Running Head: Mother/Daughter Closeness
Mother/Daughter Closeness: From Daughters’ Transition Out of Adolescence
and Into College.
Dr. Rhonda Sprague
Dr. Jim Moe
Professor C. Y. Allen
Marilyn Dwyer
May 2008
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Communication Division of Communication University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point Stevens Point, Wisconsin Mother/Daughter Closeness 2
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW...... 4
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………...... 4 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………….……...8 Parent/Child Relationships………………………………………………………………….8 Mother/Child Relationship………………………………………………………………….9 Mother/Daughter Relationship……………………………………………………………11 Mothers/Adolescent Daughters……………………………………………………………12 Mothesr/Young Adult Daughters………………………………………………………….16 Communication Frequency………………………………………………………………..20 Communication Types……………………………………………………………………..21 Closeness……………………………………………………………………………………26 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE…………………………………………………………………...29 Attachment Theory………………………………………………………………………..29 Mother/Child Attachment…………………………………………………………………32 Conclusion, Hypothesis, Research Questions……………………………………………..34 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY...... 38 Participants…………………………………………………………………………………38 Instruments…………………………………………………………………………………38 Procedure…………………………………………………………………………………...42 DATA ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………………………..43 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS ...... 46 Research Question 1……………………………………………………………………….46 Research Question 2……………………………………………………………………….47 Hypothesis 1………………………………………………………………………………..48 Research Question 3……………………………………………………………………….49 Research Question 4……………………………………………………………………….49 Research Question 5...... 49 CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION ...... 51
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………..51 Communication Frequency and Closeness (RQ1)………………………………………..51 Types of Communication and Closeness (RQ2)…………………………………………..53 Attachment, Closeness, and Communication Frequency (H1)…………………………..55 Closeness Over Time (RQ3)……………………………………………………………….56 Living Arragement and Closness (RQ4)…………………………………………………..59 Variables and Closeness (RQ5)……………………………………………………………61 Mother/Daughter Closeness 3
CHAPTER FIVE: LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 62
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………...62 Limitations and Future Research………………………………………………………….62 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….68
REFERENCE PAGE ...... 70
APPENDICES ...... 85 Appendix A (Consent Form)………………………………………………………………85 Appendix B (Participant Letter)…………………………………………………………..87 Appendix C (Mother/Child Demographics) ……………………………………………..89 Appendix D (Mother Survey)…………………………………………………………….90 Appendix E (Child Survey) ………………………………………………………………91 Appendix F (Attachment Survey)………………………………………………………..92
Table of Figures
TABLE1: COMMUNICATION FREQUENCY AND CLOSENESS IN MDRS...... 46 TABLE 2. COMMUNICATION TYPES AND CLOSENESS IN MDRS ...... 48 TABLE 3: PREDICTOR VARIALBES AND GREATEST IMPACT ON CLOSENESS IN MDRS ...... 50 Mother/Daughter Closeness 4
Chapter One: Literature Review
Introduction
For many daughters, the relationships they have with their mothers will be the most emotional, enduring, and active of many intergenerational bonds.
Daughters, unlike sons, typically continue to idolize their mothers throughout their lives, despite the many transitions and changes in the mother/daughter relationship
(MDR). The transition into adulthood can be one of the most significant. Whether it brings hardships or joy, a daughter's transition into adulthood often results in new ways of communicating and connecting with mothers, which can impact satisfaction with and feelings of closeness in the MDR. Since these relationships are often so central in the lives of many women, research needs to explore the potential changes occurring in MDRs during the transition to adulthood.
MDRs continually change and develop through transitions, including the daughter’s adolescent years, the daughters' potential transitions into marriage and/or motherhood (Fischer, 1981). MDRs can be thought of as transitional because these periods bring about a more or less sudden shift in relational closeness or distance.
These types of transitions bring elements of change not only for the individuals, but for MDRs, as well (Parkes, 1971).
These influential transitions often include the daughters' period of adolescence when the struggle of wanting parental independence and, at the same time wanting a sense of connectedness with parents. This also can occur during middle age when Mother/Daughter Closeness 5 daughters become caregivers for their mothers (Floyd & Morman, 2006). Regardless of the specific transitions experienced, research consistently shows that the MDR changes positively over time (Fischer, 1981), and that as women age, they show evidence of enhanced empathy toward their mothers (Berti, 1983).
Daughters’ transitions into marriage and parenthood may be important in the redefinition of the MDR (Fischer, 1981). First, daughters' marriages and entrance into motherhood both may provide confirmation of daughters' status as adults. In effect, if parent/adolescent relationships involve the negotiation about defining the adolescent as a child or adult, then agreement may be reached through daughters' attainment of common adult roles. Second, daughters' transition to motherhood is suggested to have great importance for the mother/daughter bond. Daughters take on a role they have watched in their own mothers perform. Finally, these transitions have suggested a major change in the MDR. For daughters, the beginnings of marriage and motherhood are major turning points in their lives (Rossi, 1968; Hill &
Aldous, 1969). In fact, this transition has been the most researched are in MDRs (e.g.,
Baruch & Barnett, 1983; Bromberg, 1983; Fischer, 1981, 1983, 1986; Suitor, 1987).
Not all daughters move into adult roles by transitioning into marriage and parenthood, however. Starting college and moving away from home are often recognized as the beginning of adulthood. Past exploration of MDR literature has revealed a research gap between daughters' adolescent years and their transitions into adulthood. According to Aquilino's (1997) study on parent/child relationships during Mother/Daughter Closeness 6 the transition into adulthood, children’s enrollment in college and leaving home are highly related to parents' reports of closeness with them. Missing from this research are details about what might influence these increased feelings of closeness. What changes in MDR as daughters’ transition out of adolescence and into young adulthood?
How do these changes impact the closeness perceived by mothers and daughters?
This study will examine MDRs at three different stages of relational development: start of high school, start of college, and now. Studying the MDR during the three different stages of relational development may help determine whether levels of closeness experienced in the relationship change during the different stages and what, if anything, cooccurs with those perceptions of closeness.
Early parent/child relationships set the stage for intergenerational relations in later life (Rossi & Rossi, 1990). These findings could be related to the formulation of attachment styles that typically develop during infancy but also impact adult relationships. According to Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982; 1973; 1980), during the first year of life, children develop fairly stable attitudes about themselves and the world through the responsiveness of their caretakers. Attachment Theory proposes that the systems of attachment, fear, exploration, and sociability exhibit a complicated balance that helps a child develop needed coping skills under the protection of the attachment figure (Ainsworth, 1967). Attachment Theory also assumes that adult attachment is a result of these patterns set in childhood, and that Mother/Daughter Closeness 7 they remain stable over time (Hazan & Shaver, 1994; Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw,
1988).
Attachment Theory provides a foundation for the relationshiprelated needs that must be met in order for relational partners to feel satisfied. It also suggests that certain needs and preferences result from a person's relationship history with attachment figures. For example, young adults’ living arrangements have been shown to be related to attachment types (Grossmann, Grossmann, & Zimmerman, 1999).
According to Attachment Theory, close adult relationships are achieved only when attachmentrelated needs are largely met. Therefore, attachmentrelated factors might help explain changes in closeness in MDRs. Using Attachment Theory as a foundation for this study can help explain that the development of relationships during infancy often predicts relational qualities and characteristics over time.
Therefore, Attachment Theory will help create a foundation to examine the daughters' transition out of adolescence and into young adulthood and the levels of closeness experienced in the MDR.
Often, relational needs and satisfaction are largely met through some extension of communication. These extensions may include communication frequency and type of communication. The goal of this study is to examine mother/daughter closeness during daughters' transition out of adolescence and into early adulthood. As a result, this study will explore relational variables that may impact the closeness experienced in the MDR. More specifically, this study wants to Mother/Daughter Closeness 8 investigate if there is a relationship between daughters' enrollment in college and the closeness experienced in the MDR through the examination of previous level of closeness, attachment type, communication frequency, type of communication, and living arrangement.
Review of Literature
The literature review covers past research on mother/daughter relationships
(MDRs) and a review of the variables being studied. First, research ranging from parent/child relationships to mother/young adult daughter relationships will be reviewed. Following dyadic research, communication frequency and communication type will be explored with a focus on MDRs. Next, a conceptualization and research review of closeness in dyadic relationships as well as the study's independent variables will be discussed. The discussions of the independent and dependent variables will be followed by the explanation and implications of using Attachment
Theory as a theoretical foundation. Lastly, this study's Research Questions and
Hypothesis will be presented.
Parent/Child Relationships
When examining relationships between parents and children, many theorists label the family as a system (e.g., Kantor & Lehr, 1975). A family system is a series of individuals that interact with one another to form a whole. However, it is rare for the whole family to interact at the same time. Most, family interaction occurs in smaller groups such as dyads and triads. Mothers and fathers may interact with one Mother/Daughter Closeness 9 or more of their children. Children also interact with their siblings, with or without the presence or participation of their parents. Past research has revealed that mothers,
Feiring, 1981; Parker, Power, & Gottman, 1979). Mothers and fathers can influence each other’s support and interaction with their children through the way they interact and support one another. Mothers and fathers are not the only members who have relational influence upon others in the family. Children also can affect the marital relationship between parents, even as the quality of the relationship impacts parents' interaction with their children (Noller & Fitzpatrick, 1993). The parent/child relationship consists of a steady round of influential interactions that impact the family system as a whole, and the individuals in them.
Mother/Child Relationships
Relationships between mothers and children contain secret and unexplainable qualities that cannot be understood to anyone outside those relationships. Mothers are seen both in research and clinical literature as the most important figure in a child’s life, regardless of his or her sex (Baruch & Barnett, 1983).
Mothers and fathers appear to differ in how they interact with their infants and children. Parents of children tend to demonstrate this divergence within three style areas: engagement, accessibility, and responsibility. Mothers, rather than fathers, are generally seen to be responsible for their children’s care and rearing. Also, mothers tend to interact with their children three times more than fathers do (Noller
& Fitzpatrick, 1993). Mother/Daughter Closeness 10
Mothers and their infant children engage in interactive sequences or conversations on a regular basis. During these sequences, mothers and infants engage in eye gazing, variations in vocal intonation, and patterns of turn taking (Noller &
Fitzpatrick, 1993). Also, mothers tend to respond to the various communicative behaviors of their infants, especially crying. Most mothers can differentiate between three kinds of cries: hunger, pain, and anger (Bell, 1974). This means that mothers are usually intuitive to children’s communication attempts and the meaning behind the attempts.
These findings suggest that children normally develop stronger attachments with mothers than with fathers. Longitudinal studies have examined the development of attachment between mothers and infants (Ainsworth, et al., 1978;
Egeland & Farber, 1984; Isabella & Belsky, 1991; Isbella, Belsky, & Von Eye, 1989).
These studies have indicated that the degree of responsiveness, sensitivity, and warmth by mothers is important in fostering secure attachment in infants. A more secure mother/child relationship suggests a closer relationship. In contrast, a less secure mother/child relationship suggests a more distant relationship. As mother/child relationships grow and change over time, their attachment typically adjusts to the changes and stays stable throughout their relationship (Hazan & Shaver,
1994; Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw, 1988). Therefore, it is applicable to look at mother/child attachment types to help understand their relational closeness over time. Mother/Daughter Closeness 11
Mother/Daughter Relationship
Over time, sons typically break away from identifying with their mothers and begin to idolize and identify with their fathers, while daughters continue to idolize and identify with their mothers (Chodorow, 1978). The mother/daughter connection frequently is a loving one that binds women together across generations, even while they pursue separate identities. It is a relationship that is typically negotiated and maintained throughout the lifespan. The connection mothers have with their daughters is often uniquely different than the relationship they have with their sons.
Chodorow (1978) believes that women are more likely than men to uphold certain aspects of their primary relationship with their mother. The reason for this persistence is that mothers (in Western cultures) are the early caregivers and original sources of identification for children. As mentioned before, daughters' identification with their mothers continues throughout their lives, whereas sons generally break away from mothers and begin to identify with their fathers. According to Chodorow
(1978), this allows the daughter to continue identifying with her mother, thereby upholding the MDR.
A longitudinal study conducted by Weishaus (1978) examined the longterm influence of the mother/daughter bond. Weishaus (1978) studied twenty mother/daughter pairs from the time daughters were infants to the time they were 40 years old. Weishaus found interesting trends in the MDR. First, the MDRs showed stability over time. Mothers and daughters who were close when daughters were Mother/Daughter Closeness 12 very young were more likely to be positive about each other when daughters were 40 years old. Similarly, if a relationship was distant in its early years, it did not significantly improve over time. This finding supports the attachment perspective in that early attachment types typically stay stable over the years (Hazan & Shaver, 1994;
Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw, 1988). Therefore, early attachment formation is an important indicator to relationships' future interactions and closeness. It is important to continue examining mother/daughter attachment types and attachment related factors that may impact MDRs.
Mothers/Adolescent Daughters
According to LaSora and Fodor (1990), adolescence is a transition of separation and selfdefinition for both daughters and their mothers. This developmental period requires that both members of the dyad renegotiate their roles and selfunderstanding to accommodate their individual physical, psychological, and social changes.
Adolescence typically begins when puberty starts, which varies on an individual basis.
Chodorow (1978) argues that separation in adolescence tends to be more difficult for daughters than for sons. According to Chodorow’s psychoanalytical perspective, the process of establishing psychological distance occurs early in male development. However, daughters do not need to establish the same measure of psychological differentiation when they are small children. Chodorow (1978) argues that daughters never fully develop a separate sense of self. She believes that mothers’ attitudes and views toward their daughters are ambivalent in that, “They desire both Mother/Daughter Closeness 13 to keep daughters close and to push them into adulthood. This ambivalence in turn creates more anxiety in their daughters and provokes attempts by these daughters to break away” (p.135). This ambivalence can be evident with the daughters' start of high school.
Typically, high school is marked with more personal responsibility which allows daughters' to separate more from their mothers. However, daughters may feel unconfident and unsure of their new found responsibility. This reaction could encourage the daughters' need for connectedness to their mothers. Therefore, the start of high school could be an important transition in MDR because it reflects a firm stage of adolescence.
Chodorow’s ideas of ambivalent feelings were supported by Fischer’s (1986) study of MDRs. Fischer's study characterized the MDR in terms of both holding on and letting go. In other words, mothers and daughters want to maintain an ongoing attachment, while also displaying interest of separation. Fischer (1986) also indicated that mother/daughter closeness could be attributed to daughters’ tendencies to confide in their mothers. She notes that daughters, as teenagers, were far more likely to confide in their mothers than in their fathers, and daughters' confidence levels continued to increase as they and their mothers aged.
Fischer’s (1986) study also revealed that daughters were more likely to argue with their mothers than with their fathers. Fischer explains that daughters' view that Mother/Daughter Closeness 14 mothers are more available and approachable than their fathers which creates more mother/daughter interaction in comparison to father/daughter interaction, which in turn creates more opportunity for argument. Whether their interactions are positive or negative, mothers and teenaged daughters do communicate frequently. This could be explained through Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982, 1973, 1980).
Attachment Theory proposes that certain personal needs and preferences result from a relationship's history with attachment figures. It further suggests that satisfying and close adult relationships are achieved only when one's attachmentrelated needs which often include feeling protected, loved, and secure, were largely met.
Daughters communicating and interacting more frequently with their mothers, may suggest that their needs are being met and so they continue the pattern. In contrast, daughters may feel their needs are not being met, and the frequent communication and interactions reflect their relationships' negative state. Regardless, this difference in communication frequency could be attributed to the closeness felt by mothers and daughters. During daughters' adolescence, MDRs often struggle with communication and with finding a balance between connectedness and autonomy.
In Fischer’s (1986) study of MDRs, twothirds of the cases fell into a pattern of some form of involvement, along with some form of detachment. For most participants, their relationship appeared to be characterized by both affection and some measure of interpersonal difficulty. In about onethird of Fischer’s participants, the daughter’s period of adolescence was considered a battlefield. Fischer believes Mother/Daughter Closeness 15 that these findings suggest that maintaining a balance between attachment and detachment may require considerable amount of effort. Specifically, daughters during this time may prefer to be with friends and confide in them, rather than their mothers. Mothers, meanwhile, may feel jealous of their daughters’ new confidants, but still feel they hold an important part in their daughters’ lives.
Most of the daughters in Fischer’s study (1986) had close friendships with their friends, romantic partners, or both. They shared feelings and experiences with these friends that they might have kept secret from their mothers. Despite the daughters’ growth away from their families, through their attachment to peers, it is clear that most daughters made some “room” in their lives for their mothers. The daughters' process of separation takes place against the background of mother/daughter intimacy.
Mothers, much more than fathers, are argued against, withdrawn from, and rejected.
However at the same time, daughters continue to rely on their mothers’ nurturance.
This is demonstrated in Fischer’s study, which suggested daughters interacted more with their mothers than with their fathers. For most daughters, it is the stability of their mothers’ attachment to them that allows them to go through the process of separation and develop a sense of independence. Once this is developed, mothers and daughters often interact with each other in new ways.
Bernard (1975) states, “In the name of tidiness…motherhood ought to end when children leave home”(p. 133). In other words, when your children become Mother/Daughter Closeness 16 independent enough to leave home, motherly duties should end as well. However, parental sentiment and responsibility often persists into adulthood, with MDRs typically being the most longterm and active of bonds (Thompson & Walker, 1984).
Beyond uncovering the knowledge that the relationship is an enduring bond and that there are few norms governing the relationship into adulthood (Hess & Waring, 1978), research needs to focus more upon mothers and their young adult daughters. A better understanding of the mother/young adult daughter relationship may enhance the overall understanding of the MDR's progression from infancy into adulthood.
Mothers/Young Adult Daughters
Rossi and Rossi (1990) concluded that early parent/child relationships set the stage for intergenerational relations in later life. The relationship between young adult daughters and their mothers directly follows a period of clear biological and social transition taking place during the daughters' adolescent years (Parkes, 1971).
This is evident from family development and intergenerational research that has shown a daughter’s transition from adolescent to young adult results from a process of redefinition and renegotiation (Bengston and Kuyper, 1971; Turner, 1970). During this process, mothers and daughters begin to perceive and interact with each other in somewhat new ways. For example, when daughters moves away to college and are living on their own for the first time, this transition often results in new levels of communication and a reduction in identification between mothers and daughters Mother/Daughter Closeness 17
(Fischer, 1981). This adjustment can help daughters mature into more independent young women and often initiates a deeper respect for mothers.
Throughout their relational transitions, mothers and daughters will continue to redefine their relationships. Daughters may develop a new role perspective and begin to reevaluate their own and their mothers’ current role and past role performance. Often, while adjusting to new relational expectations, mothers and daughters begin to renegotiate their patterns of interaction (Bengtson & Kuypers,
1971).
One of the earliest transitions into adulthood involves leaving the parental home to establish residential independence. Moving out of the home has ceased to be merely a step toward marriage, but has become a step toward independence in its own right (Goldscheider & Waite, 1991). Leaving the nest does not signify the end of the parentchild relationship, but it seems to be associated with better parental well being (White & Edwards, 1990), an outcome that may well have a positive effect on the parent/child relationship.
The relational quality that parents and children have with one another may be influenced by the timing of leaving home. In theoretical conceptualizations, researchers stress that during adolescence and young adulthood, individuals desire to establish more mature and equal relationships with their parents (Allen & Land, 1999).
The high level of conflict that occurs during early and midadolescent children and parents decreases as children approach early adulthood (Laursen, Coy, & Collins, 1998; Mother/Daughter Closeness 18
SeiffgeKrenke, 1999), suggesting that by early adulthood, the child has achieved a new balance between connectedness and autonomy from the parents (Allen &
Stoltenberg, 1995).
Closeness and conflict in parent/child relationships have been found to be important mediating factors in the process of leaving home. Specifically, female adolescents who are especially close to their parents may find it difficult to physically separate from them, even when socially expected (Gilligan, 1982). Parents who reported having good relationships with their children were more likely to have an adult child living with them (Aquilino & Supple, 1991). Similarily, Steen and
Peterson (2003) found that young adults with one or more aggressive parents choose to distance themselves from their parents by leaving home early.
Past research using Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982, 1973) suggests that the quality of the relationship between parents and their children during the transition from adolescence to adulthood is strongly influenced by earlier experiences.
Attachment Theory also posits close links between attachment representation and self assurance in the exploration of new environment or unknown situations. This is illustrated by Grossmann, Grossmann, and Zimmerman (1999), who found that young adults with a secure state of attachment were better able to venture into independence on their own.
Fifty percent of 1824 year old children are still living at home with their parents (Lawton, Silverstein, & Bengston, 1994). Although most coresiding parents Mother/Daughter Closeness 19 and children are content with their living arrangements (Aquilino & Supple, 1991), coresidence sometimes means conflict. When children have been unsuccessful either moving into or sustaining autonomous adult roles, conflict between parents and children is higher. However, disagreements about coresidence also arise, if the child is prepared to leave home before the parent wishes (Goldscheider & Goldscheider,
1989).
Young adults have higher expectations for residential independence than did previous generations, and they expect to achieve independence sooner than their parents anticipate. Thus, young adults and their parents may disagree over the
“normal” progress to adulthood. Because of their generational stake in offspring
(Bengston & Kuypers, 1971), parents tend to view parent/child coresidence more positively than do children (Suitor & Pillemer, 1988). However, parents, particularly mothers, sometimes resent the continuing burden of housework generated by grown offspring. Literature on children leaving the home has focused on attachment association, the “normal” process, and the quality of the relationship (e. g., Aquilino,
1997; Bengston & Kuypers, 1971; SeiffgeKrenke, 2006). However, existing literature has not looked at whether how long the child has lived away from home is related to the level of closeness experienced. This study will examine the daughters’ transition into college and how patterns of interaction (communication frequency, communication types and attachment type) may affect the closeness experienced in the MDR. Mother/Daughter Closeness 20
Communication Frequency
Literature on how communication frequency affects the parent/child relationship is limited. A lot of parent/child communication research focuses on the amount of disclosure that occurs. However, not all parent/child communication needs to be filled with selfdisclosure. Parents and children have conversations that have no other motive than to catch up on each other's days, share news, gossip, or give advice. Although formal research with a focus on parent/child communication frequency is limited, popular literature helps provide some background knowledge of this variable.
Past research has examined the frequency of communication in first semester college students and their families (Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Lapsley, Rice, &
Fitzgerald, 1990). Students who reported close emotional bonds with their parents had more contact with their parents by phone, letters, and visits than those who reported less closeness. These studies are extensions of Attachment Theory (Bowbly,
1969/1982, 1973), which hypothesizes that children who have close emotional bonds with parents will use contact with their parents as a secure base from which they will explore new social and physical environments. This exploration is often done with the start of college.
MarketTools, Inc. conducted an online survey in 2006 which drew a nationwide sample of 440 college students and 670 parents of college students.
Results revealed that most college students said they began talking to their mothers Mother/Daughter Closeness 21 more about life, responsibility, and healthy decision making when they started college. Roughly 70 percent of mothers and fathers agreed that those conversations had become more common since their child started college. While all mothers reported increased communication with their children about life, responsibility, and healthy decisionmaking, 70 percent of daughters agreed with that assessment, while only 56 percent of sons did. This survey suggests mothers and daughters are more likely to agree that there is consistent communication between them.
Although research has been done on parent/child communication frequency, much of it is outdated. Within the past decade, options for communicating have changed drastically. Technology has provided a lot of modern day conveniences, including communication. Communicative technologies virtually allow us to communicate with others at anytime. The convenience of different communication types could impact relationships. Therefore, there is a need to examine the current communication between parents and their college student child and whether use of many new types of communication is related to perceptions of closeness in MDRs.
Communication Types
Over the last century, methods of communicating have changed dramatically.
This section will give a brief overview of the ways young adults and their parents are keeping in touch. Formal research is limited, so popular literature was reviewed to provide an overview of the most commonly used forms of communication. Mother/Daughter Closeness 22
Phone. Many young adults, especially those in college, have cellular phones.
According to Leo's March 2006 article from the Pittsburgh PostGazette, cellular phone users in the United States have increased from 34 million a decade ago to more than 203 million. In fact, more people in the United States have cell phones than fixed phone lines. Out of the 203 million cell phone users, 60 million of those are teenagers (Youra, 2007). The MarketTool Inc. (1996) survey about parent/college student communication found that the most frequent form of parent/college student communication was by cell phone: 89 percent from the parent sample and 80 percent from the student sample.
Email. In a study about college students' email to parents, 48 college students averaged 6.03 email contacts weekly with parents. This study also found that women were more likely than men to email their parents (Trice, 2002). An advantage of using email as a form of communication is that it allows for very frequent communication in short oneway sessions. Email is a convenient method of communication in comparison to telephoning, facetoface interaction, or letter writing because it is less time consuming. In the MarketTool Inc. survey, 65 percent of parents used email as a form of communication with their child, and 58 percent of students used email to communicate with their parents. Email was surveyed to be the third popular medium of communication behind cell phones and facetoface interaction. Mother/Daughter Closeness 23
Text Messaging. Text messaging combines the portability of cell phones with the convenience of email and instant messaging. It has recently gained in popularity as a form of communication, which means little research has been conducted on this communicative medium. However, a survey done in 2006 by the cell phone company
Cingular showed that 63 percent of parents who use text messaging believe it improves their communication with their children (textually.org, 2006). Whether those results would hold true in a more formal study, text messaging is increasing as a popular form of communication. The growth of text messaging has been rising sharply at a 154 percent growth monthly. For example, 7.3 billion messages were sent in June 2005, up from 2.9 billion messages in June 2004 (Youra, 2007). Although text messaging is a new form of communication, research suggests that it is a popular mode of communication that needs to be included when studying parent/child communication.
Instant Messaging. A 2004 article in The New York Times looked into the
"instant" and "online" parent/child conversation. Almost threequarters of all teenagers with online access use instant messaging and about half of all adults have tried the services, according to surveys (Schwartz, 2004). Although instant messaging has been part of a teenagers' life for several years, this online technology is now expanding into the American family. According to Schwartz's article, psychologists say that the role of technology within families can be remarkably positive. In many cases, they say, the messages are helping to break down the interpersonal barriers that Mother/Daughter Closeness 24 often prevent communication. "Conversations between parents and teenagers could be highly emotional and not necessarily productive. [However communicating through instant messaging 'is on their turf'] and may be a way for parents to communicate in a language and in a space that their children are more comfortable with" said Elisheva F. Gross, as psychology researcher at the Children's Digital Media
Center at the University of California at Los Angeles (Schwartz, 2004). Therefore, instant messaging might help children and their parents talk with one another about issues that bother them more readily online than when they are talking face toface.
Personal Web pages. Online social networking (e.g. MySpace, Facebook) is a relatively new technology similar to text messaging. Therefore, scholarly literature is limited. According to a Washington Post article on new trends in online traffic, the online social network, MySpace, ranked number two on the entire internet, right behind Yahoo (Walker, 2006). MySpace in 2006 had approximately 38.4 million visitors and was growing at an annual rate of 367 percent (Bausch & Han, 2006).
Therefore, online social networking is a fast growing communicative method which serves an overall purpose of keeping touch with family and friends.
FacetoFace Interaction. Young adults today were able to take full advantage of the wide range of communication options that became popular either a decade ago or just recently. However, before adolescence, the majority of these young adults primarily communicated with their parents facetoface. Even with the wide range of communicative methods, facetoface communication is still a popular mode of Mother/Daughter Closeness 25 parent/young adult communication. In the MarketTool Inc. online survey about parent/college student communication, it was found that the second highest form of parent/college student communication was facetoface at 70 percent from the parent sample and 73 percent from the student sample. Although new means of communication can supplement facetoface communication, communicating in person is still a popular choice among young adults and parents.
Postal Mail. At the dawn of the twentyfirst century, the future of letter writing remains unclear, so unclear in fact that finding recent research, articles, and statistics on the letter writing today was a futile effort. It seems young adults especially have traded in pen, paper and stamps for more technologically driven forms of communication. However, letter writing has been around for centuries and still remains a form of communication that should be considered when studying parent/child communication.
There are now numerous methods and options when it comes to communicating to one another that were not present in the last century and even decade. According to Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982; 1973; 1980), the more secure mothers and daughters are in their relationships, the more likely these dyads will make an effort to stay connected. Concurrently, research suggests that students who reported close emotional bonds with their parents had more contact with their parent than those who reported less closeness (Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Lapsley,
Rice, & Fitzgerald, 1990). Therefore, it seems that secure MDRs should perceive Mother/Daughter Closeness 26 higher levels of closeness than the less secure MDRs. Also, the mothers’ and daughters’ closeness should reflect the dyads' communication frequency. With so many choices for mothers to stay in communication with their daughters, it will be interesting to see if attachment type, frequency of communication, and primary method of communication used to stay in contact affects the levels of closeness experienced in the MDR.
Closeness
A close relationship is characterized by intimate behaviors (disclosure) and intimate experiences (Or the positive feelings families derive from engaging in intimate behaviors) (Prager, 1995). Researchers believe that closeness contributes to the characterization of a family, yet the concept itself is difficult to define, and conceptualizations of intimacy vary (Harvey & Weber, 2002; Prager, 1995). Often, closeness is communicated through the support, acceptance, and balance of connectedness/autonomy functions family members display. Most scholars, however, agree that closeness is manifested in a high level of mutual knowledge, a sense of dependability in the relationship (Floyd, 1996), mutual devotion, sharing, commitment (Spooner, 1982), and strong desires to interact with each other
(Sternberg, 1986).
Closeness represents family members' acceptance of their interdependence, which includes their sense of their history together and their confidence in their Mother/Daughter Closeness 27 shared future. Closeness focuses on what the family members share and their investment to their relationship (Segrin & Flora, 2005).
Children's feelings of parental support are thought to encourage greater closeness with parents (Hoffman, 1970). Parental support is often conceptualized as physical affection, acceptance, or companionship. The supportive behaviors often disclose warmth, affection, rapport, and a feeling of being appreciated (Barber &
Thomas, 1986; Rollins & Thomas, 1979), which are characteristics of closeness.
Several studies have indicated a link between supportive childrearing behaviors and the predictability of the children's connectedness to parents. For example, studies show that parents who practice supportive communication (feelings of value and acceptance), often increases children’s likelihood of conform to their parents' expectations because the children find the parents' supportive behavior rewarding
(Henry, Wilson, & Peterson, 1989; Peterson et al., 1985; Rollins & Thomas, 1975).
Planalp (1999) suggests that close relationships require the participants to coordinate many important issues over a long period of time. This is often done by renegotiating and redefining the relationship to accommodate or eliminate the issue present. The ability to easily adapt to new issues throughout a relationship is important for relational maintenance and satisfaction. "Relationships that facilitate or interfere with so many important, longlasting concerns are capable of evoking powerful emotions and are sources of our greatest delights and distresses" (Planalp, Mother/Daughter Closeness 28
1999, p. 25). This is also what defines some common qualities and characteristics, as mentioned before, in the MDR.
Parents influence their offspring through conscious and unconscious goals, beliefs, and expectations. Often, these influential goals are meant to serve purposes that impact the parent/child relationship (Okagaki & Divecha, 1993). In relation to closeness, one purpose is creating a balance of connectedness and autonomy between parent and child. Achieving connectedness and autonomy are contradicting aspects of the human experience which actually complement and contribute to interpersonal relationships. In other words, parents often have a goal to have a warm and close relationship with their children, yet, simultaneously raise them to be selfsufficient individuals.
The connectedness function involves the process of connecting with other humans and developing relationships. For example, connectedness starts when an attachment bond is formed during infancy (Ainsworth, 1989; Bowbly, 1988; Sroufe &
Fleeson, 1988) and usually continues into childhood and adulthood. Adult children continue to maintain close ties with their parents, despite the increased pressure for autonomy (Steinberg, 1990). Therefore, as children mature into adults, a level of closeness is usually embedded within the relationship from the attachment bond created during infancy.
The autonomy function is the process of becoming an independent individual.
Autonomy is often developed first through an infant's curious and exploratory Mother/Daughter Closeness 29 behavior through which parents are used as a "secure base" from where they explore the surrounding environment. Next, a toddler's persistent behavior usually signifies a greater need to seek independence from its parents. Also, autonomy is explored in adolescence, a period which parents and their child often struggle to find a balance between connectedness and autonomy (Ainsworth, 1989; Bowbly, 1988; Sroufe &
Fleeson, 1986). Typically, it is during adolescence that mothers and daughters seek to find a balance between connectedness and autonomy, which can be a frustrating process for both.
Finding a balance between connectedness and autonomy could create a difficult and unsatisfying period in MDRs. This transition is often accompanied by a struggle to renegotiate and redefine themselves not only individually as mothers and daughters, but also for their relationship (Fischer, 1981). However, once a balance is negotiated and reached, relationships often become closer as adolescents transition into adulthood. Concurrently, if a balance is never found, the continuation of struggling to define oneself and the relationship often results in a more distant relationship (Fischer, 1981).
Theoretical Perspective
Attachment Theory
Attachment Theory explains and predicts the relationship among affect or bonding and behaviors and thoughts. In the earliest conception of Attachment
Theory, Bowbly (1969/1982; 1973) sought to explain why children develop strong Mother/Daughter Closeness 30 attachments to their mothers or other caregivers, and cry upon separation from these attachment figures. Further, Bowbly argued that children develop attachment styles based on how available and responsive their caregivers have been. The quality of the first love relationship between infant and caregivers and the quality of the first love relationship between infant and caregiver is critical in establishing a pattern for the infant's future attachments.
Attachment Theory proposes that the systems of attachment, fear, exploration, and sociability exhibit a complicated balance that helps a child develop needed coping skills under the protection of the attachment figure (Ainsworth, 1967). For example, when a child's attachment and fear systems are minimally invoked, the exploratory and sociability systems can be activated easily and vice versa. The fear system acts to end exploratory and sociability behaviors and at the same time activates the attachment behavior system. For example, when parents watch their children exploring a playground and meeting new children, they notice that the sense of attachment to them is rapidly reduced. These observations provided the foundation for a typology of infant caregiver relationships consisting of secure relationships
(confident infant, responsive caregiver), anxiousambivalent relationships
(temperamental infant, inconsistent caregiver), and avoidant relationships
(undemonstrative infant, undemonstrative caregiver) (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &
Wall, 1978). Mother/Daughter Closeness 31
Attachment Theory assumes both that adult attachment is a result of these patterns set in childhood and that the patterns remain relatively stable over time
(Hazan & Shaver, 1994; Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw, 1988). Following from these assumptions, researchers have posited attachment types for adults (Bartholomew &
Horowitz, 1991) including secure (comfortable with both autonomy and intimacy), preoccupied (preoccupied with intimacy), dismissing (dismissing of intimacy), and fearful (fearful of intimacy).
The primary purpose of attachment is believed to be part of human evolution, with the intent being to increase the likelihood of infant survival by keeping close proximity with its caregiver. A more modern understanding of attachment has been stretched to include the extent to which the infant demonstrates curious behavior from which they learn from the everexpanding environmental experiences (Bowbly,
1988; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988). This modern view of attachment suggests that infants explore and learn from their surround environment and use their caregivers as a
"secure base" from which they continue to expand their exploration. Therefore, the attachment an infant has with its caregiver is a major development formed not only for survival, but also for their emotional, social, and cognitive development (Posada, et al., 1995; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986).
Attachment Theory provides a foundation for the relationshiprelated needs that must be met in order for relational partners to feel satisfied. The core of all relational needs is the desire to feel protected, loved, and secure. This theory also Mother/Daughter Closeness 32 suggests that certain personal needs and preferences results from a person's previous relationship history with attachment figures. According to attachment theory, satisfying and close adult relationships are achieved only when one's attachment related needs are largely met.
This perspective on closeness is applicable across the lifespan because, according to Bowbly (1982), the need for attachment figures persists "from the cradle to the grave" (p. 208). Over time, however, relationships with an attachment figure will change and develop new ways of interaction, especially in MDRs. Therefore attachment and levels of closeness evolve from infancy to adulthood.
Mother/Child Attachment
Attachment refers to the close emotional bond that is formed between an infant and caregiver and endures over time (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowbly, 1988).
An infant's attachment is represented by behaviors that function to keep the caregiver in close proximity (e.g., crying, clinging, separation anxiety), especially in times of a present threat (Bowbly, 1988). The parental side of attachment is understood through the idea that maternal responsiveness, sensitivity, and warmth seem to be reciprocated by the most adaptive forms of attachment behavior (i.e., proximity seeking and exploratory behaviors) by infants (Ainsworth, 1985; Goldberg, Perrota, &
Minde, 1986). Longitudinal studies have examined the development of attachment between mothers and infants (Ainsworth, et al., 1978; Egeland & Farber, 1984,
Isabella & Belsky, 1991; Isbella, Belsky, & Von Eye, 1989). These studies have Mother/Daughter Closeness 33 indicated that the degree of responsiveness, sensitivity, and warmth by mothers is important in fostering secure attachment in infants.
The future interpersonal associations of securely attached infants are expected to be influenced by early caretaker/child relationships through the internalization of the working models that represent the self as lovable and other people as trustworthy.
However, infants who have experienced early attachment difficulties are more likely to develop either pessimistic or hostile models of the social world and believe that they are incapable of developing lasting relationships (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988). With mothers typically being the early caretaker (Noller & Fitzpatrick, 1993), infants develop their attachment type based on mother/infant interactions.
The study of attachment through the influence adults' working models have on infants and young children has gained increased recognition (Bretherton et. al,
1981; Seifer & Schiller, 1995). This area of focus has been primarily on mothers rather than fathers, with the result that women who described their previous relationships as balanced and consistent tended to have infants and young children who were securely attached. In contrast, mothers who were either more dismissive or preoccupied with their relationships tended to have youngsters who displayed insecure attachment (Fongay, Steele, & Steele, 1991). Therefore, this study will examine the mothers' and daughters' attachment style and the influence it may have on closeness experienced in MDRs. Mother/Daughter Closeness 34
Conclusion, Hypothesis, and Research Questions
Existing literature on MDRs has focused on important transitions that call for a renegotiation of interaction. Two important transitions have been noted: adolescence and the entrance into adulthood. This research has shown that during adolescence, the closeness experienced in MDRs is usually at its lowest, whereas daughters’ transitions into adult roles usually promote a more mature, closer, and equal relationship. However, mother/daughter research is lacking an examination about why this increase of closeness occurs between adolescence and adulthood. Therefore, studying college students, who typically have adjusted out of adolescence and into young adulthood, could provide suggestions of what influences mother/daughter closeness before entrance into career, marriage, or motherhood.
The purpose of this study is to explore levels of closeness in MDRs at three points in time: 1. The start of high school, which reflects a firm stage of adolescence;
2. The start of college, which marks the transition to adulthood; 3. Present time. This study will also investigate some variables that may relate to level of closeness experienced in the relationship. These variables include communication frequency, type of communication, living arrangement (at home or away from home), time lived away from home, and attachment classification.
Past literature has studied communication between parents and children when they move away from home (Aquilino, 1997; Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Lapsley, Rice
& Fitzgerald, 1990; MarketTool Inc., 2006). Aquilino's (1997) study suggested that Mother/Daughter Closeness 35 the act of children leaving home for college resulted in more satisfied parent/child relations. Other studies suggested that the more secure parent/child relationships are results in more frequent communication (Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Lapsley, Rice, &
Fitzgerald, 1990). Finally, MarketTool Inc. (2006) survey suggested that parent/child communication becomes more open as children enter college. However, within the past decade, options for communicating have changed drastically. There are now numerous methods and options when it comes to communicating to one another that were not present in the last century and even decade. Research has yet to study if the type(s) of communication in MDRs affects their level of closeness experienced. This has led to the development of two research questions.
RQ1: Is there a relationship between the current frequency of communication that
exists between mothers and daughters and the closeness felt in their
relationships?
RQ2: Is there a relationship between the current types of communication used
between mothers and daughters and the closeness felt in their relationships?
Longitudinal studies have examined the development of attachment between mothers and infants (Ainsworth, et al., 1978; Egeland & Farber, 1984, Isabella &
Belsky, 1991; Isbella, Belsky, & Von Eye, 1989). These studies have indicated that the degree of responsiveness, sensitivity, and warmth by mothers is important in fostering secure attachment in infants. Secure attachment is characterized by being comfortable with both intimacy and autonomy. Attachment theory suggests that the Mother/Daughter Closeness 36 quality of the relationship between parents and their children during the transition from adolescence to adulthood is strongly influenced by earlier experiences. Past research also suggests that college students who report close emotional bonds (secure attachment) with their parents had more contact with their parents than less secure students. Past research has led to one Hypothesis:
H1: Mother/daughter dyads that have a secure attachment in comparison to
preoccupied, dismissing, or fearful attachment will report higher levels of
closeness and will communicate more frequently.
This study is examining mother/daughter closeness at three different stages of relational development: time daughter starts high school, time daughter starts college, current relationship. Studying MDRs at these three stages will measure closeness during the time mothers and daughters typically struggle to find a balance between connectedness and autonomy up until the time they typically enter adultlike roles.
When daughters' transition out of adolescence and into early adulthood does the
MDR also change in levels of closeness? This has led to research question three:
RQ3: Are there differences in perceived levels of closeness between mothers and
daughters at the three stages of development?
Literature on children leaving the home has focused on attachment association, the “normal” process, and the quality of the relationship (Aquilino, 1997; Bengston &
Kuypers, 1971; SeiffgeKrenke, 2006). However, existing literature has not looked at how long the child has lived away from home and the level of closeness experienced. Mother/Daughter Closeness 37
This study will examine the daughters’ transition into college and how patterns of interaction (attachment type, communication frequency and communication types) may affect the closeness experienced in the MDR. This has led to research question four:
RQ4: Is there a relationship between the length of time that a daughter has lived
away from home and the current closeness felt in mother/daughter
relationships?
The purpose of the study is to examine the levels of closeness in mother/daughter dyads from the transition out of adolescence and into young adulthood. This study wants to examine whether attachment type, communication frequency, communication type, and living arrangement are related to the current level of relational closeness in MDRs. This has led to the development of research question five:
RQ5: Which variable (attachment type, communication frequency, communication
type, living arrangement) has the greatest impact on the current level of
closeness experienced in the MDR? Mother/Daughter Closeness 38
Chapter Two: Methodology
Participants
The young adult participants in this study were fulltime enrolled students at a mediumsized Midwestern university. The students were recruited from a variety of communication classes to provide the probability of obtaining a more diverse population of participants. These participants then recruited their mothers to participate in the study. The majority of the student participants received extra credit for their involvement in this study.
Although the focus on the research was to specifically study the mother/daughter relationships (MDRs), we did not want to exclude the willing males from participating in the study. The received mother/son data was excluded from this study. In total, 85 surveys were received from young adult daughters and their mothers. The daughters (N= 85) ranged from ages 18 to 41 (M = 21.43; SD = 3.73).
Mothers (N=32) ranged from ages 3962 (M = 49.74; SD =4.84) for mothers. The participants were given one week to fill out and return the surveys.
Instruments
Participants (children and mothers) will each complete a survey packet containing several measures.
Demographics. This questionnaire asks about gender, age, relationship role, approximate time of child living away from home, approximate mileage of students' residence to campus. Mother/Daughter Closeness 39
Frequency of Communication. The frequency mother/daughter communication will be measure by the participants responding to the survey's question "How often do you communicate with your mother/daughter? Participants are to chose the best of the five choices that account for they dyads' communication frequency. The frequency choices range from "daily" to "Less than once per month."
Type of Communication. The method(s) that mothers and daughters use to communicate will be measured through a survey question. This variable is measure by asking participants to think about how often they use each of the following methods to communicate: facetoface, phone, email, text messages, instant messaging, letters, personal webpages, or other. Next to each communication type, participants are asked to write their best guess at the percentage of communication spent in that way. It is asked that their total adds up to 100 percent of communication time.
Relationship Questionnaire. Bartholomew and Horowitz's (1991) Relationship
Questionnaire (RQ) is a single item measure made up of four short paragraphs. Each paragraph describes a prototypical attachment pattern as it applies in close adult peer relationships. Participants are asked to rate their degree of association to each prototype on a 7point scale. An individual might rate him or herself something like:
Secure 6, Fearful 2, Preoccupied 1, Dismissing 4. Utilizing the RQ will provide a profile of an individual's attachment feelings and behavior.
Index of Relational Closeness. The Index of Relational Closeness (IRC) uses 7 point semantic differentials to measure seven specific items: closed/opened; Mother/Daughter Closeness 40 unsupportive/supportive; secure/vulnerable; empty/full; nurturing/ignored; dependent/independent; worthwhile/useless. It also includes three universal measures of closeness items of very distant/very close. An example question asked
"Before your child started college, how do you think they perceived your relationship to be?"
Four versions of this index were created by combining elements of the Marital
Opinion Questionnaire (Houston, McHale, & Crouter, 1986), Social Identity
Questionnaire (Weisz & Wood, 2000), Quality of Relationships Inventory (Pierce,
Sarason, & Sarason, 1991). The IRC will be used to measure the current closeness experienced in MDRs.
The measured adjectives full/empty and worthwhile/useless will be used to assess relational closeness in MDRs. These adjectives originated from Houston,
McHale, & Crouter's (1986) Marital Opinion Questionnaire (MOQ), commonly used to study relationship satisfaction (e.g., Huston and Vangelisti, 1991). In addition to utilizing some of the MOQ's measurable adjectives for the IRC, the 7point semantic differential design of the IRC modeled after the MOQ design.
The IRC includes mothers' and daughters' perceptions of nurturing/uncaring and supportive/unsupportive when assessing the closeness experienced in their relationship. These adjectives are included in the IRC and are derived from Weisz and Wood's (2000) Social Identity Questionnaire (SIQ). The SIQ was developed to measure how relationshipspecific supports for social identities predict levels of Mother/Daughter Closeness 41 closeness in college students' samesex friendships. With the SIQ being a tool used to study samesex friendships it is applicable to take some of the SIQ's components to study MDRs.
The adjectives open/closed from Pierce, Sarason, and Sarason's (1991) Quality of Relationships Index (QRI) was utilized to aid in measuring mother/daughter closeness by including them in the IRC. The QRI is commonly used to study perceptions of social support in relationshipspecific dyads (i.e., Badr, Acitelli, Duck,
& Carl, 2001; Weisz & Wood, 2005). A QRI question asks "To what extent could you turn to this person for advice about problems?" The QRI helped support and include the index item openess/closedness as a gauge of closeness for the IRC.
Past findings suggest that trust is related to selfdisclosure, time spent with person, and relationship type (Wheeless & Andersen, 1978). Ultimately, relationships that value their connection will have a goal to maintain or improve their interpersonal understanding which often involves changes in closeness. This improvement or maintenance typically occurs through disclosure which makes people highly vulnerable to another (Finkenaurer, Engels, Branje, & Meeus, 2004).
The more secure you are with whom you disclose to, the less vulnerable you feel. Past research also suggests that secure relationships are closer than less secure relationships
(Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988). Therefore, the IRC contains the index item secure/vulnerable to assist measuring closeness in MDRs. Mother/Daughter Closeness 42
Levels of closeness will be measured by using four versions of the IRC specifically designed for the analysis of closeness between mothers and daughters.
These four modified indices ask how (1) mothers feel about their relationship with their children at the three stages of relationship development, (2) children feel about their relationship with their mothers at the three stages of relationship development, how (3) mothers perceive their children felt/feels about the relationship at the three relational stages, and how (4) children perceive their mothers felt/feels about the relationship at the three stages of relational development (start of high school, start of college, now).
Procedure
Participants who will be able to see their mothers over Thanksgiving break or
Winter holiday break will be given one large envelope that contains two smaller envelopes: one envelope for them, and one for their mothers. The envelopes will be labeled "mother" or "child" and be coded to ensure confidentiality but allow the researcher to correctly identify the mother/child pairs. Each envelope will contain a consent form, instruction sheet, demographic form, and one survey. The consent form, as noted in the instruction sheet, is required to be reviewed by all participants.
The completion and return of the surveys will indicate their consent to participate in the study.
Each participant will be asked to fill out one demographic form, the Index of
Relational Closeness, and the Relationship Questionnaire. Survey instructions Mother/Daughter Closeness 43 indicate that each participant should complete the surveys in a private room, place their completed surveys back in the original envelope, and reseal the envelope. The student participant will then place both sets of completed data into one envelope.
When the envelope is returned to the researcher, the student participant will be asked to place the data in a large file. The surveys probably will take no longer than fifteen minutes to complete. The researcher's phone number and email will be provided to all participants so they can contact the researcher with any questions.
Data Analysis
Because this study’s primary focus is MDRs, nonmother/daughter pairs will be excluded from the analyses. To analyze the data a series of quantitative tests will be used. Research Questions 1, 2, and 3 will utilized oneway ANOVA to determine if differences exist between closeness and frequency of communication, closeness and type of communication, and closeness and attachment type on MDRs. Research
Question 4 will be analyzed by using bivariate correlations to determine if there is a relationship between closeness and amount of time daughters have lived away from home. Research Question 5 will be examined using linear regression analysis to discover which independent variable (communication frequency, communication type, length of time daughters have lived away from home, and attachment type) has the greatest impact on the dependent variable of closeness.
Oneway ANOVA Mother/Daughter Closeness 44
Oneway ANOVA will be used to determine if a difference exists between the dependent variable (closeness) and the independent variables (frequency of communication, type of communication, attachment type) being tested. The purpose of Research Question 1 is to determine if frequency of communication in MDRs affects the level of closeness experienced. For example, is there a difference between closeness experienced in MDRs that communicate daily to the closeness experiences in MDTs that talk 13 times per week?
The purpose of Research Question 2 is to determine if the type of communication in MDRs affects the level of closeness experienced. For example, is there a difference in mother/daughter closeness and communication via cell phone in comparison to mother/daughter dyads that talk facetoface?
Research Question 3 examines if mothers and daughters have different perceptions of closeness at each stage of development. For example, do mother/daughter dyads experience the same level of closeness at the time the daughter starts college or do they have different perceptions of the closeness experienced at that stage?
The hypothesis predicts mother/daughter dyads that have a secure attachment in comparison to preoccupied, dismissing, or fearful attachment will report higher levels of closeness and will communicate more frequently. Using oneway ANOVA will help determine if there is a relationship between the independent variable of closeness and the dependent variable of attachment type. Mother/Daughter Closeness 45
Bivariate Correlation
To test Research Question 4 a bivariate correlation will be used. Utilizing bivariate correlation will allow for the simultaneous analysis of two variables to determine if there is a relationship between them. The purpose of Research Question
4 is to determine if there is a relationship between the length of time a daughter has lived away from home and the current closeness felt in mother/daughter relationships.
In other words, is there a difference between MDRs in levels of closeness when the daughter has lived away from home for less than one year compared to MDRs where the daughter has lived away from home for more than 4 years?
Linear Regression Analysis
A linear regression analysis will be performed to test Research Question 5.
The purpose of Research Question 5 is to determine what variable (communication frequency, communication type, living arrangement, attachment type) has the greatest impact on the current level of closeness experienced in the MDR. Utilizing a linear regression analysis will examine which independent variable (communication frequency, communication type, living arrangement, and attachment type) has the greatest affect on the dependent variable (closeness). Mother/Daughter Closeness 46
Chapter Three: Results
Research Question 1
The goal of Research Question (RQ) 1 was to determine if there was a relationship between the current frequency of communication that exists between mothers and daughters and the closeness felt in their relationship. Results suggested that mothers and daughters who communicated 1 to 3 times per month had significantly lower scores of closeness than all other frequencies. The results also suggested that mothers and daughters who communicated 1 to 3 times per week had significantly lower scores than those who talked daily. Essentially, there is a positive relationship between perceptions of closeness and frequency of communication.
Table 1
Communication Frequency and Reported Levels of Closeness in MDRs ______IRC Communication N Subset 1 Subset 2 Subset 3 Frequency 13 times per 8 5.1563 month 13 times per 71 5.8439 week 46 times per 49 6.3214 6.3214 week Daily 39 6.5406 Mother/Daughter Closeness 47
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked whether a relationship existed between the current types of communication used between mothers and daughters and the closeness felt in their relationships. The different types of communication surveyed were faceto face, phone, email, text messages, instant messages, letters, and social networking sites (e. g. MySpace, Facebook). Respondents were asked to approximate the percentage of communication time spent using each of these forms so that the total across all forms equaled 100 percent. The only communication type significantly related to higher levels of closeness in mother/daughter relationships (MDRs) was facetoface communication. However, the statistical significance seemed to be a consequence of sample size. The actual reported correlation was only .22, which is quite small. Therefore, there appears to be little or no relationship between communication type and the closeness felt by both mothers and daughters in this sample. Mother/Daughter Closeness 48
Table 2
Communication Type and Reported Levels of Closeness in MDRs ______
Faceto Phone Email Text Msg. Instant Letters Social Face Msg. Ntwrking Sites FacetoFace Pearson Corr. 1 Sig.(2tailed) N 165 Phone Pearson Corr. .760** 1 Sig. (2tailed) .000 N. 165 170 Email Pearson Corr. .282** .272** 1 Sig. (2tailed) .004 .005 N 103 105 105 Text Msg. PearsonCorr. .115 .154 .212 1 Sig. (2tailed) .518 .377 .288 N 34 35 27 35 Instant Msg. Pearson Corr. .452 .450 .039 .600 1 Sig. (2tailed) .140 .142 .904 .590 N 12 12 12 3 12 Letters Pearson Corr. .151 132 .255 .494 .500 1 Sig. (2tailed) .502 .531 .278 .260 .667 N 22 25 20 7 3 25 Social Pearson Corr. .508 .404 .323 .737 1.000** 1.000** 1 Ntwrking Sign. (2tailed) .199 .321 .436 .155 Sites N 8 8 8 5 2 2 8 IRC Pearson Corr. .224** .158* .103 .087 .287 0.98 .330 Sign. (2tailed) .004 .041 .295 .619 .365 .642 .424 N 163 168 105 35 12 25 8
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 predicted that mothers and daughters having secure attachment
type will report a) higher level of closeness and b) more frequent communication
than those who attachment types are preoccupied, dismissing, or fearful. Results
showed no support for either prediction. Mothers and daughters with a reported
secure attachment type considered their relationships no closer than those who Mother/Daughter Closeness 49 reported a preoccupied, dismissing, or fearful attachment type. The results also suggested a null hypothesis: frequency of communication in MDRs has no relationship to attachment type.
Research Question 3
The goal of Research Question 3 was to determine if there were differences in the perceived levels of closeness between mothers and daughters at the three stages of development (start of high school, start of college, present). The data show that mothers felt significantly higher levels of closeness toward their daughters than their daughters felt toward them at both the beginning of high school (t (168) = 3.35, p
= .001) and at the beginning of college (t (168) = 2.43, p < .05) but not presently (t
(168) = .83, ns).
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked whether there was a relationship between the length of time daughters had lived away from home and the current closeness felt in
MDRs. Results indicated that mothers and daughters who had never lived apart had significantly higher current closeness ratings than mothers and daughters who had lived apart for any length of time (F (17) = 3.51, p < .001). However, for the mother/daughter pairs who had lived apart, the length of time spent apart had no relationships to their reported closeness now.
Research Question 5: The purpose of Research Question 5 was to see which of the variable(s) (attachment type, communication frequency, communication type, living Mother/Daughter Closeness 50 arrangement was most significantly related to closeness in MDRs. The three variables shown to have a significant relationship were entered as predictor variables in a regression equation. Results suggested only two of these made a significant contribution to perceptions of closeness in MDRs: Frequency of communication and amount of time spent communicating facetoface (see Table 3).
Table 3
Predictor Variables and the Greatest Impact on Closeness in MDRs ______
Variable B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Never Left .023 .077 .024 .299 .765 Home
Communication .388 .075 .376 5.144 .000** Frequency
FacetoFace .007 .003 .194 2.484 .014* Communication
Note: * = p < .05 ** = p < .001 Mother/Daughter Closeness 51
Chapter Four: Discussion
Introduction
Relationships between parents and their children who are in transition from adolescence to adulthood has been an understudied topic (SeiffgeKrenke, 2006).
This study applied Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982; 1973) to examine closeness in mother/daughter relationships (MDRs) when the daughter transitions out of adolescence and into young adulthood. Participants were asked to reflect upon the closeness felt with their mother or daughter and three different stages of relationship development to measure possible changes in perceptions of closeness. In order to understand the possible differences of mother/daughter closeness, different variables were studied in relation to closeness. These variables include frequency of communication, communication type, living arrangement, and attachment type.
Some of the study's results were consistent with prior research, while some results suggested new avenues for examinations of mother/daughter closeness.
Communication Frequency and Closeness
According to this study, the more frequently mothers and daughters communicated with each other, the higher their reported levels of relational closeness.
More specifically, mothers and daughters who reported communicating 1 to 3 times per month had significantly lower scores of closeness than the dyads who communicated more frequently (e.g., 13 times per week, 46 times per week, or daily). Mothers and daughters who communicated 1 to 3 times per week had Mother/Daughter Closeness 52 significantly lower scores than those who talked daily, although there were no significant differences between those who communicated 46 times per week and daily. These data suggests a tipping point of increased closeness between mothers and daughters who communicate 46 times per week than those who communication
13 times per week. These results support the findings from two different studies on frequency of communication in first semester college students and their families
(Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Lapsley, Rice, & Fitzgerald, 1990). The past research suggested that students who report close emotional bonds with their parents had more contact with their parents than those who reported less closeness.
Both the present and past study's findings can be explained through
Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982, 1973, 1980). Attachment Theory suggests that certain personal needs and preferences result from a relationship's history with attachment figures (e.g., parents). It also predicts that close adult relationships are attained only when one's attachmentrelated needswhich often include feeling protected, loved, and securewere met. When mothers and daughters communicate and interact more frequently, it may suggest that their needs are being met.
Therefore they continue their frequent interaction pattern. Closeness is hard to conceptualize; however, most scholars argue that closeness is manifested in a high level of mutual knowledge, a sense of dependability in the relationship (Floyd, 1996), mutual devotion, sharing, commitment (Spooner, 1982), and strong desire to interact with each other (Sternberg, 1986). This suggests mothers and daughters who Mother/Daughter Closeness 53 communicate more frequently with one another have higher closeness ratings because they feel their relational needs are being met. In other words, close mothers and daughters communicate more frequently because they may view their relational investment as rewarding, thereby continuing their frequent interaction.
Types of Communication and Closeness
Although the data suggested that facetoface communication was linked to higher levels of closeness in MDRs, the statistical significance seemed to be a result of sample size. Therefore, the type of communication mothers and daughters used was only loosely associated with the closeness experienced in the relationship.
Past research was unable to suggest how the type(s) of communication used in a relationship may affect the relational closeness experienced. However, the popularity of communication types in this study resembled the results of the
MarketTool Inc. (1996) online survey about parent/college student communication.
In this study, the most popular form of mother/daughter communication was by phone. Communicating via phone was also the most popular mode of communication found between parents and their college student in an online survey (MarketTool Inc.,
1996). The second most frequent form of communication in both the current and past studies was facetoface communication. Electronic mail (email) was rated the third most popular method of parent/child communication in both the current and
MarketTool Inc. study. Mother/Daughter Closeness 54
Although new methods of communication have been developed within the last several years, telephone, facetoface communication, and email are still the most popular methods for parent/child communication. Further research on today's college students may help explain why these communication types are so popular.
The majority of traditional college students today are individuals who were born from 1980 and before 1994. This age group is classified as Generation Y, also known as the "Millennial Generation." There are some trends found in Generation Y members who could help explain the current characteristics of the mother/young adult daughter relationship.
For example, many members of this generation are facing higher costs for higher education than previous generations. Even though the cost of higher education is the highest it has been, members of Generation Y are entering colleges and universities in large numbers. Also, the time needed to attain stable adult work roles has increased due both to the increased need for higher education and for the increase in job turnover in early adulthood (Duncan 1996; Oppenheimer et al. 1997).
In addition to financial reasons, the average age of marriage has also increased substantially, postponing full adulthood for most young adults and creating an ambiguous life course stage between the ages of 18 and 25 marked by “semi adulthood,” when living with parents might make substantial economic sense. All these factors have recently affected members of Generation Y, more so than previous Mother/Daughter Closeness 55 generations. Therefore, this may explain the popularity facetoface communication between parents and their young adult children.
In addition to facetoface communication, the popularity of phone and email communication among Generation Y members can also be explained through their technological and materialistic trends. In their recent book, Juno and Mastrodicasa
(2007) included a survey of 7,705 on college students in the United States to help explain technological trends of Generation Y. According to the survey, 97 percent of
Generation Y members own a computer and 94 percent own a cell phone. Therefore, access to instant communication is much more accessible with this generation than any other.
Attachment, Closeness, and Communication Frequency
These data suggest mothers and daughters with a secure attachment were no closer than the mothers and daughters with a preoccupied, dismissing, or fearful attachment. They also did not communicate any more frequently than the other groups. This finding does not support past findings on mother/child attachment. Past findings on parent/college student child strongly suggested that secure mothers and daughters would communicate more frequently (Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Lapsley,
Rice, & Fitzgerald, 1990) and be closer (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988; Fongay, Steele, &
Steele, 1991) in comparison to other attachment types.
A possible explanation to the contradicting results may be a product of participant demographics. The study's sample consisted of 85 mothers and 85 young Mother/Daughter Closeness 56 adult daughters. All of the daughter participants in this study were enrolled university students, 77 of whom lived away from home. This means 90 percent of daughter participants live independently from their mothers. Although mothers consistently reported higher levels of closeness with their daughters at each stage of development (start of high school, start of college, now), daughters still reported similar closeness with their mothers. In addition, both mothers and daughters were shown to report higher levels of relational closeness over time. This suggestion can further be explained in the following section.
Closeness Over Time
The data show that mothers felt significantly higher levels of closeness toward their daughters than their daughters felt toward them at both the beginning of high school and at the beginning of college, but not now. Chodorow (1978) offers insight to characteristics of the MDR as the daughter is starting and going through high school. She argues that mothers’ attitudes and views toward their daughters are ambivalent in that, “They desire both to keep daughters close and to push them into adulthood. This ambivalence in turn creates more anxiety in their daughters and provoke attempts by these daughters to break away” (p. 135). Chodorow believes this ambivalence is evident with the daughters’ start of high school. Lower closeness ratings from the daughters may reflect the felt pressure of the daughters’ need to break away from the relationship with their mother. Mother/Daughter Closeness 57
This reasoning resembles Fischer’s (1986) study of MDRs. While studying the mother/adolescent daughter relationship, Fischer found the most common relational pattern to be juxtaposition of intimate involvement and separation. More specifically, juxtaposition is trying to find a happy and satisfying balance during the relational transition from their past mother/child relationship to their new mother/adult child relationship. Fischer found that twothirds of MDRs fell into some form of involvement, along with some form of detachment. Specifically, during adolescence, daughters may prefer to be with friends and confide in them, rather than their mothers. For example, most of the daughters in Fischer's (1986) study had close friendships with their friends, romantic partners, or both. They reported sharing feelings and experiences with these friends that they might have kept secret from their mothers. Fischer believes the findings suggest that maintaining a balance between attachment and detachment may require a lot of effort. Adolescent daughters may not value finding a mutual relational balance as much as the mothers do.
These relational tensions can further be explained by Dialectical Theory
(Baxter, 1993; Baxter & Montgomery, 1998). The dialectical perspective views family relationships as ones that are continually changing and evolving. It asserts that specific relationships are defined and shaped over time as a result of the members' ability to manage their relational negotiations (Littlejohn, 2002). Dialectical tensions in MDRs are reflected in questions such as: How close can we remain and yet still Mother/Daughter Closeness 58 have a sense of independence? How do we maintain of sense of connectedness yet still remain separate? Dialectal Theory acknowledges the tension that may exist between mothers and daughtersespecially at times of relation transitionas they negotiate and renegotiate what it means to have a satisfying and functional relationship. It is often the transition from adolescence into early adulthood that relational dialects are clearly present.
The relationship between young adult daughters and their mothers directly follows a period of clear biological and social transition taking place during the daughters’ adolescent years (Parkes, 1971). Studies have shown that a daughter’s transition from adolescent to young adult results from a process of redefinition and renegotiation (e.g., Bengston and Kuyper, 1971; Turner, 1970). Often, when daughters move away to college and are living on their own for the first time, they show new levels of communication and a reduction in identification between their mothers and themselves (Fischer, 1981). This adjustment can help daughters mature into more independent young women and often initiates a deeper respect for mothers. This may explain why daughters tend to feel closer to their mothers as they age.
However, when daughters first start college, many move away from home for the first time, and those who do not are probably still trying to find a relational balance of connectedness and autonomy. Therefore, with the start of college often being recognized as a transition into early adulthood, many daughters are still trying to balance their adolescent relationship with their mothers with an adult relationship. Mother/Daughter Closeness 59
This relational transition could account for daughters reporting lower closeness ratings than their mothers at the daughters' start of college. Over time, mothers gradually reported higher levels of closeness with their daughters whereas over time, daughters had larger increases of reported levels of closeness with their mothers.
Therefore, over time mother/daughter closeness regresses towards a middle ground.
This study's results suggest, however, those differences are minimized over time. This could be attributed to the idea that after mothers and daughters have adjusted to the daughters' entrance into college they have also readjusted and renegotiated new ways of interacting in the relationship.
Living Arrangement and Closeness
The data suggested no connection between mother/daughter closeness and the length of time daughter has lived away from home. However, results did indicate that mothers and daughters who have never lived apart to be significantly close than those you have lived apart for any length of time. Past research suggests that one of the earliest transitions into adulthood involves leaving home and establishing residential independence (Goldscheider & Waite, 1991). Leaving the nest does not signify the end of the parent/child relationship, but often calls for relational adjustment and renegotiation. Although past research indicates that the high level of conflict that occurs during early and midadolescent children and parents decreases as children approach early adulthood (Laursen, Coy, & Collins, 1998; SeiffgeKrenke,
1999), the transition of the child leaving the home can present some difficulties. Mother/Daughter Closeness 60
Closeness and conflict in parent/child relationships have been found to be important mediating factors in the process of leaving home. In fact, female adolescents who are especially close to their parents may find more difficulty to physically separate from them, even when socially expected (Gilligan, 1982). This suggests that the daughters are struggling with achieving a new balance between connectedness and autonomy from the parents. However, parents who report having good relationships with their children were more likely to have an adult child living with them (Aquilino & Supple, 1991).
The present study found that mothers and daughters who have never lived away from one another were closer than those who had lived apart. This could be attributed to the fact that mothers and daughters who had never lived apart, never had to redefine or renegotiate their relationship to adjust to the daughters’ newfound independence. Therefore, these daughters’ might not have had as much difficulty finding a balance between connectedness and autonomy as the daughters who have lived away from home, which suggests a closer MDR. The mothers and daughters who had lived apart probably encountered more conflicts regarding the daughters’ new independence. The mothers may feel less important to their daughters during this time, and the daughters may feel overly independent of their mothers. This reaction may cause mothers and daughters to view their relationship in new and confusing ways, which might impact perceived relational closeness. Mother/Daughter Closeness 61
Variables and Closeness
This study's data suggests that frequency of communication and communicating facetoface are the biggest contributors to mother/daughter closeness.
It is interesting that the two variables that significantly contributed to mother/daughter closeness are also most likely to occur with mothers and daughters who have never lived apart. Although living arrangement did not significantly impact levels of closeness in MDRs overall, the data suggested that mothers and daughters who have never lived apart are closer than who have. Therefore mothers and daughters who still live together have the variables necessary for a closer MDR.
It could also suggest that mothers and daughters who communicate frequently and/or communicate facetoface have either never had issues redefining their relationship or that their relationship has already adjusted to the relational transitions. Also,
Attachment Theory (Bowbly, 1969/1982; 1973; 1980) predicts close adult relationships are achieved only when attachmentrelated needs are largely met. With communication being a significant role in any relationship, relational needs are often discussed, denied, or met through communication. Therefore, it seems close mothers and daughters are meeting their relation needs through the process of communication, whether it be frequency of communication, facetoface communication or both. Mother/Daughter Closeness 62
Limitations and Future Research
Introduction
Every mother/daughter relationship (MDR) has a history that is uniquely personalized. Often it is the relational history that influences the current relationship.
This study took a journey exploring how the MDR experiences levels of closeness as the daughters' transition out of adolescence and into early adulthood. The conclusions found in these pages will hopefully contribute to the existing and future research on MDRs.
To wrap up this study, the limitations, future research, and conclusion are explored. Throughout this study, limitations arose that affected how the research was conducted. These include barriers include instrumental and experimental design.
The knowledge gained from the results implicated many topics that would be worthwhile to pursue. These areas would expand and build upon this research. As this mother/daughter study draws to a close, the conclusions are shared in order to bring together the major findings of his research.
Limitations and Future Research
One probable limitation was the methodology used in this study. The use of selfadministered surveys for data collection contained two prominent problems. The first is that people’s reports of their feelings may not represent their actual feelings.
Although this concern has been appeased through careful and extensive research that found validity in behavioral and perceptual measures (Floyd & Morman, 1998), it is Mother/Daughter Closeness 63 still a valid concern to consider. The second cause for concern in regards to self assessed data is that participants will reply according to how they believe they should feel rather than how they actually feel. This concern is known as the social desirability effect, and is not a unique concern to selfreport measures or to any method of data collection.
Another limitation was asking the participants to report about their past behaviors and feelings from 5 or more years ago. This could have affected the validity of the Index of Relational Closeness and the data. To measure mother/daughter closeness over time more validly, future research should conduct a longitudinal study on the relationship.
A longitudinal study could provide more accurate measures of closeness in real time along with what might contribute to the change or consistency of closeness over time. This would allow mother/daughter closeness to be compared at each stage of development (start of high school, start of college, now) along with each set of variables (attachment type, communication frequency, communication type, living arrangement). Therefore we can see more accurately if the MDR changes not only in closeness but the aforementioned variables.
Another limitation was the purely quantitative focus. Although having a quantitative designed study allowed for getting a larger participant pool, it also prevented the ability to ask followup questions. Having personalized followup questions can provide the researcher with more information as to why the Mother/Daughter Closeness 64 participants felt or responded the way that they did. Utilizing followup questions might have helped reveal mother/daughter relational trends or patterns. Ultimately asking “why” questions could have provided more specific insight to mother/daughter closeness over time.
When entering the data, written comments about the questions and justification for given answers occurred several times. However, it only occurred on the data provided by mothers. Although the data were collected anonymously, the need for some mothers to justify their answers was interesting. This observation connects the study’s results and limitations nicely. Results suggested that mothers consistently rated their relationship with their daughter higher than the daughters’ ratings. Written justifications also suggested that followup questions might have been helpful when studying MDRs. Mothers, although aware they were undetectable, wanted to avoid any judgment that would label them as being a “bad” mother. This might have influenced inflated closeness ratings and written justifications with some of the mother participants.
To address these limitations, future research on this topic should incorporate both a quantitative and qualitative experimental design. This could help prevent the need for participants to feel they need to justify their numerical response with written comments. A triangulation experimental design could also help check the consistency of the participants’ numerical responses to their verbal responses. Also, although this research gave some new insight on the MDR, it could be expanded and Mother/Daughter Closeness 65 explained further. For instance, we know the more frequently mothers and daughters communicate with one another, the more likely they are to have a closer relationship.
However, what topics do they communicate about? Do the topics and intimacy of topics discussed suggest more frequent communication and a closer MDR? Also is there a pattern in who initiates the communication more frequently? Does the other party feel obligated or happy to participate in the attempted communication with their mother/daughter? These questions could be important indications as to why mothers and daughters communicate and feel the way they do.
A triangulation design could also help explain the mother/daughter experience of the daughter living away from home. Mothers and daughters could report how they felt during the five year transition into college and their feelings now. This could offer suggestions on how the mothers and daughters adjusted from living apart and how they have renegotiated their relationship over time. Studying this transition could provide a better insight to this understudied transition in the MDR.
Although mothers and daughters reported their relational closeness at three stages of development (start of high school, start of college, now), it would be beneficial to understand the reasoning behind their ratings. Using 7 point semantic differentials to measure closeness at the three stages of development did provide good data on the mother/daughter closeness over time. However, utilizing qualitative data in addition to quantitative could help expand on what we already know about mother/daughter closeness. For example, it could help explain the consistent or Mother/Daughter Closeness 66 changing levels of closeness in MDRs over time. Collecting participants' reasoning behind their answers could provide a different view on the mother/daughter relationship over time.
Future research on this topic should incorporate participant demographics such as mothers' relationship status, adoption, and birth order. All these variables could affect the MDR in multiple ways. For example is there a difference between mothers who are divorced, single, or married and the relationship they have with their daughters? A number of theories including Bowbly's (1969/1982; 1973; 1980)
Attachment Theory and Erikson's (1963) Stage Theory of Development, focus on the importance of the infant/caregiver relationship in the development of the child's basic sense of trust. Children who develop stable attachments to caretaker(s) expect to have good relationships with others, behave in ways that are likely to encourage this, and adopt a trusting orientation toward people (Belsky & Cassidy, 1995; Rotenberg,
1995). Conversely, a parental divorce may negatively impact the parent/child relationship by affecting the quantity, quality, or timing of parent/child interaction.
Especially at the time of the breakup, parents might have adjustment difficulties and feelings of anger or depression that lead to preoccupation, emotional distance, and diminished parenting (Amato, 2000). Therefore, the mothers' relationship status could impact the levels of closeness experienced in the MDR.
A biological mother/daughter relationship in comparison to adoptive mother/daughter relationships is another demographic worth studying. In other Mother/Daughter Closeness 67 words, do adopted daughters and their adopted mothers suggest different or similar relationships when comparison to biological mothers and daughters. Few empirical studies of these assumptions about adoptive parents exist (Brodzinsky & Huffman,
1988; Marquis & Detweiler, 1985). Also, studies that have been done, offer somewhat conflicting conclusions (e. g., Berry, 1992; Brodzinsky & Huffman, 1988; Benson,
Sharma, & Roehlkepartai, 1994). Adoptive mother/daughter relationships are lacking research and should be studied as a separate and unique relationship when studying
MDRs.
According to the Resource Dilution Model, a model used widely to frame research on birth order in childhood, suggests that as a greater number of offspring become members of a family unit, the ability to provide equal resources to them all declines. This results in children being benefited unequally (Downey, 2001; Hertwig,
Davis, & Sulloway, 2002). Downey's (2001) research on families and the number of siblings present implied that children born first into a family first would have the greatest advantage, whereas other children would be increasingly disadvantaged the later they joined the family. Empirical research has supported this argument in the early years of life. As the number of siblings increases, parents spend less time in activities such as reading, talking with, and supervising each child (Blake, 1989;
Downey, 1995; Hertwig et al., 2002; Marjoribanks, 1999; Powell & Steelman, 1990).
Further, as Hertwig et al. (2002) illustrated, even when parents make an effort to evenly divide interpersonal resources as their families grow, firstborn children Mother/Daughter Closeness 68 receiver the greatest overall investment because of their time spent without sibling competition.
In contrast, Suitor's and Pillemer's (2007) study on mothers' favoritism of children later in life suggested that it was the lastborn children who were mostly likely to be named as those whom their mothers were most emotionally close. First born children were most likely to be chosen as those to whom mothers would turn when facing personal problems. Middleborn children were substantially underrepresented in mothers' choices. It seems that birth order does impact the mother/child relationship. Analysis on daughters' birth order and the closeness experienced in the MDR would provide additional research and suggestions of the variables that may influence the mother/daughter bond.
More demographic information of the participants can allow for greater comparison and possibly new research suggestions. It could also help understand if certain relational characteristics such as mothers' relationship status, adoption, or birth order impacts the relational qualities among the different MDRs.
Conclusion
This study joins the abundance of research that has been done on mother daughter relationships (MDRs). However this study focused on an understudied time period of the relationship: the daughters' transition from adolescence into young adulthood. This study examined the perceived levels of closeness in MDRs during three stages of development (start of high school, start of college, and now). Mother/Daughter Closeness 69
Specifically, numerous variables were used to see what could be attributed to the reported mother/daughter closeness. The results highlight four significant findings.
First, the more frequently mothers and daughters communicate, the closer their relationship will seem to both. Second, mothers reported higher levels of closeness with their daughters at the daughters' start of high school, start of college, but not now. Third, mothers and daughters who have never lived apart are closer than those you have lived apart. Fourth, communication frequency had the greatest impact on mother/daughter closeness.
This study sought to examine closeness in MDRs during a time when mothers and daughters typically struggle to find a balance between connectedness and autonomy. The mother/daughter bond is one that continuously evolves while facing challenges throughout the relationship's life span. Although only a sliver of the MDR was examined in this study, it did offer new insights and implications for this emotional, enduring and active intergenerational bond. Mother/Daughter Closeness 70
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Appendix A: Consent Form
Informed Consent to Participate in Human Subject Research Marilyn Dwyer, a graduate student at the University of WisconsinStevens Point would appreciate your participation in a research study designed to study the mother/daughter relationship in relation to the closeness experienced by the mother and daughter. You will be asked to complete some surveys that ask you to share how you relate to your mother/daughter to maintain closeness and the degree of closeness you feel you share. Please keep the survey confidential from the viewing others, especially your mother (parent)/child.
While this information could be obtained by interviewing you, we feel that the survey is the quickest and easiest method for obtaining this information.
We anticipate no risk to you as a result of your participation in this study other than the inconvenience of the time to complete the survey. You could, however, experience some discomfort if you have had an uncomfortable interaction with your parent/child and your completing the survey causes you to remember this. If this occurs, please contact Marilyn Dwyer for a counseling referral or contact UWSP's counseling center at (715) 3463553.
While there may be no immediate benefit to you as a result of your participation in this study, it is hoped that we may gain valuable information about the relationship between a mother and child that will be of future value to society.
The information that you give us on the questionnaire will be recorded in anonymous form. Although your signature will be on the consent form, this study is designed to be unable to connect consent forms with surveys. Even Marilyn Dwyer, the conductor of this study, will be unable to identify the subjects. All completed surveys will be kept in a locked file box at the residence of Marilyn Dwyer and will not be available to anyone not directly involved in this study.
If you want to withdraw from the study at any time you may do so without penalty. You have the right to refuse to answer any question on the surveys you feel uncomfortable answering. You will not be penalized in any way for leaving answers blank. The information on you up to that point would be destroyed.
Extra credit may be provided for participating in this study, and will not be dependent on a completed survey from their mother/parent or legal guardian.
Once the study is completed, we would be glad to give you the results. In the Mother/Daughter Closeness 86 meantime, if you have any questions, please ask us or contact: Marilyn Dwyer Graduate Student/Instructional Assistant Communication Department University of WisconsinStevens Point Stevens Point, WI 54481 Email: [email protected] Phone: 906.280.4242
If you have any complaints about your treatment as participant in this study, please call or write: Dr. Jason Davis, Chair Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects Department of Business & Economics University of WisconsinStevens Point Stevens Point, WI 54481 (715) 3464598 Although Dr. Davis will ask your name, all complaints are kept in confidence.
Your signature, completion and submission of the survey to the researcher represents your consent to serve as a subject in this research.
Please Sign: ______This research project has been approved by the UWSP Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects. ****DO NOT PLACE SIGNED FORM IN ENVELOPE. PAPERCLIP THIS FORM TO OUTSIDE OF ENVELOPE. Mother/Daughter Closeness 87
Appendix B: Letter to Participants
Dear Participants
Thank you for taking the time to complete these surveys. I hope you find participating in this study a valuable experience. Attached to this sheet are three separate surveys and one demographic form. Please have your answers only reflect the relationship you have with the other participant (mother/parent/child or other) taking the surveys. Although some questions may seem repetitive, please fully complete the surveys. This should not take you more than 20 minutes.
Please follow the instructions below: Ø Read over the instructions of each survey carefully. Ø Follow the instructions. Ø Complete all questions on all three surveys and the demographic form. Ø Do the surveys by yourself in a private space. Ø Complete the surveys in an area where interruption is unlikely. Ø Answer honestly. Remember, the answers you give cannot be link back to you or anyone else. Ø Seal the envelope in a way that you feel secure in others inability to open it. Ø Do not violate other’s confidentiality by opening the sealed envelope. Ø Do not discuss the survey with your family. Ø Do not put your signed consent form inside sealed envelope. Paperclip the consent form to outside of sealed envelope. Mother/Daughter Closeness 88
Thank you for your time and information. I appreciate your contribution to my educational experience. If you have any questions or concerns feel free to email or call me.
Respectfully,
Marilyn Dwyer Graduate Student/Instructional Assistant Divisions of Communication UWStevens Point [email protected] 906.280.4242 Mother/Daughter Closeness 89
Appendix C: Mother/Child Demographics
Age______
Your Gender (circle one): Male Female
Your relationship role (circle one): Mother Daughter Son Other:______
Approximate amount of time you have lived away from home (circle one):
Never left home Less than 1 year 12 years 34 years More than 4 years
How often do you communicate with your parent? (circle one)
Daily 46 times per week 13 times per week
1 3 times per month Less than once per month
I would like you next to think about how often you use each of the following methods to communicate with your mother (parent). Next to each method, write your best guess at the percentage of communication time spent in that way. All your answers should add up to 100% of your communication time.
Type of communication ______FacetoFace ______Phone ______Email ______Text messages ______Instant messaging ______Letters ______Personal webpages (for example: Facebook, MySpace) ______Total: 100% Mother/Daughter Closeness 90
Appendix D: Mother Survey
I would like you to think about how your child might feel about your since they started college, and use the following words to describe it. For, example if you think your daughter has felt your relationship has been very empty since beginning college put an X in the space next to the word “empty.” If you think she feels very full, put an X next to “full”. If you think it has been somewhere in between, put an X where you think it belongs. PUT AN X IN ONLY ONE SPACE ON EACH LINE.
Closed: ______:Open
Unsupportive: ______:Supportive
Secure: ______:Vulnerable
Empty: ______:Full
Nurturing: ______:Uncaring
Worthwhile: ______:Useless
Please read the following three questions and place an X on the space that best reflects your feelings about each of the questions below. PUT AN X IN ONLY ONE SPACE ON EACH LINE.
When your daughter/son started high school, how do you think s/he perceived your relationship? Very distant: ______: Very close
Before your daughter/son started college, how close do you think s/he perceived your relationship? Very distant: ______: Very close
How close do you think your daughter/son feels to you now?
Very distant: ______: Very close Mother/Daughter Closeness 91
Appendix E: Child Survey
I would like you to think about your relationship with your mother (parent) since you started college, and use the following words to describe it. For, example if you think that your relationship with your mother since you started college has been very empty put an X in the space next to the word “empty.” If you think it has been very full, put an X next to “full”. If you think it has been somewhere in between, put an X where you think it belongs. PUT AN X IN ONLY ONE SPACE ON EACH LINE.
Closed: ______:Open
Unsupportive: ______:Supportive
Secure: ______:Vulnerable
Empty: ______:Full
Nurturing: ______:Overlooked
Dependent: ______:Independent
Worthwhile: ______:Useless
Please read the following three questions and place an X on the space that best reflects your feelings about each of the questions below. PUT AN X IN ONLY ONE SPACE ON EACH LINE.
When you started high school, how close were you and your mother (parent)?
Very distant: ______: Very close
Before you started college, how close were you and your mother (parent)? Very distant: ______: Very close
How close are you and your mother (parent) now?
Very distant: ______: Very close Mother/Daughter Closeness 92
Appendix F: Attachment Survey
PLEASE READ THE DIRECTIONS!
PART I
The following are descriptions of four general relationship styles that people often report.
Directions: Please read each description and CIRCLE the letter corresponding to the style that best describes you or is closest to the way you generally are in your close relationships.
A. It is easy for me to become emotionally close to others. I am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being alone or having others not accept me.
B. I am uncomfortable getting close to others. I want emotionally close relationships, but I find it difficult to trust others completely, or to depend on them. I worry that I will be hurt if I allow myself to become too close to others.
C. I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I am uncomfortable being without close relationships, but I sometimes worry that others don't value me as much as I value them.
D. I am comfortable without close emotional relationships. It is very important to me to feel independent and selfsufficient, and I prefer not to depend on other or have other depend on me.
Please turn page over and complete part II. Mother/Daughter Closeness 93
Part II
Directions: Please rate each of the following relationship styles according to the extent to which you think each description corresponds to your general relationship style.
EXAMPLE:
Not at all Somewhat Very much like me like me like me
Style A. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Style B. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Style C. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Style D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ______
Please read and respond according to the directions above.
A. It is easy for me to become emotionally close to others. I am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being alone or having others not accept me.
B. I am uncomfortable getting close to others. I want emotionally close relationships, but I find it difficult to trust others completely, or to depend on them. I worry that I will be hurt if I allow myself to become too close to others.
C. I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I am uncomfortable being without close relationships, but I sometimes worry that others don't value me as much as I value them.
D. I am comfortable without close emotional relationships. It is very important to me to feel independent and selfsufficient, and I prefer not to depend on other or have other depend on me.
Not at all Somewhat Very much like me like me like me
Style A. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Style B. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Style C. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Style D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7