo may be seen in still another example from the final part of the aria "Eon si vede" in the cantata Amici se vinto given below which shows how the rhythm is perpetuated by the constant flow of sixteenth notes in the continuo. 298

Pig. 43;— Prom: Andate o miei sosniri. 1713 second movement w^rifpn*rff^trrf ,>rt r f i r ^

* J- ■ |J' -J I J J i Se ve- dre- Ce 11 cor 11 cor dl lei

~ #~"l » »=ii-— » i rpUf-J^^jU^P

i i 9S- P i $ Ma se pol dl no- stra va dl gra-

4 p — o p

Pig, 44:— Prom: Ami ci se vinto. second movement

:.§z 6 #= ^ — Ü4-W f e ?• : i M i =i=5i^ Non si Ve-de pur nisi clgll0 no*si ve-de pur nel clgllo Ufc— , rrpfp ■ - i,r 1^ * WT~~i t G= 0 I III [ilTJ 299

Still another composition contains examples of rhythmic variety at the cadential points. An example is given of the cadential device used just Beffire the voice enters in the first aria of Amici se vinto.

Pig. 4 5 :— Prom: Amici se vinto. first movement

"'LUj i

Another example in Pigure 46, comes from the first aria of Lumi che in fronte and still another example from the second aria of the same composition that is given as Pigure 47.

Pig. 46 :— Prom: Lumi che in fronte first movement

.

Pig. 47:— Prom:Lumi che in fronte. fourth movement

FT 1 1 — i»» "I — KIr---- ■ M -1 Lr—LJ 1 300

Characteristic of the cadential figure is the dotted note

patterns found in the continuo part in the aria "Tormentosa rimembranza" given in Figure 48 in the cantata Lascia di

tormentarmi.

Fig. 48:— From; Lascia di tormentarmi. first movement

The aria "Morte chiamo" from pei nrati. is an example of the point made in this paragraph given in

Figure 49.

Fig. 49:— From: Bei prati. second movement

Occasionally, the rhythmic movement isjjagged and irregular, but in some instances it is quite smooth; and' as the rhythmic drive subsides, the piece“usually ends.

The texts and the way the principal passion is set determine the way the figures are developed by the composer.

In the cantata Lascia di tormentarmi the first arioso 501

contains a smooth movement of eighth notes; the second

aria contains a smooth moving section of sixteenth notes

beneath the words soffro in place in the second strain of

this aria the words col mio tormento. and I'arcier bambin.

In the same cantata the aria "Scherza ride" in 12/8 rhythm contains a smooth movement of the three-beat dotted quarter (J.) notes which are in this instance found in diatonic arrangement.

Figure 50 is taken from the cantata Lascia di tormentar in the aria "Vanne lungi." This figure which is repeated several times in the melodic line, uses the factor of repetition as a device for unification of the work. While this figure persists in the melody, there is

Fig. 50;— From: Lascia di tormentar# fifth: movement

I

a smooth movement of eighths or sixteenths or eighths and sixteenths in the bass to add variety. The consistency of the pattern produces a divisive means of portrgcying the settings of the text. Later in the same aria, ties ' over the bar line create an interesting effect disguising the rhythm while amplifying the text. . . - : / 302

Pig. 5l:--Prom: Lascia di tormentarmi fifth movement

The compositions in Scarlatti's earlier period

are said to contain many meter changes similar to those

found in the works of Rossi and Grandi of an earlier time.

If this statement can be taken as fact, the compositions

of this sampling are from Scarlatti's later period, for

there are no internal meter changes, no 3/2 meter markings, and no ostinato figures. The metric markings are predominant­ ly 4/4, whether or not this signature is indicated all the time on the manuscript. It has already been noted that

Scarlatti's general tendency is to write as little in his manuscripts as possible. Key signatures are abbreviated; the basso continuo is left unfigured in many instances; and it is apparent that time signatures, phrase markings, and tempo markings are often left out altogether. The table given below summarizes what is to be found of metric markings in the sampling.

METRIC MARKINGS

Ro Time Signature Roted in 93 movements 2/4 Time Signature Roted in no movements 4/4 Time Signature Roted in 36 movements 303

Koted in 2 movemants 3/4 Time Signature Noted in 5 movements 6/8 Time Signature Noted in 2 movements 3/8 Time Signature Noted in 11 movements 12/8 Time Signature Noted in 8 movements

Only a small percentage of the compositions of

the sampling have tempo markings. These are allegro.

adagio, tempo gusto, allegro assai. lento, andante. moderato pui tosto lento, largo. grave. andante lento. moderato lento, spiritoso. tempo lento. andante resoluto. and larghetto. Mhat is meant by these terms in interpretive matters cannot be easily ascertained, as the method and ideas of interpreting musical symbols have changed vastly since Scarlatti's time. There is a message of caution relative to the style of interpreting his use of terms in a letter written to some performers about to stage his opera Lucia Manlio in his absence. From this, certain of Scarlatti's ideas may be extracted. He writes:

. . . where the music is marked grave. I do not mean to be melancholy; where marked andante. not fast, but with a feeling of melody. Where allegro, not at a headlong rate; where allegrissimo. not in such a style as to drive the singer to despair or to draw out the words. Where andante lento. in a style that should not be pathetic but rather tender and charming, so as to lose sense of the m e l o d y . ^51

1 Lent, op. cit.. p. 104. 304

Dent stated that there was not a great difference

between fast and slow tempi in the time of Scarlatti.

Repeatedly, one reads statements from the treatises of

the Baroque implying that the performers in this time

were expected to sense tempos from the character of the 132 text and music of the piece. Regarding tempi, it is

thought that a steady basic beat was kept at all times.

Pe w notes on a manuscript in longer durations indicated

slower movement, and many notes on a manuscript of shorter

duration indicated faster movement. The latter sounds

strangely related to the tactus described by Benevoli, and

other pre-Baroque men, on the style and performance of music of an earlier period. To .summarize, thepprincipal of the continuous

expansion of a primary affection, real or imagined, until

it had been completely explored in the Baroque, is well 133 documented. As an element of music, rhythm, with its associated principals of meter and tempo, was used in

conjunction with the other elements to achieve the ultimate goals of Baroque composers. Scarlatti blended all the resources well in this sampling--at times so well that it is not immediately apparent what he has done and

^^^Dent, ibid.. pp. 122-123.

^^^Lang, 0£. cit.. p. 443. 305

where the emphasis lies. Such a conclusion brings to mind the criterion of art presented by a leading authority who intimated that if the objectives of any art are to be achieved, they must be achieved through "unsuspecting and subtle" means, Scarlatti used the rhythm to achieve his ends. The concentrated directness of Scarlatti's music, which helps to bring the affection into focus, whether in the magnificent pathos found in "Se non vacogglie" in the cantata Andate o miei sosniri (1712) or the glistening joy in the danoelike movement "Scherza ride in petto mio" in the cantata Lumi che in fronte. contains a germ that

"brooks no obstacle, ignores no challenge, refuses to pause until it reaches its destination, which is the end . . ."^ Techniques were molded in his music until they could be called refined expressions of art; and as he developed from point to point in his career he emerged as a composer with a mastery of technique and versatility of style which identifies him as one of the masters of the

Italian Baroque. This opinion is reached only after noting specifics of his style that are expressive of the passions— the "language" which he spoke in his music as truly as any.

l^^ibid.. p. 443. 306

said Edward IDent. John Edmunds summed up certain aspects of Scarlatti's techniques as a composer when he said that his music "possesses an austere regularity and a sublime playfulness.This statement seems particularly applicable to the rhythmic style of the man from Palermo, for the rollicking meters and rhythms that pulsate in his music disclose a regularity and a unique strength. Some of the rhythms of these arias seem dance-like in character.

In the 8icil3Iano with its 1,2/8 rhythms, it is possible that

Scarlatti attempted to present "idyllic affections and situation^ by this specific rhythm, in the arias vrith slow flowing cantilene one is reminded of dances of the

French suite in triple time like the allemande. the slow minuet, and -the sarabande ; the allegro arias are sometimes structured according to a kind of rhythmic ostinato which

Is reminiscent of the bouree. allemande. and the gavotte.

Such patterns and rhythmic figures enliven the potency of the affections of the movements in which they are found.

Melodic devices

Attention has been called to musical intervals as having unique power to excite the passions and raise the affections, Mattheson thought that wide intervals like

^^^John Edmunds, loc. cit.. p. 24. 307

the sixth, seventh, and octave were suitable to the 1 expression of Joy;'^ Pasquali felt that simple intervals 137 like the third and fifth were suitable to express tenderness. Pertinent to the same subject yet reflecting other attitudes,

Quantz projected that consonant intervals were restful— thereby implying that dissonant intervals were unrestful.

He also qualified his thoughts by saying that varying degrees of consonance and dissonance more ably portrayed varying degrees of the intensity of passions.With candid wisdom, Mattheson suggested that all possible caution be exercised in the use of affective and dissonant intervals as unreasoned use of them could affect the 139 chiaroscuro of the music. Rameau recommended that composers consider minor dissonances for the expression of tenderness and sweetness; for suffering, embellishments such as anticipations and suspensions; for despair, major dissonances— all to be placed in the soprano part where they 140 would be extremely noticeable.

1 Mattheson, Vollkommene Kappelmeister (Hamburg: 1739), p. 193. 1 37 'H. Pasquali, Thorough-Bass Made Easy, p. 46. 1 J. J. Quantz, Tersuch einer aniwerisung (Berlin: 1752), p. 227.

139Mattheson, 0£. cit.. p. 196. 14C ^^^Rameau, Traite de l'harmonie (Paris: 1722), p. 141. 308

Frederick Wessell summarized the prevailing ideas advanced by musical theoreticians and speculators on the ability of specific musical intervals to express specific passions and raise specific affections. His summary table is presented as a guide in comparing the practices of

Scarlatti with the prevailing thoughts of the man whose 14l names have already been given in the paragraph above.

SUimART TABLE

Intervals Affections

Whole and half steps Plaintiveness, sorrow, doubt, grief, sadness, anger, envy, hate, shame, fear, spite, terror, repentance, jealousy, fickleness, rage, fainthearted­ ness, violence Small conjunct intervals Loveliness, tenderness, in­ consonant with a key gratiating, pleasantness. Augmented Second Uncertainty, suspense

Small disjunct intervals Tenderness using 3rd, rarely 4th

Ascending Third Loveliness, gaiety, sprightli­ ness Descending Third Melancholy, supplication Minor Third Sadness, mournfulness, lamenta­ tion, dolefulhess, softness Minor Third (double) Tender, affecting Major Third Liveliness, briskness, joyous­ ness

141 Wessell, o£. cit.. pp. 76, 341. 509

Descending Fourth Pathetic, doleful, grave, solemn

Fifth Boldûe88, commanding Diminished Fifth Pathos Augmented Fifth Harshness Ascending Fourth and Liveliness, energy, fierce­ Fifth ness, wildness

Minor Sixth Lamentation, mournfulness, exdamation Sixth Plaintiveness

Diminished Seventh Pathos Major Seventh Ascending Aggression

Ascending Chromaticism Sadness, envolvement

Descending Chromaticism Sadness, envolvement

Large Intervals Madness, nonsense

Chorded skips with con­ Joy junct scales

In the cantata Amici se vinto. the first word

amici is set in a fashion reminiscent of that recommended 142 in the compendiums of his time. The intervals of the major third were recommended to- portray tenderness according to the table of Wessell and a review of the

opinions of men of the eighteenth century. Amici is

translated to mean friends. The whole cantata is a lecture to persons close to the antagonized lover in

142 See table just preceding. 310

this poem who talks about finding and losing love in one instant.

Pig. 52;— Prom: Amici se vinto. first movement

A-ml-ci

If there is any doubt that Scarlatti is attempting to make the melodic line descriptive of the text by the use of intervals, the setting given to the next words will help one to see this aim more clearly. 8e_ vinto meaning

Vif conquered;is set to several major seconds dropping a fifth from E to A. The action involved in "conquering" or in "conquest" is suggested by the rapid exchange of P sharp and B and the drop to A. Other settings of this same word at different places in this aria drop from the note on the initial syllable of vinto to perfect intervals below: from E to the perfect fourth to B and from B a perfect fifth to E. In this particular situation the trilled notes shown in the next figure are used devisely to suggest the action associated with the word vinto and the intervals of the fourth and fifth are symbolically used to finalize that action. 311

Fig. 53:— From: Amici se vinto. first movement

*

se vin- to se vin-to se vln-to

A very simple setting is given to the word amore

in the movement being discussed; the middle syllable is

only a half-step lower than the notes on which the first

and last syllables of this word are set. Though the

cantata amplifies love, this word does not receive the greatest amount of elaboration. However, it has been

observed that the cantatas develop a main passion which is actively supported by subsidiary emotions and feelings in the composition which help to build the drama andimayc teeeive greater elaboration than the primary passion. In this case the main passion is love.

Fig. 54:— From: Amici se vinto. first movement

a-mo- re 312

Note then the setting given the words fuggito sparito characterized by leaps of perfect intervals and slight embellishments; thus this example clearly shows that the words supporting or describing the passion are more elaborately set. These words fuggito sparito

Pig. 55:— Prom; Amici se vinto first movenuani

fuggito sparito fuggito sparito

ajjg aot:)H0arly:ràp extended as is the melismatic setting given the word saettar in the phrase describing the

Goddess of love, Cupid, in the act of shooting darts into the eyes, of the vulnerable lover. Major seconds, perfect fifths, and members of the major scale in conjunct order are used to formulate the picture suggested by the text.

Note Pigure 5$.

Pig. 56;— Prom: Amici se vinto first movement

A à

nel saet- non si vede plu clgllo 313

To heighten the motion in the melody the continuo and voice contain rather ornate figures that at times

move in parallel intervals of the major third with each

other. The importance of the word saettar is dramatized

by two subsequent settings written as in the example which

will follow. Notice the complete independence of each of

the outer lines. T M s independence does not set up a rivalry between the lines; bhoth#ieach selms to

compliment each other. The sequential pattern that has developed in the bass line permits complete freedom for the upper line as shown. Yet, the melodic line will also allow the bass part its complete freedom. Again close intervals and occasional leaps in thé bass undergird a melody that revolves around E in the first two measures and D in the second two measures.

Fig. 57 :— From: Amici se vinto. second movement

rrff fi 1 w P J j- s'"'gjpp—

No'si ve- de plu nel cigljLo del mio bene a saet-

* r P a '■!.. " "f I* i/*it ii'.i'W r r r r i 'p

ù t a— ------——— - # . # P ».■ 0 0------ft « ------y . w j) b------tar a saet- tar 314

The final example from this first movement is the word respirar (inhale) which begins on the note B, is embellished by the lower neighbor A sharp a half step away, then moves back to the B which is sustained for better than a full measure. This iè shown in Figure 58.

Fig. 58:— From: Amici se vinto. third movement

a res-pi- rar a res-pl-rar

The aria "Ifella guancia" from the same cantata as the above example has n text suggesting that on the cheeks of the loved one, flowers no longer seem to appear and the words crim rete amorosa (amorous hairnet) seem to be pictured as an allurement most satisfying to the lover’s heart. The words piu fiorir are set to a simple ■ embellishment well known to vocal performers. The claim is made that Scarlatti indicated few embellishments.

However, when he did write them, it should be added, they were well chosen and were simply merged into the musical line. They were not superficially added as in the music 1 A3 of others such as Buononcini and Porpora.

143 See Chapter III under the subtitle Heopolitan School. 31$

Pig. 5 9 î— Prom: Amici se vinto. third movement

piu fiorir

As much could he said for the simple setting given to the word amorosa set to conjunct intervals and observed below.

Pig.60:— Prom: Amici se vinto. third movement

amo- ro" sa

The observation has been made that in his mature years Scarlatti developed a flowing style in his melodies that avoided vocal pitfalls and was duly expressive.

Withall, there was internal coherence and economy of materials; there was much conjunct order and a kind of motivic development. The excerpp given here is made up almost completely of major and minor seconds which have great power for the portrayal of suspense (See 144 table in this section). There seems to be a measure-to-

144 See table on third page under "Musical devices." 31$

measure balance that gives this complete movement a unity

that is admirable.

Pig. 61:— Prom: Amici se vinto. third movemant

i w Las-ci i co«rt us* clr e dal crin* rete amp-ro- sa

Acdeptable in the rationalistic tradition was the procedure of making selections of devices, figures, and formulae only when one was certain that the choice was incontestable. No such assurances could be had in the selection of musical materials, but one might say that

Alessandro Scarlatti exercised restraint in the employment of various intervals keeping in mind the cautious remarks which Rameau had made in his famous treatist on the question of the employment of musical intervals to express various affective words, phrases, and thoughts. Chromatic­ ally altered intervals appear above words lascia. cori. and dal. As a good specimen of a melody developed out of closely set intervals, it contains only two leaps in it.

One is the leap of thç major sixth and the other the leap S' of the perfect,fifth. In the drama of the key words, the leaps occur above words that have a metaphorically negative connotation. One observes further that the phrase revolves 31%

around a B major tonality in the first two bars, suggests

E major in the third bar, and 1 minor in the last two bars.

The tonal relationship of these keys is perfectly obvious and shows that Scarlatti was not only conscious of tonal unity but was a master in approaching various keys in the

"family." Another short example shows his awareness of the possibility of developing a thought by outlining a triad and connecting it with other members of a major scale,

This phrase, ma scuote il velo. meaning "but I shake the veil,' is presented below.

îlg: 62:-rErom: Amici se vinto. fourth movement

I" 15 p Ma scuote l*aura il ve-lo

Pigure 63 is taken from a phrase of the first recitative of the cantata Amici se vinto which describes the misery of merely "existing" when one is not accepted fully in the partnership of love. The text expresses the fact that the suitor would rather die than endure the horrors of his unpleasant ordeal; one would rather be drowned in the brine at the bottom of the sea. The phrase is given: ïü misero al fine che firi freddo a gl'ardori ^ _ "wm# mwwanwmm» «mm» mmhmhmm mmmhh mrnmmmmmm m»mmhmmm^mm «■» MtMM^MnM^MMMMMM» ardo alle brine ; the word misero is simply set in a conjunct 31$

figure of three notes a major second apart. However, ardo

alle brine is set to a descending minor scale describing

descent from fourth space E down ibne octave to first line

E. This is followed immediately with an octave leap upward

and descending notes in order 'oon jfûnët to - a full:

Eig. 63:— From: Ami ci se vinto. fourth movement

lo misero al £1- ne che plu freddo a gl'ardori ar-

* do alle bri-ne

Continuing to develop the text according to the

ideas suggested by that text is the phrase, quando non amo.

which has an ornate figure involving chromatic alterations

and interesting harmonic treatments attempting to portray

the feelings of frustration when there is no love, as these

words imply. Note the contour of the melodic line and

the interesting intervals created between the outer poles.

V, : ' lig. 64:— From: Amici se vinto. fourth movement '

# mo quan- do non amo quan- 318

Andate £ miel sosplrl Is exemplary of Scarlatti's V extreme style In chromatic compositions. A cursory look

In the Appendix at the contour of the lines for the voice and continue will cauâe one to agree with Dent who Intimated that It was In the setting of this text that Scarlatti travelled far from the conventional harmonic practices of his time. The first arioso has many chromatic alterations ascending and descending as does the whole movement.

Without reviewing them here, mainly because they have been discussed In another section, one recalls the recommendations found In the Wessell table. How close

Scarlatti seems at times to fBallowr: the suggestions of % - his time In the way he used the minor seconds, thirds, and the many augmented and diminished triads and chords to portray the sadness and Involvement found In this text.

Though almost unique In the sampling, this cantata text and Its setting In the chromatic style. Is duplicated

In other cantatas. Attention Is called to the excerpts given below, for they will serve to show how the composer elected to follow a course that Is diametrically opposed to the recommendations of his peers. Particular attention

Is called to i'the ^ma^or third above the word tiranne.

. / - V*v : . : meaning tyrahi'.v' 399

Pig.65:— Prom: Amici se vinto.

S lungi lungi della mla mente tiranno del mio core lungl volate

In the Wessell table, this word is recommended

to express friendship but is used here above the word

which has a meaning exactly opposed to it. Also, it will

be noted that the chromatic intervals above the words

con sospetti in the next example, meaning "with suspicion,"

are anything but tender. Wessell's table states that small

conjunct intervals were best to express tenderness. ^

Scarlatti thus violated a rule in achieving an interesting .

setting of these words. He was not bound to the recommenda­

tions of his time as these examples show.

Pig. 66:— Prom: M fin, al fin, first movement

con so- spet- ti al fin m*uc-ci-de-re- te 32t)

A final example shows how he used a combination

of intervals to express the words ^ fin m'ucciderete.

0 miei pensieri.

Pig. 67 :— Prom M fin, al fin second movement

a s a $ e — -e al fin m'uc-ci-de-re- te 0 miel pen-sle-rl

Many of Scarlatti's arias are simply set in a

syllabic style. And, though they do not look exciting on paper, they come to life, as Dent suggests, in a live performance. Simple motion ifas recommended in the

compendiums of his time as ideal for the expression of uninvolved ideas. Moreover, Scarlatti recognized the purpose of the aria— to present in tabloid at least two contrasting ideas— and in the following arias one gets a glimpse of how he attempted to abide by general ideal.

Exemplary of what is mentioned here is the aria, "Seben mi dice" from the cantata Amo ma 1/idol mio. The first strain of it is given below. This tendency to abide by

Pig. 68:— Amo ma I'idol mio

2.— je azz_ _i■_! P-- 1--- 1 f y -- P-T Se ben ml dl- ce ta- lor lo t'amo , t*ho da- te 322

the general ideal may be observed also In the aria "Non ve

si placcere" from the cantata Lunga stagiondo; the second

aria of Bella dunqne. "Orescera sepre"; the second aria of

Care selve gradite. "Per queste vie Romite"; the second

aria of Fille adorata e spietata. "No non ti vantar"

given below. Such simple settings as found here usually

Fig. 6 9:— From Fille adorata £ spietata.

No, non tl vantar su-per-ba .,

follow recitatives which are highly involved textually and

equally involved musically. But the simplicity of arias

which follow these complex recitatives has a design and

purpose. One such purpose is to add contrast to the

cantata which is at the very heart of musical development;

the second purpose is to help resolve some of the complex­ ity inhérent in such movements. Here and there, the composer

sets certain words inca melismatic fashion when he has set

the majority of the movement in a simple style; here or there are wide leaps in movements that are otherwise scalular; here or there a sequential pattern will be used in a move­ ment in which it is least expected. In all cases, the motive is clear; greater expressive power. 323

Some of Scarlatti's arias develop a highly

sequential facade. Usually, however, these patterns are never unreasonable. As a matter of fact, it is

obvious that the composer understood the voice well and wrote for it in a reasonable fashion. Intervals are carefully chosen and are linked into a melody that has unusual appeal. Several examples have been selected to show the style.applied by Scarlatti in developing vocal sequences.

Fig. 70;— From: Mi tilde alma mia. first movement

la- nen- ti

Fig. 71 :— From: Mitilde alma mia. second movement

k m . 2z£ F mo-ro mo­ re 320

Fig, 72:— ïtom: Fille adorata ah ben, fourth movement L J533 #g33 j333

Fil- - - le

Fig. 73 :— From: Fille adorata ah ben, sixth movement

con-80-la-te ml lu- ci mie bel- le

Fig. 74 :--From: Fatto d * amor third movement "

m

guer- rie-ro

Fig. 75:— From: Oo 2 ^ fjgo third movement

® A- gi- ta- ta da pro-cel- le 325

H g . 76:— Prom: Co lul che fisc, second movement

a M

con-gi ro e- cer- na

Pig. 77:— Prom: Ohursa.tr fosche third movement

I j L r 5 fill h 1 f ip; qua-el dar-do cu-pi-do a'ac-cog- - • Ü®

Pig, 78:— Prom Amo ma I'idol. second movement

$ •a: P i?i l?a. t*ho da- to t*ho

p ......

da- te 11 cor 32g

The first recitative of the cantata Liami che in fronte shows his concept of phrase treatment as a unifying principle. Each phrase of this melody is set so that the melody moves upward. The cantata is in the key of E minor.

The first phrase begins on the dominant and ends on the mediant outlining the basic tri&d of this key. The second phrase begins on elaborates the word pretendete which rhymes with ardete on the subdominant, comes to a temporary rest on the dominant over the word mia. moves to the word calma set to the submediant; then the phrase comes to a close with the word adori. In the succeeding phrase, the word postante ends on the minor seventh of the

E minor scale. Now the melodic line has to be relaxed.

The word 1 'ire is set on the descending submediant, giorie to the dominant where the phrase comes to a rest.

Related keys used in this recitative are the keys of A minor, B minor, and G major. This recitative shifts very much but that is a devisive means for dealing with minute details in the movement. By dividing the text into phrases the composer would treat each idea as it occurred, recapitulate what was necessary and introduce the next important thought. Often phrases were set apart by rests, a technique which would be considered another ' device for elaborating the passions. . 32?

Scarlatti's treatment of melodic phrases in arias

is also a point to be considered. The binary aria

accomplishes the general aim of providing contrast in a

two-theme form. However, the ^ capo aria is of greater

value here, for it allows a repetition of the first

section which completes the ternary form ABA. Up to

1 6 9 3, Scarlatti used the strophic aria and binary aria, but

after the opera Theodora in which the ^ capo was intro­

duced, he used it consistently. In this form a prin­

cipal passion may be contrasted with a subordinate passion

to produce the important item in drama— conflict. The

juxtaposition of contrasting ideas helps to create the

interest that is typical of the cantatas of Scarlatti.

Often periods of arias and phrases of these themes are

presented in different keys and meters as a part of a

calculated scheme to create interest and variety in the

music.

Another melodic technique used by Scarlatti and

copied by many later composers is the use of the'botto

figure." This incorporates the participation of the

continue with the voice on a more equal basis. Specifi­

cally, the technique called for the first main idea to be

announced by the continue and for the repetition of

this main idea by the singer. This device became as popular in the solo chamber music of the Baroque as did 328

the ^ cape aria in dramatic vocal music of this era with

its revolutionary form which included presentation,

contrast, repetition. The "motto figure" helped to set

the mood, introduce thematic ideas and offerèd to the music

the kind of contrasts and subtleties that are expected in works of art. Frequently, "motto figures" are used as more than a scheme for the introduction of a musical idea.

They are used as ritornelli and between verses or phrases of a given composition. Also, "motto figures" are used as countersubjects to certain themes and as a means of imitating important ideas. These techniques are used in the cantata Lumi che in fronte in the first aria where two contrasting ideas are presented simultaneously to heighten the passions. This takes place as the second subject of the aria "Se che va doro" is accompanied by the melody used in the "motto" beginning and in the first theme.

As the text changes its mood with the words spero al mio dolor, the thoughts of the first theme are kept prominently in the mind of the auditor by the simultaneous performance

^Other cantatas using the "motto figure" are Amici se vinto. 1st and 3rd movements, Amo mia I'idol. 2nd move­ ment; Andate miei (1712), 1st, 2nd and 3rd movements; Andate miei ( 1713), 2nd and 4th movements; lo^ del cor. 2nd and 4tii" movements ; Bella Bunque. 4th movement; olori mla cora. 2nd movement; Pare selve gradite. 2nd movement; Bel mio seno. 1st and 5th movements; Con trasparente. 2nd and 4th movements; Fatto d'amor sequace. 4th movement. 3 ^

of both melodies by the voice and continuo. This is one

more clever but artistic device that Scarlatti used to

produce distinction. Such a technique as the "motto

figure" is consistent with Baroque ideas of continuous

expansion in contrast to the evenly balanced phrases and

cadences found in classical music. It is a technique

which helps the ceaseless spinning out of an idea until

the very motion that it has generated through its own

persistence presses a work to its logical end. This

"moto figure" brings a kind of unity to the diverse

elements of the chamber*solo cantata through melodic,

and interval repetition. ‘ It was for the eighteenth-century musician one more tool which could excite the passions

and stimulate responses in listeners.

Harmonic devices

Modern triadic harmony is the basis&r all the music in this sampling. Dent opines in his book on

Scarlatti that some of his chordal progressions were to say the least, "bizzare." All of the harmonic details can be analyzed according to the principles laid down by 146 Hameau in the first quarter of the eighteenth century.

146 Rameau, op. cit.. passim. Clear key centers are apparent even when accurate

key designations are not.

The cantata Quando amor is dominated by the

passions of love. The initial phrase in the key of G

major makes use of the tonic and dominant chords. Before

the first phrase ends, however^ several rather abrupj

modulations occur via the routes of chromatic and common

chord modulation. The first phrase, in the uper tonic minor, is reached through an E, 6 sharp, B, D. chord.

The minor seventh of the D, P, A, C chord and the G, B, D,

P prepare: the way for a modulation to the key of 0 major,

but Scarlatti elects to go instead to E major above the word traditore. These progressions, in addition to the

setting of ^ tuo ciglio jo belta (your beautiful eyes),

set off with a while a tonic chord ends the phrase in this recitative given in Pigure 79.

Pig. 79:— Quando Amor, first movemmnt

Quan*do a-mor vuol flor ml-dl ce-la 11 tra-dl-to- re salte 11 a: t e

tuo clgllo o bel-ta e rla aal* ta 11 co-re J2Z J

T2l7 'See Chapter V where the harmonic style of Scarlatti is discussed. 33t)

Before leaving this particular phrase it may be well to say also that sevenths and half-step chromatic

changes play a divisive part in amplifying such key words as amor vuol fior (love in full flower), midi cela in traditore (hampered by tradition), and tuo ciglio o belta. Leaps in the melodic line of the intervals of the fifth and sixth stand out above a rather smooth moving bass line that assists in preparing the observer for the harmonic changes which occur at various points to undergird principal words of the text. Notable are the leaps of a major sixth above the words quando amor, a minor sixth at midi cela, and the leap of a perfect fifth above the word traditore. The harmony which supports this passage is basic tonic and dominant. The smooth motion from G major to the first inversion of the chord found on E through the raised root G sharp adds harmonic color that is most interesting. A minor seventh on L natural above the root of the chord to which references have just been made effects a smooth modulation to the key of A minor above the words tuo ciglio and the words £ belta.

There is little question that here modern tonality is in strong evidence. In the next phrase, £ ria salta il core. Scarlatti makes good use of the upper four members of the A minor scale in conjunct order in addition to an arpeggiated figure outlining an A minor chord. Then - 3 3 2

follows the sol-do cadence in the key of C major which

brings this phrase to a conclusion. The relatedness of A

minor and 0 major used throughout this phrase translated to mean "and the heart dances again," supports the

contention made in the first sentence of this paragraph.

Modern triadic'harmony is the basis for all the music in

this sampling. In Pigure 8 0 , upward and downward leaps outline

the chords of A major and D major to which the phrase ma

per che mi ferita (but I am wounded) is set. These chords persist until the phrase ardoro la ferita a bacio il dardo

I adore the wounds and kiss the arrows), occurs where it is observed that several parallel sixths are mixed with various minor chords inverted to express the phrase mentioned above. Among these parallel sixths beginning at dardo are progressions through the first inversions of A major, D major, £ major, B minor, and A minor. These progressions are halted by a diminished seventh chord spelled G sharp,

E, G, B flat and figured ^ on the middle syllable of the word ferita. in the last measure of the example. This diminished chord then resolves inwardly to a major chord founded on D. The relatedness of the keys in these progressions is obvious. 333

Pig, 86D:— Prom: Quando Amor, first movement

ma per che mi fe-ri-te col tuo dar-do a-do-ro la fe-ri-te

A vocal flourish is used as a device to amplify

the words e bacio beneath which chords revolving around the key of G major furnish the harmonic background. Among

these chords are the I, Ig, Vg, I, IV, Ilg, 74 Ig, 17,

1^1 Vy, and I in Pigure 81 . This series of chords

represents a progression of the most elementary harmonies

and shows Scarlatti's adherence to what earlier men of music called seconde nrattica. In addition, this series

of chords and the ornate line fittingly describe the tender

expression of affection bound in the words e_ bacio dardo. A simple "motto," not given here, marks the beginning of

the first aria of Quando amor vuol fior. "7oi mi date la

vita," translated to mean "you give me life." Tonic and

dominant chords support the expressions of the lover while

the "motto figure" offers a preview of the vocal line in

the G major tonality used in this piece. This technique

combines the harmonic and melodic forces and shows the ideal interaction of the voice and the continuo. 33$

Pig. 81 :-=Prom: Quando amor second movement

t r =

^ — . e ba- - d o e b a - d o 11 dar- do — r f . r - f r f = 1 1---- I'------:------^ 4 f 2

îlot shown here is a repetition of the "motto" between the vocal phrases voi mi date la vita;this would also show how Scarlatti used the principal of ritornello to amplify, to reiterate, and to continually expand the musical idea at hand until it had been exploited. A series of thirds and sixths are noted between the bass and melody arranged in descending and conjunct order; these decorate part of the next phrase con si dolce ferita.

0 luci belle, a continuation of this phrase is a meta- phorical reference to the beguiling idol pictured in this text. The descending movement of the scalewise bass line is interrupted by an P sharp in bar seven as the words o luci be11a (my beautiful light) are introduced.

These words contain maximum reflections of love and endearment. The upward movement of the lower line and the downward movement of the upper line create a feeling of

148 References have been made in the earlier pages of Chapter V to Olori. Tirsi. Pille. Irene. and the other

"obligatory" characters. 335

contrary animation,all a part of tender expressions of love

as the repetition of these simple but deep-rooted express­

ions. Though the melody is changed somewhat, the harmony

revolves around C major.

Fig. 82:— From: Quando amor third movement

eon si dolce fe-ri-ta o lu-cl bel-le belle belle luci o luci bel-la

* à • »# One senses a change in the mood of the B section of

this da capo aria as the words ecco al vestro rigore. This

section is highly contrastable to the first section. The

tonality of £ major is still predominant, but with the

second full measure after the double bar before the

entrance of ecco al vestro rigore the great tendency of

Scarlatti comes again to the surface. He begins to

modulate through.successive sevenths at the word rigore to

the key of G major. This modulation is conventional and

helps to make the downward movement of parallel and inverted

chords stand out apart at the word fiero. The chords

seem to have the specific affective function of amplifying

fiero (fiery) and the harmonic function of modulating to

A minor, the relative of the tonic key of this second section.

If the succession of chords and modulation calls attention 33$5

to the passion of the text, it is no more outstanding than

the adjective fiero (fiery) amplifying guesto core (this

heart) in the context of unfulfilled love. Moreover, the

key of A minor seems to offer ideal pathos to the ejaculation

o core, core, core stelle (dearest stars), obviously another

metaphorical reference to the idol of this poem’.

Scarlatti makes frequent use of the Meopolitan sixth

chord, here figured which Bukofzer declares originated

out of fusion of the Phrygian mode with the key of E (major

or minor) which "became possible only after the rudiments

of key feeling had been established by the harmonic

practices in the middle Baroque.The way in which '

Scarlatti used this chord, named rightfully after the

school of which he was considered leader, is exhibited in

Figure 83 above the word che in the phrase che ben io m'aveggio. This chord seams to add flavor of harmony Pig. 83:--From; 0 mai dal cielo. third movement ^ rf V p ^ r Ah! ah! che ben io m'a- veg-glo

a

149 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York: Norton, 1947), p. 306. 33%

that is arresting and descriptive wherever it is used.

It is as commonly found in the music of Scarlatti as are

the modulations that occur in Figure 84, wherein a minor

seventh in a dominant chord or a minor seventh in a chord founded on the seventh degree of the scale £s?,'M,SDSticU He also used raised roots in modulating, in the case of the

Fig, 84:— From: Quando. amor, fourth movement

di tua bel-lez-sa rui ml strug-go a qual a- do-re e i z a ---- #

se lungi sto a- nt-nia mla tl-ran-no ge-lo-sla ge-

A

lo- sla me ge-lo-sla 11 cOr

$ ; 33a

minor sevenths one may examine the words ^ tua bellezza in

the first part of Figure 84, quoted above; and in the case

of the raised root, examine the last part of the example

beginning with the words mia tiranno gelosia. Such moduMory passages are frequently halted by a diminished

chord such as is found above the last syllable in the word gelosia in the last bar of this example. The

example ends comfortably in B minor.

The next aria, "Soldi mira riu mie luce" provides another excellent study of Scarlatti's use of elementary triadic harmony. The first phrase utilizes the I, IV, 7, I chords in G major in a very effective manner. Although attention has been called to Scarlatti's bteare and learned tendencies, he was obviously capable of composing quite simply. The aria mentioned above has a "motto figure" which is used effectively as an introduction andJltomello.

As in the other aria of this cantata, the first theme presented over sol di mira vi i£ altered when those words return in bar nineteen. Scarlatti not only uses

m ' ... economy in his employment of musical materials but alters old materials to giventhem freshnessf. Examination of the manuscript shows the substantial treatment given the text in these separate places. In Figure 85, one notes the simple harmonic treatment given la mante cor. The very 33§

unpretentiousness of this harmonic setting seems ideal

for the thought here conveyed. Contrasted with what is

Pig. 85:— Prom: Quando amor, fourth movement

la man­ te la man- te cor

I ?

found here are the complex settings given a number of words

in the texts of Andate o miei sospiri and Entro romito speco.

In the latter works the harmonic devices are extremely

chromatic. Especially interesting is the B section of this

da capo aria which utilizes a second theme, sol di mira vi.

in bar 18 and in bar 51. The text beneath that theme is

_e _se in amar vi deggio penar. The basic harmony of this

piece is easily described. In the phrase deggio penar saro

costante nel mio dolor two different melodic ideas and

harmonic ideas are employed. These may be observed in

the following examples. Eotice how the textual ideas saro

costante and deggio penar are expressed in musical ideas used interchangeably. In Pigure 86 the chords 17, I in D major are discernible. In Pigure 87 the six chord 3 è 9

Pig, 86:— Prom; Quando amor, fourth movement

*

deg-gio pe- nare sa-ro CO- stan- te nel'mio do- lor ~i i à OD’Trx u #® a#

is followed by a diminished seventh on the raised fifth

scale step in D major. The two settings produce affective

results that seem noteworthy.

Pig, 87:— Prom: Quando amor, fourth movement

$ deg-glo pe-nare sa-ro CO- atan­ te nel mio do- lor

jt=t tr IT,* m

The cantata Lascia di tormentar expresses the

passion of despair. The first movement begins in the

key of A minor— a key associated with sadness according

to the speculators. The "motto figure," introduces the

harmonic and melodic base tÆiich is predominant in the

phrase Lascia di tormentar, The piece is eleven bars

long; there are numerous modulations beginning with the keys of B minor and 0 major in the second measure, the 34d)

first measure in which the voice is operative. By the time

the third beat of measure three is sounded in D minor, the words tormentar ml are taken through three keys, Scarlatti

achieves the illusion of developing emotion through the

devices of chromatic alterations by a half-step, up or down, leaps, suspensions, and minor sevenths requiring resolAtions that cause the harmonic structure to weave an intricate pattern fully capable of amplifying the frustration of torment. The piece passes through a series of keys diatonicaily related, moving upward as the emotions become more intense. Though sparsely figured, crucial places in the chordal structure furnish adequate figures as guides so that the implied harmony may be accurately reproduced throughout.

Beginning in measure 4, a reference is made to the ' amor tiranno (tyrant of love). The harmonic complex gives one the impression of ascending to the first inversion of

B major via a dimirished VII chord at the word ml, at which a harmonic high point is reached. The music then relaxes as the harmony descends at the end of this arioso via a similar route taken in its ascent. Figure 88 contains a graphic picture of what has transpired in these measures. 349

Pig. 88:“ Promî Quando amor, fourth movement

ti-rau- no ti-ran-no A- mor** ti- ran no a-mor

Diminished chords are found in the harmonic

complex and are used to add harmonic color. Repeated

use of dominant sevenths and tonic progressions at different

degrees of the scale seem to be made easy by the leaps in

the melody which form interesting vertical intervals with

the bass line. Also, the horizontal intervals in each of

these lines are factors in the harmonic motion amplifying

important words. The third measure contains an augmented

fourth as mi, the perfect fourth and minor third at di

tormentar; while in the fourth and fifth measures at the

words amor tiranno the melodic form seems to suggest one

harmony while in the bass line still another harmony seems

to be implied. The words most affectively elaborated

throughout this arioso are tormentar. tiranno. and amor.

All of these words have specific relationships to cantata

literature purposefully designed to raise human passions

throughuunique musical devices. 342

The recitative "Di che vuoi disperatd' continues in the key of A minor. In the second measure G natural is found in the bass and figured 6 and in the third measure the P sharp is figured #5. When realizing the bass, the first figure is a which would normally resolve to a 1^ 2 of D major. . Instead, the chord moves to an P sharp major chord on the third syllable ra of the word disperato in the second measure. If one considers this strange resolution an affective device, this opinion is strengthened as one observes the melodic movement of the preceding words che voi and the other syllables of desperato beginning in bar 2.

The next phrase forse £ poco mio danno la fiamma is introduced by a B major chord well related to the P sharp chord ending the first phrase. Also in this phrase the musician is setting the mood for the expression of desperation of the lover mentioned in the first phrase.

He elects the major chord that outlines the melody and that is supported adequately by the D sharp in the bass line at the words forse £ poco a. The words mio danno (I am damaged) are set to an E minor tonality as also are the words follovTing, In fiamma (the flame) which lead into ch'accendesti sto seno (which ascend in the breast). At the word seno one notes an E major chord that adds to the tension that is building up. 3)1 un aima ch sapo un core In&rata (of a soul which knows an ungrateful heart) shows an outward resolution of a diminished seventh chord that is not figured, a procedure noted previously in similar places in this sampling. The chord on alma is founded on an P. natural with a B natural in the melody. By carrying over.the G sharp from the preced­ ing chord and following the horizontal tendencies of the melody and bass, a 0 minor resolution is reached. The chords implied over the concluding words of this phrase amplify the words core ingrata (an ungrateful heart) with a V^, I chord in D major.

Lunga stagiondo. with no key signature, begins on a

D major chord and uses a common chord change to the first inversion of the B major chord a minor sixth away. The passion of sadness expressed in the prior phrases is further illuminated in the progression from D major to B major as the diminished chord and its resolution at the.words in mille affani e pene (with thousands of sorrows and pains) are used to describe additional sorrowful reminiscences set to the chord of A minor. Notice is called to the differences in the A minor chord on pene (pain), the D major chord at felice (happiness), the G minor chord on speme (hope), and the diminished seventh and its resolution to 0 minor on the phrase di senza ritorno (without returning)

The ideas in these words oppose each other while the 34$

contrasting character of the chords seems to add new

significance to the poetic ideas. Another observation

is noted with particular reference to the contrasts of

major,minor, and diminished tonalities to amplify thoughts

juxtaposed against each other.

The tonality at the next phrase, £ non basta saria

la tua fierezza tanto crudele martora, begins on 0 minor;

and as the phrase develops, the harmonic shifting starts

again. A diminished seventh on the raised fourth degree

of £ minor at the word saria initiates more harmonic shift­

ing characteristic of the first arioso. The first notable

shift occurs at fierezza to the chord of B major. This

chord adds a seventh at della and a deceptive cadence at

the final syllable of martora and goes to S major at pieta.

After this series of chordal changes, the harmony and

the melody of the first arioso returns to end this strange: ■ but effective chromatic movement. Interestingly enough, the return of the A section signals the return of more figures beneath the bass calling for the essential harmonic complex used in the ahioso.

Tormentoza rimembranza is in the key of D minor and is characterized by the use of simple chords. Among these chords one finds I, 17^, 7^, I, 7^, and I chords. 1 3 ^ The bass line is rather conservative in the outset; however, 34#

the melodic line is very angular. Attention is called to

the setting of affligger (affliction) comprised of tonic and dominant chords with a modulation in bar 15 to the dominant major and finally its supertonic minor of G at the word cor. A second setting of this word affligger is set to tonalities moving to P major at the second appearance of the word cor. A repetition of the text torment02a rimembranza is interesting for the same reasons as its first appearance is. Then in the second appearance of non affligger one of the most serpentine melodies in this sampling appears fully expressive of affliction, the idea being projected here.

A second phrase, introduced vrith the words troppo a mia senza speranza. initiates the next phrase. It is well figured and contains simple chords. The very next section, nel dolor, contains a Neopollt&n sixth chord on the word dolor (sadness). Modulations occur rapidly in a complex of major, minor, and diminished chords. It is important to note the special affective setting given the word dolor.

Pig. 8 9:— Prom: Lunga stagiondo. third movement

AT

do­ lor r^r .i»J" j j' 34?

The next movement is In B flat major, an.d there is a definite relationship between the last key D minor and the new key. The dominant V chord and inverted tonic predomin­ ate 3^ ah che da morte suoi tiranae. the first phrase.

In this text, unrelated seventh chords mark the words crude and aspre. incompletely figured by Scarlatti. Then, a diminished seventh chord amplifies the words asPre e severe. and a îTeopolitan sixth appears at the words di due pupille arciere. A series of chords to related and distant keys bring this recitative, part of which is given as

Figure 90, to a close.

Fig. 90;— Prom: lascia di tormentarmi fourth movement

i 3 vuol ch'al lingo a-spet-tar di dubbta sorte sia ciboil ' I .. OC .J,.A.K'!". .#.'" 1 5 I.... Ii i ; li I'; ■■ ......

#

tM--- t o -- 0 — — =—#— *- =—M ^ V--K=fcl

pianto a-spet-tar la mor-te

--rte---- ■ ...... F.... =d -T:;rr.: l ...i[l # 34$

The next aria has several points of interest, among

■which is a series of first inversions of chords at the

word crudele, at bar 20, and at a chord of the ninth at

bar 28 on the words alma cieco.

In these two cantatas stressing diametrically

opposite passions, love and sadness, Scarlatti does not

seem bound to the use of any specific chord or series of

chords to express a given passion.

Harmonic details to amplify a passion seam to be

selected at random. The same is true of his choice of

keys and other music materials in general. Scarlatti

seemed inconsistent in his use of amplifying techniques,

fundamental or ornamental, to express a given passion.

Particularly is it observed that the composer does not seem bound to the use of a specific key or key center in

a given piece to express a special passion, although there

can be little doubt that he knew the concepts and principles

of modern harmony codified later by Rameau and others. It

is in the writings of Rameau himself that one finds justi­

fication for what seems to be taken for granted by Scarlatti

in his uninhibited use of harmonic materials. "Composers

of this time," says Rameau, "looked upon chords as absolute and individual entities, detachable from all content . . . and susceptible to scientific analysis and classification.

^^^Rameau, Traite de l'harmonie, p. 161. 34g

In the second aria of Lnini che in fronts. "Si che vddoro," is amplifying the passion of love. The idol is

called cagion del mio penar (bully of my thoughts) and is

set to a 7,chord of G minor embellished by a B flat in bar 13, but in bar 5 the same phrase is set to a tonic major and a dominant chord embellished by a major interval.

In this same cantata there is in the last measure of the B, section a setting of the word gioia to a minpr tonality which is contrary to the typical recommendations in the codified schemes and harmonic devices to express the passion of joy. In the second aria of Lumi che in frente. "Penar mi piace," the words e, soffro in paca (and suffer in peace) at bars 13 and 14 are embellished with major chords, while the phrase penar ml place (thoughts of pleasure) is embellished by a minor second above a bass line that indicates minor harmony at bars 10 and 11. M vuol contento

(I am well contented) is set to a minor chord in the first measure after the conclusion of the A section at the double bar. However, at bar 42 of the aria"Penar mi piace," the words col mio tormento are set to a minor chord founded on F sharp. In bar 45 ml viol contento (I am well contented) is set to a 0 minor harmony, and in the next aria,"Scherza gide in petto ml c f * (Dance lightly in my breast) is set to a minor tonality. 3$0

In the cantata A1 fin, al fin m ’uociderete the

first recitative is in the key of G minor. This is a

cantata expressing sadness and so the tonal scheme used

for its development seems very close to the recommendations

of Rameau, Hutcheson and others. Some other very interesting

settings take place. In the context of this minor key the name of the idol, Olori. is set to a Heopolitan sixth chord which firmly emphasizes the "beloved." However, in the latter part of bar 6 idol mio (my idol ^ l o r ^ ) is set off in the melody by an augmented fourth resolving to a I^. In. bar 8 the exclamation Oh 33io (0 God), an expression of desperation, is set to the first inversion of the V chord in ^ minor while the exclamation a me, a me che pensava in bar 13 is set to an inverted A major tonality, in the tonic key of G minor, a Heopolitan sixth. Looking back to measures 8 and 9 one finds a diminished seventh chord founded on E in the bass which is .figured 7 with a D in the melody. This chord resolves to the first inversion of a L major chord .which is a Heopolit&n sixth and has a rather captivating effect in conveying the idea expressed in the phrase ^ miei costanti amori (I die Repeatedly).

The resolution and text are given here as Figure 91. 350

Fig. 91:— From: Al fin, al fin m *ucclderete. third movement

de miel co-stan-tl amo-ri

19 I? « There is still another setting of words parti­

cularly well dramatized by a harmonic device at bar 28.

The text is consola petti si fieri and is set to three

chords separated in each resolution by half steps. An

examination of Figure reveals the subtle and sweet

flavor of these chords.

In the analysis of the selected cantatas, the use

of harmonic progressions as devices to raise the affections were noted. There seems to be little correlation between

the standard speculations of theorists on the affective application of chords in the settings of particular passions, feelings, or emotions, and the solutions given various passionate words, ideas, or phrases by Scarlatti.

Further, in the isolated works, selected at random, Scarlatti seems to have little regard for the rules and codified schemes on harmonic treatment devised by his predecessors and peers.

Scarlatti had control of a vast amount of musical techniques and a superb genius to guide him in selecting divisive means of creating affective moods in his music. % a t he 352

seems to do is to follow his genial intuition in the most

unregimented way. Some of the techniques appear to be

standard; others seem daring; still others seem bizzare

and almost out of place. Scarlatti's music contains

harmonic vigor which is immediately apparent and in line

Tiiith the development of continuo-homophony affecting

recitative and the aria, and the concerto style for the

aria.^51 Also quite notable is his predilection for the

Heopolitan sixth chord and diminished sevenths which are

introduced. Sometimes these are used abruptly but usually

they are resolved with most satisfactory results. The

tonal and harmonic interaction between the outermost

parts is significant in determining what course one should

take in supplying the inner parts of the harmonic structure.

The recitatives, seem to contain the most startling affective

details and justify the bizzare harmonic progressions which appear in them. This fact seems justifiable since

the function of the recitative is to portray numerous items of background material in the noefeta per musica which in turn contribute to and elaborate upon the few poignant ideas usually found in the aria.

^^^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. p. 241.

152ihid.. p. 246. 353

Plaally, there are a great number of apparent

modulations in Scarlatti’s music. Some of these are never

fully substantiated by any acceptable cadential device.

They go on almost endlessly. One observes that many near

modulations occur in passages using series of first inversions

which resolve correctly from chords containing minor

sevenths and diminished intervals. Whether Scarlatti

would concede that his music had modulated as often as

one is inclined to suspect that it has will remain a matter

for conjecture. To be sure, the composer sought to raise

the passions by harmonic devices used in a very interesting

way, some of Wh&ph%are difficult to explain by the

standards of modern harmony. However, Jan La Rue, who

authorÊd a very enlightening article on the concept of

bifocal tonality in Baroque music, contends that Baroque

harmony, which seemed to be operative in more than one

tonal area simultaneously by design, gave the composer a

considerably wider arena in which to function. He contends

that the major-relative minor axis constitutes the main

centers of reference of this bifocal framework; that there is often a secondary, or terciary tonality which though partially out of focus may be brought into focus by the

slightest inflection of a sharp or a flat to effect the desired change. If one is inclined to feel that at times the harmonic devices of Scarlatti are foreign to ideas of 354

m o d e m tonality, one might do well to oonsider the solu­

tion that has been offered by this discerning scholar.

Such a scheme for analysis could supply answers for strange

solutions in Scarlatti's music that have been called

bizzare and even a u d a c i o u s . ^^4

Rhythml.c devices

Under the heading of devices used by Scarlatti in

the expression of the pasfeions falls the subjects of tempo, meter, rests, syncopations, and figures which are the ingredients of rhythm. At the outset it is to be noted

that such items as tempo, phrasing, dynamics are often not to be found indicated in a Baroque score.Leopold

Mozart, father of Wolfgang Amadeus, indicated, in the spirit of his time, that "one must not only be able to beat the time accurately and evenly, but also to guess from a piece itself whether it has a slower or somewhat faster tempo." He goes on to say, "and in this one

^ Jan La Rue, "Bifocal Tonality: An Explanation for Ambiguous Baroque Cadences," Essays in Music in Honor of Archibald Davison (Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957), PP. 173-184,

^^^Dent, 0£. cit., p. 141,

^^^Putnam Aldrich, "The Authentic Performance of Baroque Music," in Essays in Music (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), p. l5f ff. 355

recognizes unfailingly the real strength of a musician , ,

Who will contradict me when I count this as one of the

highest perfections of music?

Both of the writers quoted above agreed that the

whole subject of the temporal aspects of music were of

tremendous significance. As a matter of fact whole 1 *57 treatises were written on the;he Î subject though none

available are too informative. 158

Current musicians regard tempo marks as indications

of relative speed, but to the Baroque musician these words 1 SQ had other affective connotations as well. To the

current musician, tempo marks are indices to performance

speed, but to the eighteenth-century musician tempo marks were another dimension of expression to broaden the base of possible affective devices.

^^^Leopold Mozart, quoted in "18th Century Metro­ nomic Markings," Papers of the American Musicologlcal ■Society (December, 193&), PP. 30 ff. Lambert, Principes de Clavecin. Paris, 1702; Christopher Simpson, Principles of . . . Musick. London, 1665; Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum. 16T9. Vol. III.

^^^Wessell, 0£. cit.. p. 175.

^^^Lang, 0£, cit.. p. 587. 356

Scarlatti marked some of his music with certain

words relating tempo. Though the selection is not wide,

these words have been noted in the section dealing with

his rhythmic style. The question is whether Scarlatti

reserved specific word expressions relating to tempo for

particular passions. If some consistency can be shown

between his selection of tempo marks and passions being

expressed, s significant bit of information will have been uncovered that is pertinent to this study.

In cantata? dealing with the passion of love such as Amici se vinto. Scarlatti prescribed the tempo mark allegro in four of its eight movements; in Amo ma I'idol he prescribed the tempo mark allegro in one of four movements; in Pilli adorata ah ben comprends he prescribed the tempo mark tempo guisto in two of six movements and allegro assai in one movement; in Olori mia cara he prescribed tempo guisto in one of four movements and andante in one movement.

In cantatas amplifying the passion of sadness such as lunga

Stagionda, Scarlatti prescribed andante and largo in two of its four movements; in Al fin, al fin he prescribed tempo guisto in one of four movements; in Bei prati he prescribed largo and lento in two of four movements. In cantatas expressing the passion of desire such as Fille adorata £ cara he prescribed tempo lento In two of four movements; in

Fille adorata e spietats he prescribed adagio and andante 357

risoluto In two of four movements; in Andate o miei sospiri

(1712) he prescribed lento in one of five movements; in

Andate 0 miei sospiri (1713) he prescribed andante and

moderato piu tosto lento in two of four movements. In

cantatas expressing the passion of despair such as lascia

di tormentar he prescribed adagio in two of four movements.

In one cantata expressing the passion of hope, Vidiun g i o m o ,

no tempo indications are made.

Paster tempi seem to be indicated more in cantatas expressing love than in:those expressing sadness, desire,

and despair. A statement implying that this assumption is

generally correct comes from Lang. He says

. . . vivace and allegro signify a moderate pleasure, more abandoned joy is inscribed . . . prestissimo and raging exuberance with allegro furioso while composure is indicated by andante, andantino, or larghetto. sorrow by mesto, adagio, laçgo, lento, or grave.

It is observed that the same words relating tempo are used

in cantatas expressing widely contrasting passions. Tempo

labels could in themselves then be very misleading. At

best, tempo marks are discretionary approximations which

could hardly be used in more than general categories of

passions, feelings, and emotions. Hardly could they be reserved for the expression of single specific passions, moods, or intentions contrary to the idea of Quantz.

^^^Lang, 0£. cit.. p. 587. 358

Little difference, it is recorded, was made in the

beat of fast and slow tempi. Some have advanced the idea

that a tactus pervaded the music and specific techniques

like augmentation, hemiola, dimunition, ties, fermati, and other temporal devices were used to provide rhythmic changes and expressive'devices to heighten the passions.

William Tans’ur suggested appropriately that music should move in a speed best suited to express the subject of the words or the passion involved.^

Even when tempo marks were to be found, this does not suggest that a given tempo was constant. Passages were executed with much feeling and affection. Variable speeds expressed in the word snrezzatura were in themsdves techniques for the expression and amplification of passions 1 go in the text. Because tempo marks are so scarce in the sampling, no opinion can be made except to say that in the spirit of the time, tempos were used to achieve affective renditions.

As introductory material,much could be stated in explaining the appearance and function of meter signatures in the sampling. As other pertinent details in the manuscripts were incomplete, so were meter signa-

1 1 William Tans’ur. Elements of Music Displayed (London: S. Growder, 1772), p. 5^.

^^^Aldrich, o£, cit.. p. 161 ff. 359

tures. Of the sixty-four movements bearing time signatures,

thirty-eight are in duple, time, of which two are marked and thirty-six marked 4/4. Twenty-three are in triple time, of which eleven are marked 3/8, eight marked 12/8, five marked 3/4, and two marked 6/8. Apart from the sixty-four movements mentioned above there are ninety- three additional movements in the sampling which are unmarked.

Of these, seventy-seven are in some form of duple time, while sixteen are in some form of triple time. The omission of bar lines in many cases prevents an accurate opinion on the latter. Cantatas amplifying the passion of love call for fast and slow duple meters^or fast 16A and slow triple meters.- Cantatas amplifying the passion of desire use fast and slow duple or fast and slow triple meters.The same is true for cantatas amplifying

163 Fast duple: Amo ma t'idol mio. 2nd movement, allegro ; Slow duplé: cTorl"vezzosa. 2nd movement. Andante Lento, 4/4; Contrasparente. 2nd movement,.grave, 4/4; Entro romito. 2nd movement. Andante, 4/4; ^ belta. 1st movement, Adagio, 4/4; l£ che del cor. 4th movement, lento moderato, 4/4 Past triple: Ajnlci se vinto. 3rd movement, allegro, 3/8; Amici se vinto. 5th movement, allegro 3/4; . Lumi che in fronte. 5th movement, tempo guisto, 3/8; Filli aaerai'a. Sth movement, allegro assai, 6/8; Clori vezzosa. 4th movement, allegro, 12/8; Slow Triple: lo ohTllei cor. 2nd movement, lento, 3/4; L'armi crudele. 1st movement, grave, 3/4; Mi tilde alma mia. 2nd movement, adagio, 3/8.

^^^Andate £ miei sospiri (1712) 2nd movement, lento. 4/4; Andate o miei"‘sospiri (1713) 1st movement, andante, 4/4; Andate o miei sospiri C1713) 4th movement, moderato pui tasto I2/&; Tllli adorata e cara. 2nd movement, tempo lento, 3/4; Fille adorata e caraT 4th movement, tempo lento, 12/8. 360

sadness^ and despair. A deduction can be made by

reviewing the evidence collected on the above points: no meter signature is reserved to express any particular

passion, Scarlatti used these signs and the various meters interchangeably to express aj.1 of the various passions. Another salient point needs to be mentioned: the alternation of meters in movements of a work is a technique for contrast.However, it is already evident that«excessive use of metric changes in the amorphous type of cantata developed by Rossi and others which Scarlatti inherited was one of its definite weaknesses. Scarlatti, avoiding this weakness, seemed to strike a happy medium in this sampling, being careful to select the meter which was suitable to the text and the fabric of the music movement by movement with which he was dealing irrespective of the passion being expressed. This sampling contains no intra-movement changes and no 3/2 meter signatures at all.

Lunga stagionda. 2nd movement. Andante, 4/4; Lunga stagionda, 4th movement, allegro, 4/4; ^ fin, al fin. 2nd movement, tempo guisto, 4/4; Bei Prati. 2nd movement, largo, 2/4; Bei prati. 4th movement, lento, 3/4; Bella dunque. 4th movement, no tempo mark, 3/4; Patto di'amor. 2nd movement, spiritoso, 4/4.

Lascia di tormentar. 1st movement, adagio, 4/4; Lascia di tormentar. 3rd movement, adagio, 3/4. 168 Apel, Harvard Dictionary, op. cit.. p. 642. 361

Manfred Bukofzer discussed the prominence of dance 1 6Q rhythms in the vocal music of certain Baroque composers. ^

A thorough search in this sampling provides evidence too

inconclusive to T ^ s k an opinion on affective dance rhythms

in the cantatas. It is.definite that there are arias that

strongly resemble some of these dances in meter and other 170 characteristics prominent at that time. ' It can be

stated with certainty that the Sieillano characterized by

a special type of pastoral text and 12/8 meter was used

for the expression of idyllic situations and passions. It

appeared often enough to establish the fact that Scarlatti

used 12/8 rhythm as a divisive means of expressing diverse 171 scenes of nature. Movements in 12/8 time are listed below. '

The indiscriminate use of meter markings as desired

point to the fact that Scarlatti made his selection of

them on the basis of their dramatic potential and not on

the basis of stereotype recommendations in treatise and 172 compendiums.

^^^Bukofzer, 0£. cit.. pp. 328-330.

£ miei sospiri (1713),. 2nd movement has a duple rhythm similar to the sarabande; Da che Tirsi. 2nd and 4th movements similar to triple rhythms of the courante: Olori vezzosa. 2nd movement similar to gavotte. 171 Irtjmi che in fronte. 2nd movement; Andate jo miei sospiri (1713), 4th movement; Fllli adorata e cara. 4th move­ ment; Parmi crudele. 5th movement.

^T^Wessell, o£. cit.. pp. 175-178. 362

Phraises in music have to do with groups of notes

presenting portions of a musical idea. Phrase marks

appear seldom in these manuscripts and like other details 173 omitted from the Baroque score, musioians were expected

to intuitively "phrase" the music. Scarlatti was not 174 altogether unmindful of phrasing, ' but it seems he

elected another medium to mark off important ideas and

units of the music. It seems that rests were used at

crucial points both as a means to separate units of the

score and as affective devices as well. This device

was used to create momentary silence and is conceded to 173 be a highly dramatic technique. Kimberger • stated that

interruptions of sound created by rests are an affective

device to stimulate vicarious interest— an unquestioned

aim of the whole theory of the Doctrine of Affections in eighteenth-century musie.

To observe the use of the rest, attention is

called to two excerpts from the cantata Amici se vinto in

the first aria. The words are set so that each syllable appears on a different degree of the scale. It is an

1 73 Ealph Kirkpatrick has made a similar observation of the scarcity of certain "slurs" and other marks in the music of Domenico Scarlatti. 0£. cit.. p. 304. 174 'Some phrase markings are found in Mitilde alma mia. 4th movement. ^"^^johann Kimberger, Anlleltung zur Sing composition. (Berlin: Decker,1782) p. 7. This man suggests such inter­ ruptions have tremendous dramatic power. 363

annoimcement; it calls forth the attention of the audience

and the "friends" to whom it is addressed. This cantata is

a lecture in song o n 'îâmore perduto e ritornato." In it,

the poet cautions his friends against the intrigues and

disappointments of love, notice Figure 92 which duplicates

Scarlatti's setting.

Fig. 92:— From: Amici se vinto

A-mi-cl se vin- 88 vin-to se vin-to a-mi-cl

Another good example of affective rests which

also add in the phrasing is from the aria "Si che v ’adoro."

Each little idea seems to be set off to itself. Yet, each

contributes to the though projected in the whole idea:

Si che v'adoro cagion del mio penar. Pupille belle.

This is translated to mean I still adore the one wholeontrois

my thoughts; the one with, the beautiful eyes.

Still another example comes from the cantata Andate

£ miei sospiri about which much has already been stated.

The first word, andate (go), is separated from the next words by a rest. Then, the full phrase is given but also

set off from what follows it by a rest. These rests 364

Fig. 93:— From: A m i d se vinto

$ ^ y ^ ±zz±a Si Si che v*ado-ro caglon del mio

penar pu- pll-le pu-pil-le bel-le

Si che v*ado- ro si a-doro si si ca-gion del mio

penar pu-pil-le bel- le ca-gion del mio penar pu-pil-le bel- le

interrupt the melodic line and a harmony that have barely

gotten underway. This treatment seems to be a scheme of

or related to affective "fragmentation" or "motivic

development" seen in other works^^imilar to which Scarlatti

is reported to have been partial in his late years.'

1 A m i d se vinto. 1st movement, bar 4; A m i d se vinto. 1st movement, bars 7, o, 9; Fill! adorata e spietata. 2nd movement, bar 3; Andate miei M 7 1 2 K 4th movement. 1st theme; Andate miei (1713), 1st movement, bar 1; Bella duhque. 1st movement, bars 3,4; Bella dunque. 3rd movement, bar 1; Pare selve. 2nd movement, bar 5; Pare selve. 5th movement, bar 4; Phiusa tra fosce. 2nd strofe, bar 1 ; Phiusa tra fosce. 2nd' movement, bars 1,2. 365

Pig. 94:— Prom: Andate o miei sospiri

An-da- te an-da te o mlel so-spl-rl

Quite appropriate as a device to lend assistance in heightening the passions through short moments of

silence, rests are also found after long cantabile melodies while the continue takes its turn to elaborate the music, after shorter phrases, and exclamatory sections.

Apart from the tempo, meter, and rests, various types of musical figures appear to have been used by

Scarlatti as a divisive means of creating rhythmic vitality or conversely of reducing rhythmic vitality.

Some of these combinations or groups of notes will notr be reviewed for the sole purpose of ascertaining whether they were employed under similar or varying conditions in the expression of distinctively similar or different passions.

The smooth rhythmic movement of the melody and accompaniment in the aria "Yagabondo fuimicello" from the cantata Mitilde alma mia is an excellent example. The text discusses the smaller streams which leave the sea later to rejoin it. The lover compares himself to the sea in presenting his case of unfulfilled love. Marked

(alle breve), with the tempo mark Andante.' this piece 366

literally walks along on the constant motion of recurring

quarter notes. The contour of its lines causes one to

think of the undulating motion of flowing water which it

is attempting to describe. Figure 95 contains excerpts

from this aria. One should also take note of the smooth

character of the continue moving in large rhythmic units,

also separated by rests, then the melody and supporting

the upper line in a genuine team-like effort to create

a more outstanding effect.

Pig. 95:— Prom: Mitilde alma mia

$&

41-i-

p i I m. ^ ' J'm J va- ga bon do flu mi m i

ê $ ? cel- lo Las- cla 11 ms- re do- ve na- que

J j i ^ t p 367

Compare the rhythmic motion above to the figure

used in'Scherga rld%"(Dance happily) from the cantata

Lumi Che in fronte. Contrasting moods are set in

contrasting type figures. This time, the composer marks

the movement 4/4 and marks the tempo allegro. The

predominant figure of the eighth note triplets, with an

occasional dotted eighth and sixteenth, seems to be

particularly well suited to the expression of dance movements. This is one of Scarlatti’s most effective arias and one in which the movements all seem ot have been influenced by and indirectly related to Baroque dances.

Figure 96 contains the music. The basic meter is kept by

Fig, 9 6;— From: Lumi che in fronte

$ Scher- za ri­ de in pet-to mi- o i.,; r

the continue, the fundamental instrument, as the ornamental line in the voice graphically portrays laughing and dancing in this happy movement. These two examples present musical figures with a character and design exemplary of the textual material that they treat. Notice should be taken of the 368

phrase £ soffro in place from the aria "Penar mi place?’ in

Lumi che in fronte. The ideas of continuous suffering and peace are diametrically opposite, hut Scarlatti sets them well, using a continuous rhythmic movement divisively.

Pig. 97:— Prom: Lumi che in fronte If e iii ([.I nri'iN'iiufi j. e sof-fro in pa­ ce e 8of“ fro in pa­ ce il mio des- E P r P' tin il mio des-tin

Here an assortment of dotted quarter, eighth, dotted eighth, and sixteenth notes are used to portray the mixed feelings in a figure that is rhythmically varied, tonally dissonant, hut appropriately descriptive of the passions found in them.

Pig. 9 8:— Prom: Lumi che in fronte

pe-nar mi pia- ce mi pia-ce e soffro in pa­ ce 369

There are still other types of rhythmic figures

set above words which are extended over several beats or

bars. Some of these figures are composea of series of smooth -movthg eighth and sixteenth notes; some are composed

of dotted notes. All are designed for expressio verborum

toward which Scarlatti worked as a composer,

"Eella guanoia," from Amici se vinto. contains an interesting figure, given in the example below. It is the central figure used in the development of this aria.

This little figure seems infectious to the other parts of the aria which are dominated by it completely. Marked allegro and in a 3/8 meter, it deals with a text stating that on the cheeks of the beloved idol, flowers are no longer to be found. It is another of those pieces resembling the dance movements common to the Baroque suite— perhaps directly or indirectly. Quite as saucy as the last figure it combines a guasi-sequential ^petition of notes.

Pig, 99:— From: Amici se vinto

Nel- la guan« cla sua vez-zo- sa 370

Rhythmic activity is frequently exchanged between the voice

and the continue. This kind of activity makes for variety

and provides energy that is basic to Baroque music.

Figure 100 shows such rhythmic imitation and elaboration

that is of great assistance in the expression of the

thoughts nenar mi place e soffro in pace, meaning "I think

as I suffer in peace." ''' Fig. 100;— From: Amici se vinto ...

=p= pe- nar pe-nar mi place

$

e sof-fro in pa-ce

Contrastable with the above example is another given below that has a great rhythmic vitality and that must have been an asset to Scarlatti as a device. The melodic line expresses the word lusingare. meaning allure­ ments. The melody is cast in a 3/8 meter punctuated by 371

dotted quarter notes in the bass line that aids in the

total expression of this word. Notably lacking are bar

lines to agree with the meter signature. This is obviously

an oversight on the part of Scarlatti or the copyist.

Pig. 101:— Prom: Amici se vinto

# i■£ LusInga-

»t ‘dW p r 6T i re

J*' g 372

The cantata Andate mlel sosnlrl should here be

considered again. This time, the figure In the accompani­ ment has a dotted rhythm that appears quite frequently

In this music, especially at cadentlal points and Is known as the leaping "lombardlc rhythm." It does not appear often In the vocal lines since It seems to be more suitably executed at the keyboard. This figure also appears frequently in Interludes before the entrance of the voice. It Is given below.

Fig : 102 :— From : Andate £ mlel sosplrl

Other rhythmic devices used to develop momentum are smooth patterns of sixteenth notes. The word "saettar" Is embellished with a figure of sixteenth notes In the aria

"Non si vedo” In Amlcl se vinto. The figure Is worthy of what could be found In the music of Mozart and others of his age. It Is given In Figure 103.

Fig. 103:— From: Amlcl se vinto 373

In this same cantata, another figure seems distinctive as an instrumental device to accompany the vocal line. In the aria "Hella guanoia" notice is taken M w of the extended use of the figure # • » appearing in the bass line beneath a rather active figure in the melody. This figure predominates in this aria of fifty- three bars and provides a pattern that adds a great deal txf the texture iccf the fabric of the music. Extended patters of rhythmically sequential material are found more frequently in the melodic line. The recitative from Amici se vinto.

"Ma Vi coglessi almeno," contains a distinctive figure of sixteenth notes tied to a quarter as follows :

On the words perdo of the phrase perdo lo stesso; the aria

"Non e amore" in the cantata Da che Tirsi has a figure as follows: \ f Ÿ ’ Special attention need's to be called to the cantata Ohuisa tra fosche bendo in which the figure V* ^ Ç C' used imitatively between the voices and the cehtinuo in one aria. This is the only strophic aria in the sampling. There are two strofe (as they are spelled on the manuscript) separated by a contrasting figure given here: ^ ^ ^

Other distinctive figures are found in 0 lui che fiso in the recitative "Si ehe inccohtrb 11 mio core" on the word congiro. on the words agitata da procella in 374

the aria "Agitata da procella," on the word navi in the

recitative"Qnnidi mi veggio," on the word guerrie in the recitative "Dél perdo nomi" in the cantata Fatto d'amor

seguace. Another example has a smooth eighth note pattern

of leaping notes in the melody. These leaps are mild, making use of the intervals of the major and minor thirds.

Supporting the melodic leaps is a series of sixteenth notes that are not arranged in a sequential pattern but contain typical figures that one might find in any piece of Baroque music that is systematically in process of spinning out the kind of thought involved in this phrase: ml lusinga ancor la speme. meaning "I again hope for her favor."

Fig. 104:— From:

..f j I'j J

" * • " ' s in- la spe-me

Syncopations are not found too frequently in this sampling. Of those found, the one distinctive type to be described utilizes a technique similar to hemiola in a few measures of the aria "Se vedrete il cor di lei" in Andate miei (1713). In bars 13 and 17 and in other bars of this piece the following pattern is found and given in Figure

105. 375

Fig. 105:~Froin: Andate o miei sosplri (1713)

-p— I m t X - j J— Ü I -J - 4^ per ques- te vie ro-ml- te The rhythmic movement within these pieces is

coherent and constant, Scarlatti sets a pattern and usually adheres to it unless there is some reason to

change, i.e., to amplify a word by a denotative technique as amici in the first movement of Amici se vinto or one of the words such as nerdo in "Ma cogliessi almeno" from

Andate £ miei sospiri with a kind of connotative technique; the consistoacyoin rhythm by no means implies sameness or dullness. Some detailed and interesting rhythmic variety is created within this latter cantata by the voice alone, the instrument alone, and the two together. However, ho device of rhythm meter, tempo marking, syncopation, rests, or figures is reserved for the development of any particular passion. Had Scarlatti been completely overwhelmed Tfith the standard ideas and compendiums on the Doctrine of Affections his music may,have been less important as works of art and more important as products of "a system." Scarlatti

"spoke the language of the passions" as surely as any.

Dent said in.his appraisal of the composer's work. However, 376

it should be added that his most profound contributions were made according to the urgings of his own genius tempered by the aims of the cultural, social, philoso­ phical,and artistic climate of which he was aware and a very potent part. He was close to the doctrines of his day as master, not as servant, not as a pedant but as a composer utilizing his intellect as recommended by the philosophy of Rationalism, That intellect was buttressed by intuition and emotion, reflecting a dramatic spirit and desire to present expressive music formulae suitably selected to amplify human ideas of love, hate, joy, despair, desire, and sorrow. CHAPTER VI

COHCLUSIOîTS

The cantatas here examined were composed during a

period spanning more than a quarter of a century of

Scarlatti's life. They are works written by a developing

composer who acquired greater facility in his art as he matured. This facility developed into artistry which may be observed in his manner of the application of the elements of music— form, melody, rhythm, and harmony— to the expression of the passions.

Scarlatti used musical forms to achieve maximum expression of words presented in musical settings. For example, the ineffectiveness of the ariosos as used by his predecessors in their amorphous cantatas was recognized by Scarlatti who refined and perfected, as replacements for them, secco. accompaenato. and cavato recitatives.

The effective way in which the composer used these types and forms of recitatives is one of his greatest accomplish­ ments. However, he did not discard the arioso altogether, but limited its use to more appropriate places. Further,

Scarlatti set aside the strophic, ostinato. and binary forms of the aria as he perfected the aria da capo. The reasons were simple: through the latter form, he could present contrasting expressive elements of text, melody, harmony and,rhythm. 378

Form -was used by Scarlatti as a means of blending

the separate items of text and music into an artistically

synthetic whole. The progress of the composer may be

observed in noting the earlier cantatas that tended to be

of a longer, struggling designs while his later works are

in the shorter and more sophisticated EARA form. In the

latter, the frequency of the appearance of the recitatives

and arias were equalized and the form itself was standard­

ized. By shearing away the excessive parts of the older

schemes for the cantata, Scarlatti achieved greater

expressiveness through shorter more coherent more balanced

form,

Scarlatti's harmony and his treatment of dissonances were regulated by the emerging concepts of harmonic theory.

He gave due consideration to the vertical and horizontal aspects and helped to provide solutions to problems that seemed to be irresolute dualisms to some. Attention is called particularly to the novel resolutions of the diminished sevenths and the Heopolitan sixth chord. Scarlatti exhibited a tendency to experiment with chromatic harmony to develop new devices for musical expression of the passions.

Some of his harmonic devices were considered bizzare by some and as asperities by others. Today, these tendencies are interpreted as marks of a man clearly ahead of his time. 379

Primary chords are the central axis around which

his music revolves. However, in addition to primary chords,

he used secondary, diminished, and certain coloristic

chords like the Heopolitan sixth, to achieve greater

expressive effect.

Scarlatti is fond of fast harmonic rhythms and of

rapid, shifting modulations that occur at unexpected times.

He frequently used diminished sevenths which are resolved

in a variety of ways unknoim before his time. These

chords and their resolutions are found frequently in the

recitatives where the active parts of the texts are

presented in M n i m u m space and in those arias where the

harmonic rhythm is rapid. Sontrastingly, the harmonic

complex of many of the arias is rather staid seemingly to

preserve the reflective intent associated with them in

dramatic music. . The principle of continuo hompphony is in clear

evidence throughout. Rhythms are varied in the outer lines to give continuity and the necessary energy needed

to spin each idea until its momentum is gone. These melodies usually progress scalewise, but there are instances where the melodies have been broken up into logical divisions and figures composed of sequences and other types of melismata. However, Scarlatti knew the voice well and always wrote music that could be negotiated 380

by the competent singer. It has also been observed that

the tessitura and range always seem reasonable.

Some of Scarlatti's melodies are built on figures

of fewer than two bars but in these there is continuous

expansion in keeping with idioms connected generally with

Baroque music. As he grew into maturity as a composer,

he seemed to favor shorter musical ideas that he subjected

to the principle of thematic development. The latter

principle made for greater internal spontaniety and a more cohesive external design. Often, these shorter

themes or figures seem to be contrapuntally conceived, but just when one should expect that the music would take a clear contrapuntal course, the composer elects rather to merge his music into a harmonic complex instead. This pseudo contrapuntal treatment is noted in the music of many other eighteenth-céntùry composers, and Scarlatti in these instances followed the approach adopted by others of his time. It is when Scarlatti elects not to follow the approaches adopted by others of his time that his innovative genius comes to the fore.

Melody for Scarlatti enjoyed a hierarchical prefer­ ence over the bass line, and it is noted that the composer was able to blend the "outer poles" in such a way that each is complimented by the other. Scarlatti at times shaped each of these lines into a ringing melody in its 381

own right. He used the element of melody to generate

contrasts in mood, balance, design, and fluency as well

to explode with greater force the hidden meanings of the passions, emotions, and feelings in the texts of these works. With equal facility he seemed able to set texts that are pompous, heroic, tender, and magnificent.

Versatile in developing the ingredients for various types of arias, Scarlatti seems no less deft in his handling of recitatives in which the minute details of the texts were presented. He shows a preference for secco recitatives but employs several types, of which the cavato is the least common. In the latter, the composer would meticulously chisel out a word and give to it a setting that emphasized its meaning in a most passionate way.

Though the least familiar of the melodic types to be included under the word recitative, the cavato when used by Scarlatti is expertly handled and artistically woven into the fabric and design of the music, to add to the aesthetic moment. In electing such sparsely used formulae as the cavato the composer is following the recommendations of the rationalists by injecting a sub­ jective element, that of personal taste in selection of media for the expression of a given passionate word, into what could have been for some blind conformity. 382

Pollowlng the trends of his time to indicate nothing

on the score that could be satisfactorily deduced from the

character of the music, Scarlatti very frequently omità time

signatures and hardly ever indicates tempo marks. The

meter is discernible in the majority of the movements, and

the proper tempo would have been obvious to artists who

were well acquainted ifith idbms and performance practices

of his age. Where he did mark his music, one finds a

close correlation between his indications and the convention­

al tempos for the adequate expression of the passions

involved.

Rhythmic movement in the arias is constant and

coherent and is frequently established by the motto

figure. Rhythm generated an internal motion, and once

a pattern is set it is adhered to in developing further

each detail of the music. Consistency in matters rhythmic by no means suggests sameness of dullness. Rather, the rhythmic consistency extends the expressive possibilities of the music. At times, the popular dance rhythms of the allamande. courante, sarabande. and gigue are suggested.

Also noted is the conventional Siciliano rhythm maintained in movements on texts dealing with pastoral scenes, lovers, and shepherds and shepherdesses. 383

Scarlatti's tendency is to develop the main

passion of each text by a means, technique, or device

that seems appropriate to him to add dramatic importance

to the ideas found in the poesia per musica. The techni-

niques and the solutions could involve ideas contained in

popular treatises compiled to assist composers in selecting

a suitable method to elaborate and further dramatize a

text or idea of the composer's own creation. In each

instance it seems evident that the composer was able to

make the kind of choices which clearly set him apart from

the ordinary men of the Italian Baroque involved in musical

composition. The solutions found in Scarlatti's music are

not simply the products of intellectual gymnastics. They

are solutions conceived in a double framework involving the

subjectivity that makes his music novel and the objectivity noted in the restraint that is characteristic of and recommended by the espousers of filationalism. Scarlatti's

approach clearly bears the marks of intellect and emotion

ingeniously welded together.

The specific problem of a codified method of

expression of the passions has always been complex and has

always provoked different views and responses. The theorists

and speculators who had been impressed with the ideas of

the rationalists on the unique expressive power of music were posing two questions which had excited men through the 384

ages up to and in their time. They asked what devices in music best expressed particular passions. They also asked how music is made to be more expressive. That a variety of-answers could be given to these questions reflecting many divergent opinions is quite obvious. The techniques and devices noted in this sampling do not correspond in detail with the recommendations of any single theorist of the Doctrine of Affections. An understanding of the

Doctrine of Affections in general is essential to the proper appreciation of Scarlatti's art. However, this study has shown that Scarlatti himself did not regard the theorist's codification of devices as proscriptive.

Rather, he used their ideas and suggestions as points of departure in devising novel pattersn of musical expression.

It is from the pen of a man who followed Scarlatti on the musical scene by almost thirty-five years that one gets a glimpse of the reasons for the appearance of the multitude of codified schemes which he ignored in many instances, judging from the findings in this analysis.

Georgio Antoniotti, in his book L'arte armonica in 1760, stated that the doctrines and formulae were devised to assist those who persisted in setting words in an inappro­ priate fashion; and because certain musicians felt the compulsion to compile lists! of codified techniques and figures to aid such composers in achieving representative 385

and artful settings of texts. How, it can be clearly understood why Scarlatti did not use them: he found them unnecessary. In his ona way Scarlatti was competent to cope with the whims of women and the desires of men that have made many of his works gems of precious conceptions. .

Had he followed inflexible processes in composing his music, he would have been guilty of.implementing a system in which logical consistency would have been completely separated from the relevancies to life expected in art and things humane. Moreover Scarlatti would have violated one of the basic tenets of the philosophy which was current in his time. Rationalism rejected preexisting solutions and answers until their validity was no longer open to question. Scarlatti wrote effusively and with a sure hand, and, in the act of composing, intellect and emotion always played a combined and significant role. He exempli­ fied the position Charles Avison stated so well.

The techniques by which music will awaken the emotional responses cannot take place in a rigid system of codified suggestions as some had assumed to be the case.177

^^^Charles Avison, Essay on Musical Expression (London: Davis, 1775), p. 128. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, OSCAR MBRVIHE HMRY, was born in Horfolk, Virginia,

July 2 6 , 1 9 2 8. I received my secondary-sotiool education

in the public schools of .Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and my undergraduate training at Risk University, Hashville,

Tennessee, where I earned the Bachelor of Arts degree in

1 9 4 9. Prom Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

I received the Master of Arts degree in 1951 r W a l l e in residence at Harvard University, I was a Wesley Weyman fel7ow. In September, 1956, I was appointed to the faculty of Central State College at Wilberforce, Ohio as a teacher of music, and have continued in this position.

In the following year, 1957, I enrolled in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, and am presently in the process of completing all requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy.

586 APPEHDIX A

397 388 M D A T B 0 MIEI SOSPIRI (1712)

te o miei eo-epl-ri o miei eo-api-ri al cor d*I-re-ne M'-'r -*rtf-irr'— II -Lk^ 9 7 qL 4« 6 9 6 6 ie 6 7 4 3

^ i rpBp-'7 ^ 5'T

An-da- te an-da-te, an-da- te o miei ao-api-ri o miei 41 Ji

al corao-api-ri al cor d'l-re-ne

t ■ ' - O-iP'-Wl 3 .. D .1 ^ 5 Ss-ao del mio le pe- - - ne sap-pia sap-pia da g ip *p=f Kptp U p 7 5 I # #« 389

# J I .fa'te " • =fF=#---- «---- — ^ p— ^— P— ?— h — vol ben che sa- pra le sa- pra se di- te

-tt---- = ---- j— . 1 1 ---fr- — ---- 1 ——I y ,,, r ... S'r'------J — J— 1 1 - , :J

6 S 6 5 fi IIIi'.i=.i JS che per a-ver rl- sto-ro al suo do- lo- re tut- to

m

; L . , V^ ' K— --- ^{' --- 5---T ---- .? tif! — -f a 1/ H#V#— --aP— a -l£p---- ^ ------e---- 2~-ip--- tut-to con voi sen vie-n< e an che il mio co-re an- ‘ -----:------b p ---- m--- ' ' ~ ."I ' "'" I------A j------=H=------w — — —

da-te e a qual bel ae-no tan-to ch'un sol al me-no es- sa n'a

a m

col-ga plen del mio £o- co ognl una vol s'ag-gi-ri

.

w J: 390

Adagio 8 ftf r I',. .7 A An-da-te, an-da- te al cor d'll*I-r^e-ne An- da- te, an-da

*« 1 ' " ' r i ' ' Ï Î m

f # = n ftlTë-- t-k#-- #-- 11-----S— m --- !—m----- brzg— :— k K""'^ b J . te al c( >r d'l-re- ne al cor d'l- re- ne () miei so-

-*»— la______- ..... >IB 1 m .1.-. - rr- : ty - h^- 1 1 1 W '| » 1

I f j T J 1^^ :., J^. spl- - - ri 0 miei so- spl- rl

^ r i>* * I» 8

Lento

Se ve

>8 5 6 S 4 be 75

k' m r n R ^ gp.-plJljA r ^ dre-te 11 cor dl lei plen del so-ll-to rl-go- re -b#— — — ------— ------k.------«- L-T rTT^'&r-iT'':r 7 391 $ sfortu-na-ti non le di-te che par-tite dal mio

cor che par- tlte dal ml-o cor Se ve-

k A P r ti tit J> J'AJ’K.JJifPFPcyr' W drete il cor di lei pien del so-li-to ri-go- re sfortu-

p..f r [ ^ c r J 5 r pi p p r J . na-ti non le di-te che par-tite dal mio cor

sfortu- na-ti non le di-te che par-

' r r P T T ; w % 392

i te dal mlo cor

Ma 86

A L

pel dl no-stra a vol dl gra-dire 11 vo-stro ardor dl-te

. A ; |i ft [TP4 [f O Cf al cor che siete miel e che a lei vi man-da a-mor Vi

man-da vi man-da'mor Ma se poi di nosta 393 r I vol di gra dire il no-stro ardor dite al-lor.che aie- te it |yfr«yfr

miei e che a lei vi man-da a-mor vi man-da vi man-da

a-mor a-mor a- mor vi man- da

j p 'A J— 2----- =------Z j P"' 1 Siih-hl i'lTif ft 1 . g é— 1------

a-mor Ma di che mi lu-sin-go Oh Dio che

---- :---- j------1 » --- - ,JlL.:.l, ■ * ■ - a ______2L - ---- — p H ---- 1 --- ;------

— yi'ff ft fTr'm'j'M' '■ f ' " " 4 - —I' V-- ' *Id g--.g"'w£_ L - — al ■p *pnæ;;.= y - pela- 80 audira la cru- de- le ve- dra le VO- stre

P 3 = . . -P--- J = * 1 — 3 9 4 h P F P "p g g '• flam- me e sa-pra chi 11 acce- pe 11 8UO bel clgllo

. ÿ i i ' l .

— J- m ma fln-ger-a qual fin a-do-ra ha* fin- ta

■I ■&■■„; . ' j:# m ; g

k ±

ch'ella non vl co-noace 0 non a'lntende e pur M ^ <1 " . i

sa*quell'ln-gra-ta La sa lo sa con duo pla-cer che

-jPr »4,-- ■ ■ ■■■^

V- ^ /----V" ft... Sr73— — 3------—# .-•f. . - . . W" ----- = mlel vol slet(Î e Intende ma s1 fin- ge

^ — -4------= --- :------.... 395

--- _ — k S ”ii~te":------U - — I w -- 1-=-- =--- »--- r — | l_Ü --- 7: ^ ,1 — ""P"'. p — ^ ^ y | W ' ? I quel Stlo bar-bar- 0 cor do che chie- de- te ^ L --- r -j -■ p — ------J— --- — " 1 1------— 1------^ c-rdl

rrm clrrf^^l

jar

Se non v'accoglie in

rifijff r,ifJ. / .

::km ♦ J f',.. .11> <**ê T, ., %» se- no re-star re-star po- tre- te al

.J 396

------P ... 1' - J b| Jf L(9 ------■----- f------i r 4 ^ - m 9 M L . — t ■> r me- n 0 del-la m la bel -1a del- a mia bel-la .a_____ J------W f r r r Z t - ' .

m al pie del-la mia bel- la del- la mi-a bella

- 9 L « f r P

# al pie Se non v'ac-

> m-- J— » ------Z L _ |-- u ------:-- iL__ coglie in se- no . res -tar po- tre te al

[d^fe.j,.,-:J J ,Cr,.|

> J J F T r i me- no del-la mia bel­ la res-

j r n f f d t i 397

3 B- t~J?~W rp " J- r-^ k:— ".-H9 r -- |J1-- - - —#- m- tar po-tre-te al me- no .. del-1a mia bel- la iel- Ë ’ %- r _ fi*# 11> f r T ' r Lu-i II ' ...... mr'Lw 1- j

i mz m la mia bel-la al pie res- tar po-tre-te al me- no

km. ,L# #

del- la mia bel- la del- la mia bel-la al pie bel- P

4 - i ' la mia bel-la al pie f . J ’Çf - I f m f J Ê i T-ô" P

Ë 398

É / J r.TTfhn^ a In fin cru-di ri-rnim

; ^ r - t E . | £ r . p I îf f - r ^

I—jP-i=--- # # # ^ P ------"1 g ...... ------— - p ----- p — — — H ------1------1 [ " #L*irJx l - — t-— W — L- If r : spl-ri spar- ga spar- ga con 11e per me

: ,e r— j w r z: . - f CJ — | . . W " W ------U ------e

m— 1i' — |. -- 1 ~ ~ r i ~ i .. . J— ii»p" > ■.— M - h \ l_a_s---- .----1 N LW .'--d1— 1 1 1 ... 1/,..1.... iLn f j Ln chl ui1 di ri- miL- ri . in voi quai ^ia mia g-- —P---- 1 , r -i ■f-f..p ■ ^ - - : — ^ ---- ln»— ^ --- - b ± ± = ^ = ± = ^ ', I- ,'i ;'I,T \=L=L=^=^==^

», ...f I g ---- »

£e e un sol del suol so- aplr-ri spar- ga spar- r f I f F. p p i 399

j # r I r ga con lei per me e un sol de sua so- spi- ri JU'iri ifrnrJ ^ '1 I'

---- - j : ; . i 2 p = 4 = E = = = ^ spar-gf1 spar- ga con lei per

4 , t»F------f' i*k« 1 0 M »■ 1 'I' ' '1 ' 1-1— i----- !--- 1— \- " U ^ J 1

■ § ..— 3 me

- 4 ^ ----5----- I = ^ f =--- u , laff ÿ f f i S F r f - ^ r r - --- 1------1

------.---- — ■-■8...... -...1

>!>"■ * ^ i’r

Se non v'accoglie in se-no

ME # — -.Ü m 3 Co;

400

J fi , ,r::ë:pL:| îfef— I— T ‘ m r r '

S e n o n v'accoglie in se-no non restar potrete

# »--- ■ A 1 ' >1.. 11 -t*_____-MZ LJ-- :------L------' ' \^ \ U 1 i j - .. - 1?"------sJ

i Ê g 97Tyal me- r nor délia T mia bella bel- la délia mia bella

i $ -f"' r ■ al pie restar potrete al meno délia mia del"

y , jj.

la restar potre- Ce del- la mia bella al pie

\ tÆ

# >■.. Se non v'accoglie in se- no re-star potrete al X "^.r f'-vir ftn ?\r_ - 'I 401

F " 1% ' f--#"'f » * m g -— ------* . , . -~=Jr— Lr;;:"/ ^ ^ P'p g ^ -di^g ^ f . " me- no della mia della bel- ladel la mia bella al

3 b = d f e i>- ~' B r*— -P— %-!— &- „ r n J * T ^ - ! ^ i . =1 ^-1' l^ '.: ' P J r ,h ::

# # # ?i ; pie del- la mia bel- la restar potre- i

e ePu ■-. -h " « 4 * . . .: ' " b i «»------1 » * # » - J ' ~~t r ~ i m 1 N = ty fc { j■p f " : ..".. 1 1 , ^ y y ^ p te cle i-la mia bel-la bel- la della mia bella al r* -èl'v—f*T»T----- ,..j>. 1------.J.J — 4---- _ « _— !—N"IS -(V-gs ------—j r - M i

a a s #1» :St *5^ pie della mia bel- la

é.:: :7-^r " ^ f ' [* "

In finche un di vi miri in

g:|zgpl^;r.^ $ 402

vol quai flamme fe' e un solde suol so-splr- rl

m - r 3 C : t :.7. Spar- ga con lelL per me

4^. r'iJ'T 3f a fin che un dlrl mlrl ln vol quai sla mia fe* e un rW- mz

3Tg"T"»fi solde miel so-splr- rl Spar- ga con lel per

g |yj,.. ... '..^ i me de suol so- spl- rl spar- ga con y,-tlrfTT'p " f liJTltJ.t 403

lel per me BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Abrahms, M. H. Glossary of Literary Terms. Hew York: Holt and Co., 1957. Adler, Guida. 'Handbuoh der Musikgescbiohte. Frankfurt : Verlag, i924.

Agazzari, Agostino. Lel suonares sopra il basso continuo stromenti. 1607. Aikin, John, Essays on Song Writing. Lublin : Thomas Armi tage, 1777.

Akenside, Mark. Pleasures of the Imagination. London : R. Lodsley, 1774.

Alaleona, L. St-oria del Oratorio Musicale in Italia. Milano: Fratelli Rocca, 19^5.

Albrechtsberger, J. G. Thorough Bass. Harmony and Composition. London: R. Cocks and Co.,

Algarotti, Francesco. Saggio sopra 1'opera in musica. Haples: Marco Coltellini, 175^, Alleri,, W. L. Philosophies of Music History. Hew York: American Book Co., 1959. Allison,^Archibald. Essays on the Hature and Principle of Tas^. 5th ed. Edinïïurgii: A Constable & Go., TS’17. Ambros, W. A. Boundaries of Music and Poetry. Translated by J. H. Cornell. Hew York: Q. Sciiirmer, 1893. Andre, Yves Marie del'isle. Essai sur le beau on l'on examine on quor consiste précisément i'e'^eau. dan le moral. dan les ouurages d^esprit, et d an la musique. Paris: H. L. & T. Guerin,' 1741. “

Antoniotto, Giorgio. L'arte armonica; or, A Treatise on the Composition of MusicT ïî?it'ïen Tn Italian ^ d translated into English. London: I76O. 404 9 9 5

Apel,;¥illi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 19%.

______, A. Davison, Historical Anthology of Music. 2 Vols. Cambridge:' Harvard University Press, 1950.

Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by Ingram Bywater, ed. ¥. D. Boss. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924.

■ Politics. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1924.

Rhetorica. Translated by Rhys Roberts, ed. ¥. D. Ross.Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1924.

Aristoxenus; The Harmonics. Translated by Henry Mar cran. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902.

Armand, Francois. Lettre sur la Musique, a M. le Comte de Cayius. Paris: 175?. " *”

Arnold, P. T. The Art of Accompanying from a Through-Bass. London: Oxford Press, 1951.

Avison, Charles. ^ Essay on Musical Expression. London: Lookyear Davis, 1952.

Babbit, Irving. The Hew Laokoon. An Essay on the Confession of the Arts. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1910.

Bach, K. P. E. Versuch flber die ¥âhre Art das Clavier zu Spielen. Berlin: D. P. Heaving, 1753. Bach, C. P. E. Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. Translated and edited by ¥. J. Mit eke 11. New York: ¥. ¥. Horton & Co., 1949.

Bacon, Francis. Complete ¥orks. Ed. J. Speddiand, R. L. Ellis, and D. D. Heath. London: Longman & Co., 1857-74.

. The Great Instauration: The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mills. Edited by E. A. Burtt. Hew York: M o d e m Library, 1939.

. Sylva Sylvarum. London: J. H. Airland for ¥. Lee, 16 2 6. ê 9 6

Baker, David E. Blographla Drammatica. or a Oompanlon to the Playhouse. London: Longman, Hurst, l6l2.

Baker's Biographloal Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 5th ed. Hew York: G. Schirmer, Inc.,' 19^8.

Barnes, Harry E. ^ Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World. Revised ed. Hew York: Eeynal and Hitchcock, 1941.

Bassani, Giovanni Battista. Cantate a una voce. Edited hy G. E. Malipiero. Milan: T9 1 9.

Battouz, Charles. Des Beaux Art, Réduits a im Meme Principe. Paris: Durand, "T7S9.

Bayly, Anselm. A Practical Treatise on Singing and Playing with Just Expression and Real Elegance. London: J. Ridley, 1771.

. Alliance of Musiok. Poetry and Oratory. London: J. Stockdale, 17Ô9.

Beattie, James. Elements of Moral Science. 3rd ed. Edinborough: A. Constable & Co., 1777.

______. Essays; On Poetry and Music. Edinborough: W. Creech, 1778. Bekker, Paul. The Changing Opera. Translated by Arthur Mendel. Hew York: Horton, 1935. ______. Von den Haturreischen des Klanges. Berlin : Deutsche Verlag-Anstalt, 1925. Bell, Sir Charles. Anatomy and Physiology of Expression as Onnneoted with the Fine Arts. 4th ed. London : J. Murray, ^847.

Berardi, A. Miscellanea Musicale. Bologna : 1689.

Bernhard, Christoph. Von der Singekunst. Edited by Müller- Blattau. Leipzig: H. Rauschning, 1926.

Besterman, Theodore. A World Bibliography of Bibliographies. 2 vols. Hew York: H. W. Wilson Co., 19^0. m

Bichle, Herberto Die Stimmkunst. Leipzig; Kistner and Siegel, 1931.

Blainvllle. 0. H. L'Espirit de L'Art Musical, Genwva; 1 7 5 4 . ------

« Histoire Generale. Oritique e Philosophie Cela Musique. Paris: üssot, 1707. *”

Blair, Hugh. Lectures on Rhetorical and Belles Lettres. London: W. Straham.

Blom, Eric (éd.) Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 5th ed. 9 vols. London : Macmillan & Co., ïitd., 1 9 5 4 .

Bonnet, Jacques. Histoire de la 'Musique et de ses Effets Depuis son Origine Jusque*d Present. Paris: J. Cochort, 1 7 1 5 .

Borghese, Antoine. L 'art Musical Rameau a ses Vrais ■Principles. Paris: Hardouin e GÜtley, 17Ôë.

Borren, Charles Van den. Alessandro Scarlatti et 1'éthique de opera. Paris : 1921.

Brossard, Sebastien. Dictionaire de Musique. Paris, 1703.

Brown, John. A Dissertation on the Rise. Union and Power. the Progression. Séparation and Corruption of Poetry and Music. London : ï)avis and Reyers, 1763. Bukofzer, Manfred. Music in the Baroque Era. Hew York: Horton, 1947.

Burney, Charles. A General History of Music. Edited by Prank Mercer. 2 vols. Hew York: Harcourt. Brace and Co., 1935.

The Present State of Music in Italy. London : I77T:------

Busby, Thomas. A General History of Music from Ancient Times to the Present. London: Whittaker, Simpkin and shall, iBI^.

Butcher, Samuel. Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Pine Arts. 3rd ed. Hew York: Macmillan and Co., 1902. m

Butler, Donald M. Pour PMlosophles. New York: Harper Bros., 1959. ”

Oaccini, Gruilio, ^ Houve Musiohe. Pirenza, 1602.

Gaïdara, Antonio. Kammermusik fur Gesang. Edited by Karl Geiringer, BTOe XXXXXXXV, i9 6 0.

Campbell, George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. London: Straham, 1 lié»-

Cannon, B. C. Johann Mattheson. Spectator in Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 194-7.

, ALvin Johnson and William Waite. The Art of Music, New York: Crowe, I960.

Carissimi, Giacomo. Siz Cantatas. Edited by Ridley Prentice. London: Lamborn-Cock,

Carse, Adam. The Orchestra in the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge : Heffner, 1950.

Chastellux, P. J. Essay sur 1*union de la poesia et la musique. Paris: Chez Merlin, 175*5.

Chabanon, Michel. Observations sur la Musique. Paris, 1779. Chambers Encyclopedia. Vol. III. New York: Oxford University Press, 1950. Cobbett, Walter-Wilson. Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, London; 1929.

Collins, William. Odes on Several Descriptive and Allegorical Subjects. London: A. Millan, 1747.

Corte, Alfred della. Canto e bel canto. Turin, 1933.

■ Le Relazioni Storiche della Poesia e_ della Musicaletaliana. Turin. T5357

. Poesia per musica. Turin, 1944.

Davison, Archibald. Essays on Music. Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1957. Dent, Edward. Alessandro Scarlatti; His life and Works. London: Arnold, \90k, ______. I er pander. or Music of the Future. Hew York: Dutton, 1927. Descartes, Rene. The Method. Meditation, and Philosophy of Descartes. Translated hy John Veitch. Washington: M. Walter Dunne, 1901. . Selections. Edited by Ralph Eaton. Hew York: Charles Scribner and Sons, 1927. ______. Discourse on Methods of Rightly Conducting the Reason. 1^37. Translated by John Veitch. LaSalle: Open Court,1945.. . The Philosophy of Descartes. Edited by Henry A. P. Torrey. Hew York: Holt and Company, 1892. Dolmetsch, Arnold. Interpretation of Music in the 17th and 18th Centuries. London: Oxford Press, 1946. ^ Donaldson, John. The Elements of Beauty. Edinboroggh: Elliott, 1750. Doni, Giovanni. De pal s tant i a musicae veteris libri. Plorence, 1647. Dorian,' Frederick. The Hf.story of Music in Performance. Hew York: Horton, 1942. Doughty, Oswald, ^gllsh Lyrics in the Age of Reason. London: 0'Connor, 1922. Drinker, Henry S. Bach's Use of Slurs in Secco Recitative. Philadelphia; Drinker Library. Drinker, Sophie. Music and Women. Hew York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1948. Dubos, Abbe, J. B. Critical Reflections on Poetry. Painting. and Music. Vol. I. Translated by T. Hugent. London: "17%: Duff, William. M Essay on the Original Genius and its Various Modes of Exertionlin Philosophy and the Fine Arts. London : DÜiy, 1767. 4(1)0

Eastcott, R. Sketches on the Origin. Progress and Effects of Music. Bath: S, H. Hazard, 1793. Einstein, A. The Italian Madrigal. 3 Tols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949. . Short History of Music. New York: Alfred Knopf, 195^ Eitner, Robert. Quellen-LexLkon der Musiker und Musik- gelehrten. 10 Tols. New York: Musurgia, 1947. Miscellanea Musica. 3 Tols. Leipzig, I912-I916. Emery, Walter. Editions and Musicians. London: Novella and Co. Ltd., 19577" Engel, Carl. The Music of the Most Ancient Nations. 1929 ed. London: Reeves, 1ÏÏ5Î7 Bximeno, Antonio. Bell*originie e delle regole dello musica colla stria"del suo progrès so decadenza r rlnnnva- zione. Rome: M. A. Barbiellin, 1714. " Petis, Francois Joseph. Music Explained to the World. (Translated for the Boston Academy of Music). Boston: Oliver Ditson and Co., 1842. . Biographie Universelle des Musiciens. 2nd ed. Paris: Didot itérés. Iis eicie, l8ÿo. Pinney, Theodore. History of Music. New York: Hareourt, Brace, 1948. Flower, Walter. George Frederick Handel : H1.s Personality and His Times. Revised ed. Cassell, 19^7, Frescobaldi, Girolamo. Primo libro d'arie. Edited by Felice Boghen. Florence : Landini. 'Gallileo, Tincenzo. Dialogo della musica antica e m o d e m a . Rome: 1518. Reprinted and published by Reale Accademia d'Italia, 1934. Gasparini, Francesco, L'armonico pratico al cimbalo. (Tenice; Bortoll, Tt^s). Reprinted at Rochester : University of Rochester Press, 1956. # 1

Gasparini, Francesco, L'armonico pratico al cimbalo. (Venice! Bortoli, 1745). Reprinted at Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1956.

. Oantate da camera a voce sola, Rome: Mascardi, 1695. Geminiani, Francesco. A Treatise on Good Taste in the Art of Music. Londïïn: J. Johnson, 1749. . The Art of Playing the Violin. London: J. Johnson, 1942.

Gerard, A, An Essay on Taste. 3rd edition, Edinburgh: Bell, 1780. Gilbert, Kathrine and Helmut Kuhn. A History of Esthetics. Hew York: Macmillan, 1939. ' Godsched, J. 0. Kritische Bichtkinst. Leipzig: Brietkopf, 1737.

Goldschmidtt, Hugo, Die Musikaesthetik des 18 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig: Zurund, 1915.

Grassineau, J. A Musical Dictionary. J. Filcox, 1740.

Greene, Theodore. Art and the Art of Criticism. Princeton: Princeton University Press,“T94o.

Gregory, Julia and 0. G. Sonneck. Library of Congress Catalogue of Early Books (Before 18Ü5), 1913. Grout, Donald Jay. A Short History of Onera. Vol. I. Hew York: Ccilumbia University Press, 1947. . A History of Western Music. Hew York: Hmrton. I960.

Grove, Sir George. Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan, 19547

Habock, Franz. Die Gesangkunst der Krastraten. Universal ed. Vienna, i 923.

Hall, G. Record Book. Hew York: Oliver Durrell, 1948. # 2

Hanslict, Edward. On the Beautiful in Music. Edited by Oskar Priest. Hew York: liberal Arts Press, 1957.

Harris, James. Three Treatises. London: J. How se, 1744.

Haydon, Glen. Introduction to Musicology. Efetf York: Prentice-Hall, 1947.

Hawkins, John. A General History of the Sciences and Practice of MusIcT Vol. II. London: Ewen & Go,

Heinichen, Johann D. Generalbass Schule. Hamburg: Schuller, 17‘i 1. 284 pp.

. Mew Erfundere und Grundlische Anweisung. Hamburg: 1711.

Herriot, Angus. Oastrati in Opera. London: 1956.

Heyer, Ruth. Historical Sets. Collected. Edited, and Monuments of Music. Chicago: Library Association, 1957.

Heyman, K. R. W. The Relationship of Ultra-Modern Music to Archaic Music. Boston, 1921.

Hoare, Alfred. Italian Dictionary. London; Cambridge University iress, 1950.

Hogarth, George. Mémoire of the Opera in Italy. Prance. Germany, and Engfan?. Vol. II. London: R. Bently, l33F.

Holden, John. An Essay Towards a Rational System of Music. Glasgow, 1770.

Hutcheson, Prances. Essays on the Mature and Conduct of the Passions. London; I7 2 8 .

. Considerations of Patronages. London, 1735.

I Classicl della Musica Italiana. 36 Vols. Edited by Gabriel d'Annunzio. Milan; Instituto Editorials Italiano-Societa Anonima Motarl, 1919-1923.

Jackson, William. Thirty Letters on Various Sub.1ec-ts. 3rd ed. London: T. Cadell, 1795.

Jaloux, E. Sur un Air de Scarlatti. Maastricht, I9 2 8. 4t3

Kirclier, Athanasius. Musurgia Universalis Sive ^ s Magni Oonsoni et Dissoni. Vol. VII, Rome: 1^50.

Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953. Krohn, E. 0. History of Music. St. Louis: Washington University, 1952.

Kroeber, A. L. Anthropology. Mew York: Haroourt and Brace, 1948.

La Chamber, M. 0, de. Les Caractères des Passions. Paris: I d*Allen, 1 6 6 0 ^ 6 2 ^

Lampe, J. P. The ir;t of Music. London: C. Corbett, 1740.

Lamy, Bernard. L'art de bien parler. Paris: I6 7 5 .

Lang, Henry Paul. Music in Western Civilization. Mew York: Morton, 1941.

Lee, Vernon. Studies in I8 th Century Italy. London: Oxford University Press, IÔS0 .

Leichentritt, Hugo. Handel. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verl^gs- Anstalt, 1 9 2 4 .

Livingston, Herbert Stanton, The Italian Overture from Scarlatti to Mozart, Rochester: UniversTty oi Rochester, c 1952. Locke, Matthew. Melothesis. or Certain General Rules for Playing upon a Continue cl Bass."" 16^3.

Lorenz, Alfred. Alessandro Scarlatti's Judegnopern. 2 Vols. Augsburgg, 1927.

Loewenberg, Alfred. Annals of Opera: 1597-1940. London; Cambridge University Press, 1945; Geneve^ 1955.

Mace, Thomas. Musick's Monument. London: M. P., 16 7 6.

Machlis, Joseph. En.1 oyment of Music. Mew York: Morton, 1956.

Malcolm, A. Treatise ofor Music.music, Speculative,specu Practical, and, Historical.Edinburgh, T7 2TT # 4

Mancinl, Giambattista. Practical Reflectioas on the Pigiarative Art of Singing. 1777. Translated by P. Buzzi. Boston: Gorham Press, 1912. Marpiarg. P. ¥. Kritische Briefs uber die Tonknnst. Berlin: P. ¥. BuHâEiiTTiwrr ------Ber Kritische Musilcus an der Spree. Berlin: "Hande and Spene, 1^50. Masson, P. M. L 'opera de Rameau. Paris: Laurens, 1930. Mattheson, J. Oritica Musica. Hamburg, 1722. , Ler Vollkommene Kappellmeister. Hamburg : H. P., 1728. Melodischer ¥issenschaft. 4 Vols. Hamburg, 1738. . Heu-Eroffnete Orchestre. Hamburg, 1713. Misson, Maximilian. A Hetf Voyage to Italy. London: Donwicke, Tonïïon & Co., 1?T5. Mitchell, J. ¥., ed. Essay on the True Act of Playing Keyboard Instruments. By 0. P. E. Bach. Hèw York: Horton, 1949. Morley, Thomas. A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical^Musick. "àkafcespeare Association, Facsimile No. 14, 1937. Mount-Edgcumbe, Richard, 2nd Earl. Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur Chiefly Respecting the Italian" in England for Fifty Tears from 1773-IS23. London: ¥7 T527:— ------— MusictLihrary Association Notes. Ill, December, 1945. - pp. 51-56. Bibliography of Italian Secular Music (Vocal). 1500-1700. 3rd Installment. McColvin, Lionel R. and Harold Reeves. Music Libraries: Their Organization and Contents. 2 Vols. London: Grafton & Co., 1940. 904 pp.¥ith a Bibliography of Music and Music Liteœfcure. McKinney, Howard L., and ¥. R. Anderson, Music in History; the evolution of an Art. New Yorkl EerTcan Book Co., 1940. 4d)5

ÎTefi Karl. ^ Outline of the History of Music. Translated by Carl F. Pfatteioher. New York: Columbia University Press, 1935.

Nettl, Paul. The Other Casanova. New York: The Philosophi­ cal Library, 1947.

North, Soger. The Musical Grammarian. 1728. Edited by Hilda Andrews, 1925. Ohl, John and*-Carl Parrish. Masterpieces of Music before 1750. New York: Norton, I9 5 I.

Oliver, A. R. Encyclopediasts as Critics of Music. New York: Columbia University Press, 1947.

Orloff, Grégoire. L*Historié de la Musique en Italie. Paris: Dufort et Chasserian, 1822.

Paine, John Knowles (ed.). Famous Composers and Their Works. Boston: Millet, I8 9 1.

Parrish, Carl. Early Music, New York: Norton, I960.

Parry, C. Hubert. Style in Musical Art. London: Mcmillan, 191 1. Pasquali, Nicolo. Thorough-Bass Made Easy. Edinburgh : R. Brenner, 1757.

Peri, Jacopo. Le Nouve Musiche. Florence, I6 0I.

Pyeper, Stephen. Principles of Art Appraised. New York: Hareourt. Brace & Co.

Pianetti, Cavalier. Tratto dell * opera in musica. Naples, 1772.

Plato, Republic. Vols. I and II.

Playford, John. ^ Introduction to the Skill of Musick. Edited by Henry Purcell. London: E. Jones, 1694.

Porpora, Nicolai. Five Cantatas. Not Published. London : 1 7 3 5 . Potter, John. Observations on the Present State of Music and Musicians. London : Henderson, 1Ÿ62. # 6

Praetorius, Michael. Syntagma Musicum. 1619.

Prota-Guirleo, Ulisse. Alessandro Scarlatti il Palermitano.

Prout, Ehenezer. Musical Forms and Annlied Form. 1893-95.

Prunieres, Hpnri. A Me~w History of Music. Hew York: Macmillan, T9?3T

Quantz, J. J. Versuch einer Anweisung Lehre die Flflte zu Spielen. Berlin: J. F. Foss, 1752.

Hameau, J. P. Observations sur notre instinct pour la musique. Paris: Ballard, 1722.

— — Traite de L*harmonie. P a r i 1722.

Heed, Herbert. Anatomy of Art. Hew York: Dodd, Mead, 1934.

Heese, Gustav. Music in the Henaissance. Hew York: Horton, 1947.

Hiemann, Hugo. Handbuch der Musikgeschichte. 5 Vols. 1904-1913. _ . • gantaten-Fruhling. Leipzig: Siegel's Musikalien- handlung.

. Old Chamber Music. 4 Vols. London: 1898, 1902. Edited by Max Helser.

Holland, Eomain. Musical Tours through the East. Hew York: Holt, 1915. . Some Musicians of Former Days. Translated by Mary Blaiklock. Hew York: Holt, 1929.

Housseau, J. J. Dictionaire de musique. 2 Vols. Paris: DuPont, 1o P4.

Howen, Huth. Early Ghamber Music. Hew York: King's Crown Press, 1949.

Sachs. Curt. Commonwealth of Art. Hew York: ¥. ¥. Horton, 1946.

. Our Musical Heritage. Englewood Cliffs, Hew Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1952. 44)7

Sobering, Arnold. Geschichte der Musifc in Beisnielen. Leipzig: Breitkopf-Hartel, 1931. Scherohen, Herman. The nature of Music. Chicago: H. Regney, 1950. Schiebe, Johann. Kritioue Musious. Leipzig: Breitkopf, , 1745. Shmitz, Eugene. Geschichte de Weltlichen Solokantate. Leipzig: Brietkopf & Eartel Musikverlag, 1955. Scholes, Percy A. The Oxford Companion to Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1938. 1091 PP. Schrade, Leo. Monterverdi. Shirlaw, M. Harpsichord Music of Alessandro Scarlatti. Yds. V- VI. Sammelbande der Internationalen Musik Gesellschft, 1904. " ' Sidgwick, J. Method of Ethics. Simpson, Christopher. A Compendium or Introduction to Practical MusicT 1^59. Reprinted in London : Lukey & Co., 1775. ______. The Division Violist. London, 1659. . ^ Introduction to Playing upon a Ground. 1659. Smith, Adam. Essays on Philosophical Studies. London: Cadell and Da^s, 1795. Smith, Leo. Music in the 17th and 18th Century. Toronto, 1931. Squire, W. Barclay, Catalogue of Printed Music Published — between 1487 and 180^ 2 Vols. London: Printed by Order of Trustees, 1912. How in the British Museum. St. Lambert. Principes de Clavicin. (Paris, 1702. Trans‘ur, William. The Elements of Music Displayed. London: S. Crowder, 1772. Tartini, G. Trattato di Musica. Padova : Siovanni Manfre, 1754. # 8 _ '

Titus, Harold. Living Issues. Boston:American Book Go., 1933.

Torchi, Luigi (ed.). L'Arte Musicale in Italia. 7 Y d s . Milan: G. Ricordi, 1897. Tosi, Pier Francesco. Observation on the Florid Song or Sentiments on the Ancient and Modem Singers. Translated by John E. GalliardT Loildon: J. Wilcox, 1742 . Tovey, Donald Francis. Essays in Musical Analysis. Chamber Music, edited by Hubert J. Foss. ” London""''V944. Turner, William. Sound Anatomized in a Pliilosophical Essay on Musick. London: W. Pearson, 1724. Tdning, Thomas. Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry together with Hotes and Two Dissertations. London: Payne and Sons, 17&9. Ulrich, Homer. Chamber Music. Hew York: Columbia Press, 1948. Vigoni, Federico (ed.). Cantate da camera a Yoce di Diversi Eccelenti Autori. Milan: S. Michele al Gallo, 1712. 181 pp. Waldo, Fullerton. Early Italian and French O-pera. Yol. 15 . In Fundamentals~o7 Musical art. Edited by Edvrard Dickinson. Hew York: Saxton Institute, 1927. Walter, Johann Gottfired. Musicalische Lexicon. Leipzig: H. P., 1732. Webb, Daniel. Observations on the Correspondence of Poetry and Music. London : J. Dodsley, 1769. Wiley, Basil. The Seventeenth Century Background. London: Chatto and Windus, 1934. Works of George Frederick Handel. The. Parts LZIII, LXY, LXXE, LXXY, LXXX, Leipzig: Printed for the German Handel Society, 1875-1880. Wright, Thomas. The Passions of the Minde. London: Y. Symms, 1604. Wundt, W. Outline of Psychology. Translated by Judd. Leipzig, 1897. 4§9

ZarlinOs Gioseffo, ^ lastltutioal Harmonlche. Yenice: 1562 .

Articles and Periodicals

Aldrich, Putnam, "Authentic Performance of Baroque Music," Essays in Music in Honor of Archibald Thomnson Davison. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951. Allen, W. D. "Baroques Histories of Music," Musical Quarterly. Vol. XXV, 1 9 3 9, 1 9 5 . Arnold, Denis. "Alessandro Grandi, A Disciple of Monte­ verdi,” Musical Quarterly. Vol. XLIII, April, 1957,171 Babitz, Sol. "A Problem of Rhythm in Baroque Music," Musical Quarterly. Vol. XXXVIII, 1952, 533-565. Barnes, Thomas. "On the Affinity Subsisting between the Arts, " Memoirs of the Literary and PMlosonhical Society of Manchester. I. 1785, 72-&9. Bukofzer, Manfred. "Allegory in Baroque Music," Journal of the Warburg Institute. III. 1939-1940. Burtt, E. A. "Leviathan," The English Philosonhers from Bacon to Mills. Hew York: Modern Library, i93'^. Cametti, A. "L'insegnamenti privât0 della musica," Revista musicale Italians. XXXVII (February, 1930), W, Carapetyan, Armen. "Imitazione della natura," Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music. I. 1946-47, 47. David, Hans T. "Structure of Musical Composition up to 1759, " Joumal of the American Musicologlcal Society. I-XIV. 195^. Dent, Edward. "Hew Light on the Scarlatti Family," Musical Times. XXVI (Hovember, 1926), 982-983. 430

___ . "The Italian Ohamber Cantatas," Musical Antiquary. II. (October, 1910), . "The Italian Chamber Cantata, " jj-oceedings of the Royal Musical Academy. 1925. Descartes, Rene. "Meditations," in Meditations and Selections. Translated by John Veitch. Washington : M. Walter Dunne, 1901. . "Passions of the Soul," in The Philosophical Works of Descartes. Edited by E. 8. BEidane and G. R. T. Ross. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1911. Dotto, Paolo, "Dov'^ nato Alessandro Scarlatti," Giornali ^ Sicilia. 1926. Downes, Edward. "Secco Recitative." Journal of American Musicological Society. ' XIV (Spring, 1961}, 50. Edmunds, John. "The Mastery of Alessandro Scarlatti," Tempo. (Winter, 1956-1957), 24-30. Emery, Walter. "Bach's Symbolic Language," Music and Letters. (October, 1949), 345. Ferand, Ernest T, "Embellished 'Parody Cantatas' in the Early 18th Century," Musical Quarterly. XLIV (January, 1958), 40 -647 Pienga, Pasquale. "La veritable patrie et la famille d'^essandre Scarlatti," La Revue Musicale. 10 annee (January, 1929), 22^-236. Flood, W. H. "An 19th Century Essayist on Poetry and Music," Musical Quarterly.IV(April, 1916), 191-198. Fienga, Pasquale, "Guisseppe Scarlatti et Son Incertaine Ascendance,: La Revue Musicale. 13® annee (February, 1932). Galloway, Tod B. "What Music Owes to Alessandro Scarlatti," Etude. IXL (April, 1931) 245-261. Godefoy, J. "Some Aspects of the Aria," Music and Letters. XVII, 1936, 200-209. 421

Goldsmith, Oliver. "On the Different Schools of Musick," Forks. Edited by J. ¥. M. Gibbs. London; G. Bell and Sons, 1885. Hanley, Edwin. "A Review of A. Scarlatti, Pour Cantatas,” Hotes. (September, 1959), 621-622* Harrison, P. L. "Symbolism in Music," Queene Quarterly. XLVI (Winter, 1939), 453-460. ------Haydon, Glen. "On Problems of Expression In Baroque Music," Journal of American Musicologlcal Society, III. 1950, 113-119. Helnleln, Christian. "Affective Characteristics of Major and Minor Modes," Journal of Comparative Psychology, VIII (April, 1928), 101- i W T Hlrkpatrick, Ralph. "I8th Century Metronome Indications," Journal of the American Musicologlcal Society (December, f938), 30-4^. la Rue, Jan. "Bifocal Tonality," Essays In Music in Honor of Archibald Davison. Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1959, 173-183. love joy, A. 0. "Mature as Aesthetic Perm," Modem Language Motes, XIII, 1927, 444-450. Mitchell, Joyce. "Symbolism In Poetry and Music," Ph.D. dissertation. University of Pennsylvania, 1944. Mozart, 1. Quoted in "I8th Century Metronomic Markings," J ournal of American Musicological Society (December, 1935),p. 30. Edited by Ralph Kirkpatrick, Monro, H. "Herds and Music," Music and letters. I, 1920, 52-59. Parry, C. Hubert. "The Music of the Seventeenth Century," The Oxford History of Music, III, Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1902, Prall, Margaret. "String Quartettes of Alessandro Scarlatti," Musical Mercury. Ill, 1936. Prunieres, Henri. "The Italian Cantata of the 17th and 18th Centuries," Music and letters. VII (January, 1926), 38-48, 120-132. 422

Hadcliffe, Phillip, "The Scarlattis, Alessandro and Domenico," Heritage of Music. Oxford, 1934.

Reiser, Max, "Ou Musical Semantics," Journal of Philosophy, x m x , July, 1942, 421-432. '

Riemann, Hugo. "Der Basso Ostinato und die Anfange der Kantate," in Sammelbande der Internationalen Musicgesellschft. Leipzig: Breltkopf and Hartel, 1935. Ronga, Luigi. "Motivicritici sur A. Scarlatti," Revista Musicale, 1954-56, 125-140.

Rowen, Ruth. "Some Eighteenth Century Classification of Musical Style," Musical Quarterly. 1947, 90-101.

Salazar, Adolfo. "Los Scarlatti," Huestra Musica Mexico (October, 1940), 231-240.

Schrade, Leo. "Yon den Manière der Composition inder Musik des 16 Jahrhunderts," Zeit Schrift fur Musik Wissenschaft, XVI, 1934, 3-20, 98-1^7, Ï52-170.

Schueller, H. M. "Speculations in British Music Criticism," Journal of Aesthetic and Art Criticism. VII (Mhrcii, T § 5 T n ------*•

Spinoza, Barruch. "Ethics," SëLected Writings of Spinoza. Edited by John Wild. Hew YorEl Charles Scritner, 1930.

Tiby, Octavio. "La Eamiglia Scarlatti," Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music, IV (JuneT T947), 275-290.

.Unpublished Materials

Buckbee, George. "Two Chamber Cantatas of Alessandro Scarlatti." Unpublished Master's thesis, Eastman School of Music, 1954,

Irvine, Demar. "The Expression of Ideas and Emotions in Music." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Harvard University, 1935. 4 2 3

Mitchell, Joyce. "Symbolism in Music and Poetry. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1944.

Rogerson, Brewster. "Ut Poesia Musica." UnpublÈÈhedd Ph.D. dissertation. Harvard University, 1935.

Scarlatti, Alessandro. Cantate da camera a voce sola, (unpublished). “ Al fin, al fin m'ucciderete. 1718; Amici se vinto. H. D. ; Amo ma l'idol mio. 1702; Anda;^ o_ m l ^ - sospiri. 17T2 ; Andate o miei sospiri. 1713; Belle dunque. H. D. ; Be'i prati fresche rivi. H. D. | Care selve gradite. H.D.; Ohlusa tra fosche bende. H. D.; Clorl mla cara. H. D. ; Olori vezzosa e belle. Gontraspaxent il velo. H. E.; Da che Tirsi.~H. D.; Del mio seno. H. D.; Entro nomito speco. H. D.; Patto d'amor seguace. E. D.; Pille adorata ah ben. E. D.; Piile altera o speitata. E. D.; ^ che del core di Pillé. E. D.J Dascla di tormentarmi. 1709; L^armi cruAel'e. E. D. ; ^ belta. ^701: Lietl boschl. 17o4;' Lunga stagiondo. I7 0 6; Lumi che in fronte. 1703; Mitilde alma mia. 172O; 0 lui che fisc. 1696; 0 mai dal cie'io. E . D. ; Quando amor una ferir. e7 D.; 7idi un giorno. E. D.

______. "Regoli di principanti." Unpublished manuscript,

Uessell, Prederick. "The Affektenlehre in the 18th Century." Unpublished dissertation, University of Indiana, 1955.