Chapter -1 Introduction 1.1 Preamble 1.2 Sexual Behaviour In Ancient India 1.3 Sexual Behaviour Research in the West 1.4 Sexual Behaviour Research in India 1.5 Objectives of Research 1.6 Concepts and Definitions 1.6.1 Adolescence 1.6.2 Sexuality Chapter -1 Introduction 1.1 Preamble "Sex is as old as the world and man is the product of sex in more ways than one. Exploited by many and explored by not a few, it is a basic phenomenon that will never end - unless sex itself dies out. And that, of course, would mean the end of the world" (Brasch, 1975). Ancient Indian sages had appropriately understood the signal importance of sex in the life cycle of the human beings. "The first urge of a creature is hunger or thirst and the next is sex", is what one gets to read in the Chandogyopanishat III 17-1-3. (Incidentally, according to Kane, the period of Upanishads is thought to be roughly around 1000 BC). Hence Kama or sexual urge, was placed as one of the four Purusharthas (objectives of life), along with Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Dharma, Artha and Kama (righteous conduct, wealth and sex) are to be attained by man to complete his perfection in this life. Moksha (freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth) is of the other world and is attained after death, if one were fit for it. The three worldly objects of life were treated as 'sciences' and hence one finds the scholarly works of Manu and others on Dharma-Shastra, Kautilya's Artha- Shastra and the Kama-Shastra written and perfected by many sages and scholars. A list of some important works on this subject Is given on the next 7 page along with probable dates when the works were believed to have been completed. However, it is not possible to have a connected history of this literature with some meagre evidences, which have reached us after some two thousand years. 1.2 Sexual Behaviour in Ancient India There is hardly any ancient literature that gives the reader any idea about the sexual behaviour, of the population at large, in ancient times. One is required to deduce some inferences from indirect evidences. In an overview of the status of women in India, Altekar (1938) mentions that during the Vedic Age (2500 BC - 1500 BC), girls, after having undergone the 'Upanayana', were educated like the boys and age at marriage for girls was around 16-17 years. The girls had a choice of mate selection and romantic marriages (colloquially known as love marriages) did exist. The custom of 'Sati' did not exist and widow marriage was permitted, either regularly or through 'Niyoga'. Generally speaking the community showed proper concern and respect for women, by allowing them freedom in different activities of social and political life. A status, more or less similar to the earlier times continued to be accorded to women during the Age of the Later Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanishads (1500 BC - 500 BC), except for the fact that their proprietary rights were derecognized. Child marriages were unheard of, till this time. Basham (1963) mentions that young men in their early twenties would return home to resume the everyday life of their class. Illustration -1 Brief history of tfie sex literature of the ancient Hindus 1 Nandin - Kama-sufra(1000 chapters) - 677-6 B.C. 2. Shvetaketu - 500 chapters(summary of Kama-sutra) 3. Babhravya - 150 chapters( summary of Shvetaketu) 4. Vatsyayana - Kamashastra( Hand-book of the Science of Erotics) 5. Damodaragupta - Kuttani-matam{779 - 813 A, D.) 6. Kokkoka - Rati'Rahasya{ 12^^ century A. D.) 7. Padmasri - Nagar-sarvasvam{ 1351 A.D.) 8. Immadi Praudha-deva-raya - /?af/-rafna-prad/p//fa(1422-1440 A.D.) 9. Ananta - Kama-samuha{^457 A.D.) 10. Kalyana-malla - Ananga-Ranga{ 1488-1517 A. D.) 11. Kavisekhara Jyotirisvara - Pancha-sayaka{ date unknown) 12. Vyasa Janardana - Kama-prabodha{ie74-MQ9 A.D.) 13. Rudra - Smaradipika 14. Jaya-deva - Rati-manjari 15. Harihara - Rati-Rahasya The Kama-sutra has been divided into seven sections, namely: General or introductory, sexual union, wooing an unmarried girl for marriage, marital life, extra-marital relations, profession of prostitutes and medicines. Commentaries on each sections have been written by the following scholars: 1. General or introductory 2. On Sexual Union 3. On wooing an unmarried girl for marriage 4. On Marital Life 5. On Extra-marital Relations 6. On Profession of Prostitutes 7. On Medicines etc. Charayana Suvarnanabha Ghotakmukha Gonarda Gonikaputra • Dattakacharya Kuchumara Five commentaies on Kama-sutra: 1. Vatsyayana-sutra-sara - Kshemendra (1 f*^ century) 2. Jayamangala - Yasodhara 3. Kandarpa-chudamani - Virabhadra-deva 4. Commentary of Bhaskara Nrsimha 5 Commentarv of Malla-dev It was thought advisable for such men to marry as soon as possible. Ancient Indian medical authorities state that the best children are produced from mothers over sixteen, and apparently recognise the practice of chilci- marriage as occasionally occurring, but disapprove of it. The literature of Hindu India, both religious and secular, is full of sexual allusions, sexual symbolism, and passages of frank eroticism. Some religious sects even introduced ritual intercourse as a part of their cult. Erotic temple sculptures are abundant in the temples at Konark (East India), Khajuraho (Central India) and a few other places in the South. Basham comments, "the exaggerated sexual religiosity of the later middle ages was only an expression of the vigorous sexuality which was to be found in Indian social life at all times. From texts like the 'Kamasutra', and many other passages in country literature one learns much about the sexual life of the upper classes. Sexuality was not looked on as a mere vent for the animal passions of the male but as a refined mutual relationship for the satisfaction of both parties". Sex {Kama) according to Dharma was the sacred duty of the householder (Grihasthashrami). Kapadia (1966), mentions that the exaggeration of a woman's sexual impulse which is to be found in 'Dharmashastra' was the result partly of the chastening moral attitude evident in the post-vedic age and partly of the Brahmanic reaction to the growing sex morbidity of the 'Smriti' period as revealed by the increasing popularity of the 'Tantric' practices. 10 As mentioned earlier, there are no direct evidences about the sexual behaviour of the people at large but they have to be inferred from the available sources that mention indirectly, about the sexual behaviour of the upper classes. It may be concluded that since the upper classes, namely, the Brahmans and the Kshatriyas, were the reference groups of the people at large, the patterns of sexual behaviour of the common people would be more or less the same as those of the higher classes. According to Altekar (1938), the Age of the Sutras, the Epics and the early Smrities (500 BC - 500 AD) saw the position of women deteriorate considerably. Inter-marriages between Aryans and non-Aryans as also inter­ marriages between the Brahmins and other classes became common. The introduction of the non-Aryan wife into the Aryan household is the key to the general deterioration of the position of women. Women were not encouraged to take education, which resulted in lowering the age at marriage and also in their losing the right to perform religious rites. Further, during the age of Digest-writers (500 AD. - 1800 AD), widow remarriage became prohibited. Sati custom had become common among fighting classes. Brides of 8-9 years of age had no choice in the settlement of their marriages. The evil example of royal harems made polygamy more and more fashionable. Marital unfaithfulness on the part of the husband became more common owing to the custom of child marriage. 11 Sex, which was earlier viewed as a duty and a source of recreation for the householder within the context of 'Dharma', became a taboo with a sense of shame and guilt surrounding it. References to pre-marital and extra-marital sex, sexual exploitation of widows and other socially disadvantaged women are to be adequately found in the writings of reformers and literary persons of the 19'^ and early 20'^ century. 1.3 Sexual Behaviour Research in the West "In the Western world, the development of sex research closely paralleled the development of scientific research in general since its flowering In 17'^ and 18**^ century medicine. During the 18'^ century, the dominant focus of scientific research into the human being was medical. During the 19"^ century the psychological perspective was added and developed. Finally, the sociological perspective was developed most fully in the 20*^ century. Freud, Hirschfeld and Krafft-Ebing were interested in the relationship between sexuality and society, but their focus was on the psychological dynamics of the neurotic, or sexually 'different' person. Freud and Ellis, in addition, were interested in sexuality as the basic expression of a basic human drive - thus essentially normal. Kinsey and his associates in the 1940s and 1950s expanded the psychological discussion of 'normal' and variant sexuality into the sociological arena" (DeLora and Warren, 1977). Presently, the entire focus of research is based on elements of risk and vulnerability of groups under study. 12 1.4 Sexual Behaviour Research in India Indian studies on certain aspects of sexuality and sexual behaviour in the earlier times (late 1950s and 1960s) have been done mostly by clinicians W\\h a view to facilitate the philosophy of Family Planning, with purely demographic goals, uppermost in their mind. As mentioned earlier, the sociological perspective for the study of sexuality is a rather recent phenomenon not going beyond the last three decades.