Cosmic Noise: a History of Early Radio Astronomy Woodruff T

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Index

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Acuff, Roy versus Ludwig van Beethoven animals (cont.) Aron, Raymond 13 265 eagle 277 Ashkhabad, Turkmenistan 238 Adel, Arthur 86, 98 elephant 374 Aspinall, Arnold 243–5 Adgie, Ronald 173 fish 168 Astapovich, I. S. 238 Admiralty Signal Establishment (UK) flea 480 astronomers 115, 156, 264, 288 giraffe 317 amateur 41, 74–5, 182–3, 241, 247, 265 Agassiz, Louis 91 gnat 374 relations with radio researchers 47–9, Air Defence Research and Development goose 258 75–6, 138, 152, 175, 182, 195–6, Establishment (UK) 156 gorilla 39 224, 253, 313, 404, 416, 425, 435, Alexander, F. Elizabeth S. 85, 128–9, 319 horse 168, 376, 446 439–41, 452, Alfvén, Hannes 309, 374, 386 hydra 39 astronomical (term) 425–6 synchrotron radiation for radio stars mongoose 389 astronomies, beginnings of various 379–80 monkey 279 wavelength bands 451, 462–7 Allen, Clabon W. “Cla” 130, 132, 137, octopus 346 astronomy 288, 297, 425, 426, 430 rabbit 279 extreme ultraviolet 464 Allen, E. W., Jr. 257 serpent 39 gamma ray 391, 464 All-India Radio 256 swan 142 high energy 384, 389–91 Almond, Mary 245, 248–50 tadpole 256 infrared 428, 463 Altar, Wilhelm 91 trout 32 optical 384, 424, 427–9 Alvin 455 turkey 32 comparison with radio astronomy Amalgamated Wireless Australasia, Ltd. antenna temperature (term) 203, 480 439–41, 455–6, 457–9 119, 120, 125, 127, 129 aperture synthesis 176, 312 electronics for photometry 428 Amazing Stories 453 aperture synthesis – earth rotation 294, 297 why so dominant? 465 Ambartsumian, Viktor A. 229 Appleton, Edward V. 30, 51, 83, 87, 91, ultraviolet 463 American Astronomical Society 70, 208, 119, 121, 131, 146, 155, 222, 224, X-ray 391, 464–7, 469 253, 413, 441 231, 237, 241, 258, 264, 277, 424, comparison with radio astronomy Andromeda nebula 316, 321, 375, 382, 433 465–7 396, 432, 458 controversial claimstaking 90–1, 110, astronomy and art 12 158 MHz detection by Hanbury Brown 111–12, 148, 237 Astrophysical Journal 63, 152, 395 and Hazard (1950) 188–91, 339, Appleton, Rosalind 91 Atanasijevic´, Ivan 320 373 Arago, François 314 Atkinson, Robert d’E. 329 claimed detection (Reber) 63, 396 Arakawa, Daitaro 89 Atkinson, Sally xxxi, 503 animals of early radio astronomy Archimedes 356, 442, 502 atmosphere, Earth’s 26, 473 bug 233, 346 Arecibo (Puerto Rico) 1000 ft spherical “microwave sky noise” 212 camel 208 reflector 264 1.0–1.5 cm absorption (Dicke) 95, chick 270 Arizona Meteor Expedition (1930) 246, 203–4 cobra 389 251 primer 473 cow 118, 189, 302, 306, 330, 358 Armstrong, Edwin 265, 268 refraction 218 deer 101 Army Operational Research Group (UK) atomic bomb project (Manhattan dog, bird 110 80–3, 100–17 District) 200, 418

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528 Index

Atomic Energy Commission (US) 443 Blackett, Patrick M. S. 178, 252, 440 Bowen, Ira 441 Atomic Energy Research Establishment Blackwell, Donald E. 175 Bown, Ralph 31, 42, 51 (Harwell, UK) 446 blind astronomy/blind astronomers 1–2, 425 Bowyer, Stuart 464 Attu, Alaska (US), 1950 solar eclipse 207 Bloch, Felix 398 Bracewell, Ronald N. 117, 145–6, 151, aurora borealis Blum, Emile-Jacques 221–3, 291 152, 171, 312, 360 possible radio bursts 212 boffin 188, 195 Bragg, William Henry 146 radar echoes from 191 Bok, Bart J. 46, 210, 412–3, 415–6, 429, Bragg, William Lawrence 155, 172, 178 Austin–Cohen formula 25 437, 441 Brazil, 1947 solar eclipse 205, 207, 217, Australia and New Zealand Association Bolton, John G. 68, 73, 75, 112, 125–6, 219, 222 for the Advancement of Science 130, 133, 138–43, 148–9, 152–3, breakfast, practicing hard before 341 (ANZAAS) 138, 152 166, 174, 317–24, 361–3, 386, Brecht, Bertolt 157 Australian Journal of Scientific Research 390, 417, 430, 431, 436, 446, 451 Breit, Gregory 30, 55 140, 145 100 MHz survey of galactic noise British Association for the Advancement Avro Anson 187 (1950, with Westfold) 367, 370–2, of Science, 1914 meeting in 382, 391 Australia 146 Baade, Walter 76, 221, 320, 335, 383, 385, early Cyg A observations 139–42 British Astronomical Association 182 387, 426, 429, 433, 457 optical identifications (Tau A, Vir A, Bromberg, J. L. 455 biography 344–5 Cen A) (1949, with Stanley & Broten, Norman 297 optical identifications of radio sources Slee) 143, 320–4 Bruce, Edwin H. 32, 302 (1950–3) 340–9 New Zealand Cosmic Noise Bruneval raid, France (1942) 81, 222 radio stars as Population II objects 375–7 Expedition (1948) 143, 317–19 Brunsviga calculating machine 289 Baade–Minkowski wager regarding Cyg A observations with McGee of galactic brussels sprouts 179 346 center source 334–6 Buckley, Oliver 42 Babcock, Harold D. 288 radio source scintillations 324–6 Budden, Kenneth G. 175 Babcock, Horace W. 374, 392 six new radio stars 142–3 bug 233, 346 Bacon, Francis 442 two surveys of discrete sources (1950, Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Badgery’s Creek (Radiophysics Lab field 1954) with Stanley & Slee 332–4 Netherlands 372 station) 330, 360 Bondi Beach (Sydney) 139 Burbidge, Geoffrey R. 175, 376 Bailey, Victor A. 119 Bondi, Hermann 389 Burgess, Ronald E. 90, 114 Bakker, Cornelius J. 395, 404, 405 Booker, Henry G. 210, 327 Burke, Bernard F. 125 Baldwin, John E. 173, 176, 351, 359, 385 books Burkhardt, Gerd 289 Bannier, J. H. 405 1610, Sidereus Nuncius (Galileo) 468 Burnet, F. MacFarlane 151 Banwell, C. John 180, 183–4, 191, 264 1947–53, Principles of Radar (ed. Burnight, T. R. 465 Barbara xxxi Ridenour) 225, 419 Burrell, B. 282 Barnett, Miles A. 30 1951,Van de Hulst, A Course in Radio Burrows, Charles R. 210, 425 Barrow, W. L. 57 Astronomy 407, 430, 457 Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory Barth, K.-H. 455 1952, Lovell and Clegg, Radio (Armenia) 229, 384 baseball xxx, 39, 398 Astronomy 195, 424, 430, 437 Bateman, Ross 237 1953, Shklovsky, Radio Astronomy: A California Institute of Technology Battle of Britain (1940) 80, 132 Popular Sketch 216, 459 Potapenko & Folland observations of Baum, William A. 260, 460 1954, Lovell, Meteor Astronomy 195, galactic noise (1936) 44–47 Bay, Zoltán 271–4 251, 255 start of radio astronomy (1955) 75, 153, beans, Reber experiments 74 1954, Waldmeier, Radiowellen aus dem 429, 437, 446 Beck, Alfred C. 40, 52, 78 Weltraum 311 Cambridge Observatories (UK) 340 Beethoven, Ludwig van versus Roy Acuff 1955, Pawsey & Bracewell, Radio camel 208 265 Astronomy 152, 313, 386, 425, 436, camera obscura 187 Bell Telephone Laboratories 30–1, 52, 437, 451 Cannon, Annie J. 48 264 1976, Edge & Mulkay, Astronomy Carnegie Foundation (US) 153 Jansky (star static) 29–53 Transformed 10–11, 159, 315, Carpenter, Martha S. 211, 503 Skellett (meteors) 232, 238 334, 340, 349, 389, 421, 433, 435, Carslaw, Horatio S. 279 Southworth (solar noise) 91–8 438–9, 440, 450, 451, 457, 461, Cassiopeia A 73, 77, 116, 316, 323, 330, Bell, S. Jocelyn 376, 414 467, 493, 495, 499 362, 365, 377, 385, 451, 458, 466 Beringer, E. Robert 204–5, 291 too long 334 angular size by Jennison & Das Gupta Bethe, Hans 457 Bowen, Edward G. “Taffy” 91, 121–3, 353–6 Bhar, J. N. 256 124, 125–6, 128–9, 131, 136, angular size by Smith 359–60 Biermann, Ludwig F. 254 137–8, 144–6, 153, 179, 258, 317, discovery by Ryle & Smith (1948) 165 Blaauw, Adriaan 415 398, 409, 438 identified with filaments by Baade and black hole 382, 465 leadership style 148–9 Minkowski 343–4

Index 529

Cassiopeia A (cont.) Clerk Maxwell, James 18, 155 cosmic rays (cont.) identified with remnant of AD 369 Closs, R. L. “Tim” 252 search for radar echoes from air supernova (Shklovsky) 383 Coblentz, S. A. 453 showers (Lovell) 178–81 position by Smith (1951) leading to cobra 389 cosmology, radio 169, 176, 334, 389, 396 optical identification 339–47 coherer 20–1, 23–4 Cottony, Herman V. 72 scintillations 324–6 Cold War and World War II (theme) 14, coulometer (for lunar radar, Bay) 272 Cassiopeia B 347, 383 112–13, 122, 151, 221–2, 418–20, Council for Scientific and Industrial Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge 442–9, 470 Research (CSIR), Australia 118 University Collaroy (Radiophysics Lab field station) Coupling, J. J. (nom de plume of John R. postwar transition 156–9 129 Pierce) 234 prewar background 155 Collins Radio Co. 208–209, 281, 445 Covington, Arthur E. 71, 211–13, 222, Rutherford research style 150, 155, Collins, Harry M. 362 291, 297 447 Coma Berenices A (early name for Vir A) correlation of 10.7 cm intensity Ryle’s group 142, 319 with sunspots; slowly varying camaraderie 173–4, 177 Comet Giacobini–Zinner 236, 237 component 310–1 early history 155–77, 375 comets as possible radio sources 329 first 10.7 cm solar observations (1946) relations with Radiophysics Lab Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial & start of monitoring (1947) 144–6, 362 Research Organization (CSIRO), 212–13 Rifle Range, Grange Road (field site) Australia, founding 123 cows 118, 189, 302, 306, 330, 358 161–2, 294, 339, 359 computers (machines) 124, 462 Crab nebula 464–5, 466 secrecy, aloofness 174–5, 326, 362 computers (persons) 101 (as Tau A) 142–3, 320, 339, 340, 347, X-ray crystallography 172 Condon, Edward U. 71 360, 375, 382, 383–5 cavity magnetron 43, 154, 200, 309 Conferences measurement of optical polarization Centaurus A 65, 143, 316, 321–2, 330, Dynamics of Ionized Media (London, 384–5, 387 333, 341, 347, 359, 360, 362, 373, 1951) 375 optical emission explained as 377, 458 IAU (see International Astronomical synchrotron radiation (Shklovsky Central Radio Propagation Lab, Union) 1953) 383–5 National Bureau of Standards Meteor Astronomy (Jodrell Bank, Cranshaw, T. E. 370 (US) 71 1948) 196, 248 crew racing 239 CERN Laboratory, Geneva 415 URSI (see URSI [International Union Crick, F. H. C. 172 Chain Home radar network (UK) 79, 80, of Radio Science]) cricket (game) xxx, 139, 178 132, 166, 258 Conway, Robin 173 Crimea (USSR), radio field stations of Chalmers Institute of Technology, Cook, James 153 FIAN 218 Göteborg, Sweden 228 Copernican view verified by lunar radar Crimean Astrophysical Observatory Chalonge, Daniel 224 274 (USSR) 218, 382 Chamanlal, C. 234, 239, 256 Copisarow, A. C. 111 Cummings, D. H. 115 Chamonix, Mt. Blanc 23 Cormack, Allan 313 Cygnus A 68, 73, 77, 137, 152, 176, 190, Chandrasekhar, S. 46 Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 210–11, 211, 316, 330, 333, 362, 364, 365, Chapman, Sidney 120, 231 440, 441, 444, 447 370, 373, 377, 381, 383, 385, 393, Checkik, P. O. 238 coronium in sun 311 433, 451, 458, 465 chick, baby 270 Corry, Nelly 88 angular sizes by Smith and by Mills Chikhachev, Boris M. 217, 218, 291 cosmic microwave background radiation 359–60 Christiansen, Wilbur N. “Chris” 122, 128, 204, 206, 414, 461 Bolton & Stanley attempt at optical 125, 146, 149–50, 222, 291 cosmic noise 1 identification (1948); estimate of 32-dish array and solar mapping cosmic noise (term), abandoning 436, distance 141 296–7, 312 471 Bolton & Stanley observations of early 21 cm hydrogen observations 409, cosmic radio pyrometer 160, 164 size (< 8′) and position 138–43, 411, 413–16 cosmic rays 37, 257, 464 317–23 Churchill, Winston 12, 379 associated with galactic background discovery by Hey et al. (1946) 103 cigarettes 222, 253 noise 369–70 double nature discovery by Jennison & Clark, Barry G. 133 discovery of new particles by Blackett’s Das Gupta (1953) 353–8, 502 Clarke, Arthur C. 264 group 178, 195 measured positions (1947–52) 318, Cleeton, Claude E. 86 is there an electron component? 386 337 Clegg, John A. 179–81, 186, 194–7, 236, overview of connection to radio sky optical identification by Baade and 250, 252 389–91 Minkowski 335–41 daytime meteor showers 242–4 pre-1950 history 378 positions by Mills & Thomas and method to determine meteor shower producing synchrotron radiation and by Smith leading to optical radiants (1948) 242–3 galactic noise 378–89 identification 335–44

530 Index

Cygnus A (cont.) discrimination Ewen–Knight Corporation 412 Ryle’s “genuine” (intrinsic) against a woman (Payne-Scott) 127–8 Exercise “Post Mortem” (RAF) 159 fluctuations 325–6 against an African-American (McAfee) extraterrestrial intelligence 260, 378 Ryle & Smith observations & position 266 extreme ultraviolet astronomy 464 (1948–50) 163–6, 317–21 against Jews 220, 288, 344, 384, 394 eye damage from gunners looking at sun scintillations 103, 319, 324–7 DNA 172 279 Smith position leading to an optical Doel, Ronald E. 439, 455, 492, identification (1951)169 , 339–41 dog, bird 110 Faraday, Michael 362 variable position measured by Ryle & Dombrovsky, V. A. 384, 387 Faraday rotation 282 Smith (1948–9), 317–21 Dominion Observatory (Ottawa) 212, Federal Communications Commission Cygnus X 68, 77, 163, 316, 347 241, 429 (US) 257 Cygnus X-1 (X-ray source) 465 Dover Heights (Radiophysics Lab field Federal Telecommunications Laboratory station) 129, 130, 139, 317–19, (New York) 280 da Vinci, Leonardo 442 333, 334, 364 Feinberg, E. 387 Dapto (Radiophysics Lab field station) Dröge, Franz 228 Fermi, Enrico 386–7, 403 306 DuBridge, Lee 153, 200, 419, 443 Ferrell, Oliver P. 257 Das Gupta, Mrinal K. “Das” 192, 349, Dulles Airport, Sterling, Va., USA 72 Fessenden, Reginald A. 453 353–8, 414 Duyvendak, J. J. L. 321 Festival of Britain (1951), 30 ft dish 282 David Dunlop Observatory (Toronto) Dwingeloo (The Netherlands) 25 m dish FIAN (Moscow) see P. N. Lebedev 211, 241 404, 425 Physics Institute Davies, John G. 186, 198, 245, 247, Findlay, John W. 171 255 “eagle’s nest” 277 Fink, D. G. 269 Davies, L. W. 126 Eastwood, Eric 110, 258 fish 168 Davisson, C. J. 30 Ebert, Hermann 22 Flamsteed, John 142 Dawes, William 153 Eccles, J. C. 151 flea, hop of 480 D-Day invasion of Normandy 157 Eckersley, Thomas L. 160, 180, 257 Folland, Donald F. 44–46 Décombe, Louis P. 24 Ecole Normale Supérieure (Paris) 221 Forbush, Scott E. 81 Dee, P. I. 156 Eddington, Arthur S. 63, 127, 397, 427, 440 Forman, Paul 443 deer 101 Edge, David O. xxx, 10–11 “distortionist” idea 454–5 Dellinger, J. Howard 89 Edison, Thomas. A. 19–20 Fornax A 341, 362 Denisse, Jean-François 221–3, 289, 291, Edlén, Bengt 311 Forsyth, Douglas R. H. 191 308, 392, 422 Edwards, C. F. 43, 258 Fourier synthesis principles slowly varying component 222, 310–1 Ekers, Ronald D. 456 background Fourier theory by Ratcliffe Department of Scientific and Industrial electromagnetic radiation 171–2 Research (DSIR) (UK) 112, 171, Hertzian waves, electric waves 18 developed by Bracewell 312 176, 446 influence of Planck theory on early developed by Christiansen 296–7, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism solar searches 26 312 (Washington, DC) 229, 448 primer 472 McCready, Pawsey & Payne-Scott Deppermann, Charles 52 elephant 374 (1947) 133–4 Deslandres, Henri 23–4, 27 Elliot, H. 390 primer 489 deVaucouleurs, Gerard 430 Ellis, George R. 74 Ryle (1946) 176 DeVoogt, Anthonet H. 284, 405 Ellyett, Clifton D. 186, 247, 252 used in solar interferometry by Ryle’s DeVorkin, David H. 428, 429, 439, Elsmore, Bruce 167–9, 175, 425 group (1950–4) 159–63, 176, 445–6, 492 Elwert, G. 392 292–6, 312 Dewhirst, David W. 175, 342, 430, 432, Encke’s comet 245 Fradkin, M. I. 380 463 engineering and science, relation 415, Franklin Adams Survey 348 DeWitt, John H. – galactic noise 449–53 Franklin, Kenneth L. 125 observations (1935, 1940) 44, Englund, Carl R. 31 Fränz, Kurt 84, 113–14, 227 113, 265 Eriksen, Gunnar 229 Fraunhofer Institute, Freiburg University Project Diana lunar radar (1945–6) Eshleman, Von R. 240, 252 (Germany) 228 237, 264–71, 274 Espenschied, Lloyd 50, 95 free–free radiation Dicke, Robert H. 52, 200–6, 291, 369, Evans Signal Laboratory (US Army) 265 primer 476 441, 444 Evans. John V. 282 to explain galactic noise 62–3, 215, 227, Dicke radiometer/switch 97, 203, 211, Evans, William E., Jr. 239 367–8, 395 212, 220, 277–8, 334, 355, 397, Ewen, Harold I. “Doc” 150, 211, 441, 442 to explain radio emission from ionized 401, 419, 484 discovery of 21 cm hydrogen line (1951) hydrogen (H II) regions 209 Dieter, Nannielou Hepburn 210 398–403, 409–10, 412–15, 416, 430 Freeman, Joan 127

Index 531

frequency-switching technique 400, 407, galactic noise radiation (cont.) Greenstein, Jesse L. 46–7, 68, 69–71, 75, 411 search by Pawsey & Payne-Scott at 3 cm 314, 377, 383, 387, 397, 425, 429, Friedman, Herbert 207, 464 (1944) 127–8 432, 436, 441, 448, 495 Friend, Albert W. 64 search by Southworth at 3 cm 95 Grieg, D. D. 280 Friis, Harald T. , 31–2, 36, 49–51, 92, 95, sundry British investigations (1946–8) Griffiths, H. V. 256 97, 98, 400 114–16 Grotian, Walter 311 galaxies, colliding 341, 347 Gum, Colin S. 425 galactic coordinate system 334–5, 478 galaxies, normal (as radio emitters) 347, galactic noise radiation 373 Hacking, Ian 467 64 MHz survey by Hey et al. 101–5, 366 Galileo 428, 442, 467 Haddock, Fred T. 206–9, 263, 310 100 MHz survey by Bolton & Westfold Galison, Peter 351, 361, 364, 452 Haeff, Andrew V. 309, 452 (1950) 367, 370–2, 382, 391 gamma ray astronomy 391, 464 Hagen, John P. 205–11, 289, 291, 310, 440 111 MHz observations by DeWitt gamma ray bursters 458 Hagihara, Yusuke 225, 256, 430 (1940) 113 Gamow, George 414 Haldane, J. B. S. 1, 426 200 MHz data of Payne-Scott, Pawsey Gardner, Francis F. 151 Hale, George Ellery 22, 48, 77, 287 & McCready (1945) 130–1 Gatenby, Ian A. 191, 281 Haleakala, Hawaii 73 205 MHz observations to determine geese 258 Halley’s comet 257 galactic pole and plane (Seeger & gegenschein 274 Hanbury Brown, Robert 63, 121, 174, Williamson 1951) 211 Germer, L. H. 30 196, 326, 339, 347, 360, 361, 390, comparison with emission from Gernsback, Hugo 39, 261 426, 427, 432, 434, 452, 458 Andromeda nebula 190 Getmantsev, German G. 308, 314, 380, invention (with Twiss) of intensity drawn in polar coordinates (Reber) 76 382 interferometer 192, 351–3, 365 associated with cosmic rays 369–70 Ghose, B. N. 256 model of galactic noise (1953, with as combined effect of radio stars Giacconi, Riccardo 465 Hazard) 372–4 369–74 Giacobini, Michel 236 observation (with Hazard) of as free–free emission (postwar Giacobinid meteor shower of 1946 236–9, Andromeda nebula at 158 MHz research) 215, 367–8, 458 241 (1950) 189–91 as free–free emission by Reber (1940) Giant Radio Telescope (Radiophysics Lab observations with intensity 59, 62–3 project); also see Parkes dish 153 interferometer of sun, Cas A, as free–free emission by Unsöld (1946) Gilbert, G. N. 253–5 Cyg A 353–8 227 Gillmor, C. Stewart 443 survey with Hazard of 23 sources 331 as free–free emission by Van de Hulst Gingerich, Owen 412, 467 Hanbury Brown–Twiss effect (quantum (1944) 395 Ginzburg, Vitaly L. 217, 220–1, 263, 287, optics) 365 as hot dust by Whipple & Greenstein 307, 308, 314, 384, 386, 390, 397, Hargreaves, John K. 191, 281 (1937) 46–7 423, 432, 462 Harper, Alan F. A. 279 as mixture of interstellar gas and stellar biography – 214, 216, 221 Harvard College Observatory (US) 241, emission (Piddington 1951) synchrotron radiation theory for 246, 247, 250, 412–15, 429, 437 391 galactic noise 380–5 Harwit, Martin 452 “radio corona” of Shklovsky (1952) theory of radio emission from solar Hatanaka, Takeo 226 381–2 corona (1946) 214, 312 Hawaii, Reber observations 73 as synchrotron radiation (1950–4) giraffe 317 Hawkins, Gerald S. 182, 191, 193, 198, 378–9, 459 gnat 374 244–5, 250, 252 as synchrotron radiation by Gold, Thomas 175, 264, 375–6, 389, 392 Hazard, Cyril 339, 347, 426, 432 Kiepenheuer (1950) 228 Goldsmith, Alfred N. 69, 453 model of galactic noise (1953, with isotropic component in models 371–4, Goodall, William M. 233 Hanbury Brown) 372–4 382, 389 Gordon, Isaak M. 384 observation (with Hanbury Brown) of Jansky observations (“star static”) Gordon, William E. 210 Andromeda nebula at 158 MHz 33–42, 43, 366 Gorelik, Gabriel S. 220 (1950) 189–91 Potapenko & Folland observations gorilla 39 survey with Hanbury Brown of 23 44–6 Gorky State University 214, 220, 281, 380 sources 331 “radio eyes” map of northern sky 1–3 Goss, W. Miller xxx, 127, 133 Hazzaa, Ismail W. B. 194 Reber observations (“cosmic static”) Grand Ole Opry 265 Heaviside, Oliver 30 60–69, 366 Grange Road, “Rifle Range” (Cavendish Heightman, Denis W. 25, 86–9, 90–1 search by Covington at 10.7 cm (1946) group field site) 162, 294, 339, Heising, Raymond A. 232 212 359 helium in sun 311 search by Dicke & Beringer at Greaves, William M. H. 192 helix antenna, invention by Kraus 229 1.0–1.5 cm (1945) 203–4 Greenhow, J. S. 197, 245, 252 Helliwell, Robert A. 239

532 Index

Henyey, Louis G. 63, 368, 395 Hounsfield, Godfrey 313 Interferometer (cont.) Herbstreit, Jack W. 367 Houtgast, Jakob 224, 405 invention by Hanbury Brown and Herlofson, Nicolai 183, 236, 252, 379 Hoyle, Fred 175, 289, 308, 309, 327, 369, Twiss 192, 351–3, 365 Herschel, John 322 375–7, 385, 389, 392, 393, 427, principles 365, 452, 489 Herschel, William 413, 463, 468 468 theory and data on sun, Cas A, comparison to Reber 77 Hubble Space Telescope 462 Cyg A by Jennison & Das Gupta Hertz, Heinrich 18, 20, 454 Hubble, Edwin 54, 457 351–8 Hertzian waves/electric waves 18 Hudson Bay’s Best Procurable whiskey Michelson 72, 404, 450 Hertzsprung, Ejnar 395 346 first use by Ryle (on sun) (1945) 160 Hevly, Bruce 445 Hughes, Victor A. 112, 187 first use by Ryle on radio stars Hewish, Antony 169, 172, 173, 176, 312, Hulburt, Edward O. 207 (1948) 163–6 327, 365, 376, 414 Hunter, Alan vi invention of phase switch by Ryle Hey, J. Stanley 13, 25, 179, 192, 235, 241, Huruhata, Masaki 226, 256 (1947) 168–9, 448 414, 433, 451, 494 Husband, H. C. 192 primer 488 anomalous radar echoes due to meteors Hutchinson, George W. 392 Ryle’s “Long Michelson” (for 1C 105–8 Huygens, Christiaan 442 survey) 166–9, 320, 327, 328, 361 antenna beam and intensities 53, 116 Hvatum, Hein 228 solar studies by Ryle’s group AORG research team 101 hydra 39 (1950–4) 292–6 controversy with Appleton 90–1 Hydra A 73, 341 tutorial paper by Ryle (1952) 169 discovery of first discrete source (Cyg hydrogen 21 cm line 211, 303 tutorial paper by Smith (1952) on A) and its scintillations 103, 324 Australian detection and first measuring positions 339 discovery of radio sun (bursts) (1942) observations (1951–2) 409, radio-linked 354–5, 360 65, 80–3 411–12, 413 sea-cliff 129–34, 139–43, 218, 269, 320, end of radio research at AORG (1947) discovery by Ewen & Purcell (1951) , 332–3, 362, 364, 375 112–13 398–403, 410 primer 488 galactic noise survey (1945–6) 101–5, Dutch search and initial observations Radiophysics Lab (1945-) 132–4 366 (1951–2) 404–9, 410–1, 413–14 Reber (Hawaii) 73 observations of 1946 Giacobinid institutional styles of three major early swept-lobe, Little & Payne-Scott meteor shower 237 groups 415–17 (1949) 299–302 solar bursts research (postwar) 111 prediction by Van de Hulst (1944) using lunar reflection 352 (unpublished) evidence for daytime 394–6, 399 very long baseline 354 meteor showers (1945) 185 primer 477 intergalactic medium, radio emission Heyden, Francis J. 207 Radiophysics Lab decision not to from (Unsöld 1946) 227 Higgins, Charles S. 73, 275 pursue (1948–9) 125–6, 397–8 International Astronomical Union 44, Higgs, Arthur J. 137, 149 Reber’s interest 68, 396–7 432–4 High Altitude Observatory (Colorado) theory by Shklovsky (1949) 397 1946, Copenhagen 433 445 hydrogen bomb, Ginzburg role 214 1948, Zürich 314, 324, 433 Hill, E. R. 126 hydrogen recombination lines, prediction 1952, Rome 346, 350–2, 433 Hindman, James V. 152, 291, 409–13, by Van de Hulst (1944) 396 Commission 22 on Meteors (1948) 253 416, 422 Commission 40 on Radio Astronomy Hirsh, Richard F. 464–7 IC 443 314 (1948-) 138, 346, 424, 433 historical contingencies 13–14 infrared astronomy 428, 463 international Dutch school of 21 cm historiographic style of this study 11–13 Ingram, L. J. 258 research 416 Hodgkin, Alan L. 170 Institut d’Astrophysique, Paris 223 International Polar Year (1932–3) 258 Hoffleit, E. Dorrit 247 Institute of Physical and Chemical International Telecommunications Co. Hoffmeister, Cuno 242–4, 245 Research, Tokyo 232 (Japan) 89 Holden, Edward S. 19–20 Institute of Radio Engineers, banquet 269 interviews 11, 12, 492–502 Hollerith punched card machine 293 intensity interferometer see ionosphere Homo radio 1–3, 370 interferometer – intensity abnormal/sporadic E ionization, short Hoo, H. 405, 414 interferometer scatter echoes 105–8, 231, 257–8 Hooke, Robert 1 analogy with optical transit telescope as cause of fading of lunar echoes horn antenna, Ewen’s 399 336, 339 274–6, 282 Hornsby Valley (Radiophysics Lab field intensity D layer/region 43, 89 station) 274–7, 299 at optical wavelengths; controversy E layer/region 105 horse 168, 446 over theory 353 F layer/region 329 horse, hobby 376 Hanbury Brown-Twiss effect scintillations and “spread-F” 73, Hoskin, Michael 468 (quantum optics) 365 116, 213, 276, 320, 324–7

Index 533

ionosphere (cont.) Johler, Joseph R. 72, 367 Lamb, Willis E. 398 influence of solar activity 213 Johnson, Harold 464 lamington 147 M (meteor) region 242 Johnson, John B. 26, 30 Landau, Lev 397 meteors as a cause of ionization (pre- Julius, George A. 118 Langer, Rudolph M. 44 1945 evidence) 231–6, 255–8 Jungfraujoch 228 Langley, Samuel P. 469 physics of meteor trails 252 Jupiter, low-frequency radio bursts 125 Lankford, John 74 postwar meteor radar research 251–2 Lasswitz, Kurd 23 primer 474–5 Kahn, Franz 196, 440 Latin, abstract of lunar radar paper shortwave fade-outs (sudden Kaiser, D. 454 (Lombardini 1944) 264 ionospheric disturbances) 30, 88, Kaiser, Thomas R. 197, 252 Latour, Bruno 450 89, 299, 302 Kalachev, Pavel D. 218 Lavoisier, Antoine L. 349 winds 251–2, 327 Kapitza Club 350 Lehany, Fred 199, 311 Istvanfy, Edvin 272 Kapteyn, Jacobus 371, 395, 413–16 Leiden Observatory 211, 394–6, 429, Ito, Yogi 255 Kauffman, Herbert 269 452, 471 Kaydanovsky, Naum L. 218 Leigh, New Zealand 317 Jaeger, John C. 133, 279, 300 Keenan, Philip C. 60, 75, 368, 395, 485 Leighton, Robert 463 jansky (unit) 16, 44 Kelly, Mervin J. 64 Lejay, P. 228 Jansky, C. Moreau 29, 50 Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) 443 Leningrad University 229 Jansky, Karl G. 25, 29–53, 54–5, 63, 77, Kennelly, Arthur E. 19–20, 30 Lesch, J. E. 363 180, 210, 255, 258, 265, 302, 334, Kennelly–Heaviside Layer (ionosphere) Leslie, S. W. 454 366, 368, 380, 395, 414, 439, 451, 30, 232, 255, 261 Levin, B. Yu. 238 472 Kepler, Johannes 468 Lindblad, Bertil-Anders 228 1931–32 observations 33–5, 36 Kepler’s supernova 321, 347 Lipson–Beevers strips 292, 297 and Southworth 94, 97, 98 Kerr, Frank J. 4, 122, 128, 145, 150, Little, Alec G. 300–2, 336 biography 29–30, 32, 43–4 274–7, 282, 409, 413–17 Little, C. Gordon 192, 324–7 Bruce array antenna 32–3 Kevles, D. J. 455 Llewellyn, Frederick B. 26, 232 discovery article (1933) 36–7 Khartoum, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1952 Lloyd’s mirror 132 discovery of sidereal connection 35–6 solar eclipse 208–9, 291 lock-in amplifier 203, 402 interpretation of radio waves as the Khaykin, Semen E. 217–18, 291, 320 Lodge, Oliver J. 20–1, 454 entire Milky Way 41–2, 49 Kiel University 227 Lombardini, Pietro 263 interpretation of radio waves as the Kiepenheuer, Karl-Otto 228, 297, 308, “Long Michelson” interferometer, Milky Way center 36–7 314 Cambridge 166–9, 320, 327, 328, interpretation of radio waves as the synchrotron radiation as cause of 361 sun 34–5 galactic background noise (1950) love play 227 modern contour map of data 49, 53 379, 380 Lovell, A. C. Bernard 109, 178–98, 252, reactions from astronomers 47–9 Kimpara, Atsushi 226 255, 264, 353, 423, 424, 443, 447, reasons for success 51–2 King Kong (film) 39 448, 451, 468 receiver 31–2 King, Archie P. 92 biography 178 research on “star static” 31–43 knobs, functionless 148 daytime meteor showers 242–5 research stopped by Friis? 49–51 Kobrin, M. M. 281 founding of Jodrell Bank; searching Jarrell, Richard 437 Koelbloed, D. 395 for radar echoes from cosmic ray Jelley, J. V. 181 Kootwijk, the Netherlands 405, 413 showers (1945–8) 178–81 Jennison, Roger C. 192, 199, 353–8, 377, Kopal, Zdenek 196, 430, 440 leadership style 193–8 386, 414, 502 Korchak, A. A. 382 observations of 1946 Giacobinid Jerry cable 386 Kraus, John D. 2, 86, 229, 263 meteor shower 236 Jewett, Frank B. 30, 70 Kröbel, W. 228 plans for 250 ft steerable dish (1949-) Jodrell Bank, Manchester University 355, Kubler, George 12 192–3 421, 444, 447, 448 Kuhn, Thomas S. 467 research on speeds and origins of 218 ft fixed dish (1948)180 , 186–91, 334 Kuiper, Gerard P., 60, 62, 70, 76 meteors 245–51 founding by Lovell (1945) 179–81 Kusch, P. 401 start of meteor radar research (1946) lunar radar (1949- ) 191, 281 Kwal, Bernard 380, 392 181–6 overview of Lovell’s group during first Kyhl, Robert 204 Lovell Telescope (new name for Jodrell 5 years 193–8 Bank 250 ft dish) 193 plans for 250 ft steerable dish 181, Labrum, Norman R. 291, 311 Luke, St. 123 192–3 Laffineur, Marius 86, 223–5, 291, 320, Lutz, Samuel G. 57 relation with (optical) astronomy 405, 430 Lyman Laboratory, Harvard 399 195–6, 440, 452 Lalande, Jérôme 77 Lyman, Theodore 400

534 Index

Lyot, Bernard 224, 296 Menzel, Donald H. 25, 70, 97, 199, 260, Metzger, S. 280 Lyttleton, Raymond A. 327 263, 312, 314, 399, 429, 445 Meudon Observatory 23–4, 223, 430, 469 Mercer, K. A. 110, 258 Meudon Observatory, cafeteria 224 Machin, Kenneth E. 163, 170, 171, 173, mermaid hunter 168 Michelangelo 361 175, 176, 219, 294, 312, 356, 430, Messier 87 (as Vir A) 316, 321–2, 339, Michelson interferometer see 440, 450, 466 340, 347, 360, 458, 465 interferometer – Michelson MacRae, Donald A. 211, 342 Messier, Charles 320 Michelson, Albert A. 160, 352 Madsen, John P. V. 119, 120, 441 meteor radar astronomy Michigan, University of 86 Magellanic Clouds 142, 321, 413, 458 rise and fall (1945–55) 253–5 microwaves 91 major themes of book sociological analysis by Gilbert Mikhailov, A. A. 427 material culture and technoscience 254–5 military influences on research groups 14, 14–15, 449–53, 470 Table of early groups 241 101, 122, 218, 226, 240, 254, 399, twentieth century’s New Astronomy meteors 252 412, 415, 442–9, 454–5, 466 16, 462, 467–70 possible cause of abnormal ionization Millikan, Robert A. 45 visual culture 15, 351, 426, 435–6, 470 in ionosphere (prewar work) Millman, Peter M. 241–2, 247, 252, 253, World War II and Cold War 14, 231–6 429 112–13, 122, 151, 220–1, 418–20, cause of anomalous radar echoes (1945, Mills Cross, 147, 153 442–9, 470 Hey & Stewart) 105–8 Mills, Bernard Y. 145, 148, 150, 154, 168, Mandel’shtam, Leonid I. 214, 262 conference at Manchester University 174, 291, 302, 327, 374, 385, 390, Manning, Laurence A. 237, 239, 252 and Jodrell Bank (1948) 248 431, 436, 440, 448, 458, 471 Marconi Co. 25, 257 contributions of their study by radar to angular sizes for 4 discrete sources 360 Marconi, Guglielmo 25, 30, 55, 260 ionosphere physics 251–2 decision not to search for 21 cm Marcoussis, France 222 determined to be not from interstellar hydrogen line 125–6, 398 Mars – radio communication with space 245–51, 253, 259 positions for Cyg A (1949–52) 335–9 Martians 260 for radio communications 240, 254, 444 “radio pictures” 350, 360 Martyn, David F. 86, 148, 309 Fresnel diffraction technique to survey of 77 discrete sources 330–1, biography 119 measure speeds (Davies & Ellyett 365 first head of Radiophysics Lab 1949) 186, 240, 258–9 Minkowski, Rudolph 142, 221, 320–2, 120 physics of trail formation and radar 325, 356, 383–4, 426, 429, 433 first head of URSI Commission V reflection 252 biography 344–5 (1948) 145–6, 433 pre-1945 connections to the optical identifications of radio sources priority dispute with Pawsey over ionosphere 255–8 (1949–53) 337–49 106 K solar corona 136–7 radar Doppler method to measure radio stars as Population II objects proposal for lunar radar (1930) 261 speeds (Manning 1948) 240, 375–7 rivalry with Radiophysics Lab 258–9 Minnaert, Marcel G. J. 394, 405, 425, 429 137–8 radar method to determine radiants Minnett, Harry C. 127, 148, 277–80, 291, theory of 106 K solar corona and solar (Clegg 1948) 242–3 311, 334, 347, 398, 448 emission 135–7, 287–8, 312 radar apex and antapex experiments at Minohara, Tsutomu 255 Marx, Groucho 39 Jodrell Bank 248–50 Mitra, S. K. 256, 353 Maxwell, Alan 192, 327 used to measure ionospheric winds Miya, Kenichi 89 Mayall, Nicholas 445 251–2 Mofenson, Jacob 266 Mayer, Cornell H. 208, 388, 431 meteor showers Molchanov, Andrei P. 229 McAfee, Walter S. 266 Arietid 243, 244 molecules, radio lines 397, 462 McClain, Edward F. 263 β Taurid 243, 244 mongoose 389 McCoy, D. O. 208 δ Aquarid 108, 233 monkey 279 McCrea, William H. 341, 430, 431 η Aquarid 184 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical McCready, Lindsay L. 129–34, 199, 298, ζ Perseid 244 Society 440 302 daytime 108, 184, 185, 242–5 moon McCullough, Timothy P. 388 Geminid 256, 258 librations 271, 275 McDonald Observatory 62, 70 Giacobinid (1946) 184, 236–9 “military object” 445 McEwan, R. J. 209 Leonid 233–4, 238, 255–6, 257 occultations of radio sources 314 McGee, Richard X. 334, 363 Lyrid 109 radar McKinley, Donald R. W. 241–2, 250, Perseid 108, 182–3, 233, 238, 240, detection by German military radar 259, 429 241–2, 256, 257 (Stepp & Thiel, 1943–44) 262 McNicol, Robert W. E. 168 Piscid 184, 243 detection in Hungary by Bay (1946) McNish, Alvin G. 237 primer 107 271–4, 282–3 McVittie, George C. 376 Quadrantid 109 Jodrell Bank (1949-) 191

Index 535

moon radar (cont.) National Bureau of Standards (US) – Olbers’s paradox 389, 396 librations 271, 275–6, 280 71–2, 78, 89, 222, 237, 254, 281, Oliphant, Mark L. 138 press reaction to Project Diana 367, 441, 444 Onsala, Sweden 228 269–71 National Radio Astronomy Observatory Oort, Jan H. 56, 103, 254, 321–3, 335, prewar proposals 260–1 (US) 75, 78, 206, 400, 425, 437, 349, 376, 385, 387, 410, 427, 429, Project Diana detection (DeWitt 446, 449, 495, 505 433, 444, 452, 459 et al., 1946) 264–71 National Research Council (Canada) biography 371, 394–5 Radio Australia echoes (Kerr & 211–13, 241–2 detection and observations of 21 cm Shain, 1947) 274–7 National Science Foundation (US) 449 hydrogen line 404–9, 410–1, wartime calculations and Naval Research Lab – see US Naval 413–17 observations 261–4 Research Lab model of galactic noise (1951, with reflection of light from atomic bomb Needell, Alan 344 Westerhout) 370–2, 382, 391, 430 explosion 262 Neugebauer, Gerald 463 Öpik, Ernst J. 246–51, 252, 253 thermal emission 207 New Astronomies Oppenheimer, J. Robert 122 detection by Dicke & Beringer at astrophysics (spectroscopy, optical astronomy (and related terms) 15, 1.25 cm (1945) 205 photography) 469 424–5, 467 model of lunar soil by Piddington & digital computers and numerical optical astronomy (field) see astronomy, Minnett 278 simulation 462 optical study by Piddington & Minnett at Galileo 467 optical identification (term) 322, 349 1.25 cm (1948) 277–80 Herschel 468 optical identification of radio stars used as communications relay 280 radio astronomy; opening of (sources) 143, 169, 317–24, used by US to intercept Soviet radio electromagnetic spectrum 16, 462, 335–51 transmissions 280 467–70 oral histories 492–502 Moran, Frank 191 New Zealand Cosmic Noise Expedition Oreskes, N. 454 Moriyama, Fumio 226 (1948) 143, 317–19 Orion nebula 142, 208, 316, 383, 458 Morrison, Phillip 390, 462 Newton, H. W. 430 ornithology, radar 258 Moscow State University 214 Ney, Edward P. 386 Osaka City University 226 Moxon, L. A. 115 NGC 1275 (as Per A) 316, 341, 347 Osaka University 226 Mt. Haleakala, Hawaii 73 NGC 5128 (as Cen A) 316, 321, 341, 347 Oslo, University of 211, 228 Mt. Stromlo Commonwealth Observatory Nicholson, Seth B. 142, 277 Ovenden, Michael W. 175, 182, 254, 312, 130, 137–8, 152, 430 Noah 56 313, 428, 468 Mt. Wilson Observatory, Pasadena 48, Nobel Prize in Physics Owren, Leif 211, 417 142, 277, 287, 320, 337, 344, 429, Appleton (1947) 83 441 Blackett (1948) 178, 192 P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute (FIAN), Mueller, George E. 95–7 Bragg and Bragg (1915) 172 Moscow 214, 218 Mulkay, Michael 10–11 Ginzburg (2003) 214 Palomar Mountain 200 inch telescope 45, Muller, C. Alexander 394, 406–9, 413–14, Purcell & Bloch (1952) 398 211, 340–8, 364, 440 416 Ryle & Hewish (1974) 176, 312 Palomar Sky Survey 348 Muller, H. 289 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Pang, Alex S.-K. 429 Mumford, Willis W. 401 Hounsfield & Cormack (1979) Pan-Pacific Science Congress, 1923 Munns, David 153, 413, 437 313 meeting in Australia 146 Murray, John D. 302 Hodgkin (1963) 170 Papaleksi, Nikolai D. 214, 217, 220, 262–3 Murray, William A. S. “Sandy” 191, noise, primer 479 Papp, György 272–4 199, 281 Nordmann, Charles 23–4, 469 Parker, J. C. 182 Mustel, E. R. 382 Norfolk Island effect 85, 128–9 Parkes dish 152, 153 Mutch, W. W. 31 Norton’s Star Atlas 139, 324 Parsons, S. John 101–5, 112, 179, 237, Nuclear Laboratory, Harvard 398 450 Nagaoka, Hantaro 232, 257 Nuffield Foundation 193 Pascal, Blaise 1 Nagoya University, Research Institute of nuit de l’amour 77 Pawsey, Joseph L. 73, 77, 85, 128–9, 138, Atmospherics 226 Nyquist, Harry 26, 30 142, 144–6, 146–8, 152–3, 164, Naismith, Robert A. 110, 182, 237, 174, 191, 280, 298, 302, 317–20, 258 O’Brien, Patrick A. 174, 176, 294–6 323, 324, 335, 363, 370, 397, 409, Nakagami, Minoru 89 octopus 346 410, 413, 414, 417, 420, 424, 425, Nançay, France 223 Oda, Minoru 226 432, 433, 434, 437, 438, 451 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Office of Naval Research (US) – 70–1, biography 124–6 Administration) 97, 254, 280, 449, 210, 240, 443–9 first Sydney solar observations 462, 466 Ohio State University 229 (1945–6) 129–34

536 Index

Pawsey, Joseph L. (cont.) Philips Research Laboratories 395 rabbit 279 Fourier synthesis principle 133–4 Phillips, James W. 21, 101–5, 112, 116 radar leadership style 148–51 photomultiplier tube 428 British secret given to Australia (1939) microwave sky experiments (1944) 127–8 Pickard, Greenleaf W. 257 120 observation of solar base level of Piddington, Jack H. 86, 148–9, 152, 190, development before and during World 106 K 135–7, 312 261, 277, 288, 291, 308, 311, War II 79–80, 120–1, 505 priority dispute with Martyn over 334, 347, 372, 376, 409, 417, military types 106 K solar corona 136–7 430, 448 Chain Home network (UK) 79, 80, spectrum of quiet sun 285–6 Pierce, George W. 46 132, 166, 258 Payne-Scott, Ruby V. 97, 139, 336 Pierce, John A. 106, 234–5, 236, 237, 239, Freya (Germany) 84 biography 127–8 252, 257 GL Mark II (UK) 81–2, 101–2, first Sydney report on solar and Pierce, John R. 98, 234, 309, 452 179

galactic noise (1945) 130–1 Piha, New Zealand 319 H2S (UK) 178 first Sydney solar observations Pikel’ner, Solomon B. 382 high quality of German manufacture (1945–6) 129–34 Pineo, Victor C. 237 159 Fourier synthesis principle 133–4 Pippard, A. Brian 172 Knickebein (Germany) 113 microwave sky experiments (1944) planets, radar 282 LORAN radio navigation system 127–8 plant growth and solar radio bursts (US) 200 solar bursts research 298–302, 305 314 LW/AW Mark IA (Australia) 121 Pease, Francis 160 Poisson’s spot 314 SCR-268 (US) 211–2 Peenemünde, Germany 262 Popper, Daniel M. 426, 430 SCR-270 (US) 237, 257, 266 Penrith (Radiophysics Lab field station) Porter, J. G. 245, 247 SCR-271 (US) 266–9 302, 305 Porter, Russell W. 45 SLC “Elsie” (searchlight control) Penzias, Arno A. 52, 414 Potapenko, Gennady W. 44–5 (UK) 183, 236, 242, 248 Perseus A 316, 341, 346, 347, 377, 458 Potsdam Observatory 22–3, 469 Würzburg (Germany) 72, 78, 80, 81, Peterson, Allen M. 240, 252 Potter, Ralph K. 52 84, 159, 169, 218, 222, 224, 228, Pettit, Edison 277 Potts Hill (Radiophysics Lab field station) 229, 262, 293, 329, 339, 359 Pfeiffer, John 49–50, 430 146, 291, 296, 300, 336, 409 Würzmann, Wassermann (Germany) Ph.D. degrees, early Pound, Robert V. 400 262 Clegg (1948a), Manchester (meteor Powell, John Wesley 446 origin of name 79 radar) 193 precession of coordinates 142, 432, 478 ornithology 258 Denisse (1949b), Ecole Normale Prentice, J. P. Manning 182–4, 236, 239, postwar influence on science and Supérieure (first on a radio 430, 468 technology 418–20 astronomy topic) 222 Priester, Wolfgang 228 radar equation 266 Ellyett (1948), Manchester (first in Primakoff, Henry 387 Radar Research and Development radar astronomy) 193 Princeton University 35, 205, 232, 429 Establishment (UK) 114 Ewen (1951), Harvard (discovery of Procrustes 149 radiant aerials, Jodrell Bank 243 hydrogen line) 398–403 Prodell, A. G. 401 Radiation Laboratory, Massachusetts Hagen (1949), Georgetown (microwave Project Diana (US lunar radar, 1946) 237, Institute of Technology (US) 121, sun) 207 264–71, 274 200–5, 239, 269, 277, 398, 442 Nordmann (1903), Paris (Hertzian Project Janet 254 radio amateurs 30, 54, 86–9, 210, 239 waves and astronomy) 23–4 Project PAMOR (US Naval Research radio astronomers – relations with Ryle decides not to finish his Ph. D. Laboratory) 280 (optical) astronomers 75–6, 138, 172–3 Project Vanguard 210 152, 175, 224, 313, 416, 425, Skellett (1933), Princeton (radio and Pulkovo Observatory, Leningrad 75, 220, 429–32, 435, 439–41 meteors) 232–4, 429 387 radio astronomers as New Astronomers Smith (1951c), Cambridge (positions Pulley, Owen O. 119 453 of radio stars) 339–44 pulsars 365, 376, 414, 462 Radio Astronomical Journal, lack of 437 Stanier (1950b), Cambridge (solar Puppis A, 316, 330, 347, 359 radio astronomy (and related terms) 234, interferometry) 292–4 Purcell, Edward M. 203–204, 398–403, 423–4, 453, 471 Troitsky (1949), Gorky (solar 409–10, 412, 415, 419, 444 radio astronomy techniques) 220 Pyenson, L. 429 1953 as a watershed year 422–3 Villard (1948), Stanford (meteor radar) a new discipline? 15, 435–8, 471 240 Quäck, E. 257 a scientific revolution? 467 phase switch, invention by Ryle (1947) Quarterly Bulletin on Solar Activity (IAU) applied uses 124, 208 and later use 168–9, 330, 355, 284, 313, 433 as technoscience 449–53 360, 489 quasars 461 bibliographies 503

Index 537

radio astronomy (cont.) radio stars (sources) (cont.) notable radio stars (cont.) comparison with electron microscopy claimed bursts and interstellar Perseus A 316, 341, 346, 347, 377, 454 dispersion (Shklovsky 1950) 364 458 comparison with optical astronomy first spectra (Bolton’s group) 333 Puppis A 316, 330, 347, 359 1–3, 455, 457–9 New Zealand Cosmic Noise Sagittarius A (galactic center source) comparison with other New Expedition (Bolton & Stanley, 77, 316, 334–5 Astronomies 467–70 1948) 317–19 Table 316 comparison with postwar US space occultations by the moon 314 Taurus A (see separate entry) science 445 optical data epistemically superior to Ursa Major (spurious) 166, 324, 393 comparison with start of X-ray radio data 351 optical identifications astronomy 465–7 positions measured by Bolton’s group Baade & Minkowski (1954) 344–8 definition 3–4 (1948–9) 317–24 first ones suggested (Bolton, Stanley entering Big Science era 422–3 reality of 348–51, 434, 436 & Slee 1949) 320–4 first academic chair (1951, Lovell) 195, role of terminology in disputes 363 general discussion 348–51 423, 430 search for proper motions and normal galaxies 347 first academic course (1950, Van de parallaxes (Smith) 329 positions by Mills and by Smith for Hulst) 407, 416, 430 search for intensity variations (Ryle & Cas A and Cyg A 335–44 growth over 1945–53 420–2 Elsmore) 330 scintillations 103, 116, 319, 324–7, 353 harbinger of opening of other status of the field in 1953 363–4 Jodrell Bank/Cambridge wavelength bands 462–3, interpretations simultaneous observations (1949) 469–70 Class I (galactic) and Class II 326 IAU versus URSI 432–4 (isotropic) by Mills (1952) 330–2, primer 116 lack of US leadership despite Jansky 373–4 Sydney/New Zealand simultaneous and Reber 439 collapsed dense stars (Gold) 376 observations (1948) 325 military patronage in US 442–9, 455 colliding galaxies 341 surveys national influences 438–9 comets 329, 374 1C (Ryle, Smith & Elsmore 1950) overview of history 5–10, 457–62 dark, nearby stars (Ryle) 169, 329 328–9, 364, 365, 395 primer 472–84 374–8 2C (Cambridge) and its antenna 175, shorter versus longer wavelength extragalactic objects 341, 374–8, 383 193, 334, 389 research (US versus elsewhere) integrated effect produces galactic 9 cm (Haddock et al. 1954) 208 209, 447–8 background noise 369–74 discrepancy between Mills’s MSH size relative to (optical) astronomy 313, intelligent transmissions (Ryle) 378 and Ryle’s 2C (mid-1950s) 153, 420, 457, 465 nearby or distant? 374–8 334 style of research 427–9, 442 Population II objects (Baade & Hanbury Brown & Hazard (1953) Table of early groups 201 Minkowski) 335, 375 191, 331 the twentieth century’s New radio galaxies (Shklovsky) 383 log N – log S plots 330, 332, 334, Astronomy 469–70 radio stars or radio nebulae? 360–3, 365, 370, 389 Radio Australia 274 382 Mills (1952) survey of 77 sources radio communications research before Seyfert galaxies 376 330, 365 1928 30 synchrotron-radiation-emitting stars Ryle’s group’s initial list of 23 Radio Development Laboratory, (Alfvén & Herlofson 1950) 379 objects (1949) 166–8, 364 Wellington, N. Z. 85 supernova remnants (Shklovsky) 383 six new sources, including Tau A, Vir radio galaxy (term) 383 Wolf-Rayet stars (Shklovsky) 381 A, Cen A (Bolton 1948) 142–3 radio images 349–50, 360, 436 notable Stanley & Slee (1950, 77 sources) radio magnitudes 347, 436 Andromeda nebula (see separate and Bolton et al. (1954, 104 radio observatory (term) 425 entry) sources) 332–4 “radio pictures” (Mills) 350, 360 Cassiopeia A (see separate entry) the five early primary surveys 328 Radio Radiation Laboratory, Harvard Cassiopeia B 347, 383 radio telescope: is it a telescope? 426–427 University (US) 239 Centaurus A 65, 143, 316, 321–2, radio telescope (term) 424, 426–427, 453, Radio Research Board, Australia 119, 261 330, 333, 341, 347, 359, 360, 362, 471 radio sextant 208, 412, 445, 447 373, 377, 458 Radiophysics Laboratory, Sydney 86, Radio Society of Great Britain 87 Coma Berenices A (early name for 118–53, 261, 274–7, 297, 421, “radio sourcerers” 363 Vir A) 142, 319 441, 446, 503 radio stars (sources) Cygnus A (see separate entry) field stations 1′-2′-accuracy positions by Smith Cygnus X 68, 77, 163, 316, 347 Badgery’s Creek 330, 360 (1951a) 169, 339–44 Fornax A 341, 362 Collaroy 129 A, B… nomenclature 142 Hydra A 73, 341 Dapto 306

538 Index

Radiophysics Laboratory, Sydney, field Redman, Roderick O. 175, 340, 344 Ryle, Martin (cont.) stations (cont.) Research Corporation 73 Cas A discovery (Ryle and Smith 1948) Dover Heights 129, 130, 139, review paper 165 317–19, 333, 334, 364 Ginzburg (1947, 1948) 216 Cavendish Lab group see Cavendish general 129, 146–8 Lovell (1948) 231 Laboratory Hornsby Valley 274–7 Reber and Greenstein (1947) 68, 397 debates about nature of radio stars Penrith 302, 305 Ryle (1950) 175 374–8 Potts Hill 147, 291, 296, 300, 336, Unsöld (1946) 227 development of Fourier synthesis 409 Williamson (1948) 211 technique 176, 292–6, 312 and (optical) astronomy 152 rhombic antenna 302 discrepancy between Mills’s MSH and founding (1939) & wartime radar work Richardson, Robert S. 88, 89 Ryle’s 2C (mid-1950s) 153, 334 120–1 Richmond Park, London 101 leadership style 172–5 isolation factor in Australia 143–6, 362 Rifle Range, Grange Road (Cavendish measurements of Cyg A position leadership styles of Bowen and Pawsey group field site) 161–2, 294, 339, (1948–9) 317–21 148–51 359 reality of radio stars 348–51, 434, 436 overseas trips by researchers 144–6 Riihimaa, Jorma J. 25, 27 radio star scintillations 324–7 relations with Ryle’s group 144–6, 326 Rivett, A. C. David 118, 122, 125, 149 radio stars interpreted as dark, nearby research trends over 1946–53 123–5, Roberts, James A. 174, 386, 459 stars 169, 329, 370 154 Rocard, Yves 221, 228 radio stars interpreted as extragalactic success and changes in the 1950s 151–3 Rossi, Bruno 386, 465 objects 346, 374–8, 389 transition to peacetime (1945) 121–3 Rowe, A. P. 156 solar observations 159–63, 292–6, 312 rain and cloud physics 123 Rowe, William C. 302 solar theory 308 Ramsey, Norman F. 412 Royal Aircraft Establishment (UK) 159, success of his group 169–77 Rasmussen, N. 454 163, 169, 186 survey (initial) by Ryle, Smith & Ratcliffe, John A. “Jack” 80, 119, 124, Royal Astronomical Society (UK) 75, Elsmore of 23 objects (1949) 155, 156–9, 171–2, 177, 313, 104, 168, 190, 192, 195, 239, 166–8, 364 317–19, 324, 327, 360, 363, 494 254, 308, 311, 342, 360–3, 424, survey (published) by Ryle, Smith & Fourier transform teaching 171–2, 430 Elsmore of 50 objects (1C) (1950) 313, 440 Royal Australian Air Force 153, 446 328–9, 364, 395 Reagan National Airport 208 Royal Greenwich Observatory 81, 105, Ryle–Vonberg receiver 160, 163, 189, 484 Reber, Grote 26, 43, 48, 54–77, 96, 116, 245, 339, 341 162, 180, 208, 211, 211, 222, 263, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm Sacramento Peak (New Mexico) 211, 445 281, 334, 395, 396, 425, 428, 429, 379 Sagittarius A (galactic center source) 77, 439, 442, 444–5, 451, 495, 505 Royal Radar Establishment (UK) 113, 316, 334–5 160 MHz survey of galactic noise 446 Saha, M. N. 397 (1943–4) 65–8, 366, 369 Royal Society (UK) 177, 423, 431 Salisbury, Winfield W. 199, 208, 263, 314 480 MHz survey of galactic noise Rudwick, Martin 12, 436 Salomonovich, Alexander E. 218 (1946–7) 68–9 rugby 162 Sanamyan, Vagarshak A. 229 biography 54–5, 74–7 Rügen, Germany 262 Sandage, Allan 430 comparison to William Herschel 77 Rumford Fund, American Academy of Sander, Kenneth F. 114, 158 detection of sun (1943) 65 Arts and Sciences 399 Schafer, J. Peter 233 errors in quoted antenna specifications Russell, Henry Norris 47, 206 Scharnhorst and Gneisenau (battle 77–8 Ruth, Babe 39 cruisers) 81 first publications (1940) 60–63 Rutherford, Ernest 150, 155, 447 Scheiner, Julius 21–3, 469 first receivers and “cosmic static” Rydbeck, Olof E. H. 64, 211, 228, 417 Schermerhorn, Willem 405 (1938–9) 57–60 Ryle, Gilbert 381 Scheuer, Peter A. G. 170, 173, 363, 373, hydrogen 21cm line receiver 68, 396–7 Ryle, John A. 381 386, 390, 391, 414, 426, 450, 468 Milky Way radiation as free-free Ryle, Martin 155–77, 179, 191, 192, Schiaparelli, Giovanni V. 250 emission 62–3, 367 218, 297, 314, 327, 328–30, 346, Schluter, Arnulf 289 proposed observatory & 200-ft dish in 352–3, 360–3, 364, 365, 366, 379, Schott, E. 83–4 Texas 69–71 385, 389, 391, 392, 404, 419, 422, Schwinger radiation 379 reflector antenna in Wheaton, Ill. 424, 431, 434, 435, 439, 440, 442, Schwinger, Julian 452 (1937) 55–7, 78 447, 451, 458, 466, 467 science and engineering, relation 415, research after Wheaton (1947-) 71–4, 2C (Cambridge) and its antenna 175, 449–53 281, 396–7, 404 193, 334, 389 scintillations of radio stars, see radio stars seeking funding 63–5, 69–71 biography, wartime work, postwar – scintillations recombination lines of hydrogen 396, 412 transition 156–9 Scorpius X-1 (X-ray source) 465, 466

Index 539

Scott, John M. C. 100, 115 Sloanaker, Russell M. 208, 388 solar noise, bursts (cont.) sea-cliff interferometer see interferometer, Smart, W. M. 254 angular sizes < 8–13′ (McCready sea-cliff Smerd, Stefan F. 151, 284, 288–9, 306 et al., 1945–6) 131–3 Seeger, Alan, poet 210 Smith, Elizabeth 164 claim for discovery by Appleton Seeger, Charles L., Jr. (radio astronomer) Smith, F. Graham xxvii, 17, 164, 167, (1945) 90–1 190, 210–11, 297, 342, 427, 429, 173, 174, 219, 317, 319, 324, early detections 435 328–30, 340, 364, 386, 390, 435, Schott (1940) 83–4 Seeger, Charles L., Sr. (musicologist) 210 448, 451, 471 Alexander (1945) 84–5 Seeger, Pete (singer) 210 1′-2′-accuracy positions for TauA, American military during World seeing (concept) 426 Vir A, Cyg A, Cas A (1951a) War II 85 serendipity 51, 253, 414, 451, 466 339–44 Slee in Darwin 139 serpent 39 angular sizes of Cas A and Cyg A Hey (1942) 80–3 Serviss, G. P. 19 359–60 effects on plant growth 314 SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Cas A discovery (Ryle and Smith 1948) explained as plasma oscillations by Intelligence) 462 164–6 Shklovsky (1946) 216 Shaffer, Simon 77 galactic background noise as near discoveries Shain, C. Alexander 73, 125, 274–7 summation of radio stars 370–1 Dellinger (1937) 89 Shain, G. A. 384 radio star scintillations 324–6 Heightman & Corry (1935–9) Shakeshaft, John R. 173, 389 survey (initial) by Ryle, Smith & 86–9 Shapley, Alan 97 Elsmore of 23 objects (1949), Nakagami & Miya (1939) 89 Shapley, Harlow 47, 48, 60, 64, 69–71, 166–8, 364 notable bursts 246, 321, 399, 412–15, 424, 425, survey (published) by Ryle, Smith & Feb. 1942 (Hey) 65, 80–3 437, 445, 458 Elsmore of 50 objects (1C) (1950) Feb. 1946 111, 131–3 Shapley-Ames Catalogue of Galaxies 348 328–9, 364, 365, 395 Jul. 1946 111, 137, 162 Sharp, Charles 173 Smyth, Henry 447 Nov. 1946 (Reber, Southworth) 71 Shin, Douglas H. 327 solar cycle (11-year) effects 73, 298 Mar. 1947 (Payne-Scott, Yabsley & Shklovsky, Iosif S. 217, 220–21, 230, 308, minimum during World War II 68, Bolton) 139, 288–9 320, 346, 349, 368, 387,389, 390, 83, 100 overview of all research 297–311 412, 427, 436, 459 on Jansky 52 Payne-Scott’s research 298–302 biography 216–7, 221 on Nordmann 24 Reber (1946) 71 galactic corona of radio stars for on prewar solar burst detections 25, 86–9 search for audio-frequency radio waves galactic noise 368, 381–2 postwar maximum 297 (1948) 199 interstellar dispersion in bursts of solar eclipse observations and expeditions swept-frequency spectrographs of Wild’s radio sources (1950) 364–5 1932 Aug. (effect on galactic noise) 35 group 302–7 synchrotron radiation theory for galactic 1940 Nov. (ionosphere) 257 theory of emission mechanisms noise and radio stars 382–4 1945 July 103, 115, 205, 258 307–10 synchrotron radiation theory for 1946 Nov. 212 variable intensity due to ionosphere? optical emission of Crab nebula 1947 May 112, 205, 207, 217, 219, 326 383–5 222, 291 Wild’s research; Types I, II and III theory of solar emission (1946) 215–16, 1948 Nov. 291 302–7 230, 287, 309 1949 Apr. 222 monitoring theory of 21 cm hydrogen line 397, 1949 Oct. 291 Allen (1946) 284, 297 399, 412, 414, 417 1950 Sept. 207 Cornell (1948- ) 211 Shortt clock 339 1951 Sept. 222–3, 291 Covington (1947- ) 213, 284, 310–1 shortwave fade-outs (sudden ionospheric 1952 Feb. 209, 229, 290, 429 Hey et al. (1946–7) 112, 284 disturbances) 30, 88, 89, 299, 302 1954 June 229 overview 285 Siedentopf, Heinrich 392 overview 290–2, 429 Payne-Scott & Little (1948–50) Simonyi, Karoly 272 solar noise (radiation) 299–302 Skagen, Denmark 84 comparison to optical solar emission Piddington & Minnett (1949b) Skellett, A. Melvin 35, 48, 51, 110, 238, 313–14, 459 277 253, 258 patent by Southworth on microwave Reber (1946–7) 68, 310 correlation of meteors and radio radiation (1943) 96 Ryle & Vonberg (1946–8) 163, 284 phenomena (1931–3) 232–4, 429 possible German detections during three Japanese groups (1949-) Slee, O. Bruce 139, 319, 324, 325, 347, World War II 91 225–6 349, 359, 361 bursts US Naval Research Lab (1947–9) two surveys of discrete sources (1950, angular sizes < 10′ (Ryle &Vonberg 206–7 1954) with Bolton & Stanley 332–4 1946) 162–3 Wild et al. (1949) 303–5

540 Index

solar noise (cont.) Spitzer, Lyman, Jr. 345 Sydney University 120 quiescent “spread-F” see ionosphere, F-layer synchrotron (accelerator) 379 acceptance by astronomers and Sputnik 1 210, 221, 449, 462 synchrotron radiation (term) 378 radio researchers of 106 K corona Stagner, Gordon H. 52 synchrotron radiation 311–12 Stahr, Martha E. see Carpenter, as mechanism for galactic background angular distribution measured by Martha S. noise 378–89 Stanier, Machin, O’Brien at Stalin, Iosif as mechanism for radio stars 379 Cambridge (1950–4) 292–6, 356 “Jewish doctor’s plot” (1953) 384 at optical wavelengths in Crab nebula Covington measures 60,000 K Stanford University (US) 239–41, 253, (Shklovsky 1953) 383–5 temperature at 10.7 cm (1946) 282, 313, 441, 444 from protons 380, 382 212–213 Stanier, Harold M. 163, 173, 176, 292–4 polarization 384–5, 387–8 deduction of 106 K base level by Stanley, Gordon J. 68, 75, 139–43, 151, primer 476–7, 479 Pawsey, Martyn (1946) 135–7 317–24, 325, 347, 349, 359, 361 why an unpopular idea in the West? detection by Southworth (1942–3) New Zealand Cosmic Noise 385–9 91–9 Expedition (1948) 317–19 detection by Reber (1943) 65 two surveys of discrete sources (1950, Tables Dicke & Beringer measure 10,000 K 1954) with Bolton & Slee 332–4 10.1: Radio astronomy groups before temperature at 1.25 cm (1945) 205 steady state theory (cosmology) 389 1952 201–02 Ginzburg theory of emission (1946) Stebbins, Joel C. 47, 68 11.1: Principal early groups in meteor 214, 312 Steinberg, Jean-Louis 221–223, 224, 291 radar 241 limb darkening and brightening 288, Stepp, Wilhelm 262 14.1: Radio sources important in the 291, 294 Sternberg Astronomical Institute, early history of radio astronomy Martyn theory of emission (1946) Moscow State University 215 316 135–7, 287–8, 312 Stetson, Harlan T. 47 18.1: The opening of new astronomical overview of all research 285–97 Stewart, Gordon S. 101, 105–9, 112, windows 460–1 priority dispute over 106 K solar 235 B.1: 115 persons interviewed for this corona (Pawsey, Martyn) 136–7 Stewart, John Q. 206, 237 study 496–9 Shklovsky theory of emission (1946) Stichting voor Radiostraling van Zon en B.2: 141 persons interviewed, mostly 215–16, 229–30, 287, 309 Melkweg (SRZM) 405 on post-1954 radio astronomy, spectrum (Pawsey & Yabsley 1949) Stodola, E. King 266 and not used in this study 500 285–6 Stokowski, Leopold 148 B.3: Interviewee statistics 501 theory of emission 286–90 Størmer, Carl 261 C.1: Archives cited in this study 504 searches Strang, C. B. 207 tadpole 256 Adel & Kraus (1933) 86 Stratton, Frank J. M. 111, 175 Takakura, Tatsuo 226 DeWitt (1940) 113 Strömgren, B. 58 Tanaka, Haruo 226 Edison & Kennelly (1890) , 19–20 Struve, Otto 62, 64–5, 69–71, 75–6, 227, Tartu Observatory (Estonia) 247 lack of success before World War II 397, 424, 426, 428, 429, 437, 448 Tasmania 73–4, 291 24–7, 63 Stump Neck, Maryland, USA 280 Taurus A 77, 314, 316, 329, 333, 377, Lodge (1894) 20–1, Stumpers, F. L. 405 383–5, 388, 458, 466 Nordmann (1901) 23–4, 27 Sturgeon, William 362 discovery by Bolton and Stanley (1947) Piddington & Martyn (1939) 86 Sugar Grove (WestVirginia, USA) 600 ft 140–3 Wilsing & Scheiner (1896) 21–3 dish 209, 446 occultation by solar corona 218 slowly varying component sun position and identification with Crab observations and theory 310–1 general magnetic field 288 nebula 320–4, 339, 340, 347, 360, recognized by Denisse (1949) 222 “military object” 445 382 Sorochenko, R. L. 220 radar 214, 277, 282 Taurus X-1 (Crab nebula X-ray source) Southworth, George C. 35, 44, 57, 91–9, sunspots 81, 111, 130–2 465, 466 260, 442 “supercorona” 219 technoscience (theme) 14–15, 449–53, 1945 paper: the sun as a far-far- supernova of AD 369 (as Cas A) 383, 470 infrared source 97–8 346–7 Telecommunications Research attempts to publish during World supernovae as sources of cosmic rays 383 Establishment (TRE), UK 139, War II 96 supernova remnants as radio sources 347, 156–7, 163, 164, 169, 170, 178, detection of solar microwave radiation 383 also see Taurus A, Cassiopeia A 180, 187, 353 (1942) 70, 91–5 Sutherland, Joan 120 Telefunken 113 error in radiation theory 97–9 Suzuki, Shigemasa 226 television, development of 124, 257 Spencer Jones, Harold 110, 437 swan 142 Teller, Edward 387 spin temperature (term) 410 Syam, P. 256 Terletsky, Yakov P. 382

Index 541

Terman, Frederick E. 239, 240 URSI (International Union of Radio Venkataraman, K. 234, 239, 256 terminology in early radio astronomy Science) 432–4 Villard, Oswald G. (Mike), Jr. 239, 423–7 1934, London 44 252 terms 1946, Sub-commission on Radio Virgo A 143, 316, 319, 333, 362, 465 antenna temperature 203, 480 Noise of Extra-terrestrial Origin position and identification with artificial revelation 468 (Commission III) 433 Messier 87 321–2, 339, 340, 347, astronomical 425–426 1946, Paris 433 360, 458 cosmic noise, galactic noise, solar noise 1948, CommissionV on Extra- visual culture (theme) 15, 351, 426, 1, 423–4 terrestrial Radio Noise 146, 433 435–6, 470–1 optical astronomy, optical astronomer, 1948, Stockholm 145, 433 Vitkevich, Viktor V. 218, 220, 397 optical telescope 3, 424, 467 1950, CommissionV on Radio Von Klüber, Harald 175 optical identification 349 Astronomy 284, 437 Vonberg, Derek D. 156–8, 170, 173, 297, radar 79 1950, Zürich 406, 433 428 radio astronomy, radio astronomer 234, 1952, Sub-commissionVb on 423–4, 453 Terminology and Units 350 Waer, R. 280 radio galaxy 383 1952, Sydney 146, 152, 222, 307, 349, Waldmeier, Max 289, 310, 312, 314, radio observatory 425 360, 422 429 radio telescope 424, 426–427, 453, 471 URSI Special Reports (1950–4) 433 Walpole, Horace 51 technoscience 450 US Air Force 211, 240, 445, 465 Walraven, Theodore 387 Terra Australis Incognita 153 US Army Signal Corps 240, 260, Ward, James E. 93, 97 Tesla, Nikola 260 265–71 Watson Watt, Robert 17, 79, 91, 121, 148, Thiel, Willi 262 US Naval Research Lab 206–10, 260–1, 156, 188, 258, 428 Thiessen, G. 288 309, 441, 445–447, 464, 464 Watson, J. D. 172 Thomas, Adin B. 327, 331, 336–9 1947 eclipse observations at 3.2 cm Webb, Harold D. 266 Thomas, H. A. 114 from Navy ship 207 Weisskopf, Viktor F. 412 Thompson, Paul 492 50 ft dish construction, shakedown Westerhout, Gart 371–2, 382, 385, 391, Thomson, John 173 and first observations (1949- ) 413 Thoreau, Henry David 56 208–9, 448 Westfold, Kevin C. 145, 151, 288, 300, Tizard mission (1940) 121, 200, 211 comparison with Gorky State 333, 359, 367, 371–2, 382, 391, Todd, David 260 University group 220 417, 430 Tokyo Astronomical Observatory, Mitaka lunar radar (Trexler) 280 Whipple, Fred L. 46–7, 59–60, 195, 239, 225, 430 overview of early years 209 240, 245, 247–51, 253, 254, 429, Toscanini, Arturo 265 USSR 445 Tousey, Richard 207, 464 isolation of science from West 385 whiskey (Hudson Bay’s Best Procurable) Townes, Charles H. 97, 135, 368–9, overview of early radio astronomy 346 441, 444 220–1 whistlers, ionospheric 233 Toyokawa, Japan 226 USSR Academy of Sciences, 1947 eclipse whistles, ionospheric 234 Trexler, James H. 209, 280 expedition 217 White, Frederick G. W. 121, 138 Troitsky, Vsevolod S. 220 Whitfield, George173 Tromsö, Norway 258 V-1 “buzz bomb” 100 Whitford, Albert E. 48, 68 trout 32 V-2 rocket 100, 105, 157, 179, 207, 266, Wild, J. Paul 68, 147, 150, 302–7, 398, Tungsram Company 271–2 445, 464 416 turkey 32 Van de Hulst, Hendrik C. 23, 63, 312, Wilkins, A. F. 258 Turner, Michael 173 335, 368, 372, 374, 385, 389, 396, Wille, Horst 84, 228 Tuve, Merle A. 30, 229 430, 457 Williams, Eric J. 88 Twain, Mark 492 Dutch detection and observations of Williams, Neil H. 86 Twiss, Richard Q. 353, 365, 392, 431, 452 21 cm hydrogen line (1951–2) Williams, Ted 398 Tycho’s supernova (as Cas B) 321, 347, 383 404–9, 410, 414–17, 427, 429 Williamson, Ralph E. 211, 342, 369, 427, prediction of 21 cm hydrogen line 429, 431 Uhuru survey of X-ray sources 465 (1944) 68, 394–6, 399 Wilsing, Johannes 21–3, 469 ultraviolet astronomy 463 Van der Pol, B. 261 Wilson, C. T. R. 351 University of London Observatory Van Deusen, George 269 Wilson, Robert W. 52, 414 341 Van Rhijn, P. J. 395, 416 Wilson, William 31 Unsöld, Albrecht 227–8, 230, 289, 368, Vane, A. B. 204 Wolf-Rayet stars 381 369–70, 375, 379, 386 Vashakidze, Mikhail A. 385 Wood, Harley 138 Ursa Major source (spurious), 166, 324, Vela X 77 Woolley, Richard v.d.R. 137–8, 393 Vening Meinesz, F. A. 405 141, 226, 288, 312, 368, 431, 433

542 Index

World War II and Cold War (theme) X-ray astronomy 391, 464–7, 469 Yerkes Observatory 60–2, 14, 112–13, 122, 151, 221–2, comparison with radio astronomy 69–71, 379, 429 418–420, 442–9, 470 465–7 Yokoyama, Eitaro 232 Wouthuysen, S. A. 412 X-ray computed tomography 313 Young, Charles A. 89 Würzburg reflector72 , 78, 80, 81, 84, X-ray crystallography 172, 292 Young, Leo C. 261 159, 169, 218, 222, 224, 228, 229, xylophone 233 Zimenki, USSR 220 262, 293, 329, 339, 359, Zinner, Ernst 236 405, 417, 471 Yabsley, Donald E. 139, 149, 286, 291, Zisler, Siegfried 222 311 Zürich Observatory 310, 429 X-ray astronomer (term) 466 Yaplee, Benjamin S. 281 Zwicky, Fritz 45