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Spatial and Temporal Variability of Carbon Stocks Within the River Spatial and temporal variability of carbon stocks within the River Colne Estuary By Leila Tavallali University of Essex A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Department of Biological sciences University of Essex February 2018 2 Abstract Saltmarshes are one of the most significant blue carbon sinks but there is a paucity of information regarding saltmarsh carbon stocks globally, consequently these habitats are not included in the global carbon budget. The aim of this study is therefore to better understand the spatial and temporal variation of saltmarsh sediment total organic carbon (TOC) content. Therefore, three saltmarshes along the salinity gradient of the Colne Estuary were studied. The effect of the study sites’ locations along the estuary, higher plant species distribution, above-ground biomass and aerobic respiration on TOC content was investigated. The spatial and temporal variation of sediment TOC content was investigated by monthly sampling from two habitats and three zones at each study site. There was a significant spatial variation in plant species distribution which could be due to zonation and the location of the sites along the estuary. Saltmarsh plants were the important driver of spatial and temporal variations in sediment TOC content. The sediment TOC content at the study sites in the lower (Colne Point) and the mid (Brightlingsea) estuary was significantly higher than the upper estuary (Wivenhoe) (P < 0.001, range: 9-25 Kg C m-2). The range of sediment TOC content of the studied saltmarshes was between 88% - 290% higher than other UK studied saltmarshes and between 4% -169% higher than the majority of the studied marshes in the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, if the sediment carbon content of the similar saltmarshes to the Colne estuary were taken into account it would suggest that the UK and global saltmarsh sediment TOC estimate would increase. It will take possibly about 100 years for the realignment saltmarshes at Essex to reach the carbon storage capacity of Colne Point. Therefore, the Colne Point natural saltmarsh is a very significant carbon reservoir that has been overlooked. 3 4 Acknowledgments I would like to dedicate my thesis to my loving brother, Dr. Ali Tavallali for supporting me before and during my PhD. It would not be possible without your unconditional assistance. I would also appreciate my loving husband’s encouragement and help, Luke Emmet, and my devoted parents. Words cannot express my gratitude and my appreciation for your unrestricted support especially during my PhD. I also want to express my great appreciation to my supervisors Professor David J. Smith and Professor Tracy Lawson for all their help and guidance during this PhD project. At the University of Essex, I would like to thanks Mr. Russell Smart, Mr. John Green, and Mrs. Sue Corbett and Mrs. Tania Cresswell-Maynard who help me to collect samples from the study sites for two years. I appreciate my colleagues at university who taught me how to apply R-Studio software for analysing my data; Dr. Madeline Giles (Maddy) and Dr. David Clark. I would like to thank Maddy and Luke for their proof reading and comments. I also thank my friends and colleagues at the School of Biological Sciences for their moral support and encouragement; Professor Nelson Fernandez, Mrs. Emma Revill, Mrs Amanda Clements and my dear friend Aisha (who is sadly not with us today). 5 Table of contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................... 4 Table of contents ......................................................................................................... 5 Table of figures ............................................................................................................ 9 Table of tables ............................................................................................................. 13 1. Chapter one - Introduction ................................................................................. 15 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 15 1.2 Coastal blue carbon ............................................................................................ 16 1.2.1 Saltmarsh ........................................................................................................... 19 1.2.1.1 Ecology and global distribution ............................................................... 19 1.2.1.2 Ecosystem services .................................................................................. 23 1.2.1.3 Carbon sequestration and storage .......................................................... 24 1.2.1.4 Comparison between saltmarshes in Europe and saltmarshes in America 26 1.2.1.5 Saltmarshes sink or source of carbon? ................................................... 27 1.2.1.6 The methods applied for measuring above-ground primary productivity in saltmarshes ............................................................................................................. 28 1.2.1.7 The methods applied for measuring carbon stock in saltmarshes ......... 32 1.3 Colne estuary ..................................................................................................... 41 1.4 The importance and novelty of this research .................................................... 43 1.5 Thesis hypothesis, aims and objectives ............................................................. 45 2. Chapter two - General Methodology ................................................................... 47 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 47 2.2 Spatial variability ................................................................................................ 47 2.2.1 Site description .................................................................................................. 47 2.2.1.1 Habitat types within studied saltmarshes ............................................... 51 2.2.1.2 Zone determination................................................................................. 51 2.3 Temporal variability ........................................................................................... 52 2.4 Sampling strategy ............................................................................................... 53 6 2.4.1 Above-ground vegetation survey and biomass ................................................. 53 2.4.1.1 Botanical survey ...................................................................................... 54 2.4.1.2 Above-ground biomass sampling ............................................................ 55 2.4.1.3 Daily temperature measurement ............................................................ 55 2.4.2 Below-ground sampling collection strategy (sediment samples) ...................... 56 2.5 Sample analysis .................................................................................................. 58 2.5.1 Above-ground biomass ...................................................................................... 58 2.5.1.1 Above-ground net primary productivity (ANPP) calculation .................. 58 2.5.2 Below-ground sample analysis (sediment samples) .......................................... 59 2.5.2.1 Sediment total organic carbon (TOC) content, bulk density and sediment water content .............................................................................................................. 59 2.5.2.2 Chlorophyll a ........................................................................................... 61 2.5.2.3 Sediment respiration ............................................................................... 62 2.5.2.3.1 Chemicals and solutions needed for measuring sediment basal respiration 63 2.5.2.3.2 BAS measurement procedure ............................................................... 63 2.5.2.3.3 Sediment BAS calculation ...................................................................... 64 2.6 Statistical analysis .............................................................................................. 65 2.6.1 The spatial and temporal variation of saltmarsh higher plant species diversity 66 2.6.2 Above-ground and below-ground variables analysis ......................................... 67 2.6.3 The relationship between measured variables .................................................. 68 3. Chapter three - The Temporal and Spatial Variation of Saltmarsh Higher Plants ... 70 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 70 3.2 Hypothesis, aims and objective ......................................................................... 72 3.3 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 73 3.4 Results ................................................................................................................ 74 3.4.1 Saltmarsh higher plant characteristics ............................................................... 74 3.4.1.1 Species composition and percentage cover ............................................ 74 3.4.1.2 The spatial and temporal pattern of species distribution ......................
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