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Home , Achamana, Agastya, Ashadh (Nepali calendar), Ashvattha, Aurva, Bhramari

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of The Illustrated

James G. Lochtefeld, Ph.D.

The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York Published in 2001 by The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010

Copyright © 2001 by James G. Lochtefeld

First Edition

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lochtefeld, James G., 1957– The illustrated encyclopedia of Hinduism/James G. Lochtefeld. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1 (set) ISBN 0-8239-3180-3 (volume 2) 1. Hinduism Encyclopedias. I. Title BL1105.L63 2000 294.5'03—dc21 99-27747 CIP

Manufactured in the United States of America Nachiketas

poetry are dedicated to , a dif- ferent form of . This seeming divergence may reflect her conviction that all manifestations of Vishnu are ultimately the same or indicate the dif- N ference between personal devotion and literary expression. The thirty poems in the Nacciyar Tirumoli are told by a group of unmar- ried girls, who have taken a vow to bathe Nabhadas in the river at dawn during the coldest (c. 1600) Author of the Bhaktamal month of the year. This vow has a long (“ of Devotees”). In this hagio- history in southern , where young graphic text, he gives short (six line) girls would take the oath to gain a good accounts of the lives of more than two husband and a happy married life. In the hundred contemporary (devo- poem, the girls have taken the vow to tional) figures, some from personal gain Krishna as their husband. The experience. Although Nabhadas identi- poems in the cycle describe various fea- fies himself as a Ramanandi—a devotee tures of the natural world at dawn, the (bhakta) of the god —his work girls’ hopes in performing the vow, and includes devotees of all sectarian per- their return to Krishna’s house to awaken suasions. The text is notably free of mar- him and beg for his grace. The final velous and miraculous events, and poem in the series describes the benefits Nabhadas emphasizes the devotee’s gained by one who chants the text. personal qualities, to serve as a model of devotion for others. In many cases the Bhaktamal gives the earliest reliable Nachiketas account for these figures, making it an A primary character in the Kathka important source for northern Indian Upanishad, a speculative philosophical literary and religious history. Despite its text considered one of the later upan- importance the text cannot be defini- ishads. In the text, the boy Nachiketas is tively dated, although internal evidence the seeker of ultimate wisdom. In a fit of suggests that it was completed early in anger his father curses him to be given the seventeenth century. to Death; Nachiketas obediently goes to the house of Death to give himself up. He waits for three days at Death’s door, Nacciyar Tirumoli but receives none of the hospitality due One of two collections of poetry com- to a guest. When Death returns posed by the poet-saint Andal (9th c.), he is disturbed to discover that his guest the other being the Tirruppavai. Andal has been neglected. To atone for the was the only woman among the , lapse, Death offers Nachiketas three a group of twelve poet-saints who lived boons. With his first two, Nachiketas in southern India between the seventh wishes to return to his father and to and tenth centuries. All the Alvars were understand the meaning of a particular devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. sacrificial ritual. With the final boon he Their emphasis on passionate devotion asks what happens to a person after the (bhakti) to a personal god, conveyed death of the body. Death first tries to through hymns sung in the Tamil lan- evade the question, then tries to bribe guage, transformed and revitalized Nachiketas with other gifts. When the Hindu religious life. Andal’s chosen boy holds firm in his resolve, Death deity was , the form of begins to reveal his secrets. This dis- Vishnu presiding at the temple of course makes up the bulk of the text. Shrirangam. Yet both collections of her Death’s secrets focus mainly on the 451

reality of the Self (), its eternal bodies and flying matted hair presented and indestructible , and the diffi- a fearsome sight. As Indian social and culties in truly knowing it. The Self is political circumstances have changed, portrayed as the ultimate truth, and to their military importance has faded. know it is to know the only thing that However, these organizations () really . of Naga ascetics still exist, although they are most important now in determining the order for bathing (snana) at the Nadi Mela. The accounts of the (“tube”) In general, the word nadi may ascetics themselves are full of tales of be applied to any pipe or tube, strife along sectarian lines (Shaivas ver- whether in plumbing or the human sus Vaishnavas); a good indication that circulatory system. A nadi has a more the Shaivas gained superiority is that specialized meaning with regard to they have priority in the bathing at the the Hindu conception of the subtle Kumbha Melas. For further information body. The subtle body is an alternate see Jadunath Sarkar, A History of the physiological system, existing on a Dasanami Naga Sanyasis, 1958; David different plane than gross , but Lorenzen, “Warrior Ascetics in Indian corresponding to the material body. It History,” in Journal of the American consists of six psychic centers Oriental Society, Vol. 98, No. 1, 1978; (), visualized as multipetaled and James G. Lochtefeld, “The lotus flowers running roughly along Hindu Parishad and the Roots of the spine, connected by three vertical Hindu Militancy,” in Journal of the channels known as nadis. Of these, American Academy of Religion, Vol. LXII, the ida nadi is on the left side, the No. 2, 1994. nadi on the right, and the sushumna in the center. Naga (2) In , the Nagas are a Naga class of minor divinities who have the (“naked”) The general term for any fight- form of serpents. Their king is . In ing or militant ascetic. Ascetic orders popular Hinduism, Nagas are often con- traditionally chartered companies of sidered to be the gods of a specific place. fighting ascetics to protect the members Often associated with fertility and and their resources. The Naga orders of fecundity, Nagas are usually believed to the Dashanami Sanyasis were devotees live in springs, ponds, and other small (bhakta) of the god , whereas the bodies of water. In Buddhist and Jain Bairagi orders were devotees of the god iconography the Nagas often play the Vishnu. In northern India during the role of minor protective deities. It is eighteenth century these Naga ascetics common to see a seated figure shad- developed into dynamic military and owed by an “umbrella” of Nagas. mercantile powerhouses. In several Although this is unusual in Hindu instances, Naga ascetics managed to iconography, there may be remnants carve out petty kingdoms of their own. of this in the iconography of the god In many other instances, they had sig- Shiva, who is often depicted wearing nificant influence in the northern snakes for both his ornaments and his Indian economy and politics, whether in sacred thread. their own right or as mercenary soldiers in the service of a reigning monarch. Their name was a literal description of Nagara their practices, since many of these One of the three developed styles in ascetics would go into battle bearing medieval architecture, only their weapons. Their ash-smeared along with the Dravida and the Veshara.

452 Nagara

Built in the Nagara style, the Triloknath Temple in Mandi consists of a series of towers, the largest of which contains an image of the presiding deity. The Nagara style is found throughout upward, similar to a series of hills northern and eastern India. One of its leading to a distant peak. This vertical- prominent features is a shikhara or ity is accentuated through the use of tower. The shikhara is often surrounded turrets (urushringas) on the sides of by smaller towers that lead the eye up to the towers, which replicate the shape the highest point, which is directly over of the final peak. The entire temple is the image of the temple’s primary deity. set on a raised base (adhishthana). Within this general pattern there are two Within the temple there are usually variants, exemplified by the temples at several different zones: an entrance Khajuraho and Orissa. porch (ardhamandapa), a hall (man- In Khajuraho the series of shikha- dapa), an intermediate area (antarala), ras are connected, forming a continu- and a central shrine (garbhagrha) sur- ous rising swell that draws the eye rounded by a processional path

453 Nageshvar

(pradakshina). Despite their different connected with the god Krishna, some parts, temples built in the Khajuraho scholars believe the Nageshvar linga style convey the artistic impression of may have been promoted to maintain a an integrated, unified whole. Shaivite presence in an important The Orissan style emphasizes the Vaishnava area. contrast between the temple’s con- stituent parts. The two central compo- nents are the entrance hall (jagamohan) Nag Panchami and the beehive-shaped temple tower Festival falling on the fifth day (- (deul). The tower is often three or four chami) of the bright, waxing half of the times taller than the entrance hall, a dif- lunar month of (July–August). ference that tends to heighten the con- This day is devoted to the worship of trast between the two. Other sections serpents, whether as Nagas—the minor include a dance-hall (natamandira), deities who take the form of snakes—or traditionally used for performances, and actual cobras and other snakes. On this a “food pavilion” (bhogamandapa), day the images of the Naga deities are where the prasad was cooked. These bathed and given offerings. Offerings architectural elements are connected are also made to real serpents. On this like beads on a string, as seemingly sep- day people refrain from digging in the arable parts lined up with one another. earth, since snakes live there. The most important temples in the This rite occurs on the fifth day Orissan style are the because in (jyotisha), the in Bhubaneshvar, the guardian deity for this day is , the temple in , and the Temple god Vishnu’s serpent couch. This festi- at Konarak. val falls at the beginning of the rainy season, when the rising waters caused by the monsoon rains often drive snakes Nageshvar out of their dens, and at times into peo- Temple and sacred site () about fif- ples’ homes and gardens. The rainy sea- teen miles northeast of the holy city of son is also the time for growing crops; Dwaraka, in the eastern state of snakes pose a real danger for people . The temple is named after its working in the fields. According to one presiding deity, the god Shiva in his estimate, 10,000 Indians die from manifestation as the “Lord of Serpents.” snakebites every year. According to pop- Shiva is present at Nageshvar in the ular belief, observing this rite will pro- form of a linga, a pillar-shaped image. tect one from snakebites for the entire The Nageshvar linga is one of the twelve year. This observance is a protective rit- , a network of sites at which ual, marking the advent of a dangerous Shiva is uniquely present. Nageshvar’s time for many villagers. charter myth is based on the story of the Daruk and his wife Daruka. Daruka is a fervent devotee (bhakta) of Nagpur Shiva’s wife ; through Parvati’s City in the eastern state of . grace Daruka gains protection for all the Nagpur is the birthplace of the Hindu other . The demons use this nationalist organization known as the power to oppress the righteous. As the Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh. The demons are about to kill one of Shiva’s organization was formed in 1925 by Dr. devotees, Shiva appears and slays them. K. B. Hedgewar and still maintains its Parvati has come along with Shiva to headquarters in Nagpur. protect Daruka, her devotee. Daruka persuades Shiva and Parvati to remain in Nageshvar as a sign of their grace. In Hindu mythology, a king of the lunar Since the city of Dwaraka is also dynasty, and a paradigm for a person 454 Naina afflicted with self-pride. Through Naimittika amassing religious merits, Nahusha suc- (“occasional [ritual] action”) One of ceeds to the throne of , the king of three general types of ritual action, the the gods, who has gone into hiding others being and kamya because of an evil deed. Nahusha is karma. Naimittika karma rites follow a filled with lust for Indra’s wife, . particular cause (naimittika); when par- He tries to act on it despite the obvious ticular circumstances arise, one is improprieties of approaching another required to perform the ritual. For man’s wife and a mortal making a claim example, when a child is born, certain on a goddess. Nahusha sets off for rites must be performed. However, the Indrani’s palace in a palanquin. In his ritual is not required unless a birth has impatience, he whips the palanquin taken place. bearers, saying “Sarpa, sarpa” (“Move! Move!”). Unfortunately for Nahusha, one of the bearers is , the sage. For Nahusha’s lust and disrespect, Presiding deity of the Naina Devi temple Agastya curses him to become a in the Shiwalik Hills in the state of snake (sarpa). Nahusha remains a Himachal Pradesh, and one of the nine serpent for many years but is released Shiwalik goddesses. Naina Devi’s tem- from the curse by the sight of the ple is located on a mountaintop close to brothers. the border of Punjab. It is nine miles from Anandpur Sahib, a famous Sikh place of pilgrimage, and about one mile Nai from Nangal village. The greatest pil- Traditional Indian society was modeled grimage traffic occurs during festivals as a collection of endogamous, or inter- held on the eighth day in each half of the married, subgroups known as jatis lunar month of Shravan, and also dur- (“birth”). Jatis were organized (and their ing the first nine days of the month of social status determined) by the group’s Ashvin, when the festival hereditary occupation, over which the takes place. group held a monopoly. The Nai jati’s According to the temple’s charter occupation was barbering, a low status myth, Naina Devi is one of the job because it required continual con- Pithas, a network of sites sacred to the tact with cut human hair, considered Goddess which spreads throughout the a source of impurity (ashaucha). In subcontinent. Each marks many instances the Nais also served the site where a body part of the dis- as messengers. membered goddess fell to earth, taking form there as a different goddess; Naimisha Naina Devi was Sati’s eyes (naina). As with many of the other Shiwalik god- City and sacred site (tirtha) in the state desses, the images in Naina Devi’s tem- of , about fifty miles ple are self-manifested (svayambhu northwest of the city of Lucknow. In the images) outcrops of stone. In a different later sectarian literature known as the version of the myth, the images were , Naimisha is described as a for- discovered by a herdsman named est. Today the city’s major attraction is a Naina, who heeded the command of spring-fed bathing (snana) pool named the Goddess to build a temple for her. Tirtha. According to tradition, For further information see Kathleen this bathing pool contains water from Erndl, Victory to the Mother, 1993. See all the holy places of India, and thus is also pitha. the best place for pious to take a holy bath.

455 Naisthika

Naisthika to be incompatible with certain everyday (“fixed”) A person who takes a vow to activities, which should be avoided during remain a perpetual religious student that time. Hindus who pay attention to (brahmacharin), keeping lifelong vows astrology are keenly aware of the passage of celibacy, austerity, study, and service of time and the quality of each moment. to his or her religious preceptor (). Naivedya In the , the later of the (“to be presented”) The thirteenth of the two great Hindu epics, Nakula is the sixteen traditional (“offer- fourth of the five Pandava brothers, ings”) given to a deity as part of worship. the epic’s antagonists. Nakula’s mother, To treat the deity as an honored guest, a Madri, is the younger wife of King . person may offer food. The food is often None of the Pandava brothers are actually returned to the worshipers as prasad, the Pandu’s sons, since he has been cursed to sanctified food bearing the deity’s grace. die the moment he holds his wife in The offering may be done in various ways, amorous embrace. Instead, they are mag- but the underlying motive for all the ically created through the effect of a upacharas is to show one’s love for the given to Madri’s co-wife, , by deity and attend to the deity’s needs. the sage . The mantra gives the woman who recites it the power to call down any of the gods to conceive a son Naiyayika who will be as powerful as the god himself. Term for a follower of the and With Pandu’s Kunti teaches the philosophical schools, two of mantra to Madri. She meditates on the the six schools in . After , the divine twins who are the the early centuries of the common era, the physicians of the gods. Thus, she bears Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools merged, as twins. As the sons of the physicians of the did the and schools and gods, both Nakula and are the Mimamsa and schools. The skilled healers of animals and human term Naiyayika is used to denote a follower beings. Although Nakula and Sahadeva of the combined Nyaya-Vaisheshika are among the five Pandava brothers, they school of philosophy. are less important to the Mahabharata than their three elder siblings. In Indian astrology (jyotisha), a nakshatra is one of the twenty-seven signs in the In Hindu mythology, the King of lunar zodiac. In a single lunar month the and the husband of . moon moves through each of the twenty- The story of Nala and Damayanti appears seven lunar houses. The territory for these as a story within the Mahabharata, the lunar houses is divided equally through- later of the two great Hindu epics. It is out the solar zodiac—with 2.25 lunar recounted to the five Pandava brothers, houses for each of the twelve solar signs. the epic’s protagonists, during their twelve The are important in Indian year exile in the forest, as a way to keep up astrology, partly because they change their spirits by telling how others have quite rapidly, but also because the charac- transcended misfortune. ter and qualities associated with each When Damayanti is old enough to nakshatra are believed to color the time marry, her father sends invitations to the period in which they fall. One group of five kings of the earth, announcing her nakshatras, the Panchak Nakshatra, is , a rite in which Damayanti considered extremely inauspicious; many will choose her husband. The kings of activities will be curtailed until this period the earth come to the svayamvara to has passed. Certain nakshatras are judged seek her hand, as do the gods (devas) 456 (“name-giving”) Samskara

themselves. Yet Damayanti has already decided to choose Nala after being advised by a swan who praises him. The gods try to foil this by taking on the physical appearance of Nala, so that Damayanti will not be able to tell the difference between them. As a last resort, Damayanti makes an act of truth, a ritual action whose efficacy is based on the power of truth. In her act of truth, Damayanti declares that she has never loved anyone but Nala. To prove that this statement is true, she directs the gods to resume their true forms. Compelled by the power of truth, the gods immediately do as she commands. Nala and Damayanti are married, and as a reward for her fidelity, the gods give Nala various divine gifts. Hearing of the marriage, two of the rejected suitors curse Nala to lose his kingdom. Because of the curse, Nala and Damayanti are separated and suffer long tribulations, which include Nala having his body magically changed so that no one is able Namakarana samskara being performed on an to recognize him. In the end Damayanti infant, who in this photo is wrapped in cloth for recognizes him by his divine powers, protection from the evil eye. which cannot be hidden, and the lovers hymns of the Alvars, compiled in the are happily reunited. See also truth, tenth century by Nathamuni. The Alvars power of. were a group of twelve poet-saints who lived in southern India between the sev- Naladiyar enth and tenth centuries. All the Alvars One of the most important pieces of were devotees (bhakta) of the god early , along with its pre- Vishnu and emphasized passionate decessor, the Tirukkural. The Naladiyar devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, is a collection of four hundred verses conveyed through hymns sung in the that date from the fifth or sixth century. . Their collected hymns Mainly concerned with moral and ethi- were popularly known as the “Tamil cal life, the verses were written by a Veda.” They carry Vedic authority for group of Jain monks who found shelter many southern Indian Vaishnavas, par- with a pious king in time of famine. In ticularly the Shrivaishnava school, gratitude each monk wrote one verse. which applied more developed philo- Despite the Naladiyar’s sectarian origin, sophical articulation to these devotional it has become the cultural property of ideas. See also Veda. from all religious communities; many of the verses have come into the Namakarana language as proverbial sayings. (“name-giving”) Samskara The fifth of the traditional life-cycle Nalayira Divyaprabandham ceremonies (samskaras), during which (“The Four Thousand Divine the newborn child is given a name. Compositions”) Title for the collected Although some commentators believe 457 Namarupa

that this rite should be done on the day one’s respect and love for the deity by of birth, many others insist that it ministering to the deity’s needs. should be on the tenth day, indicating a difference between birth and the social ritual of name-giving. Some Nambudiri believe that the child’s name should Southern Indian brahmin communi- begin with the first letter of the ty, which is a sub-division of the nakshatra (sign in the lunar zodiac) in Dravida , one of five south- which the child is born; this practice is ern Indian brahmin communities still widespread in northern India. (Pancha Dravida). The Nambudiris’ Although the classical form of this rite traditional homeland is in the region has largely fallen into disuse, naming that is now the modern state of ceremonies are still an important part Kerala. The Nambudiris are noted of the birth of a child. throughout India for their learning and piety. According to tradition, the great philosopher Namarupa was a Nambudiri brahmin. In his Literally, this word means “name [and desire to revitalize Hindu religion, physical] form,” two of the most identi- Shankaracharya reportedly chose one fiable and enduring aspects of a per- Hindu sacred center in each corner of son. In philosophical discourse, the the subcontinent, and at each estab- term namarupa is often used pejora- lished a Dashanami Sanyasi monas- tively to designate all aspects of per- tic center (math) to train learned sonality that are ultimately ephemeral monks. One of these sacred centers but help reinforce the illusion of a was at in the . diverse world and a Self with an inde- According to the pendent identity. These notions of records, for several hundred years the independence are thought to be ulti- temple worship was performed by mately false since one’s name and form the Dandi Sanyasis, who were also will be different in one’s next birth. In Nambudiri brahmins. When the last this context, namarupa designates all of these died without a successor in that is provisionally real. 1776, the local king, who served as the protector of the shrine, invited a non- ascetic Nambudiri brahmin to serve Namaskara as the temple’s priest. This priest was (“reverential salutation”) Both a given the title rawal (“deputy”), and phrase and a gesture used to greet his extended family has maintained another person respectfully. The ges- the shrine since then. The rawal was ture is done by joining both palms, the only person allowed to touch the pointing the fingers up, with the base image of the presiding deity. As a of the thumbs touching the chest. consequence he was required to Namaskara is the fourteenth of sixteen remain a bachelor, lest the ritual traditional upacharas (“offerings”) impurity arising from the birth of a given to a deity as part of worship, child (sutakashaucha) render him treating the deity as an honored guest. unable to attend to his duties. For a In this action, the deity is given a ges- long time the rawals had sole rights to ture of respect, which can take a vari- the offerings given at the shrine, but ety of forms: joining the palms with since 1939 the temple has been man- the fingers pointing upward (anjali aged by a committee, and the rawal hasta), kneeling and touching one’s has been restricted to ritual duties. head to the floor, or a full prostration (dandavat pranam). The underlying motive for all the upacharas is to show

458 Devi

Namdev forth more than one thousand hymns to (1270–1350?) Poet-saint who is one of Vishnu, each beginning with the last the great figures in the Varkari Panth, a word of the previous hymn. These hymns religious community centered around are known as the Tiruvaymoli (“holy the worship of the Hindu god , words”). This collection of 1,102 stanzas at his temple in Pandharpur in the is the concluding section of the Nalayira modern state of Maharashtra. Divyaprabandham, the collected hymns According to tradition, was a of the Alvars. For further information see cotton-printer, considered a low-status , Tamil Literature, 1975; occupation, but the strength of John Stirling Morley Hooper, Hymns of his devotion rendered his worldly the Alvars, 1929; A. Shrinivasa Raghavan, status irrelevant. He is said to have been Nammalvar, 1975; and A. K. Ramanujan, an associate of Jnaneshvar and Hymns for the Drowning, 1981. Chokamela, two other Varkari poet- saints. His songs have been preserved in Nanak Jayanti several different collections, including Celebration falling on the full moon the Adigranth (compiled by the Sikh in the lunar month of community) and the Panchvani (a col- (October–November). This day is lection of songs by five poets compiled celebrated as the birthday of the by the Dadupanth). For traditional first Sikh guru, , and is information about his life, see G. A. celebrated largely by members of the Deleury, The Cult of Vithoba, 1960; and Sikh community. Justin E. Abbott and Narhar R. Godbole (trans.), Stories of Indian Saints, 1982. For a more critical look at his Hindu Nanda songs and the difficulties using them as In Hindu mythology, the god Krishna’s biographical sources, see Winand foster father, who cares for Krishna as Callewaert and Mukund Lath, The Hindi his own child after Krishna is placed in Padavali of Namdev, 1989. his care. Nanda is described as the head- man of the village. Under his care Krishna lives a comfortable, if simple, Nammalvar life. In Krishna’s mythology, Nanda is a (10th c.) The most prolific composer of all less important figure than Krishna’s fos- the Alvars, a group of twelve poet-saints ter mother, . who lived in southern India between the seventh and tenth centuries. All the Alvars were devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. They emphasized passionate Nanda Devi is the name for one of the devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, con- tallest mountains in India, rising over veyed through hymns sung in the Tamil 25,000 feet, in the Kumaon region of the language, which transformed and revi- Himalayas. Nanda Devi is also a form of talized Hindu religious life. According to the Goddess who is identified with that tradition, Nammalvar was born into a mountain. With Nanda Devi, as for princely family, but was completely dis- many of the other goddesses of India, interested with life in the world. His dis- divinity and the natural landscape are traught parents eventually abandoned inextricably connected. Nanda Devi is a him. Nammalvar crawled into the hollow local Himalayan goddess who presides of a giant tamarind tree, where he sat in over the Garhwal and Kumaon regions. silent meditation. He remained there People in the region consider her to be a until the arrival of his disciple “daughter” of the region, who had to Mathurakavi, who managed to rouse change her residence when she married him by posing a question on the nature of the god Shiva. Nanda Devi’s songs and the Self. Nammalvar immediately poured rites show strong connections with the 459 Nanddas

Nanddas (late 16th c.) One of the ashtachap, a group of eight northern Indian bhakti (devotional) poets. The compositions of these eight poets were used for liturgical purposes by the Pushti Marg, a religious community whose members are devo- tees (bhakta) of Krishna. In the Pushti Marg’s sectarian literature, all eight are also named as members of the commu- nity, and as associates of either the com- munity’s founder, Vallabhacharya, or his successor, Vitthalnath. Very little is known about his life, but he is men- tioned in the Bhaktamal, a collection of lives of the saints written by Nabhadas in the seventeenth century. Like all the poetry associated with the Pushti Marg, Nanddas’s poetry focused on devotion to Krishna. His two most important works, written in elegant poetry, are extended poems on the ras lila and ’s message. Both of these themes date back to the Bhagavata Statue of , the bull who is the god Shiva’s vehicle. Purana (10th c.?), the most important text for Krishna devotionalism. These life-cycle journeys of Himalayan have been translated by R. S. McGregor, women. Songs associated with Nanda The Round Dance of Krishna and Devi describe the difficulty of going Uddhav’s Message, 1973. from her natal home to her marital home, a reality for many Himalayan women. In the same way, Nanda Devi’s Nandi pilgrimages, which emphasize journeys (“joy,” “delight”) Epithet of the animal through the hills surrounding the vehicle of the god Shiva, which takes the mountain, imitate the women’s periodic form of a bull. Like all of the animal journeys back to their own natal villages. vehicles, it symbolizes the deity. Nandi A major part of Nanda Devi’s mythology is not only Shiva’s vehicle, but his devo- is the adoption of an abandoned buffalo tee (bhakta). Statues of Nandi are often calf, which is later discovered to be a sculpted outside Shiva temples (usually demon in buffalo form. The buffalo facing the image) as a way of marking demon grows large and troublesome, the site as sacred to Shiva. He appears in and is eventually slain by Nanda Devi. many places in Shiva’s mythology, but This myth parallels the narrative in the usually as a devoted underling advanc- Devimahatmya, the earliest and most ing Shiva’s purposes, rather than an important source for the mythology of independent agent with a purpose and the Goddess; this is the most influential ends of his own. text used in Nanda Devi’s worship. For further information on Nanda Devi, her rites, and her connection with Nandigrama Himalayan society, see William Sax, In the , the earlier of the two Mountain Goddess, 1991. great Hindu epics, Nandigrama is a vil- lage outside the city of , where Prince sets up the royal court 460 Narasimha (“Man-Lion”)

during his brother Rama’s absence. other textual category, the shrutis or Bharata’s mother uses her influ- “heard” texts. This smrti is ascribed to ence to banish Rama for fourteen years, the sage , and is an example of putting Bharata on the throne in his one of the , which place. At Rama’s command, Bharata were manuals prescribing rules for cor- agrees to act as the temporary king, but rect human behavior and ideal social with two symbolic adjustments. The first life. Unlike the Dharma , which is that Bharata moves the royal court are ascribed to recognizable individuals, from the capital city of Ayodhya to the the Dharma Shastras are usually village of Nandigrama, as a symbol of ascribed to mythic sages, a strategy used Rama’s exile; the second is that through- to reinforce the authority of these texts. out his regency, Bharata sits at the The Narada Smrti exists in several ver- of the royal throne, upon which is sions, one of which is much longer than placed a pair of Rama’s sandals, symbol- the others. All of the versions were writ- izing that Rama is the rightful ruler. ten later than the Smrti (1st c. Thus, Nandigrama is a symbol of B.C.E.?), since this text is mentioned in Bharata’s righteousness. the preface. Narada’s text deals exclu- sively with the administration of justice (vyavahara), and treats this in exhaus- Narada tive detail, with a strong emphasis on A famous sage in Hindu mythology, clarity and precision. equally renowned for his qualities as a musician and as a gossip. Narada plays a stringed instrument known as the vina, Narak Chaturdashi serving as the bard to the gods. His Religious observance falling on the four- ambition as a musician apparently teenth day (chaturdashi) of the dark, exceeds his actual skill, since several of waning half of the lunar month of his mythic stories describe him being Kartik (October–November). People humbled. In his capacity as wandering who observe this day worship and make musician, he also conveys news and offerings to the god . In the gossip. In many cases Narada’s news- evening they light a lamp in his name. bearing is the vehicle advancing the plot Yama is the lord of the underworld and in a story. According to one famous the judge of the dead; he reviews the story, he requests that Vishnu give a deeds of the dead and inflicts punish- demonstration of his magic (). ment upon people for their misdeeds. Vishnu sends him to a nearby farm- Those who faithfully observe Narak house for some water, where Narada Chaturdashi are believed to be spared meets an enchantingly beautiful from the torments of hell. woman. Forgetting all about his errand, the two fall in love, are married, and have several children. After several years of Nara- wedded bliss, severe floods wash away In Hindu mythology, two of the sons of his home and drown his family. As he the god Dharma; through their ascetic mourns his loss, he finds himself back practices () these two boys became on the side of road with Vishnu, who is sages. The place where they performed still asking him to go to the farmhouse to their is believed to have been get some water. in the region of Badrinath. The duo are still associated with the charter myths for that place. Narada Smrti One of the smrtis or “remembered” texts, a class of literature deemed impor- Narasimha (“Man-Lion”) Avatar tant, but less authoritative than the Fourth avatar or incarnation of the god Vishnu, in which he appears as a figure 461 Narasimha Jayanti

with the head and shoulders of a lion, Narasimhavarman II but the torso and lower body of a man. (r. 700–728) Pallava dynasty ruler dur- As with all of Vishnu’s , this ing the dynasty’s most vibrant era, when appearance comes at a moment when it was a stronghold of Tamil culture. Like the cosmos is in crisis, and decisive all the great Pallava monarchs, divine action is needed to restore cos- Narasimhavarman II was a great patron mic equilibrium. See Man-Lion avatar. of the arts. During his reign there was continued construction of the monu- Narasimha Jayanti ments at Mahabalipuram in the state of . Religious observance falling on the four- teenth day of the bright, waxing half of the lunar month of Baisakh Narayana (April–May). This day is celebrated as Epithet of the god Vishnu. The name is the birthday of Vishnu’s fourth avatar, traditionally interpreted as meaning Narasimha, although his birthday is “resting on the waters,” based on the different from those of Vishnu’s human claim that the word nara, which usually avatars. Narasimha is not human, but a means “man,” in this case means creature with the head and shoulders of “waters.” Narayana is the image of a lion, and the torso and lower body of Vishnu in the time of cosmic dissolution a man. He is not born in the usual (pralaya). He is reclining on his serpent sense, but bursts forth fully formed couch, Shesha, in the midst of the cos- from a pillar, to destroy the demon mic sea, with his wife, , seated and to protect his at his feet, and his vehicle, , devotee (bhakta) . See also standing by. Vishnu is the sole remain- Man-Lion avatar. ing agent in the cosmos, as its beginning and end. When the time for a new cre- Narasimhavarman I ation arrives, a lotus sprouts forth from Narayana’s navel, which opens to reveal (r. 630–668) Pallava dynasty ruler the creator-god . The cycle of during its most vibrant era, when it creation begins anew. was a stronghold of Tamil culture. Narasimhavarman succeeded his father Mahendravarman, who had been killed Narayana Bhatta in a battle with the forces of (1513–1570?) The most celebrated schol- the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II. ar and commentator on the dharma lit- Narasimhavarman avenged his father’s erature of his time, and the patriarch of death by conquering the Chalukya king- a scholarly family. Narayana’s father had dom and killing Pulakeshin II in battle, migrated from the city of Paithan, in but the two kingdoms were so evenly central India, to Benares, a center of matched that neither could retain con- learning. Narayana’s work fell trol over the other. Like his father, mainly in the class of commentarial lit- Narasimhavarman was a great patron of erature known as nibandhas (“collec- the arts. It was during his reign that con- tions”), which were compilations of struction commenced on the great Hindu lore. Nibandha compilers collect- sculptures at Mahabalipuram in the ed references on a particular theme state of Tamil Nadu. The most famous of from the , dharma literature, these is a rock-cut sculpture depicting puranas, and other authoritative reli- the myth of the Descent of the , gious texts, and then compiled these in which a natural vertical fissure is used excerpts into a single volume. Aside to lay out the river’s path. from his unparalleled command of these traditional texts, Narayana was also noted for his learned interpretation 462 Nasik Mela

and commentary; to these texts, he According to tradition, Narsi’s poetry applied the rules that the Purva was rooted in a vision of Krishna’s ras Mimamsa philosophical school had lila, or great circle dance, in which Narsi originally developed to interpret the was privileged to stand as attendant Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts. holding a torch to light the lila. Narsi is According to tradition, he was a man one of the devotees profiled in the whose personal holiness was equal to Bhaktamal, a text that gives short bio- his great learning. He is reported to have graphical profiles of more than 200 performed a miracle by causing rain to devotional (bhakti) saints; in the text fall out of season, convincing the Narsi is portrayed as a paradigm of gen- Muslim officials ruling Benares to allow erosity, an earthly imitation of Krishna the Vishvanath temple to be rebuilt. himself. For further information see John Stratton Hawley, “Morality Beyond Morality in the Lives of Three Hindu Narmada River Saints,” in John Stratton Hawley (ed.), Central Indian river that has its source at Saints and Virtues, 1987. the sacred site (tirtha) of Amarkantak in the state of , and flows almost directly west through the Nasik state of Gujarat, then to the Arabian Sea. City and sacred site (tirtha) near the The Narmada is one of the few central headwaters of the in the Indian rivers flowing from east to west; state of Maharashtra, about 100 miles rivers further south are channeled east northeast of Bombay. Nasik is one of the by the upthrust of the highlands known four sites for the Kumbha Mela, a reli- as the Western . It is traditionally gious bathing (snana) festival. Nasik considered one of the seven sacred hosts this festival every twelve years. rivers of India, along with the Ganges, Nasik is an important bathing place and , Godavari, , Indus, is a center of pilgrimage, piety, and and Cauvery. An important site on the learning. According to tradition the god- Narmada is Omkareshvar, one of the king Rama, his wife, , and his brother, twelve jyotirlingas, a network of sites lived during much of their sacred to the god Shiva. During the twelve years in exile in the nearby village 1990s the Narmada has become a rally- of Panchavati. Rama, Sita, and ing point for environmentalists who Lakshmana are central characters in the have opposed construction of several Ramayana, the earlier of the two great massive dams, on the grounds that Hindu epics. Although claims of them these dams have displaced too many living near Nasik are impossible to prove people and destroyed too much prime or disprove, the legend adds one more farmland. Although work on these dams layer of sanctity to the site. has continued, the pace has slowed. In 1997 a minor earthquake in the Narmada basin prompted the call for Nasik Mela further consideration of this project’s The Nasik Mela is the celebration of the environmental dangers. Kumbha Mela at Nasik. The Kumbha Mela is a religious festival celebrated in four different locations: , Narsi Mehta , , and Nasik. The festi- (16th c.) Gujarati poet-saint who was a val’s focus is bathing (snana) in the well-known figure in northern Indian sacred rivers during particularly holy devotional life. Narsi was a devotee moments. The Kumbha Mela’s primary (bhakta) of the god Krishna. His poetry participants are ascetics, who come describes the love affair between from all over southern Asia to bathe Krishna and his consort . in the sacred waters. According to

463 Nastika

tradition, the Kumbha Mela was organized excuse to refuse an inappropriate by the great philosopher Shankaracharya or unacceptable match. Natal horo- to promote regular gatherings of learned scopes are believed to reveal important and holy men, as a means to strengthen, things about a person’s future. A person sustain, and spread the Hindu religion. whose horoscope indicates an early The timing for each of these festivals is death—or the early death of a spouse— determined by the position of the sun may find it difficult to marry unless he and the planet Jupiter; the twelve years or she performs certain rituals to between these festivals correspond to remove these problems. Jupiter’s orbit. The Nasik Mela is cele- brated during the lunar month of Shravan (July–August), when the planet Natamandira Jupiter is in the sign of Leo. This is the In the temple architecture of Orissa, least important of all four Kumbha one of the major forms of the northern Melas, attended mostly by ascetics. Indian Nagara style. The natamandira is the section of the temple found between the bhogamandapa (“food-pavilion”) Nastika and the jagamohan, or entrance hall (“nihilists”) In Hindu philosophical dis- leading to the main image. Natamandira course, this was a pejorative term to literally means “dance-house.” In many denigrate certain other religious and Orissan temples the natamandira was philosophical schools. The name used for performance, in particular for Nastika was applied to groups who the Orissi dance style that was devel- denied the three most basic principles oped and sustained in these temples. of religion: the authority of the Vedas as The performances were partly for the religious texts, the eternal existence of aesthetic appreciation of the spectators, the soul (atman), and the value of reli- but mainly as an offering of entertain- gious life in general. In context this term ment to the deity himself. Although could be applied to the Jains (who dances are still performed at the nata- denied the first of these three) to the mandiras as a part of worship, they are Buddhists (who denied the first and the primarily staged for entertainment. second) or to the materialist philosoph- ical school (which denied all three). Form of the god Shiva as the “Lord of Natal Horoscope the Dance.” The most famous Nataraja In Indian culture, a person’s natal horo- image is in the temple-town of scope or janampatrika (“birth-paper”) is Chidambaram in the state of believed to reveal a great deal about a Tamil Nadu. The temple was erected person. One’s previous karma is thought during the reign of Vira Raja (927–997 to determine the moment when one is C.E.), with Nataraja as its primary deity. born. Thus, a natal horoscope provides a However, the image of Nataraja is well karmic “itinerary,” indicating where one known, particularly from the southern has been and what he or she might Indian bronzes of the expect in the future. Natal horoscopes (9th–13th c). still play a role in decision-making, par- As a divinity, one of Shiva’s most ticularly in arranging marriages. Natal important characteristics is that he tran- horoscopes are exchanged before fixing scends all duality; the Nataraja image an engagement in order to determine symbolizes this concept. Shiva dances the couple’s compatibility. Sometimes within a circle of fire, symbolizing birth this process takes place merely because and death, but remains untouched by the claim that the horoscopes are these forces. As Shiva dances, his matted incompatible can provide an acceptable locks swing wildly, showing the force of

464 Nataraja

The god Shiva, in the form of Nataraja (the “Lord of the Dance”), dances within a circle of fire that symbolizes the cycle of birth and death. his activity, yet his face stays impassive mercy for the devotee (bhakta). His and unmoved. One of his four hands other foot crushes a demon, displaying holds the drum that beats the rhythm of his power to destroy the wicked. The creation, while a second hand holds the image is a well-developed theological fire of destruction. His third hand is held statement, able to be “read” by those palm upward in a gesture meaning “fear who can interpret it. not.” The fourth points to his upraised In Nataraja’s charter myth, Shiva and foot, the symbol of refuge and divine , the goddess, decide to settle their 465

competition with a dance contest. Shiva his form as Shrinathji. According to tra- finally bests Kali by manifesting as dition, the image was originally hidden Nataraja and doing an athletic on the top of Mount Govardhan, a () dance style that Kali’s femi- mountain in the region where nine modesty prevents her from copy- Krishna is said to have lived. The loca- ing. Mythic roots aside, the Nataraja tion of the image was revealed in a temple at Chidambaram has been an dream to Vallabhacharya, the founder important center for classical Indian of the religious community known as dance for well over a thousand years. the Pushti Marg. Vallabhacharya built The temple’s eastern wall bears relief a temple to house it on Mount carvings of the 108 basic dance posi- Govardhan, and his descendants have tions (karanas). These positions are remained the image’s hereditary ser- central to classical Indian dance, partic- vants since that time. The image was ularly in the school, moved to the state of Rajasthan in 1669, which is the major dance tradition in prompted by fears that it would be Tamil Nadu. destroyed by the Moghul emperor Aurangzeb. According to tradition Shrinathji revealed his wish to stay in Nath by sinking his wagon’s (“lord”) Epithet of the god Shiva, based wheels deep into the earth, so that on his power as the ultimate lord. it could not go further. Nathdwara is a Among the Nathpanthis, a renunciant fairly remote location, making it a safe ascetic community whose members are place to keep the image. See also devotees (bhakta) of Shiva, “Nath” is Moghul dynasty. added to the end of one’s name after final ascetic initiation as a symbol of membership. This practice apparently Nathpanthi dates from the Nathpanthis’ earliest Renunciant ascetic community founded days, since according to tradition they by the sage . The were founded by the sage Gorakhnath. Nathpanthis are also known by many names: as jogis (from their emphasis on the practice of yoga), Gorakhnathis Nathamuni (from the name of their founder), (10th c.) Compiler of the Nalayira Kanphatas (meaning “split-ear” by Divyaprabandham, the collected hymns virtue of the signature earrings placed in of the Alvars that are popularly known the split cartilage of both ears), Gosains as the “Tamil Veda.” Nathamuni is also (“master of the senses”), and simply as a pivotal figure in the later develop- (“lord”) from the characteristic ment of the Shrivaishnava religious suffix taken as part of their names upon community, in which the passionate ascetic initiation. The Nathpanthis are a devotion in the Alvar hymns found very old organization and have a long more systematic philosophical articula- tradition in northern India, but their tion. According to tradition, Nathamuni’s historical record is relatively faint. The grandson was , the organization has no single organizing teacher of , the greatest body; their emphasis on yoga has meant Shrivaishnava figure. See also Veda. that their practice has been internalized, rather than focused on temples or other Nathdwara material objects. Although the City and sacred site (tirtha) about twenty- Nathpanthis are usually described as five miles north of the city of Udaipur in devotees (bhakta) of Shiva, they are dis- the south-central region of the state of tinct from the Shaiva Sanyasis. Rajasthan. Nathdwara has a temple The spiritual practice of the Naths housing an image of the god Krishna in has traditionally focused on the mastery 466 Navadurga

of the subtle body as the means to final social duties or established worship. liberation of the soul. The Naths believe The most complete source on that liberation is physical immortality, Gorakhnath and his followers is George rather than escape from the cycle of Weston Briggs, Gorakhnath and the transmigration, which is more com- Kanphata , 1973. monly accepted. The subtle body is an alternate physiological system, believed to exist on a different plane than gross Natya matter, but corresponding to the mater- The word natya refers to the genre in ial body. It is visualized as a set of six classical Indian dance in which the psychic centers (chakras) running dancer’s movements convey a story to roughly along the spine; above and the audience. Natya is one of the two below these centers reside two divine most basic dance genres. The other principles, Shiva (awareness) and genre, nrtya, is “pure” dance, in which Shakti (power). The aspirant aims to the dance conveys nothing more than join these two principles at the crown the dancer’s skill. of the head, thus transforming the perishable elements in the gross body Natyashastra into immortality. Prescriptive manual () for the per- Among the Nathpanthis, the domi- forming arts written during the second nant metaphor for talking about this century, whose authorship is ascribed to process is the union of sun and moon. the mythical sage Bharata. The text is The sun, identified with Shakti, stands divided into thirty-seven sections, detail- for the processes of change and destruc- ing every aspect of the three major per- tion, whereas the moon, identified with formance forms: music, drama, and Shiva, symbolizes stability and immor- dance (which combines both music and tality. In some cases this union of sun drama). Some sections of the text are and moon is described in very abstract devoted to aesthetics and poetics, help- terms; for example, in the definition of ing to create and convey the correct “ha” refers to the sun and atmosphere for the appreciation of the “tha” refers to the moon. Other abstract arts. Other parts of the text discuss con- descriptions of this process speak of crete, practical issues, such as the con- gaining equilibrium of the vital winds struction of the stage. The text is still an (), or yogic union in the subtle authority for these three performing arts, body. In other cases this union is sym- but it is particularly important for dance. bolized in concrete ways, as in the prac- Many of the positions and gestures found tice of vajroli . This sexual in Indian dance were first codified in this practice uses urethral suction or the text; the Natyashastra remains the ulti- “fountain-pen technique,” by which a mate authority for any dance form that man, having ejaculated into his female claims to be “classical” dance, rather than partner, draws his semen back into his “folk” dance. body. The semen has been refined through contact with the woman’s uter- ine blood. Navadurga The Nathpanthis have been impor- (“Nine Durgas”) Collective name for tant both as an ascetic community in nine differing forms of , a power- their own right, and as an influence on ful and dangerous form of the Goddess. many of the northern Indian bhakti One of the “nine Durgas” is worshiped poet-saints, particularly . Their each of the nine nights during the festi- religious practice has consistently val of Navaratri, which usually falls in stressed internal religion, in which October or November. Each goddess has individual realization has been deemed her own identity, yet at the same time far more important than performing is a form of Durga. This fluidity is 467 Navadvip

Worshipers celebrating the Navaratri festival carry an image of the Goddess in the form of Durga. characteristic of the Goddess; all female has been made for the city of , divinities are ultimately seen as on the other side of the river. For manifestations of some single great extensive information about Navadvip, Goddess. The nine Durgas, in the see E. Alan Morinis, Pilgrimage in the order in which they are worshiped, Hindu Tradition, 1984. are Mahalakshmi, Mahasaraswati, Yogmaya, Raktadantika, Shakumbhari Devi, Durga, , and Chandika. Navaratri (“nine nights”) Festival dedicated to the Goddess celebrated twice during the Navadvip year. The spring Navaratri occurs during City and sacred site (tirtha) on the Hugli the bright, waxing half of the lunar River, about sixty-five miles north of the month of Chaitra (March–April), and city of Calcutta. Navadvip is traditionally the fall Navaratri falls during the bright regarded as the birthplace of the Bengali half of the lunar month of Ashvin saint Chaitanya (1486–1533), although (September–October). Each Navaratri in the twentieth century, the same claim celebration lasts for the first nine nights

468 Navyanyaya

of these lunar months and concludes the harvest, when this promise of with a festival dedicated to the god fruition has been fulfilled, and is seen as Rama: Ram Navami in Chaitra and a time of thanksgiving for Dussehra in Ashvin. Of the two, the fall received. The Goddess also represents Navaratri is far more important. The fall the triumph of good over evil; the read- Navaratri is celebrated with fervor in the ings of the Devimahatmya on these Bengal region, where the Goddess is the occasions remind the listeners of the dominant regional deity. The Bengali Goddess’ wondrous deeds and assure Navaratri is characterized by large pro- them of her continued protection. cessions featuring elaborately decorated clay images of the Goddess. These images are commissioned by individu- Navyanyaya als, businesses, trade unions, and neigh- (“new Nyaya”) A later branch of the borhood associations. Having the best Nyaya philosophical school. The Nyaya image is a sign of great status. During school was one of the six schools in tra- the weeks around Navaratri, Bengali ditional Hindu philosophy, which flour- children get a holiday from school, state ished in the early centuries of the first workers get paid vacation from their millennium, but then lost its influence. jobs, and the electricity supply The Navyanyaya school developed in in Calcutta runs without interruptions— late medieval times (15th–17th c.), in an a phenomenon dubbed the Navaratri attempt to reinvigorate the school and “miracle,” since during the rest of to resolve some of the problems with the the year shortages and blackouts earlier Nyaya notion of inherence are common. (samavaya). The earlier per- These Navaratri festivals are per- ceived inherence as a weak relational formed to gain the favor of the Mother force that connected objects and their Goddess, particularly in her powerful qualities—for example, connecting the forms such as Durga. During these nine color red with a particular ball and thus nights devotees (bhakta) perform a vari- making the ball red. It also connected ety of different rites. Some fast material objects—the force that held a (upavasa) and worship in their homes, clay pot together once the two halves often consecrating temporary images of had been pressed against each other. the Goddess for use during this festival. Finally, inherence connected selves and Devotees may also worship young girls their qualities—one became happy as manifestations of the Goddess, or when inherence connected happiness sponsor readings of the Devimahatmya, to one’s self, and unhappy when unhap- the earliest and most important text for piness was connected. the mythology of the Goddess. They may This notion of inherence explained also worship the Goddess in her form as many things in the perceivable world. Navadurga, paying homage to a differ- However, objections were raised against ent form on each of the nine nights. the Nyayas’ insistence that inherence Another common practice is to har- was a single, universal property at work vest shoots of barley, which are some- in different places. According to this times worn on the final day of the criticism, a universal and eternal inher- festival. This practice hints at the festi- ence could link an object with any val’s purpose since, among other things, property, including ones that contra- the Goddess represents the female dict—the color brown with the moon or power of fertility and procreation. In the appearance of a cow with a dog. northern India, the spring festival Other attacks questioned whether comes before the crops are planted. inherence continued to exist after one of Wearing sprouting grain is an attempt to the things it had been connecting was please the Goddess so the crop may destroyed. If it did not, opponents flourish. The fall Navaratri comes after claimed, then inherence was clearly 469 Nayachandra Suri

nothing to begin with, whereas if it did, years. The dynasty’s greatest ruler was then the remaining connecting power Tirumalai Nayak (r. 1623–1659), who would exist unconnected to anything, constructed large sections of the which was clearly absurd. Finally, some Minakshi temple, dedicated to attacked the need for inherence at all— ’s patron goddess, Minakshi. which was cited as an example of “need- less complexity” (gaurava). The Navyanyaya school attempted to Nayanar sidestep these problems by positing a Group of sixty-three Shaiva poet-saints, new class of relationship, that of “self- who lived in southern India between the linking connectors.” These connectors seventh and ninth centuries. In concert were seen as an integral part of all with their Vaishnava counterparts the things, by their very nature, and since Alvars, the spearheaded the they were self-linking, this eliminated revitalization of Hindu religion vis-à-vis the need for a separate inherence to the Buddhists and the Jains. Both the connect things together. In this under- Nayanars and the Alvars stressed pas- standing, the relationship and the related sionate devotion (bhakti) to a personal objects are one and the same. This god—Shiva for the Nayanars, Vishnu for notion allowed the Navyanyayas to the Alvars—and conveyed this devotion retain their fundamental assumptions through hymns sung in the Tamil lan- that there are real objects in the world guage. The Nayanars tended to be more and they are connected to one another. overtly hostile to the Jains. According to For further information see Karl H. legend the Nayanar Sambandar was Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharyya instrumental in the impalement of (eds.), Indian Philosophical Analysis, eight thousand Jain monks in the city 1992. of Madurai. The hymns of the three most important Nayanars—Appar, Sambandar, and Sundaramurtti—com- Nayachandra Suri prise the Devaram, the most sacred of (14th c.) The author of the Hammira- the Tamil Shaivite texts. An important , a Sanskrit drama that later source is the by chronicles the defeat and death of the Cekkilar, which gives hagiographic Rajput king Hammira by the Delhi sul- accounts for all the Nayanars. tan Alauddin Khilji in 1301. Aside from its historical value, this play is notable because Nayachandra Suri was a Jain Nayar monk. Although Jain monks are subject The Nayars are a Hindu jati who tradi- to a strict religious lifestyle that would tionally were the primary landholding seem to cut them off from the world, community in traditional Kerala. Jatis they have a long history of deep involve- are endogamous subgroups of tradi- ment with intellectual and literary cul- tional Indian society whose social status ture. See also mahakavya. is determined by the group’s hereditary occupation. The Nayars were one of the few groups in India to practice matrilin- Nayak Dynasty ear succession, in which both descent Southern Indian dynasty whose capital and inheritance were passed on was in the city of Madurai in the state of through the mother’s line. Tamil Nadu. The Nayaks came to power in the political vacuum created by the destruction of the Vijayanagar dynasty Nazar late in the sixteenth century. The Nayaks (“glance”) The literal meaning of the ruled the southernmost part of the sub- word nazar is an unobstructed line of continent for about the next hundred sight to a person or a thing. The word nazar is also the term most commonly 470 Nibandha

used to denote the “evil eye,” a malefic Nepalese live in the fertile valleys of the influence that is put on people foothills. These are the most habitable through sight, particularly eye-to-eye regions, as the climate in the mountains contact. The existence of the evil eye is is far too harsh for permanent habita- widely accepted among traditional tion, while the lowland regions are Hindus. It is warded off either by rife with disease, particularly malaria. avoiding this sort of gaze, or by per- In general, Nepali culture shows forming rites of protection. For fur- many similarities with the adjoining ther consideration see David F. areas of India, and thus from a cultural Pocock, “The Evil Eye,” in T. N. Madan perspective is firmly fixed in the Indian (ed.), , 1991. cultural orbit. is also the home to several important Hindu pilgrimage places (tirtha), notably Pashupatinath Nepal in the Kathmandu Valley, and A small Himalayan nation on the north- , at the headwaters of the Kali ern border of India that is deemed the Gandaki River. world’s only Hindu kingdom. One basis for this claim is that almost 90 percent of Nepal’s inhabitants identify themselves New Moon as Hindu; the other is that since 1769 (amavasya) In northern India, the new Nepal’s ruling house has been a Hindu moon usually marks the midpoint of the dynasty, the Shah dynasty. The present lunar month, whereas in southern India monarch, Birendra Bir Bikram Shah (b. it often identifies the end. Unlike the full 1945), was an uncontested absolute moon, whose associations with fullness monarch until April 1990, when popular and completion make it always auspi- discontent led to a movement seeking cious, the new moon’s associations with the restoration of democracy in Nepal. darkness and emptiness make it a more The king was forced to accede to demo- ambiguous time. One of the most cratic reforms, and since May 1991 has important festivals in the Hindu reli- governed as a constitutional monarch, gious year, , falls on the new with the Nepali Parliament wielding the moon in Kartik (October–November). real power. The new moon can also be highly auspi- Although Nepal is a small country, it cious on certain other occasions, such has great geographical diversity. Its three as a Somavati Amavasya, a new moon major geographical regions are the sub- falling on a Monday. In general, however, montane lowlands, the Himalayan the new moon is less clearly auspicious foothills, and the high mountains. The than the full moon. Not only are there country’s uneven topography further fewer celebrations during the new subdivides each of these regions. This moon, but there is also a proportionately rugged geography has a marked effect greater number of holidays falling in the on the country’s economy, rendering light, waxing half of the lunar month. agriculture impossible at anything more The new moon and the dark, waning than a subsistence level. However, it half are not in themselves inauspicious, provides the attraction for tourism, they are simply deemed less auspicious which is Nepal’s greatest source of for- than the light half and the full moon. eign exchange. Such great geographical diversity promotes similar human diversity. The Nibandha people of Nepal are an amalgam of (“collection”) Genre of thematic com- many different groups, including people mentarial literature that became promi- whose historical roots lie in India and nent in medieval northern India. The indigenous hill tribes associated with nibandhas were compendia of Hindu particular parts of the country. Most lore, in which the compilers culled 471 Nigantha Nataputta

Leader of a Toda tribe in the Nilgiri Hills. excerpts on a particular theme from the Nigantha Nataputta Vedas, dharma literature, puranas, and In early , a figure other authoritative religious texts, and whose views are mentioned in the then compiled them into a single orga- Buddhist scriptures. Nigantha advocated nized text. Excerpts from these same a four-fold self-restraint, although these authoritative texts on a different theme sources give no further indication of would be compiled into a different vol- his doctrines. It is generally accepted ume, and so on. The compilers would that Nigantha was the same person often have to reconcile conflicting texts, as . Mahavira is believed to or judge which passage was preferable have been the last of the Jain to another. Such judgments were gener- tirthankaras, the founding figures in the ally done using rules for textual inter- Jain religious tradition. pretation developed by the Purva Mimamsa philosophical school, one of the six schools of traditional Hindu phi- Night, Goddess of losophy. The Purva Mimamsa school In the Vedas, the earliest and most had originally developed these rules for authoritative Hindu religious texts, the interpreting the Vedas, the oldest and gods and goddesses are associated with most authoritative Hindu religious texts. phenomena in the natural world. In the In many cases the nibandhas had Vedas the goddess (Night) is men- between fifteen and twenty volumes, tioned both as a goddess and as the attempting to provide an exhaustive night itself. At times she is seen as life- investigation of Hindu religious life. giving, allowing people the opportunity Among the most influential nibandhas to refresh and renew themselves. At are the Kalpataru, compiled by other times she is associated with the Lakshmidhara in twelfth century, and dangers of the night, such as wild ani- the Viramitrodaya, compiled by mals and thieves. Ratri is considered a Mishra early in the seventeenth century. sister to , the dawn. As night and day alternate, the two goddesses mark 472 Nimbarki

out the regular passage of time that unable to figure out a way to contain it. characterizes the cosmic order (rta). For Shiva takes care of the poison by holding further information on Night and all the it in his throat, but the force of the poi- goddesses of Hinduism, see David R. son is so great that it turns his throat Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, 1986. blue. See also Tortoise avatar and ocean, churning of the. Nilachal Hill Sacred site (tirtha) overlooking the Nilgiri Hills Brahmaputra River, about six miles out- Range of hills formed by the conjunc- side the city of Guwahati in the modern tion of the Western and Eastern Ghats, state of . Nilachal Hill is known located at the junction of three southern for its temple to the goddess , Indian states—Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and one of the most powerful goddess tem- . In earlier times the hills ples in India. This site is one of the were occupied by a tribal people known Shakti Pithas, a network of sites sacred as the Todas, although only a few thou- to the Goddess which spreads through- sand Todas are left today. This region is out the subcontinent. Each Shakti Pitha important for its hill stations, such as marks the site where a body part of the Ootacamund and Kodaikanal, which are dismembered goddess Sati fell to earth, popular spots for vacations, honey- taking form there as a different goddess. moons, and movie filming. The is where Sati’s vulva is said to have fallen to earth; the image of the goddess is a natural cleft in Nimbarka the rock around which the temple has (12th c.?) Ascetic, philosopher, devotee been built. Since Kamakhya sprang from (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and attrib- the most sexually charged part of the uted as the founder of the Sanaka female body, the site is extremely power- Sampraday, one of the four Vaishnava ful. See also pitha. ascetic orders. According to tradition, Nimbarka was a Telegu (southern Indian) brahmin who was born in the Nilakanth city of Paithan in central India, but lived (“blue-throated”) Epithet of the god much of his life in the northern Indian Shiva; also the name of a manifestation Braj region, where the god Krishna is of Shiva who is enshrined at the supposed to have lived. Nimbarka’s Nilakanth Mahadev temple outside the philosophical position is described as city of in the state of Uttar dualism- (dvaitadvaita), a Pradesh. Shiva is present at Nilakanth in concept in which God and human the form of a linga, the pillar-shaped beings are both identical and different. object that is his symbolic form. The While earlier Vaishnavas worshiped mythic charter for this epithet (and for Vishnu and Lakshmi as the divine the establishment of the temple as well) couple, Nimbarka used the same is drawn from the tale of Churning the concept, but changed the focus to Ocean of . The gods and demons Krishna and Radha. churn the ocean to produce amrta, the nectar of immortality thought to be the finest essence of the ocean. Yet their Nimbarki action produces not only the amrta, but Name for the religious group founded by also its antithesis, the poison. the Vaishnava figure Nimbarka. It is This is an event of great peril; the poison also used as a variant name for the is so powerful that if left unchecked, it Sanaka Sampraday, an ascetic commu- can destroy the earth. When this poison nity that traces its spiritual lineage to appears, the gods and demons are Nimbarka, as a way to reinforce their religious authority. 473 Nirakara

Nirakara would be first for the other two major (“without form”) Epithet of the divine bathing days, followed by the Juna and reality in its ultimate aspect. According Mahanirvani . The Niranjani to many Hindu traditions, God is ulti- Akhara’s ability to command the premier mately without form, transcending all position is based primarily on their local particularity and superior to any partic- strength: the Niranjani Akhara was quite ular image. This belief is first phrased in powerful in Haridwar, where it still owns the , the speculative reli- significant property. The Mahanirvani gious texts that are the most recent part Akhara, however, was based in of the Vedas, and is advocated by the Allahabad. Another sign of the Niranjani philosophical traditions based on the Akhara’s status is that it has as a sub- Upanishads, such as . sidiary group, the Ananda Akhara. This concept is opposed by certain All of the akharas have particular fea- Hindu theistic traditions, such as the tures that define their organizational Gaudiya Vaishnava religious community, identity, especially specific tutelary in which a particular deity—in this deities. The Niranjani Akhara’s tutelary case, Krishna—is conceived as the deity is Skanda, the son of the deities Ultimate Reality. Shiva and Parvati, and the celestial gen- eral commanding Shiva’s supernatural army. Aside from serving as an identify- Niranjani Akhara ing marker, the choice of a celestial war- The name of a subgroup of the Naga rior reflects the akhara’s influence and class of Dashanami Sanyasis; a particu- former military strength. lar type of renunciant ascetic. The Dashanami Sanyasis are devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva, organized Nirguna into different akharas or regiments on (“without qualities”) Epithet of the the model of an army. Until the begin- divine reality in its ultimate aspect. ning of the nineteenth century the According to many Hindu traditions, Dashanami Sanyasis’ primary occupa- God is ultimately without qualities or tion was as mercenary soldiers, attributes, transcending all particularity although they also had substantial trad- and superior to any qualified form. This ing interests; both of these have largely conception is first phrased in the disappeared in contemporary times. Upanishads, the speculative religious The Niranjani Akhara is one of the seven texts that are the most recent part of the main Dashanami Sanyasi akharas and Vedas, and in the philosophical tradi- along with the Mahanirvani Akhara is tions based on the Upanishads such as one of the most powerful. This power is Advaita Vedanta. This belief is opposed clearly shown by their respective posi- by certain Hindu theistic traditions, tions in the bathing (snana) processions such as the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious at the Kumbha Mela festivals: in community, in which a particular Haridwar the Niranjani Akhara goes deity—in this case, Krishna—is con- first, followed by the Mahanirvani; at ceived as the Ultimate Reality. Allahabad the order is reversed. In 1962 the Juna Akhara acquired the status of a Nirikari separate procession, rather than as a Minor Vaishnava sect founded in the late subsidiary of the Niranjani Akhara. 1700s, by a Ramanandi ascetic named According to the terms of the 1962 Baba Sarjudasa. The name comes from agreement, at Haridwar the Juna Akhara their greeting, Sat Nirikara (“Truth Is would lead the Sanyasi processions for Formless”). Their major areas of influence the bathing on the festival of Shivaratri, and operation are in Punjab, Haryana, followed by the Niranjani and and northwestern Uttar Pradesh. Mahanirvani Akharas. The Niranjanis 474 Nirmala Devi

At the Kumbha Mela festival in Haridwar the Niranjani Akhara proceeds first, followed by the Mahanirvani. Nirmala Religious observance on the eleventh (“free from defilement”) With the day (ekadashi) in the bright, waxing half , one of the two Hindu ascetic of the lunar month of Jyeshth (May– communities tracing its origins to the June). As for all the eleventh-day obser- Sikh community. According to one tradi- vances, this is dedicated to the worship tion, the Nirmala sect was established of the god Vishnu. Most Hindu festivals by the tenth Sikh guru, Gobind Singh. have certain prescribed rites, which On the whole, the Sikh tradition has not usually involve fasting (upavasa) and endorsed asceticism, but rather an worship, and often promise specific active life in the world. The Nirmalas benefits for faithful performance. The have a large ascetic center in the north- regulations for this ekadashi are more ern Indian sacred city of Haridwar, strict than all the others. Not only is all where they run a primary school. As a food forbidden, but the person per- community, the Nirmalas are known far forming this rite must not drink water, more for learning and study than asceti- hence the name nirjala meaning cism or yoga. At the Kumbha Melas, the “waterless.” The fast must last from Nirmalas bathe last of all, after the dawn till dusk. This is no easy task, Sanyasis, Bairagis, and Udasis. since this ekadashi occurs during the hottest part of the year. The rewards are great: Those who fulfill the vow for this Nirmala Devi single ekadashi receive the religious (b. 1923) Modern Hindu teacher who merit for all twenty-four ekadashis dur- claims to be an avatar of the primordial ing the year, whether or not they have Goddess, and the founder of Vishva done the rites for the others. Carrying Nirmala Dharam, an organization dedi- out the vow for this ekadashi is also cated to spreading her message. believed to bring one a long life and lib- Nirmala Devi’s teaching is based on tra- eration of the soul after death. ditional ideas of hatha yoga and the subtle body. The subtle body is an 475 Nirmohi (“free from illusion”) Ani

alternate physiological system, existing is rarely mentioned; the hymns men- on a different plane than gross matter, tioning her usually express the hope that but corresponding to the material body. she will stay away and allow the speak- It is visualized as a set of six psychic cen- ers to be free from misfortune. For fur- ters (chakras) running roughly along ther information on Nirriti and all the the spine; two divine principles, Shiva goddesses of Hinduism, see David R. (awareness) and Shakti (power), reside Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, 1986. above and below these centers. In prac- ticing this yoga, the aspirant aims to awaken the latent spiritual of Shakti known as , move it into (“explanation”) One of the six . union with the Shiva principle at the These were the auxiliary branches of crown of the head, and transform the knowledge associated with the use of perishable elements in the gross body to the Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious become immortal. texts. Nirukta is concerned with the ety- Nirmala Devi claims to be able to mological explanations of archaic arouse a devotee’s (bhakta) kundalini words. This was apparently a serious through an infusion of her own spiritual problem, since almost one-quarter of power, thus dramatically speeding up the words in the Veda occur only once, the path to liberation. Her Indian devo- and with the passage of time their pre- tees are mainly middle-class, but she cise meanings became either unclear or also claims to have a substantial follow- unknown. The most famous nirukta ing in Europe, North America, and text—known simply as the Nirukta— Australia. For a skeptical account of an was written by Yaska the grammarian, encounter with Nirmala Devi, see in about the fifth century B.C.E. His work Sudhir Kakar, “Cooling Breezes,” in was immeasurably helpful to later read- Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors, 1991. ers, but it is clear that even in Yaska’s time the meanings for many of these words had become uncertain and Nirmohi (“free from illusion”) Ani unclear. Aside from nirukta, the other Among the Bairagi Nagas, renunciant Vedangas are (Sanskrit ascetics who are devotees of Vishnu, the grammar), chandas (Sanskrit ), Nirmohis are one of the three Naga anis (ritual instructions), (cor- (“armies”). The others are the Digambaras rect pronunciation), and jyotisha (aus- and Nirvanis. In earlier times these anis picious times for sacrifices). were actual fighting units who made their living as traders and mercenary soldiers, but in modern times they are Nirvani (“liberated”) Ani mainly important for determining the Among the Bairagi Nagas, renunciant order in the bathing processions at the ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of Kumbha Mela. Of the three Naga anis, Vishnu, the Nirvanis are one of the three the Digambaras are by far the most Naga anis (“armies”). The others are the important and take precedence at the Nirmohis and Digambaras. In earlier Kumbha Mela. times these anis were actual fighting units who made their living as traders and mercenary soldiers, but in modern Nirriti times they are mainly important for (“decay, destruction”) In the Vedas, determining the order at the bathing the oldest and most authoritative (snana) processions at the Kumbha Hindu religious texts, Nirriti is a god- Mela. Of the three Naga anis, the dess personifying all the negative Digambaras are the most important and aspects associated with life. Nirriti’s take precedence at the Kumbha Mela. personality is not well-defined, for she

476 Nityasamsarin

Nirvikalpaka . Due to a divine boon In certain schools of Indian given to Mahishasura, Shumbha and philosophy—among them certain Nishumbha are able to vanquish the Buddhists, the Nyayas, and the gods and assume control of heaven. Prabhakara school of Mimamsa— However, they are devoured by Kali, who nirvikalpaka is the name for a sort of emerges as a manifestation of the simple non-conceptual awareness, pro- Goddess’s anger. duced solely by the operation of the senses. According to these schools, if the Niti Shastra senses producing this awareness have (“instructions on diplomacy”) General no defect, such an awareness is believed name for a genre of instruction that to be true. However, it can be confused taught politically astute behaviors, such or misinterpreted through the action of as making friends and allegiances, the mind. This belief had important intimidating one’s enemies, and know- ramifications for theories of error, ing who can be trusted. This was a rec- which seek to explain how erroneous ognized branch of learning in the judgments are possible. The schools that traditional Hindu sciences, and was believed in this theory attributed error taught to influential and royal families, to the action of the mind. for whom knowing the real workings of the world was considered essential to fulfilling their social functions. The fables of the convey (“going-out”) Samskara these hard-edged lessons on self- The sixth traditional life-cycle ceremony interest and caution through the use of (samskara), in which the infant is taken animal characters. for his or her first trip outside the house. Although the traditional texts consider this a minor rite and the traditional tex- Nitya Karma tual procedures are seldom performed, (“perpetual [ritual] action”) One of the a young child’s first outing is often still three broad types of ritual action, the carefully planned. On a symbolic level, it others being naimittika karma and represents the child’s first encounter kamya karma. Nitya karma is ritual with the larger world, and thus the action that is prescribed at regular fixed child’s expanding sphere of possibilities. intervals, often on a daily basis; one It also shows the continuing importance gains no religious merit from perform- of rites of protection. Even in modern ing them, but omitting them is consid- India many people believe in the power ered a religious demerit. One example of of the evil eye (nazar), and young a nitya karma is the Mantra, children are considered particularly which must be recited at morning and susceptible. Thus, a child’s first evening worship (sandhya) by every encounter with the chaotic outside “twice-born” man who has received the world must be carefully structured and adolescent religious initiation known as carefully supervised. the “second birth.” Another nitya karma is the Five Great Sacrifices (panchama- hayajna), which are daily religious Nishumbha duties for a “twice-born” householder; In Hindu mythology the name of a they are rarely performed today. demon killed by the goddess Kali in the Devimahatmya, the earliest and most important text for the mythology of the Nityasamsarin Goddess. Together with his brother One of the three classes of beings in the Shumbha, Nishumbha is one of the philosophical school, generals in the army of a demon named founded by the philosopher Madhva 477 Nivedita, Sister

(1197–1276). Madhva’s fundamental Briggs, Gorakhnath and the Kanphata belief was that God was utterly tran- Yogis, 1973. scendent, above and beyond the world and human beings. The strength of this conviction led him to stress the impor- tance of grace as the sole means of sal- (“observance”) In the ashtanga yoga vation, since human beings were taught by , the second of the unable to save themselves. Given this eight constituent elements of yoga prac- dire view of human capacities, Madhva tice. While the first element lists five divided the beings of the world into injurious actions and dispositions to three classes: The muktiyogas were avoid, Niyama gives five positive destined for final liberation, the instructions, shifting the focus from nityasamsarins were destined for eter- abstinence to active cultivation. The five nal rebirth, and the tamoyogas were observances are: purity, contentment, predestined for eternal damnation. asceticism, study, and making the lord the motive of all action. Nivedita, Sister (b. Margaret Noble, 1867–1911) Irish dis- Niyati ciple of the modern Hindu teacher (“destiny”) Niyati was the central Vivekananda. Nivedita devoted philosophical assumption for the much of her life to the service of the Ajivikas, an ancient and extinct philo- Mission, particularly the sophical school. The Ajivikas were education of Indian women. Nivedita fatalists, who believed that niyati inex- was born in Ireland and taught in orably predetermined all things. London, where she met Vivekananda. Human beings can do nothing to influ- She accepted him as her spiritual master ence destiny, since they can only do (guru) and came to India with him, what has been preordained. The where she founded the Nivedita Girls Ajivikas compared the process of rein- School in Calcutta. Nivedita was part of carnation (samsara) to a ball of string, the first generation of Europeans who which would unroll until it was done, came to India searching for answers to and then go no further. The word niyati life’s ultimate questions. still carries this sense of “fate” or “des- tiny,” but with one important differ- ence: While the Ajivikas conceived Nivrttinath niyati as an impersonal and uncontrol- (1268–1294?) Elder brother of Jnaneshvar, lable force, in modern times one’s fate the first great poet-saint of the Varkari is believed to result from past karma. Panth, a religious community centered around the worship of the Hindu god Vithoba at his temple at Pandharpur in Niyoga the modern state of Maharashtra. (“appointment”) Practice by which a Nivrttinath is traditionally named as childless widow could have intercourse Jnaneshvar’s religious teacher (guru), with her dead husband’s brother, or although his younger brother became some other “appointed” male, in order more influential. According to tradi- to bear a son. The child is considered the tion, Nivrttinath’s guru, Gainanath, son of the dead man and preserves his was a direct disciple of Gorakhnath, lineage. There is significant disagree- the celebrated ascetic. This relation- ment about the propriety of this practice ship is indicated in the Jnaneshvari, in in the dharma literature. Some of these which Jnaneshvar describes himself as texts permit it, although hedged with a pupil in Gorakhnath’s line. For fur- numerous conditions, but others ther information see George Weston unconditionally condemn it. Niyoga is one of the practices judged to be 478 Nudity

The two most basic genres of are natya and nrtya. This dancer, performing in the natya genre, uses dance to tell a story. In the nrtya genre the dance conveys only the dancer's skill. Kalivarjya, or “forbidden in the Kali and who has received the adolescent [Age].” Kalivarjya, which first appeared in religious initiation known as the “sec- the twelfth century, was a legal strategy ond birth.” Each of the five sacrifices used to forbid certain religious practices () is directed toward a different that were prescribed in the sacred litera- class of beings—from the Ultimate ture, but were no longer acceptable in Reality of down to animals— contemporary times. and is satisfied by different actions. The nryajana is directed toward fellow human beings, and is satisfied by show- Nrtya ing hospitality to one’s guests. Although In classical Indian dance, the word nrtya Hindu religious life has undergone sig- refers to the genre of “pure” dance, in nificant changes and some of the other which the dance conveys nothing more rites have fallen into oblivion, this rite is than the dancer’s skill. Nrtya is one of still widely practiced; the ethos of hospi- the two most basic dance genres. The tality is still very strong in Hindu society. other genre, natya, is an acting dance, in which the dancer’s expressions, move- ments, and gestures convey a story to Nudity the audience. Nudity is often seen as both inauspi- cious and forbidden, and is subject to numerous taboos: according to some Nryajana authorities, one should not bathe (“sacrifice to human beings”) One of the (snana) naked (a more understandable Five Great Sacrifices (panchamahayajna) taboo in times when people would that is prescribed in the dharma litera- bathe outdoors) and one should not be ture, which describes religious duty. naked during sexual intercourse. In These Five Great Sacrifices are daily reli- some cases there are also taboos on a gious observances prescribed for a husband seeing his wife naked, since it twice-born householder. This is a per- is widely believed that this will cause son who has been born into one of the Lakshmi, the goddess, to forsake her, three twice-born groups in Indian soci- taking away her auspiciousness as a ety—brahmin, , or — 479 Nyasa

married woman. The exception to this traditional basis for the school. The taboo on nudity is that some ascetics sutras begin by asserting that the believe nakedness symbolizes the means of knowledge and its elements renunciation of all possessions and can bring a person supreme happiness. the rejection of all worldly standards, The text’s second describes a five- including shame. Few ascetics renounce part causal chain: pain, birth, activity, all clothing; some wear a loincloth in defect, and wrong notion. Each of these public, rationalizing that one should not elements is caused by the one succeed- mislead or scandalize ordinary people ing it, and is eliminated with the who have limited understanding. destruction of its cause. The primary cause for all of this is “wrong notion,” hence the Nyaya were concerned with Nyasa the investigation of the . (“laying down”) A characteristic ritual The Nyayas draw their in , a secret religious practice. from the Vaisheshika school, with In the practice of nyasa, the person whom they become assimilated in the performing the ritual identifies cer- early centuries of the common era. tain sounds, often in the form of seed Their philosophical perspective is syllables (bijaksharas), with parts of sometimes described as the “ordinary the human body, deities, and material person’s conception.” The Nyayas and objects. This is done to create a series Vaisheshika are philosophical realists— of identifications between the macro- that is, they believe the world is made cosm of the and the micro- up of many different things that exist as cosm of the body, such that actions in perceived, except in cases of perceptual the microcosmic ritual sphere will error. All things are composed of nine cause results in its macrocosmic fundamental substances—the five ele- counterpart. ments, space, time, mind, and selves— and that whatever exists is both Nyaya knowable and nameable. The Nyayas (“method”) One of the six schools of subscribe to the causal model known as traditional Hindu philosophy, con- asatkaryavada, which posits that when cerned with the examination and - a thing is created, it is a new entity, dation of the objects of knowledge. It completely different from its con- was the Nyayas who first developed and stituent parts. This causal model tends codified the notion of the pramanas, to multiply the number of things in the the means by which human beings may universe, since each act of creation gain true and accurate knowledge. The brings a new thing into being. It also Nyayas recognized four such pramanas: admits that human efforts and actions perception (), inference are one of the causes influencing these (anumana), analogy (upamana), and affects, making it theoretically possible authoritative testimony (). to act in a way that brings final libera- These ideas are accepted by virtually all tion of the soul (). Indian philosophical schools, and are One of the unique features of the the Nyayas’ major contribution to Nyaya school is their belief in inher- Indian philosophy. ence (samavaya), a weak relational As did all schools of Indian philoso- force that functions like a glue connect- phy, the Nyayas undertook the exami- ing various things: wholes and their nation of knowledge not for mere parts, substances and their attributes, speculation, but to find a way to release motions and the things that move, and the soul from the bondage of reincarna- general properties and their particular tion (samsara). The Nyaya Sutras, instances. For the Nyayas, the Self attributed to Gautama, are the (atman) is the locus for all experience. Inherence connects all experiences— 480 Nyaya Sutras

pleasure, pain, happiness, sorrow, and so forth—to the Self. The philo- sophical difficulties with inherence— particularly the notion that it is one single principle and not a collection of things—caused the Nyaya school great difficulty. These assumptions were ulti- mately responsible for the rise of Navyanyaya school, which attempted to explain these relationships in a more sophisticated way. For further information see Karl H. Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharyya (eds.), Indian Philosophical Analysis, 1992; and and Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, 1957.

Nyaya Sutras Foundational text for the Nyaya school, one of the six schools of traditional Hindu philosophy. The Nyaya Sutras are traditionally attributed to the philosopher Gautama; the most signifi- cant commentary was written by Vatsyayana in the fourth century. The Nyaya Sutras begin with an exposition of the cause of the human bondage, explained as stemming from a five-part causal chain: pain, birth, activity, defect, and wrong notion. Each of these elements is caused by the one succeeding it, and is eliminated with the destruction of its cause. The root cause for bondage and reincarnation (samsara) is thus wrong notions, which must be corrected to attain final liberation of the soul (moksha). In their quest for correct understanding, the Nyaya Sutras devote great attention to the pramanas, the means by which human beings can gain true and accu- rate knowledge, and to the rules and procedures for applying them. The Nyaya Sutras describe four such pra- : perception (pratyaksha), infer- ence (anumana), analogy (upamana), and authoritative testimony (shabda). These ideas are accepted by virtually all Indian philosophical schools and are the Nyayas’ major contribution to Indian philosophy. 481 Obscenity

Om A sacred sound. According to tradition, it should be uttered before and after reading the Vedas (the oldest Hindu reli- gious texts), saying any prayer, or per- O forming any sacred rite. When uttered at the beginning of a rite, it is believed to remove obstacles, and when uttered at the end it is seen as a concluding affir- mation. Because of its pervasive ritual Obscenity use, the sound is regarded as the Traditional Hindu culture can be char- essence of all holy speech. As early as acterized as straightlaced, even prudish, the , the sound’s with regard to sexuality; any public phonetic elements (A, U, and M) were mention of sexuality is taboo in polite interpreted as corresponding to differ- society. The exception of ritually sanc- ent states of consciousness, and ulti- tioned obscenity comes before and dur- mately designating the Self (atman). See ing the festival of , which usually also four states of consciousness. occurs in March. Holi is a “festival of reversal,” in which most social taboos are temporarily suspended. Holi comes Omens very close to the end of the lunar year, The notions of auspiciousness and and symbolizes the end of time, when all inauspiciousness are deeply rooted in norms and standards have been lost. In Hindu life, and are based on the recent times the license and lawlessness assumption that by their very nature associated with Holi have led many peo- certain things bring good fortune, and ple to stop celebrating it in public, par- certain other things bring ill fortune. ticularly in the cities. The notion of omens is an extension of this idea; omens are important not because they cause good or bad fortune Ocean, Churning of the in themselves, but because they indicate Famous mythic event in which the gods conditions that are present. According and demons churned the Ocean of Milk to this belief, auspicious conditions will to produce the nectar or immortality. automatically give rise to favorable See also Tortoise avatar. omens, and inauspicious conditions to unfavorable omens. Omens serve as indicators to help judge the current state Offerings of affairs and make any necessary One of the pervasive realities in Hindu adjustments. For example, if on leaving religious life is the importance of transac- the house to do some business one sees tions or exchanges—both between a person deemed inauspicious, one human beings, and between humans and should return to the home and begin superhuman beings. The importance of again, lest the work be fruitless. these exchanges makes various offerings a fundamental part of Hindu worship. One set of sixteen offerings, known as the Omkareshvar upacharas, are given to a deity as part of Temple and sacred site (tirtha) on an worship, on the model of treating the deity island in the Narmada River in the state as an honored guest—inviting the deity of Madhya Pradesh, about fifty miles inside, offering the deity a seat, a drink of southeast of the city of Indore. The tem- water, and so forth. In the naivedya, one ple is named after its presiding deity, the offers the deity food, perhaps the most god Shiva in his manifestation as the fundamental courtesy of all. “Lord of [the sound] Om,” an utterance 482 Ordeal, Trial By claimed to symbolize the entire uni- Ordeal, Trial By verse, according to the early specula- Trial by ordeal was one of the traditional tive texts known as the Upanishads. means for establishing a person’s guilt or Omkareshvar is one of the twelve innocence. Ordeals were considered a jyotirlingas, a network of sites at “divine” proof, but could only be used in which Shiva is uniquely present. cases when human proofs such as evi- According to the site’s mythic charter, dence or eyewitness testimony were Shiva appears there to reward the sage inadequate or unobtainable. Crimes Mandhata, who has performed harsh committed in secret or in lonely places, asceticism (tapas) to gain a vision of questions of sexual consent, or money Shiva. The image at the site is a “self- left for deposit were proven by these tri- manifested” (svayambhu) form of als, following a carefully established rit- Shiva—an unshaped, roundish black ual procedure. The trial could be done in stone emerging from the earth, while four different ways: fire, water, balance, nearby is a white stone considered to or poison. be a manifestation of Shiva’s wife, The fire ordeal entailed carrying a Parvati. Viewing this image is believed red-hot iron ball, licking a red-hot plow- to grant all of one’s desires, just as it did share, or removing a ring or coin from a for Mandhata. Worship at the site con- vessel of boiling oil, with guilt or inno- tinues all year, but during Kartik cence established by whether or not one Purnima, the full moon in the lunar was burned. The water ordeal entailed month of Kartik (October–November), remaining underwater for a specified there is a major bathing (snana) festival length of time, with guilt determined by at the site. the inability to do so. The balance ordeal was done by successive weighings, with the conviction that a guilty person would become progressively heavier. The festival of Onam, in the southern The poison ordeal was performed either Indian state of Kerala, is celebrated by consuming poison, or by safely in the Malayalam month of Chingal, removing a coin from an earthen pot which corresponds to the northern containing a cobra; innocence was Indian month of Bhadrapada established by surviving. (August–September). Onam is a four- There were fairly strict prescriptions day harvest festival highlighted by races governing which of these ordeals certain in elaborately carved boats known as people were allowed to perform. “snake boats,” some of which are large Women, the elderly, and the infirm were enough to carry 100 paddlers. The most subjected to the test of balance; brah- famous of these boat races are held in mins were generally forbidden from the Keralan town of Aleppey. undertaking ordeal by poison. In every case the actual ordeal was preceded by Oraon the person proclaiming his or her inno- Northern Indian tribal (adivasi) com- cence, followed by declarations praising munity. The Oraons are concentrated the saving power of truth and the in the southwestern corner of modern damning force of untruth. Historians , in the geologic region known as speculate that these required declara- the Ranchi Plateau. The land is quite tions helped make the ordeal more reli- poor, and for many life is very difficult. able. For instance, in the ordeal of For a discussion of the difficulties of licking a red-hot plowshare, a guilty per- Oraon life, see Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, son might be significantly more nervous Mystics, and Doctors, 1991. and thus have less moisture on the tongue. Similarly, the nervousness dur- ing the water ordeal may have impeded

483 Organs of Action

Temple to the sun at Konarak, in Orissa. a person’s ability to hold his breath. Bhubaneshvar, the sacred city of Puri, Whether or not these speculations have and the temple to the Sun at Konarak. any merit, the most important feature in For general information about Orissa the original Hindu context was the belief and all the regions of India, see Christine in the power of truth itself. Nivin et al., India. 8th ed., Lonely Planet, 1998. See also Maurya dynasty. Organs of Action See karmendriya. Orissi One of the classical dance forms of India; some of the others are , Orissa Bharatanatyam, , , A state in modern India on the eastern and Manipuri. Dance in Orissa dates to coast between the states of Andhra the second century B.C.E.; the present Pradesh and . Orissa traces Orissi style has its roots in the dance its roots to the kingdom of Kalinga and performed at the temple of the god the bloody conquest by the Mauryan Jagannath in Puri. The temple itself was emperor Ashoka (r. 269–232 B.C.E.). built in the eleventh century; the sub- During the early medieval period the sidiary part, known as the natamandira and dynasties built stun- (“dance-hall”), was built about a century ning temples, many of which exist today. later. The latter period was the era of the Modern Orissa is largely undeveloped, poet Jayadeva, whose lyric poem, the and a large percentage of its people are Gitagovinda, is the only non-scriptural indigenous tribal peoples (adivasis). poem that can be recited in the temple. Historically, Hindu culture has been According to tradition, Jayadeva’s wife, manifest in the coastal regions, whereas Padmavati, was one of the dancers in the interior has been tribal land. Orissa’s the temple, and it was she who first sacred sites include the Ganga-era danced parts of the Gitagovinda as an temples in the state capital of offering to Jagannath. As dance at the 484 Owl

temple evolved, two categories of tem- toward it and unable to “see” anything ple dancers emerged: those allowed to else, such as deeper wisdom. In modern dance in the inner sanctum, and those Hindi, calling someone an “owl” is a mild allowed to dance in the natamandira. insult, referring to the other as a “fool.” In the seventeenth century, a third type of dance emerged—boys dressed as dancing girls performed for general entertainment both outside and inside the temple. The latter dance tended to be more athletic and acrobatic, where- as the women’s dance was more gentle and lyrical. The modern Orissi style combines both elements. The most characteristic stance is the chauka (“square”), in which the feet are spread wide and pointed in opposite directions, with the knees bent so that the upper leg is parallel to the ground. The arms are held in a mir- roring position, bent at the elbow with the upper arms horizontal, and the lower arms and hands pointing straight down. The dance’s stylistic impression is one of roundness and fluidity, creat- ed by rippling movements in the upper body during the dance. As in all the Indian dances, Orissi has a well-devel- oped vocabulary of gesture and expres- sion, making complex story-telling possible. The modern Orissi dance form has been shaped by the shift from tem- ple to stage in the twentieth century; this change of venue has been primarily responsible for its “classical” form becoming more rigidly defined than in the past. For further information see Mohan Khokar, Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, 1984.

Osho The name adopted late in life by Bhagwan Shri Rajneesh. See Bhagwan Shri Rajneesh.

Owl In Hindu mythology, the owl is the ani- mal vehicle of Lakshmi, the goddess. Just as the owl is popularly believed to have trouble seeing in the daytime, a person pursuing “Lakshmi” (money and prosperity) will be single-minded

485 Pacification of Planets

stems grow as long as necessary to get the flower bud above the water’s sur- face—whether three, five, or ten feet— symbolizing the human ability to overcome obstacles to spiritual P progress. Finally, lotus leaves are cov- ered with a waxy coating, upon which water beads up and flows off; one reli- gious text, the (5.10), uses this as a simile for the man who Pacification of Planets renounces all attachment and is Indian astrology (jyotisha) recognizes untouched by the things of the world. nine “planets”: the sun, moon, Aside from its symbolic content, the Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and lotus is also an important element in Saturn; the remaining two are Rahu and . It is one of the four , which do not correspond to any identifying objects carried by the god Western astrological features. Each of Vishnu, along with the conch shell these planets is considered helpful or (), club (gada), and discus harmful by nature. The relative strength (chakra). It is also commonly carried by of any planet is believed to depend on the Goddess, both in her forms as Durga its position in the horoscope and vis-à- and related powerful goddesses, and in vis the other planets. All are seen as her beneficent and benevolent form as minor divinities rather than as simple Lakshmi, who is usually portrayed as material objects, and thus a potentially standing on a lotus. The lotus even fig- harmful planet can be “pacified” ures in one of the common Hindu cre- through rites intended to minimize its ation myths, in which a lotus sprouts disruptive potential. One common from Vishnu’s navel and opens to reveal means of pacification is to wear the Brahma, who proceeds to create the gemstone corresponding to the particu- earth. When the universe has run its lar planet, so that the stone can neutral- course and is about to be destroyed, ize the planet’s force. More inauspicious same process happens in reverse. cases demand stronger measures, often involving rites in which the planetary inauspiciousness is given away through Padmapada the medium of gifts (dana). For further One of the two attested disciples of consideration see Gloria Goodwin Shankaracharya—the other being Raheja, The Poison in the Gift, 1988. See Sureshvara—and the founder of the also Suryia. Vivarana school of Advaita Vedanta. The Advaita school upholds a philo- sophical position known as monism, Padma which is the belief that a single Ultimate (“lotus”) One of the richest symbols in Reality, Brahman, lies behind all things, Indian philosophy and iconography, and that all things are merely differing both Hindu and Buddhist, and an forms of that reality. Advaita proponents invariably auspicious object. Its size and claim that reality is nondual (advaita)— colors make it one of the most beautiful that is, that, despite the appearance of Indian flowers, but the lotus is also a difference and diversity, all things are potent symbol for spiritual realization. It nothing but the formless, unqualified is rooted in the mud—symbolizing the Brahman. For the Advaitins, the corrupting world with which all beings assumption of diversity is a fundamen- must contend—but it blooms above the tal misunderstanding of the ultimate surface of the water, signifying transcen- nature of things, and a manifestation of dence. The lotus plant’s underwater avidya (lack of genuine understanding). 486

Man sitting in the padmasana, or lotus posture. This sitting position is often used in yoga and meditation. The defining characteristic of are portrayed in Hindu iconography. In Padmapada’s Vivarana school is that he this position the person sits cross- places the locus of ignorance in legged, with each foot placed on the Brahman, in contrast to the Bhamati thigh of the opposite leg. One of its ben- school, which placed it in the individual. efits is that it is extremely stable and well To explain how Brahman can be the suited for meditation, since the angle of locus of ignorance the Vivarana the lower legs keeps the upper part of Advaitins invoke the theory of the legs flat on the ground, making a Reflectionism: Just as an image appear- wide base to support the body. Done ing in a mirror is based on the original, properly, it also keeps the spine quite but different from it, so human selves straight, which is thought essential to are identical with Brahman, but appear keep from constricting the channels in to be separate. The basis of Padmapada’s the subtle body. In Indian iconography, position is an uncompromising affirma- the is sometimes repre- tion of Brahman as the sole “reality,” to sented at the base of a statue by the which anything that exists must belong. sculpture of a lotus, which forms the For further information see Karl H. base on which the image is placed. Potter (ed.), Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils, 1981; and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles Paduka A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian A wooden sandal used mainly by Philosophy, 1957. ascetics. It consists of a wooden sole and a mushroom-shaped front post, which is gripped with first two toes for stability. Padmasana are used by ascetics not only (“lotus posture”) Well-known sitting because of their cheapness and durabil- position () used in yoga and in ity, but because they are completely free meditation; the lotus posture is also one of animal products such as leather, of the sitting positions in which deities which are considered impure. Aside

487 Padya

from their functional use as footwear, tending to give the paintings a more lyri- after death an ascetic’s padukas will cal feel. For further information see often be kept by his (or, more rarely, her) W. G. Archer, Indian Painting, 1957; and disciples, as a sign of their guru’s sym- “Pahari Miniatures: A Concise History,” bolic presence. in Marg, Vol. 28, No. 2, 1975.

Padya Paishacha Marriage (“for the feet”) The third of the sixteen One of the eight ways to perform a mar- traditional upacharas (“offerings”) riage recognized in the dharma litera- given to a deity as part of worship, on ture, the treatises on religious duty. the model of treating the deity as an Paishachas are a class of demons, so a honored guest. In this offering, the deity marriage named after them is already is offered water for washing the feet, suspect. The Paishacha marriage takes which would be a traditional act of hos- place when a man has intercourse with a pitality for a guest coming in from out- woman who is drunk, unconscious, or side. The actual act of offering can be asleep. Not surprisingly, this is one of performed in various ways and often the four reprehensible (aprashasta) depends on the worshiper’s inclinations. forms of marriage, and because of the In some cases the water will simply woman’s lack of conscious awareness, be presented before the deity’s image this form was forbidden, even though it with the understanding that the deity was deemed a valid marriage. Here the has taken it, whereas in other cases writers’ concern seems to have been to the devotee (bhakta) will physically give the “bride” legal status as a wife, wash the feet of the image. In either rather to legitimate the actions of the case, the underlying motive is to show “groom.” Although theoretically valid, love for the deity and to minister to the this form of marriage has always been deity’s needs. forbidden, and thus it has never been one of the common forms of marriage. See also marriage, eight classical forms. Pahari One of the two influential “schools” of Indian miniature painting, the other Paithan being the Rajasthani. The distinctions City and sacred site (tirtha) on the between schools are geographical and Godavari River in the state of thus somewhat arbitrary, since, for Maharashtra, about 175 miles east of example, the Basohli paintings belong Bombay. Although of reduced impor- to the Pahari school, but are stylistically tance in modern times, it has a long his- closer to those of Rajasthan than to the tory as a trading city and was an later Pahari style. important stopping-point on the central The Pahari style flourished in the Indian trade route from southern India eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in to Ujjain. Since the sixteenth century, the small kingdoms in the Shiwalik Hills Paithan has been famous as the home of north and west of Delhi. It first appears , one of the important figures in in the kingdom of Basohli, where the the Varkari Panth, a religious commu- influence of the Rajasthani school is the nity centered around the worship of the clearest, and later developed in the king- Hindu god Vithoba at his temple at doms of Jammu, Guler, Garhwal, and Pandharpur in the modern state of Kangra. The developed Pahari style dif- Maharashtra. Varkari religious practice fers from the Rajasthani in its emphasis primarily consists of two pilgrimages, in on more linear drawing—perhaps influ- which all the participants arrive in enced by European art—and a more Pandharpur on the same day. Eknath restrained use of color, both features still symbolically travels to Pandharpur

488 Palani

twice each year; a palanquin (palkhi) ethos, but beyond this, very little is bearing his sandals is at the head of the known about him. procession bearing his name. Pala Dynasty Paksha (8th–12th c.) Eastern Indian dynasty One of the parts in the accepted form of whose ancestral homeland was in Bihar an inference (anumana) in Indian phi- but whose core territory also spanned losophy. The accepted form for an infer- most of modern Bengal. The Pala ence has three terms: an assertion dynasty’s zenith came at the turn of the (pratijna), a reason (hetu), and exam- ninth century, when they controlled the ples (drshtanta); each of these three has entire northern Indian plain all the way its own constituent parts. The paksha is into the Punjab region. Their rise to part of the first term, the assertion, and power came as a result of political insta- comprises the class of things about bility in the Gangetic plain, and the which the assertion is to be proved. For Palas were quickly supplanted by the instance, in the stock example, “There is Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty while fire on that mountain, because there is retaining sway over Bengal and Bihar for smoke on that mountain,” the paksha several centuries more. Their territory in in this case is “that mountain,” or the Bengal was eventually taken by the Sena class of things about which the asser- dynasty, and the Palas were finally con- tion must be proved. The class that quered by the Gahadavalas in the mid- forms the paksha must also appear in dle of the twelfth century. The Palas and the second term of the inference, the Senas are both noted for a particular reason, as the common link between type of sculpture, in which the images the two parts (as in “this mountain is on were made from black chlorite schist fire, because this mountain is smok- polished to a mirror finish. ing”). The paksha thus forms the com- mon link between the assertion and the reason, thereby ensuring that the latter Palani is relevant to the former. Town and sacred site (tirtha) in the east- In the context of a lunar month, the ern part of the state of Tamil Nadu, word paksha refers to the month’s two about sixty miles northwest of Madurai. “parts.” The Shukla Paksha is the wax- Palani is part of a network of six temples ing half, while the Krishna Paksha is the in Tamil Nadu dedicated to Murugan, a waning half. hill deity who has been assimilated into the larger pantheon as a form of the god Skanda, the son of Shiva. Five of these Pakudha Kacchayana temples have been definitively identi- An atomistic early Indian philosopher fied, and each is associated with a par- whose views are mentioned in the ticular region, a particular ecosystem, Buddhist scriptures. As these scriptures and a particular incident in Murugan’s portray him, Pakudha believed that mythic career—in the case of Palani, seven things were eternal, unmoving, Murugan lived there as a young ascetic. and unchanging—the four elements, Every other shrine to Murugan in Tamil ease, pain, and the soul. According to Nadu can be considered the sixth of Pakudha, when a sword cuts a person’s these temples. The cult of Murugan is head in two, no one is deprived of life, thus a symbolic vehicle for Tamil pride rather the sword merely penetrates the and identity, and since the number six interval between two elementary sub- has connotations of completeness—as stances (presumably the soul and the in the six directions, or the six chakras material part of the person’s body). This in the subtle body—it also connotes example seems to suggest an antisocial that nothing external is needed. For

489 Palanquin

between the sixth and ninth centuries. The greatest Pallava rulers were king Mahendravarman and his successors Narasimhavarman I and II. The reign of the Pallava dynasty was marked by the explosion of southern Indian cul- ture: the development of Tamil litera- ture, the devotional (bhakti) religious fervor of the groups known as the Alvars and the Nayanars, and the magnificent religious monuments at Mahabalipuram. Throughout much of its existence the Pallava empire carried on a running bat- tle with the Chalukya and Pandya Dynasties, neither of which could pre- vail against it, but it was eventually absorbed by the next great southern Indian empire, the Chola dynasty. See also Tamil language and Tamil epics.

Palm Leaves Until commercially produced paper became readily available, palm leaves A palanquin is used to carry images of a were the most common writing medium temple’s deity in ritual processions. in traditional India. The palm leaves further information see Fred Clothey, were cut into narrow strips held together “Pilgrimage Centers in the Tamil by a cord (sutra) running through a hole Cultus of Murukan,” in Journal of the punched in the middle of the leaf. Palm American Academy of Religion, Vol. 40, leaf books usually had a top and bottom No. 1 (1972). made from strips of wood, to protect the leaves, and these covers were often ornately decorated. The fragile nature of Palanquin these palm leaves made regular copying Platform or litter supported by poles on necessary to preserve manuscripts, even the shoulders of two or more men, and though such frequent copying generally used as a respectful way to carry some- introduced errors. If left untended, the thing or someone in procession. A life span of a manuscript was at most palanquin can be used to carry the fifty years, due to the deteriorations image of a deity in a ritual procession, or caused by the climate and the damage an ascetic leader or spiritual teacher from a species of termite known as (guru) by his (or more rarely, her) disci- “white ants,” which fed on palm leaves. ples, or the sandals (padukas) or other See also pustaka. possessions connected with one’s spiri- tual leader, as in the Varkari Panth’s pil- grimage to Pandharpur. Pan See betel. Pallava Dynasty (6th–9th c.) Southern Indian dynasty Pancha Dravida whose capital was at the city of Collective name for the five main south- , and which ruled over ern Indian brahmin communities, much of the southern Indian peninsula whose names largely correspond to the regions in which they live: the Gujaratis 490

in the state of Gujarat, Maharashtris in endurance (tapas), this rite is performed the state of Maharashtra, Karnatas in under the assumption that voluntarily the state of Karnataka, Andhras in the enduring pain and/or hardship is a state of , and Dravidas way to gain spiritual, religious, and in deep southern India, in the states of magical power. Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Panchak Nakshatra Pancha Gauda A group of five (pancha) consecutive Collective name for the five main north- nakshatras (the twenty-seven signs in ern Indian brahmin communities: the the lunar zodiac) in Indian astrology Gaudas and Kanaujias, who stretch (jyotisha). The lunar houses are divided over most of northern India; the equally throughout the solar zodiac, Maithilas in the northern state of Bihar; with 2.25 lunar houses for each solar the Utkalas in the coastal state of sign. In a single lunar month the moon Orissa; and the Saraswats, traditionally moves through each of these lunar found in several widely separated loca- houses in turn, spending about a day in tions. One group lived in the coastal each. The Panchak Nakshatra is believed region of Sindh in modern Pakistan, to be a highly inauspicious time, and although after Partition in 1947 most people who pay attention to astrology migrated to Bombay. Another group will often severely curtail any nonessen- was located in prepartition Punjab, tial activities until this time has passed. although here too they have tended to migrate away from the part of Punjab in modern Pakistan. A third branch, known Panchakroshi as the Gauda Saraswats, is found on a A circular journey (yatra) in which pil- narrow strip of coastline in the southern grims circumambulate the outer bound- Indian state of Karnataka. ary of Kashi (the largest of the three concentric ritual areas contained in the city of Benares) and visit 108 shrines along the way. The journey’s length is (“five [products of the] cow”) A mixture reckoned at five kroshas (roughly ten of cow’s milk, curds, clarified butter miles), hence the name. The journey (), urine, and dung. Since each of measures out the boundaries of the these products comes from the sacred sacred city, and thus pilgrims symboli- cow, it is considered a ritually purifying cally circle the entire world. Although substance. Panchagavya is drunk for the best known Panchakroshi Yatra is in purification during rituals of expiation Benares, and the name is most com- (prayashchitta), and it can also be used monly associated with this place, many in other rituals used to purify people, other sacred sites (tirthas) have similar objects, and places. pilgrimage routes, and this process of a circular journey around a sacred spot is a common ritual motif. Panchagni-Tapa (“five-fires asceticism”) Form of volun- tary physical mortification, usually per- Panchala formed in the hot season, in which the Name of the region corresponding to the person sits surrounded by four fires, the middle part of the state of Uttar fifth fire being the sun overhead. Pradesh, centered on the Ganges River Although this practice is now uncom- valley around the city of Kanauj. mon, it is very old and routinely named Panchala is mentioned as a kingdom as in the puranas and other religious texts early as the sixth century B.C.E., and as one of the standard ascetic practices. although it became a tributary to the As with all forms of physical ascetic great empires such as the Mauryas 491 Panchamahayajna

(4th–3rd c. B.C.E.), it retained an inde- substitution in “right hand” (dakshi- pendent identity until the third century. nachara) tantra. See also Maurya dynasty. All five are condemned by “respectable” Hindu society (the last because it is characterized as adulter- Panchamahayajna ous), and their use in tantric ritual must (“[the] five great sacrifices”) Set of be seen in a larger context. One of the five ritual actions—brahmayajna, pit- most pervasive tantric assumptions is ryajna, devayajna, bhutayajna, and the ultimate unity of everything that nryajana—that are prescribed in the exists. From a tantric perspective, to dharma literature, (texts on religious affirm that the entire universe is one duty). These five actions are prescribed principle—often conceived as the activ- daily religious observances for a “twice- ity of a particular deity—means that the born” householder, that is, a householder adept must reject all concepts based on who has been born into one of the three dualistic thinking. The “Five Forbidden “twice-born” groups in Indian society— Things” provide a ritual means for brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—and breaking down duality, since in this ritual who has received the adolescent reli- the adept violates societal norms forbid- gious initiation known as the “second ding consumption of intoxicants, non- birth.” Each sacrifice (yajna) is directed vegetarian food, and illicit sexuality, in a toward a different class of beings—from conscious effort to sanctify what is nor- the Absolute Reality down to animals— mally forbidden. Tantric adepts cite and is satisfied by different actions: to such ritual use of forbidden things as Brahman by teaching and studying the proof that their practice involves a more Veda, to the ancestral spirits (pitr) by exclusive qualification (adhikara) and is offerings of water (), to the gods thus superior to common practice. For () by offering clarified butter into further information see Arthur Avalon the sacred fire, to the animals and social (Sir ), Shakti and Shakta, outcasts (bhut) by putting out food for 1978; Swami Agehananda Bharati, The them, and to human beings (nr) by Tantric Tradition, 1977; and Douglas showing hospitality to guests. In the Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three time since the dharma literature was Cities, 1990. composed, Hindu life has seen signifi- cant changes in emphasis, and although some of these are still important in Panchang modern Hindu life—particularly the In Indian astrology (jyotisha), an stress on hospitality to guests—in most almanac documenting the position of cases the others have been either elided the various celestial bodies during the or replaced by other religious forms. course of a calendar year, including the days of the moon’s monthly cycle, its progression through the nakshatras, and the position of the planets. Most “The Five Forbidden Things,” literally, Hindu religious festivals fall according “the five m’s”: A group of five things used to a lunar calendar, and thus a panchang for worship in the secret, ritually based is needed to determine when they will religious practice known as tantra. This arrive. A panchang is also important for name arises because the names for all helping people to determine auspicious five of these begin with the letter “m”— and inauspicious times for the perfor- madya (wine), (fish), mamsa mance of certain activities. The greatest (meat), mudra (fermented or parched care is taken in fixing marriage times, to grain), and maithuna (copulation). avoid any possible inauspiciousness They are used in their actual form in that could affect the marriage, but “left hand” () tantra, and by in many cases a panchang will be 492 Panchayat

consulted before initiating any impor- learning and good moral character, tant activity. which gives him grave misgivings about their ability to rule well after his death. He resolves this problem by hiring a per- son to teach the boys through fables, (“five nights,” of uncertain meaning) each of which usually has several shorter The name denotes a particular group of fables embedded in it to give moral Vaishnavas (devotees of the god lessons along the way. These fables are Vishnu). Although there is plenty of evi- intended to provide pragmatic advice dence that the Pancharatra community about how to be successful in the real is very old, very little is known about its world, particularly in the art of state- origins. In the earliest Vaishnava sectari- craft. This pragmatic focus can lead one an texts, the Pancharatra community is to characterize the text’s advice as unfavorably compared to another opportunistic, particularly since it group, the Bhagavatas, with the former encourages caution and self-interest as described as marginal and the latter as the keys to success. The Panchatantra “Vedic” and respectable. Despite this exists in several versions, of which the seeming disapprobation, in their earli- most famous is the Hitopadesha. The est appearances do not text has been translated numerous seem theologically different from the times; a version found its way to Europe, Bhagavatas, although their differences where it became the basis for the fables may have been rooted in differing of La Fontaine. practices. In their later history, the Pancharatras become associated with an elaborate theory of creation, final- Panchavati ized somewhere around the sixth century In the Ramayana, the earlier of the and based on the successive appearance two great Indian epics, the place where of four divine emanations: Vishnu- three of the epic’s central characters— Narayana, Sankarshana, , the god-king Rama, his wife Sita, and and . The successive activity his brother Lakshmana—live during of these divine emanations brings the much of their fourteen years of forest world into being, but each is also associ- exile. It is from here that Sita is kid- ated with a particular facet of spiritual napped by , the demon-king of life through which human beings can . Although the events in the reverse the process of creation and gain Ramayana cannot be definitively set in liberation. The Pancharatra school is any specific place, there is a village also important for its theory of primary named Panchavati, outside the city of and secondary avatars, in which the lat- Nasik in the state of Maharashtra, ter can include any properly consecrat- which is identified with the mythic site. ed image of the deity. The doctrine of secondary avatars has become a pivotal idea in the later Shrivaishnava commu- Panchayat nity, through which Pancharatra ideas In traditional India, a group of five (pan- have continued to influence modern cha) elders from a particular community, Hindu life. who were the final authority for the members of that community. Each jati (endogamous subcommunity, often Panchatantra defined by hereditary occupation) was a (“Five Treatises”) A collection of moralis- self-governing body, for which the pan- tic fables intended to impart practical chayat would make all the important and worldly wisdom. The fables them- decisions. In modern India this institu- selves are framed by the story of a king tion is being hailed as a paradigm for who is distressed by his sons’ lack of decentralized government, in which the

493 Panchayatana (“five-abode”)

people themselves take responsibility early seventeenth century. The Panchvani for their communities, but since there manuscripts are among the earliest are multiple jatis in any traditional written sources for these poets, which Hindu village, this also means that there makes them an important resource for were multiple centers of authority. the historical study of northern Indian devotional poetry. For further informa- tion on the literary resources of the Panchayatana (“five-abode”) Puja Dadupanth, see Winand Callewaert Type of worship (puja) performed by (trans.), The Sarvangi of the Dadupanthi Smarta brahmins, a group of brahmins Rajab, 1978; and The Sarvangi of distinguished, not by region or family, Gopaldas, 1993. but by the religious texts they hold most authoritative—in this case, those known as the smrtis rather than sectarian reli- Panda gious texts. The is A hereditary priest who assists pilgrims marked by the simultaneous worship of with any rituals they may need or desire five different deities—usually Vishnu, to perform, and also with any other Shiva, , Ganesh, and the Goddess. needs that the pilgrims may have. Each Individual Smartas may choose one or panda family in any given pilgrimage another from among these as their pri- place (tirtha) has the exclusive rights to mary deity, but all these deities are ritu- serve pilgrims coming from a particular ally honored since they are all geographical area or areas; pilgrims are considered manifestations of the divine. supposed to seek out the panda serving their native region, whether or not the pilgrims still live in that place. On every Panchkedar visit, pilgrims will make an entry in the (“The Five Kedars”) The collective name panda’s pilgrim register (bahi), detailing for a network of five sites, sacred to the the names of those who visited and the god Shiva, spread throughout the reason that they came. Some of these Garhwal region of the Himalayas: registers date back hundreds of years, , , , and the documents are the ultimate Madmaheshvar, and Kalpeshvar. Each proof of the hereditary connection site is identified with a part of Shiva’s between panda and pilgrim families. In body, thus providing a series of connec- earlier times this hereditary relationship tions between the deity’s body and the was essential for the pilgrims, since their land itself—understandably so, since connection with their pandas provided Shiva is believed to dwell in the resources while traveling—lodging, Himalayas. Kedarnath is identified as food, and other sorts of support. The Shiva’s back, Madmaheshvar his navel, pandas would minister to their clients, Tungnath his arm, Rudranath his face, arrange for any needed rites, and even and Kalpeshvar his matted locks (jata). lend them money, if necessary. Pilgrims would usually give the panda a token Panchvani gift when they departed, along with a (“Five Voices”) Manuscript collection pledge for some larger amount, which compiled by the Dadupanth, a religious the pandas would travel to their homes community founded by the northern to pick up. Indian poet-saint Dadu (1554–1603). Although pandas are often character- The collection contains the works of five ized as greedy and rapacious—based on different devotional (bhakti) poet– their tendency to demand what they saints: Dadu, Kabir, Namdev, , think a client is able to pay—in its ideal and Hardas. Rajasthan’s desert climate form both parties benefit from the rela- has helped to preserve these manu- tionship. In recent years, the pandas scripts, some of which date from the have become less central figures in 494 Pandharpur

Varkari Panth pilgrims en route to Pandharpur. many pilgrimage places, and conse- by that god, a son equal in power to him- quently, their status and their income self. Kunti uses this mantra to bear have declined. Many pilgrimage places by the god Dharma, have been developed as sites for reli- by the storm-god Indra, and gious tourism, and hotels and facilities by the wind-god . With that have been built at these places have Pandu’s blessing Kunti also teaches the rendered pilgrims less dependent on mantra to her co-wife Madri, who med- their pandas for accommodation. At the itates on the Ashvins (divine twins who same time, recent years have seen a gen- are the physicians to the gods), and eral decline in the performance of ritual delivers the twins Nakula and Sahadeva. acts, except for the most important, par- The basic theme of the Mahabharata ticularly those connected with death. is the story of the struggle for royal power between the and their cousins, the , which Pandava culminates in a war that destroys the (“sons of Pandu”) A collective name entire family. for the five brothers who are the protagonists of the Mahabharata: Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula, Pandharpur and Sahadeva. Although they are City and sacred site (tirtha) on the named after king Pandu, none are actu- Bhima River in the state of ally his son, since Pandu has been Maharashtra, about 185 miles east and cursed to die the moment he holds his south of Bombay. Pandharpur is best wife in amorous embrace. Rather, they known for the temple to the god are magically conceived through a Vithoba, and has been a center of wor- mantra given by the sage Durvasas to ship for the Varkari Panth religious Kunti, Pandu’s senior wife. The mantra community for at least seven hundred gives the woman who recites it the years. Varkari rituals center around a power to call down any god and to have, twice-yearly pilgrimage to Pandharpur, 495 Pandrenthan

in which the pilgrims all arrive on the Pandu to be born with an unnaturally same day. Each pilgrim procession starts pale complexion. Given Dhrtarashtra’s from a different place and is identified blindness, Pandu is the best suited to with one of the poet-saints who helped rule; he marries Kunti and Madri and form the community. At the front of lives quite happily as the king. each procession is a palanquin (palkhi) This idyllic time abruptly ends one bearing the sandals of that group’s par- day while he is hunting in the forest and ticular saint, who is thus symbolically shoots a deer while it is mating. To his leading them into Pandharpur. For more horror, he discovers that the deer is the information see G. A. Deleury, The Cult sage , who has taken this form of Vithoba, 1960; I. B. Karve, “On the for sport with his wife; with his dying Road,” Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 22, breath, the sage curses Pandu that he No. 1, 1962; and Digambar Balkrishna will die the moment he touches his wife Mokashi, Palkhi, 1987. in an amorous embrace. Since he has no children, and the curse condemns him to die without an heir, Pandu abdicates Pandrenthan the throne in favor of his brother Historical site south of the city of Dhrtarashtra and goes with his wives to Shrinagar in . Pandrenthan is live as an ascetic in the Himalayas. At famous for one of the few old Hindu this time Kunti tells him about the temples still standing in Kashmir, a tem- mantra she has received years before ple dedicated to the god Shiva built in from the sage Durvasas, which gives the the twelfth century C.E. The shrine itself woman who recites it the power to call is fairly small and simple. The floor plan down any of the gods and to have by him is basically square, with each side 17.5 a son equal in power to himself. With feet long and an entrance on each side Pandu’s blessing Kunti and Madri bear giving the temple an open feel. Each five heroic sons, the five Pandava broth- doorway has a gable over it projecting ers. They all live happily together until out from a pyramidal roof known one day when Pandu, swayed by the to builders as a hip roof. The temple intoxicating influence of spring, ignores is built entirely of stone but has Madri’s warnings and embraces her. The overlapping courses, in an attempt to sage’s curse takes effect and Pandu falls mimic wooden construction. dead, although, through the power of the mantra, his family line continues. Pandu In the Mahabharata, the later of the two great Hindu epics, the son of the sage Pandurang and queen . Pandu and (“pale”) Epithet of the god Vithoba, his brother Dhrtarashtra are born as the whose primary place of worship is in the result of a desperate attempt to preserve holy city of Pandharpur in the state of the royal line of King after Maharashtra. See Vithoba. Shantanu’s son dies with- out heirs. Upon Vichitravirya’s death, his mother calls upon her eldest (6th–14th c.) Southern Indian dynasty son, Vyasa, to sleep with Vichitravirya’s whose capital was in the city of Madurai wives, and her sister Ambalika, in the state of Tamil Nadu. The Pandyas in the hope that the women will con- existed as a regional power as early as ceive. According to tradition Vyasa is the late sixth century, when they fought very ugly, and each woman reacts invol- the Pallava dynasty of Kanchipuram for untarily when Vyasa appears in her bed: control of the peninsula. The Pandyas at Ambika covers her eyes, causing her son one time became vassals to the Chola Dhrtarashtra to be born blind, and dynasty when the latter reigned over all Ambalika turns pale, causing her son 496 Panth of southern India, but with the decline of Panigrahana the Cholas the Pandyas became the A minor rite, performed in many Hindu dominant regional power, eventually marriages, in which the groom grasps absorbing the Chola kingdom in 1279. At the bride’s right hand as a symbol of their zenith in the thirteenth century the their impending marital union. See also Pandyas controlled most of the southern marriage customs. part of India, but were in turn conquered and annexed early in the fourteenth cen- tury by the Sangama dynasty, also known Panini as the Vijayanagar dynasty after their (4th c. B.C.E.) The greatest Sanskrit capital city. grammarian, whose descriptive account of that language in his Ashtadhyayi (“Eight Sections”) became the prescrip- Panguni tive norm for the language in later gen- Twelfth month in the Tamil solar year, erations. Panini was not the earliest corresponding to the northern Indian grammarian, since he names several in solar month of Mina (the zodiacal sign of his text; his genius lay rather in his skills Pisces), which usually falls within March as an organizer and systematizer. Each and April. This name is a modification of of the Ashtadhyayi’s eight sections is Phalgun, the twelfth month of the lunar written as a series of brief aphorisms calendar. The existence of several differ- (sutras), each of which provides the ent calendars is one clear sign of the con- foundation and necessary background tinuing importance of regional cultural for those that follow. Panini’s use of this patterns. One way that the Tamils retain form allowed him to provide a complete their culture is by preserving their tradi- account of the language in the briefest tional calendar. Tamil is one of the few possible space, and the text’s condensed regional languages in India with an form made it easier to memorize. As ancient, well-established literary tradi- with most sutra texts, the Ashtadhyayi’s tion. See also Tamil months, Tamil terseness of expression presupposes a Nadu, and Tamil language. commentary, of which the most famous is the Mahabhashya, written by the Pani grammarian Patanjali in the second century B.C.E. A group of northern Indian people men- tioned in a hymn in the Rg Veda (10.108), the oldest Hindu . This ref- Panth erence speaks poorly of this group, since General term used for a particular reli- it portrays them as cattle thieves. The gious community, such as the hymn is spoken as a dialogue between Dadupanth, Varkari Panth, or the the and , the divine dog Nanak Panth—an older name for the who is the servant of the god Indra and Sikh community, which has simply been who has been sent by Indra to recover abridged to “Panth” by contemporary the cattle the Panis have stolen. This . The word is derived from the hymn may refer to an actual incident Sanskrit word for “path” and is here and an actual group of people, but it is used metaphorically to indicate a fixed impossible to say. Certainly the Vedas pattern of belief and behavior, often were not written as a strict historical rooted in a particular individual’s teach- record, and it is perilous to read them as ings. There is a certain amount of such. At the same time, as the earliest semantic overlap between the words textual records they preserve references panth and sampraday, both of which to the culture and to contemporary denote religious communities, and times that can be found nowhere else. there is no hard-and-fast rule dividing the two. In general, however, the term 497 Pap

panth is more closely associated with prescribed rites, which usually involve movements in the sant religious tradi- fasting (upavasa) and worship (puja), tion, which tended toward rebellion and often promise specific benefits for against the prevailing religious estab- faithful performance. This ekadashi’s lishment, whereas sampraday is more name indicates that it is the goad commonly applied to groups that (ankusha) to drive away all evil (pap), evolved within these established reli- here fancifully conceived as an . gious communities. Thus, faithfully observing this festival is believed to cleanse one of all one’s sins. Pap (“evil”) A word sometimes used as an Parakiya adjective to describe people and (“belonging to another”) Particular type actions, but most often used as a noun, of relationship between lover and either to denote a particular deed as evil beloved, in which the woman is seen as or to refer to the collective evil one has married to another person. Parakiya is accumulated through the bad deeds in said to generate the most intense pas- one’s karmic career. Since, according to sion, since the people pursuing it have karma theory, all one’s deeds will even- nothing to gain but love itself—if tually come to fruition, the evil that one caught, they risk ridicule and shame, has done is seen as already existing, and in any case their liaison has no real even if only in a potential state. The future. This is not the conventional, safe opposite of pap is , the most gen- love with one’s own spouse (svakiya) eral term denoting religious merit. that is sanctioned by marriage, carries social approval, and usually entails pro- creation, but rather a dangerous love Papamochani Ekadashi pursued solely for pleasure. This type of Religious observance falling on the relationship is a standard image in eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark Sanskrit poetry, and is also the domi- (waning) half of the lunar month of nant theme for describing the relation- Chaitra (March–April). The name ship between the god Krishna and his Papamochani means “freeing from human consort Radha, which is seen as evil,” and the faithful observance of symbolizing the relationship between this festival is believed to do exactly god and the human soul. that. As with all the eleventh-day observances, it is dedicated to the worship of Vishnu. Most Hindu festivals Paramahamsa have certain prescribed rites, which (“supreme ”) One of four types of usually involve fasting (upavasa) and Hindu ascetic. The four types were worship (puja), and often promise spe- based on their supposed means of liveli- cific benefits for faithful performance. hood, which in practice has been much On this day one should worship Vishnu less important for ascetic identity than with the full complement of the sixteen sectarian or organizational affiliation. upacharas (“offerings”). The Paramahamsa is the most presti- gious of the four, the others being (in order of increasing status) Kutichaka, Papankusha Ekadashi Bahudaka, and Hamsa. Paramahamsas Religious observance falling on the have no fixed abode and always live in eleventh day (ekadashi) of the bright an uninhabited place. They are said to (waxing) half of the lunar month of have transcended all questions of reli- Ashvin (September–October). As with gious duty (dharma), purity, and impu- all the eleventh-day observances, it is rity (ashaucha), to have broken all dedicated to the worship of Vishnu. attachments to the world, and to be Most Hindu festivals have certain 498 Smrti continually immersed in contemplation Parashara of the Supreme Brahman. In Hindu mythology, a legendary sage The word Paramahamsa has a more who is the grandson of the sage specialized meaning among the . He is credited with authoring Dashanami Sanyasis, ascetic devotees the Parashara Smrti, an important and (bhakta) of the god Shiva whose organi- early work in the dharma literature. zation is divided into ten sections, each Parashara is best known as the father of designated by a particular name. Here the sage Vyasa, whom he begets through the name Paramahamsa refers to an a maiden named Satyavati. Satyavati ascetic who comes from one of the makes her living ferrying people across three twice-born () varnas—that the Ganges River, and although she is a is, who is a brahmin, kshatriya, or beautiful young woman, she always vaishya, the three social groups with smells of fish because her mother is a higher symbolic status—and who has celestial nymph who has been cursed to been initiated as a Sanyasi in one of live as a fish in the Ganges. Struck by the six divisions that will accept non- Satyavati’s beauty while she is ferrying brahmins. Paramahamsas have higher him across the river, Parashara creates status in these divisions than the Naga an artificial fog to give them the privacy or fighting ascetics, who will initiate to have sexual intercourse. As a reward, , but lower status than the he gives her the boon that, from that day Dandis, who are invariably brahmins. onward, she will smell of musk instead of fish. (“the highest self”) Term generally used Parashara Smrti as a synonym for Brahman, the unqual- One of the smrtis or “remembered” ified and undifferentiated reality that is texts, a class of literature deemed impor- seen as the source of all things, and the tant but less authoritative than the other sole true power in the universe. This textual category, the shrutis, or “heard” name, through its inclusion of the Self texts. This smrti is ascribed to the sage (atman) as part of the term, also empha- Parashara, and is an example of one of sizes the identity in kind between the Dharma Shastras, which were man- Brahman and atman, between Supreme uals prescribing rules for correct human Reality and the individual Self. behavior and ideal social life. Unlike the Dharma Sutras, which are ascribed to Parampara recognizable individuals, the Dharma Shastras are usually ascribed to mythic (“succession”) The general term for sages as a strategy to reinforce the the spiritual lineage maintained by authority of these texts. At 592 verses, the transmission of knowledge the Parashara Smrti is relatively short, and power from guru to disciple. and it treats only two themes, religious Such lineages form the basis for custom (achara) and expiation tracing spiritual descent within (prayashchitta). The text is estimated religious communities, particularly to have been written between the in secret traditions such as tantra. first and fifth centuries, but in the four- In a religious context, one’s spiritual teenth century it received an extensive lineage is an important factor in commentary by Madhava, and the establishing an identity and connec- resulting work, known as the tions with others in the school, in the Parasharamadhava, has continued to same way a biological lineage places one be influential since then. within a family.

499 Parashu

the Parashuram avatar comes to restore a cosmic equilibrium that has been thrown out of balance, in this case from the overweening abuse of power by the warrior (kshatriya) class. Parashuram is the son of , a brahmin sage whose most precious possession is Surabhi, a cow that will grant its owner any desired wish. One day when Parashuram is away, the king comes to Jamadagni’s . When he sees the cow, he desires it, and when Jamadagni refuses to give it to him, the king takes it by force. When Parashuram learns of this, he becomes fiercely angry. Taking up his parashu (or battle-axe, a weapon partic- ularly associated with him), he enters into battle with the king and eventually kills him. When the king’s sons remain rebellious in opposition to him, Parashuram makes twenty-one journeys around India, destroying all of the ksha- triyas that he can find, in an effort to wipe them from the face of the earth. The god Vishnu’s Parashuram avatar, carrying his The major theme of this story is the con- battle-axe. He appears in this form to punish the flict between the brahmin and kshatriya warrior class’ abuse of power. classes, and the realities of living in a Parashu society in which brahmins had religious (“battle-axe”) A characteristic object in authority but had the power Hindu iconography, and one that of enforcement. This story reveals a appears in various forms—sometimes strong concern for the sanctity of a with a very light, thin handle and a larger brahmin’s possessions and highlights head, at other times with a handle the the perils of taking them by force. The size of a club (gada) and a very small, writers behind the story were almost thin head. This weapon has the certainly brahmins, and their remarks strongest mythic associations with on the perils of taking a brahmin’s pos- Vishnu’s sixth avatar or incarnation, sessions doubtless reflect an insecurity Parashuram, who uses it in his war of about their ability to supersede govern- extermination against the the ruling mental power. kshatriya class when their pride has In addition to the story of extermi- grown too strong. The battle-axe is also nating the kshatriyas, Parashuram commonly carried by the god Ganesh appears in the epic Mahabharata as the and signifies his power to cut through person who teaches the heroic obstacles and impediments. It also com- the art of weapons and warfare. The epic monly appears in various images of the portrays Parashuram as powerful and deities Shiva, Vishnu, and the Goddess, irascible, and as possessing such contin- as one among their galaxy of weapons. uing hatred of kshatriyas that he refuses to take them as students. When Parashuram discovers that Karna is a Parashuram Avatar kshatriya and not a brahmin, as he Sixth avatar or incarnation of the god has claimed to be, he lays a curse on Vishnu. As with all the avatars of Vishnu, Karna that, in his hour of greatest 500 Parinamavada

need, he will forget everything he has inherits the throne from learned as his student. Yudhishthira, Arjuna’s elder brother, and according to tradition rules right- eously for sixty years, but it is his death Parashurameshvar Temple that is best remembered. Fond of hunt- Temple constructed about 750 C.E.in ing, Parikshit one day comes across a the city of Bhubaneshvar in the state meditating sage while he is chasing a of Orissa, dedicated to the god Shiva wounded deer. When the sage refuses to in his aspect as the “Lord of answer to his inquiries about the deer, Parashuram.” This title refers to Parikshit grows angry and, with his bow, Parashuram’s long period of asceti- drapes a dead cobra around the sage’s cism, in which he worshiped Shiva as neck. The sage remains unaware of this, his chosen deity and was rewarded but his son finds out about it when his with Shiva’s grace. The temple is an playmates jeer at him. Furious, the son early example of the Orissan variant lays a curse that the person responsible of the northern Indian Nagara temple will be fatally bitten within seven days style. The Nagara style emphasizes by the great serpent . When he verticality, with the whole temple discovers that the king is responsible, building culminating in a single high the son repents his curse to the King. point, and the Orissan variant of this Parikshit takes all possible precau- style has a single enormous tower tions to avoid his fate. He builds a house (deul) over the image of the temple’s on a huge pillar, has anything brought primary deity, with shorter subsidiary into the house carefully searched, and buildings leading up to it. The surrounds himself with physicians who Parashurameshvar temple is the first can cure snakebite. After six days with- example of this basic pattern—a low, out incident, the king begins to relax his flat assembly hall (jagamohan), fol- vigilance. As the seventh day is ending, lowed by a much taller and narrower Takshaka conceals himself as a worm in tower (deul), in this case about forty a piece of fruit, changes into his real feet high. Although later Orissan tem- shape when the fruit is cut open, and ples are much larger—some of the bites the king, killing him. deuls tower over 200 feet—and often include additional buildings and struc- tures, they all retain this basic pattern. Parinamavada (“transformation-relationship”) Philo- sophical perspective that explains the Parashuram Jayanti relationship between the Ultimate Festival marking the birthday of Reality or realities and the perceivable Parashuram avatar, Vishnu’s sixth world, and describes the world as a gen- avatar. This takes place on the third uine transformation of this reality. day of the bright (waxing) half of the This position is espoused by propo- lunar month of Baisakh (April–May), nents of the Samkhya, Vishishthadvaita the same day as the festival of Vedanta, and Bhedabhada philo- Akshaya Trtiya. sophical schools. All three of these are proponents of a causal model called Parikshit . The satkaryavada model Mythic king in the Lunar Line, who assumes that effects preexist in their serves as an example that one’s fate can- causes, and that, when these effects not be escaped. Parikshit is the grand- appear, they are transformations (pari- son of Arjuna, one of the five Pandava nama) of those causes. The classic brothers who are the protagonists in the example for this model is the transfor- Mahabharata, the later of the two great mation of milk to curds, butter, and clar- Hindu epics. ified butter: each of these effects was 501 Parivartini Ekadashi

already present in the cause, emerges Parivartini Ekadashi from it through a natural transformation Religious observance falling on the of that cause, and is causally related to it. eleventh day (ekadashi) of the bright All three schools believe that the (waxing) half of the lunar month of world as perceived is real and has some Bhadrapada (August–September). As are single ultimate source behind it: for the all the eleventh-day observances, this is , the first principles are dedicated to the worship of Vishnu. This and prakrti, for the day is particularly devoted to the wor- Vishishthadvaita school, the god ship of Vishnu’s wife Lakshmi, the god- Vishnu, and for the Bhedabhada school, dess presiding over wealth and Brahman. All believe that real things prosperity. In her form as Mahalakshmi come into being because these first (as told in the Devimahatmya) she is principles undergo real transforma- able to kill demons that the gods cannot, tions. Parinamavada allows for an expla- and restore to gods the kingdom they nation of the phenomenal world that have lost. This festival occurs during the compromises the of time Vishnu is believed to be sleeping on these first principles by making them the serpent Shesha, on an ocean of milk, part of the world. Philosophically, their with Lakshmi massaging his feet. The difficulties arise in describing how the name Parivartini means “turning,” and transcendent can become mundane, on this day Vishnu is believed to be stir- and then become transcendent again. ring in his sleep. See also ocean, churn- The transformation relationship is ing of the; and cosmology. vehemently opposed by the Advaita Vedanta philosophical school, which upholds a philosophical position Parivrajaka known as monism (the belief that a (from Sanskrit parivraj, “to wander single Ultimate Reality lies behind all about”) A term that can be used to things, and that all things are merely denote any wandering religious mendi- differing forms of that reality). Advaita cant. Continual wandering is a very old proponents claim that reality is non- Indian ascetic practice. It shows the dual (advaita)—that is, that all things conscious renunciation of the fixed and are “actually” the formless, unquali- stable world of the householder, partic- fied Brahman, despite the appearance ularly in earlier societies, and it prevents of difference and diversity in the the wanderer from forming any sort of world. Since Brahman is the only real attachments, even to places. This exem- thing, and Brahman never changes, plifies the fourth and final stage of life the parinama model is a fundamental found in the dharma literature, the misunderstanding of the ultimate sanyasi, in which a person has nature of things, since it assumes real renounced all attachments of everyday change. The Advaita proponents’ life to search for spiritual attainment. explanation for the nature of the rela- tionship and the world is known as (“illusory manifesta- Parmananddas (early 16th c.) One of the ashtachap, a tion”), in which the ultimate appears group of eight northern Indian bhakti to become transformed but in reality (devotional) poets. The compositions of never changes. For further informa- these eight poets were used for liturgical tion see Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and purposes by the Pushti Marg, a religious Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook community whose members are devotees in Indian Philosophy, 1957; and Karl (bhakta) of Krishna. In the Pushti H. Potter (ed.), Presuppositions of Marg’s sectarian literature, all eight India’s Philosophies, 1972. are also named as members of the com- munity and as associates of either the 502 Parvati

community’s founder, Vallabhacharya, parvata (“mountain”). Upon initiation, or his successor Vitthalnath. Little is new members are given this name known about Parmananddas himself, as a surname to their new ascetic although tradition asserts that he was a names, thus allowing for immediate Kanaujia brahmin, and the corpus of group identification. poetry attributed to him is much larger Aside from their individual identity, in later sources, suggesting that his these ten “named” divisions are divided name was used by later writers. The evi- into four larger organizational groups. dence from the earliest sources suggests Each group has its headquarters in one of that he was a devoted follower of the four monastic centers (maths) sup- Vallabhacharya. Much of his poetry is posedly established by Shankaracharya. specifically written for the Pushti Marg, The Parvata Dashanamis belong to the such as hymns in praise of Anandawara group, which is affiliated Vallabhacharya, or hymns to be sung for with the in the Himalayan the worship of Krishna throughout the town of . day, a form of piety that came to charac- terize the Pushti Marg. To date, his works have not been translated, perhaps Parvati because of their sectarian character. (“daughter of the mountain”) Wife of the god Shiva, and an important Hindu goddess, Parvati is the daughter Parvana of the minor deity Himalaya (the A particular type of the memorial rites Himalaya Mountains personified), and for the dead known as shraddhas. A par- his wife Mena. Parvati appears in vana shraddha can be performed at spe- human form to draw Shiva out of the cific times throughout the year, such as ascetic isolation in which he has been the new moon, but is most commonly lost since the death of his first wife, performed during the Fortnight of the Sati, and to induce him to father the Fathers (Pitrpaksha), which falls during son necessary to kill the demon the waning moon in the lunar month of Taraka. According to her myths, even Bhadrapada. Whereas an ekoddishta in her childhood Parvati vows that she shraddha is performed for any particu- will have only Shiva for her husband. lar deceased individual, the parvana Her parents try to discourage her, shraddha invokes first the paternal since Shiva has taken a vow of asceti- father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, cism and is absorbed in deep medita- then the same ancestors on the mother’s tion on Mount Kailas. side. The rite is performed to give bene- Parvati’s first effort to arouse Shiva’s fits to all of these ancestors, although desire ends in a dismal failure. , the father’s ancestors are considered the the god of love, tries to shoot Shiva with primary recipients. an arrow of desire, but Shiva lets loose a stream of fire from the in his forehead, burning Kama to ash. Parvata Dashanami Undeterred, Parvati goes into the moun- One of the ten divisions of the tains and begins a program of harsh Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant physical asceticism (tapas) of her own: ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of standing on one foot for immense peri- Shiva. The Dashanamis were supposedly ods of time, enduring the heat of sum- established by the ninth century mer and cold of winter, and practicing philosopher Shankaracharya, in an severe fasting (upavasa) and self-denial. effort create a corps of learned men The spiritual power generated by her who could help to revitalize Hindu asceticism eventually awakens Shiva, life. Each of the divisions is designated and he comes to her, disguised as an by a different name—in this case, aged brahmin. He tries to discourage 503 Parvati

Parvati with her husband Shiva and their sons Ganesh and Skanda. Parvati by making disparaging remarks husband, their family life is unusual. about Shiva’s lifestyle and personality, but Since Shiva is the symbol for the perfect Parvati, unshaken in her resolve, refuses ascetic, the couple has no fixed home or to listen. Eventually Shiva reveals his true means of support, and occasionally form to her, and they are married. Parvati is portrayed as complaining of Although in his devotion to his wife being an ascetic’s wife. Symbolically, their Shiva is the Hindu symbol for the ideal marriage represents the domestication of 504

the ascetic and his entrance into social given to Shiva’s power of illusion (maya), and family life. Their union highlights through which he entraps and enthralls the cultural tension between the two unenlightened people (pashu). The triad most important Hindu religious ideals: of pasha, pashu, and Shiva as lord (pati) the householder and the renunciant are the defining features of the Shaiva ascetic. Perhaps to illustrate the contra- school. diction of being a married ascetic, Shiva and Parvati have children but not in the normal way: Skanda develops from Pashu Shiva’s semen, which falls on the ground (“beast”) In the philosophical school during their interrupted love-making, known as , and in the while Ganesh is formed of the enlivened secret, ritually based religious practice dirt from Parvati’s body. known as tantra, the term for an unen- Parvati, as with all married Hindu lightened person, who is said to have a goddesses, is generally seen as benign human form but to be little better than and benevolent. In some mythic stories an animal. This lack of awareness she can be spiteful, but on the whole she comes not just through inherent dull- projects a nurturing and motherly pres- ness, but through the activity of maya, ence. Her mythology is almost com- the power of illusion wielded by Shiva pletely connected with that of Shiva, as lord (pati). The triad of pashu, pati showing her subordination as the model and the bonds of illusion (pasha) are wife, and her worship is generally con- defining features of the Shaiva nected with him as well. She occupies Siddhanta school. an important position in tantra, a secret, ritually based religious practice, Pashupata since in tantric texts Parvati is usually An extinct ascetic community, of devo- portrayed as the person questioning tees (bhakta) of the god Shiva in his Shiva and then as the student receiving form as Pashupati, “the Lord of Beasts.” his instruction. For more information Although the Pashupatas have now dis- on Parvati and all the goddesses of appeared, according to the Chinese pil- Hinduism, see David R. Kinsley, Hindu grim Hsuan Tsang they were once the Goddesses, 1986. most important ascetic sect in northern India. According to historical reports, its Paryanka members would engage in strange and (“bedstead”) One of the postures antisocial behavior intended to bring () described in commentaries to disgrace upon themselves, although the Yoga Sutras, in which the person is without lust or malice in their hearts. lying down with the arms stretched This practice was in imitation of one of around the knees. Shiva’s mythic tales, in which he exposed himself to the wives of the Sages in the Pine Forest but was without Pasha desire for them. For further information (“noose”) In Indian iconography, one of see Daniel H. H. Ingalls, “Cynics and the weapons carried by some of the Pasupatas: The Seeking of Dishonor,” in divinities, especially Ganesh and Yama. Harvard Theological Review, 55, 1962. For Ganesh, as the “Lord of Obstacles,” the noose signifies his ability to bind (and release) obstacles, whereas Yama, Pashupati the god of death, uses the noose to draw (“Lord of Beasts”) Epithet of the god the soul from the body at the time of Shiva in his form as the “Lord of Beasts.” death. In the Shaiva Siddhanta religious See Shiva. community, pasha is also the name

505 Pashupatinath

The in Katmandu, Nepal, is dedicated to the god Shiva as “Master of the Lord of the Beasts.” Pashupatinath Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in A generic name for the realms of the Katmandu, Nepal. The temple is named underworld, traditionally numbered at for its presiding deity, who is the god seven to parallel the seven heavens that Shiva in his form as Pashupatinath, “the are believed to exist above the visible Master of the Lord of Beasts.” This is a world. These underworld realms are not considered an extremely powerful site, considered to be hells but rather planes and one of its charter myths connects it of existence other than the visible world, to Kedarnath, a sacred site high in the populated by the Nagas and other non- Himalayas. According to the story, the human beings. five Pandava brothers, who are the pro- tagonists in the epic Mahabharata, are making their final journey into the Pataliputra Himalayas in search of a vision of Capital city of the Mauryan empire, Shiva. They finally see him at a dis- identified with modern Patna, the tance, but when they try to get closer, capital of Bihar state. See also Shiva takes the form of a bull and Maurya dynasty. begins running through the snow. The bull burrows into a snow bank, and Patanjali when the Pandavas follow, they find the (2nd c. B.C.E.) Sanskrit grammarian body of the bull in the snow. The ridge and author of the Mahabhashya of rock that forms the Kedarnath linga (“Great Commentary”) on Panini’s is considered to be the hump of this Ashtadhyayi. Panini’s text was written bull. The bull’s head continues travel- as a series of short phrases or aphorisms ing over the hills, eventually stopping intended to be a complete description of in Nepal, where it takes form as the the language in the briefest possible deity Pashupatinath. space. Panini’s text was a marvel of economy and was easy to memorize but 506 Pattuppattu

was so cryptic that it virtually presup- Pattadakal was an important urban cen- posed a commentary, which Patanjali ter and a sister city to the Chalukya cap- provided. Patanjali’s Mahabhashya ital at Badami. Although nearly deserted is not only important for his explication today, the site is important for a collec- of Panini’s grammar, but also because tion of temples built in a variety of - his examples often provide useful tectural styles during that era. The historical information. Virupaksha temple, dedicated in 740 C.E. Patanjali is also the person named during the reign of King , as the author of the Yoga Sutras, but clearly shows the influence of the south- since these are believed to have been ern Indian Dravida architectural style: a composed several centuries after mostly low and extended profile, with a the Mahabhashya, the authors are series of terraced roofs over the main believed to be two different people sanctuary. It is believed to have been with the same name. modeled after the temples in the city of Kanchipuram, which had been con- quered by Vikramaditya, who brought Pati its architects and builders back to (“master”) In the philosophical school Pattadakal with him. At the same time, known as Shaiva Siddhanta, the name there are temples showing the early given to the god Shiva as the highest development of the Nagara style, in being, who wields the noose (pasha) of which the major architectural feature is illusion to enthrall and bewilder unen- a series of upswept towers (shikharas), lightened people (pashu). The triad of with the tallest tower directly over the pashu, pati and pasha are the defining image of the temple’s primary deity. The features of the Shaiva Siddhanta school. best example of this is the Galaganatha temple, dedicated to the god Shiva, Patita which has a tall vertical tower perched (“fallen one”) In the dharma literature, on a larger, cube-shaped base. the term for someone who had commit- ted one of the Four Great Crimes; mur- Pattuppattu dering a brahmin (brahmahatya), (“Ten Songs”) Collective name for a stealing a brahmin’s gold (steya), drink- group of ten Tamil poems written in ing liquor (surapana), and adultery the style of the eight anthologies of with one’s guru’s wife (gurutalpaga). the and believed to These crimes were considered so have been composed later. The dates heinous that the performer became an for the literature are the subject of con- outcast from society. Another indication troversy, but the prevalent scholarly of the gravity of these acts was that their consensus is that it was written in the expiations (prayashchitta) were so early centuries of the common era. Like severe they normally ended in death, this literature, the Pattuppattu songs and in some cases this outcome was fall into two general genres, puram (“the specifically prescribed. Aside from pre- outer part”) and akam (“the inner part”). scribing such punishments for the actual Puram poetry was “public” verse, offenders, the dharma literature also describing the deeds of kings, war, prescribed similar outcast status for death, and other heroic actions, whereas anyone who knowingly associated with akam poetry was about an individual’s such people for more than one year. inner experience, especially love and sexuality. See also Tamil language and Pattadakal Tamil epics. Historical site in the state of Karnataka, about twenty miles east of the city of Badami. During the Chalukya dynasty, 507 Paush

Paush Perception According to the lunar calendar, by In Hindu philosophy, perception which most Hindu religious festivals are (pratyaksha) is universally accepted as determined, Paush is the tenth month in one of the pramanas, the means by the lunar year, usually falling within which human beings can gain true December and January. In northern and accurate knowledge. Perception India, Paush is the coldest month of the is the only accepted by all year. It is considered inauspicious, and the schools, but most of the others its only holidays are Saphala Ekadashi also accept inference (anumana) and Putrada Ekadashi. and authoritative testimony (shabda). See pratyaksha. Peacock Indian bird with several divine associa- Periyalvar tions. It is the animal vehicle of the god (9th c.) One of the Alvars, a group of Skanda, the son of Shiva, who is the twelve poet-saints who lived in southern leader of the divine armies. The pea- India between the seventh and tenth cock’s quickness and resplendent centuries. The Alvars were devotees appearance are felt to mirror these qual- (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their ities in the young god. The peacock also stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) has strong associations with the god to a personal god, conveyed through Krishna, who is usually depicted as hymns sung in the Tamil language, wearing a decorative crown containing transformed and revitalized Hindu reli- peacock feathers. This association may gious life. come from the peacock’s connection According to tradition, Periyalvar with the monsoon, which is the peacock was born into a brahmin family. From mating season, during which they utter his youth he showed deep piety, and his piercing calls in the forests and are primary means of devotion was to grow believed to dance with delight on the and pick flowers for the image of his hillsides. Krishna’s dark color often leads chosen deity, Krishna. The most to comparisons with rain clouds, and famous story about Periyalvar tells of a like the peacock he spends his nights dream in which God commanded him to dancing in the company of his devotees take part in a scholarly debate to be held (bhakta), in the celebration known as by one of the Pandya kings. Periyalvar, the ras lila. despite his reservations about his lack of learning, obeyed this command after he woke. When he spoke, the words Penance flowed out under divine inspiration, and The dharma literature gave consider- the bag containing the prize money flew able attention to penance and expiation, off the hook and into his hands as a sign based on the almost universal Hindu of his victory. For further information belief in the inexorable workings of see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, karma. According to this notion, all 1975; and John Stirling Morley Hooper, good and bad deeds would eventually Hymns of the Alvars, 1929. See also have their effect, either in this life or the Pandya dynasty. next. Penances were a way to lessen the future consequences of one’s past mis- deeds, by undergoing voluntary suffer- Periya Puranam ing and expiation in one’s present life. Hagiographical account of the lives of See prayashchitta. the sixty-three Nayanars, written by the twelfth-century figure Cekkilar. The Nayanars were a group of Shaiva poet- saints, who lived in southern India 508 Phallic Emblem between the seventh and ninth cen- Pey turies. Together with their Vaishnava (7th c.) With Bhutam and Poygai, one of counterparts, the Alvars, the Nayanars the first three Alvars, a group of twelve spearheaded the revitalization of Hindu poet-saints who lived in southern India religion within Tamil Nadu, which was between the seventh and tenth cen- mostly Buddhist and Jain. Both the turies. All Alvars were devotees (bhakta) Nayanars and the Alvars stressed pas- of the god Vishnu, and their stress on sionate devotion (bhakti) to a personal passionate devotion (bhakti) to a per- god—Shiva for the Nayanars, Vishnu for sonal god, conveyed through hymns the Alvars—and conveyed this devotion sung in the Tamil language, transformed through hymns sung in the Tamil lan- and revitalized Hindu religious life. guage. According to tradition, Cekkilar According to tradition, the three men was a minister at the court of the Chola were caught in a torrential storm and dynasty king Kullottunga II (r. 1130–50). one by one took shelter in a small dry Cekkilar, distressed by the king’s admi- spot, with each making room for the ration for a Jain epic poem, composed next. As they stood next to one another his text in an effort to wean the king they felt a fourth presence, that of away from it. His text portrays these Vishnu. The Alvars were such great saints as models of devotion to Shiva devotees that their combined energy was and as salutary examples to others sufficient to provoke Vishnu’s manifesta- although at times extreme in their devo- tion. Overwhelmed with ecstasy, each tion. One example of this intense devo- burst into song, which formed the first of tion is Kotpuli Nayanar, who killed his each of their compositions. For further entire family when he discovered that, information see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil in order to save their lives in a time of Literature, 1975. famine, they had eaten rice that belonged to Shiva’s temple. Although this is an extreme case, the message is Phalgun clearly that devotion to God must According to the lunar calendar, by eclipse all other loyalties. which most Hindu religious festivals are determined, Phalgun is the twelfth month in the lunar year, usually falling Peshwa within February and March. Phalgun Originally, title given to the brahmin concludes with the festival of Holi, ministers who served as advisers to the which is the unofficial end of the cool kings in the Maratha empire. season. The other holidays in Phalgun Traditionally, these ministers were are Janaki Navami, Vijaya Ekadashi, Chitpavan brahmins, which gave this Shivaratri, and Amalaki Ekadashi. small group influence far disproportion- ate to its numbers. During the resur- gence of the Maratha confederacy in the Phallic Emblem early eighteenth century, the Peshwas Designation for the linga, the pillar- became de facto rulers, although they shaped object that is the symbolic form continued to govern in the name of the of the god Shiva. The precise sculptural Maratha kings. At this time, the position form of the Gudimallam linga, which of Peshwa became hereditary. After the dates from at least the second century Maratha confederation split into differ- B.C.E., leaves little doubt that this phallic ent royal states around 1770, the element is one aspect of the symbol. Peshwas retained control over the What is often overlooked is that an ancestral Maratha homeland in the equally important part of the linga’s western part of the state of image is the base (pitha) in which Maharashtra, where they reigned until the shaft is placed, said to represent it was conquered by the British in 1818. the female organs of generation. In his 509 Philosophy

symbolic form Shiva is thus both male Although these edicts were found in and female—an appropriate form for a widely separated places, the text in each deity who is famous for transcending edict was fairly consistent throughout any and all duality. the Mauryan empire. The pillar edicts were inscribed on pillars of polished Chunar sandstone and placed on the Philosophy major roads running through the The Euro-American conception that empire, where they would have been there is a fundamental distinction visible to passersby. In this respect they between philosophy and religion were different from the rock edicts, reflects unique historical and cultural which were carved into large boulders in circumstances that have no parallel in places near the borders of the Mauryan many other cultures. The Western philo- empire, thus symbolically defining its sophical tradition is rooted in Greek boundaries. See also Maurya dynasty. thought and culture, whereas Western religious traditions primarily have been shaped by ideas coming out of the Jewish tradition. The ideas from these In Hindu mythology, the name of the two different sources developed side by bow belonging to the god Shiva. side in Western culture, sometimes in an uneasy alliance and sometimes at odds but they were always seen as separate. In many other cultures, this distinction does (“lump”) A ball of cooked rice or other not exist, and such imported concepts grain, one of the important objects used become less helpful in encountering in rites for the dead. A pinda is offered to these cultures. Indian and Hindu culture the departed spirit each day for the first have a long history of critical and specula- ten days after death, in the belief that tive thought, which could be called philo- the ten pindas progressively help form a sophical. Yet such thought is never new body for the dead person (a sec- exercised simply for its own sake, but ondary meaning of the word pinda is always with an underlying religious pur- “body”). Pindas are also used in the pose—to enable one to gain the ultimate memorial rite known as shraddha, religious goal, final liberation of the soul which can be performed years after the (moksha). The different perspectives on actual death; in this rite, the performer how to do this, known as darshans, are offers pindas to his or her ancestors as usually designated as “philosophical symbolic nourishment. schools.” See also six schools. Pindadan Pilgrimage (“giving pindas”) In general usage, a syn- See tirthayatra. onym for the memorial rite known as shraddha. It is given this name because an important element in shraddha is Pilgrimage Places offering the balls of cooked grain, See tirtha. known as pindas, considered symbolic nourishment for the ancestors. Pillar Edicts Set of inscriptions commissioned by the Pindara River Mauryan emperor Ashoka (r. 269–32 A Himalayan tributary of the Ganges. B.C.E.), containing official pronounce- The Pindara River flows west from the ments on royal policy, and advice and Pindari glacier and joins the instructions to his subjects on a variety Alakananda River at the town of of topics, including religious toleration. . As with all the Himalayan 510 Pitha

tributaries of the Ganges, the Pindara is goddess (an epithet of Parvati), considered sacred along its length, but showing the breadth of the Sant tradi- this region is so mountainous and so tion. A few of Pipa’s verses have been thinly settled that Karnaprayag is the preserved in the Adigranth, the sacred river’s only noteworthy spot. text of the Sikh community, and in their language and religious thrust the verses are consistent with these traditions. Pingala Nadi One of the vertical channels (nadi) in the traditional conception of the subtle Pipal body. The subtle body is an alternate Common name for , the physiological system believed to exist on fig-tree also known as the , a different plane than gross matter, but which has a long history of being con- with certain correspondences to the sidered a sacred tree. See ashvattha. material body. It is visualized as a set of six psychic centers (chakras) running roughly along the course of the spine, Pippalada connected by three parallel vertical In Hindu traditional lore, one of the channels. Above and below these cen- ancient sages in the Atharva Veda, one ters are the bodily abodes of the two of the oldest Hindu religious texts. divine principles, Shiva (awareness) and Pippalada is also mentioned in the Shakti (power), the latter as the latent , one of the specula- spiritual energy known as kundalini. In tive religious texts that forms the latest this model of the subtle body, the pin- part of the Vedas, as a religious teacher gala nadi is the vertical channel on the who instructs sages such as Sukesha, right side of the body. As with the rest of , and Bhargava. Pippalada the subtle body, the pingala nadi has supposedly gets his name from his certain symbolic correspondences; in fondness for Pippali fruits, the fruit particular, it is identified with the sun of the Ficus religiosa, the sacred pipal and is thus visualized as being a tawny (ashvattha). red in color. Pitambara Pipa (“clothed in yellow”) Epithet of the god (15th c.?) Poet-saint in the Sant religious Krishna, because of his penchant for community. The name Sant is an wearing yellow garments. See Krishna. umbrella term for a group of central and northern Indian poet-saints who share Pitavasana several general tendencies: focus on (“yellow-clad”) Epithet of the god individualized, interior religion leading Krishna, because of his penchant for to a personal experience of the divine; wearing yellow garments. See Krishna. disdain for external ritual, particularly image worship; faith in the power of repeating one’s patron deity’s name; and Pitha the tendency to ignore conventional (“bench”) In its widest meaning, the caste distinctions. base or foundation of any object. It can According to tradition, Pipa was born denote the material base or foundation into a Rajput royal family in the Malwa upon which the image of a deity is region but eventually renounced his placed. In some cases the foundation throne and went to Benares to become a becomes an integral part of the image disciple of the poet-saint . itself, as in the linga, the pillar-shaped The hagiographer Nabhadas reports object that is the symbol of the god that Pipa was a disciple of the powerful Shiva. The form of the linga, an upright

511 Pitr

During Pitrpaksha, Hindus offer rice balls and water to their ancestors. shaft set in a horizontal base, represents, lunar month of Ashvin. This is the period not only the union of male and female, during the year in which Hindus but also their transcendence, since remember and give offerings for their Shiva is both male and female at once. dead: offerings of water and rice-balls At a more symbolic level, a pitha can be (pinda) on each day of the fortnight, and the “seat” or residence of a particular as well as special observances on the deity, that is, the place at which the deity day of the fortnight corresponding to metaphorically sits. The best example of the day of the ancestor’s death. These this is the Shakti Pithas, a network of offerings are believed to sustain the sites sacred to the Goddess, spread dead by symbolically feeding them, and throughout the subcontinent. Each also to placate the dead by demonstrat- Shakti Pitha marks the site where a body ing that the living still remember and part of the dismembered goddess Sati care for them. fell to earth, taking up residence in each Because of its strong connection place as a different goddess. with the dead, this fortnight is generally considered an inauspicious time, and people often restrict their everyday Pitr activities in symbolic recognition of it. (“father”) Any and all ancestral spirits, Many people will not cut their hair, to whom funerary offerings are due as beards, or nails during this time, nor will one of a man’s expected duties. See they wear new clothes. These precau- ancestral spirits. tions stem from the conviction that making alterations in one’s appearance Pitrpaksha during an inauspicious time will have The fortnight (paksha) dedicated to the adverse future affects, since it will carry worship of the ancestral spirits (pitr), the taint forward. Many people also cur- observed in the dark (waning) half of the tail other normal activities during this 512 Planets

time, such as buying any article or initi- usually one is predominant, and this ating any new project, unless it is marks a person in certain ways, particu- absolutely necessary. The period is also larly with regard to health, digestion, deemed a good time for religious obser- and metabolism. Pitta is associated with vances, particularly giving gifts (dana) the elements of fire and water, since to brahmins. On the one hand this is a bile is a liquid involved in digestion, way to propitiate the ancestors, whom which is believed to take place through the brahmins represent, and thus what- interior burning. Pitta is hot, intense, ever is given to brahmins is given sym- and mobile, and those for whom this is bolically to the ancestors. On the other the predominant humor are said to have hand, giving such gifts is also a rite of a strong will, be good leaders, and be protection against misfortune in an blessed with good digestion. At the same inauspicious time, since the receiver is time, this inner fire gives them bodily believed to take away the bad luck along difficulties in hot weather, and to do with the gift. their best they must also learn how to harness their fiery temperaments. Pitryajna (“sacrifice to the ancestors”) One of the Plakshadvipa Five Great Sacrifices (panchamahayajna) In traditional mythic geography, the sec- prescribed in the dharma literature, the ond of the seven concentric landmasses texts on religious duty. These Five Great (dvipas) making up the visible world. Sacrifices are daily observances for a See also cosmology. “twice-born” householder, that is, one who has been born into one of the three “twice-born” groups in Indian society— Planets brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—and Indian astrology (jyotisha) recognizes who has received the adolescent reli- nine planets that affect human beings: gious initiation known as the “second the five visible ones (Jupiter, Venus, birth.” Each of the five sacrifices (yajna) Mercury, Saturn, and Mars), the Sun is directed toward a different class of and Moon, and two planets not known beings—from the Absolute Reality down to Western astrology, Rahu and Ketu. Of to animals—and is satisfied by different these, Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury are, actions. The pitryajna is directed toward by themselves, always benevolent. The one’s ancestors, and is satisfied by offer- moon is changeable, depending on its ing them libations of water (tarpana). In position in the lunar cycle, and the oth- the time since the dharma literature was ers are considered to have malefic ten- composed Hindu life has undergone dencies, although only Rahu and Ketu significant changes, and some of these are invariably malevolent. Rahu and five rites have been completely elided. Ketu move throughout the zodiac, but Although in certain contexts pitryajna is the others are all fixed in place. Each of still an important rite—particularly at the planets is part of an elaborate series pilgrimage sites and in formal rites for of associations, including parts of the the dead—it is no longer performed on a body, family relationships, and personal daily basis. qualities. The influence of all these planets can be heightened or weakened according to their position in a person’s Pitta natal horoscope, or their position vis-à- (“bile”) Along with vata (“air”) and vis the other planets. The astrological kapha (“phlegm”), one of the three tradition also recognizes a practice humours (tridosha) in , or known as pacification of planets, traditional Indian medicine. Every per- through which their good qualities son has all three of these humours, but can be heightened, or their malevolent

513 Pole Star

qualities weakened and contained. This practices have allowed for one woman can be done either through wearing par- to marry several brothers, following ticular gemstones that are believed to ’s example. correspond to these planets, or by per- forming certain protective rituals. Polygamy Given the overwhelmingly patriarchal Pole Star character of Hindu society, polygamy In Hindu mythology, the personified has probably existed since very early form of the boy , who is a symbol times. The practice is attested in both for unrelenting pursuit of a goal. Dhruva the great epics, the Ramayana and the is a king’s son, but for some unknown Mahabharata, as well as in the histori- reason his father favors Dhruva’s half- cal record. The dharma literature brother over him. Distressed by this permits men to marry wives of lower insult, Dhruva takes a vow to attain a social status, under the condition that place above all others and goes off to the their first wife was of equal status. forest to perform austerities (tapas). Despite the existence of polygamy, After Dhruva endures many bodily mor- it was probably unusual and restricted tifications, the god Vishnu appears and to men of high status and financial grants him a boon. In response to resources, who would be able to support Dhruva’s request for a place above all several families. For “regular” men, others, Vishnu promises Dhruva that one of the few reasons for taking a sec- after his death he will be installed as the ond wife was when the first wife was Pole Star, the pivot around which all the unable to bear children, in an attempt to other stars in the sky will turn. sire the sons needed to preserve the lineage and ensure performance of the ancestral rites. Pollution In Hindu religious life, a term designat- ing religious contamination and ritual impurity (ashaucha). This notion of Southern Indian harvest festival mark- impurity is strictly concerned with the ing the change of seasons and the tran- presence or absence of contamination sition of the sun into the zodiacal sign of and carries no necessary sense of moral Capricorn, and thus beginning its or ethical lapse. See ashaucha. northward course (). According to Indian astrology this usually takes place on January 14th; in northern Polyandry India this day is celebrated as Having more than one husband. This . Both mark the sun’s change practice is extremely uncommon in in motion from the southerly direction Indian society, either now or in the past. to the northerly, or from the direction The best-known mythical example considered less auspicious to the one comes from the epic Mahabharata, in considered more auspicious. which Draupadi is married to all five of The festivities for Pongal last for the Pandava brothers, the epic’s protag- three days. The first day is the Pongal of onists. Textual scholars have argued that Joy (Bhogi Pongal), on which people this type of marriage was so unusual visit and exchange sweets and gifts. The that it must have been rooted in some second day is dedicated to the Sun ancient practice, but there is no proof (Surya Pongal). On this day married for this claim. In contemporary times women cook rice in milk, and when the polyandry can be found only at the pot comes to a boil they shout “Pongal” outer fringes of Hindu society, such as in (“It has boiled”). The milk-rice is made the state of Assam and in some of the into sweets, which is first offered to the Himalayan regions, where traditional 514 Prabhakara

Sun and to the god Ganesh, and saints who lived in southern India then given to friends. On the final day, between the seventh and tenth cen- Pongal of Cows (Mattu Pongal), turies. All the Alvars were devotees worshipers walk in a circle around cows (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their while the cows are decorated, garlanded, passionate devotion (bhakti) to a per- and worshiped. sonal god, conveyed through hymns sung in the Tamil language, trans- formed and revitalized Hindu religious Possession life. According to tradition, the three Possession by gods, ghosts, and spirits is men were caught in a torrential storm an accepted element in the traditional and, one by one, took shelter in a small Hindu worldview, although whether this dry spot, with each making room for the is good or bad depends on the nature of next. As they stood next to one another, the being responsible. Possession is the they felt a fourth presence, who was most common means for village deities Vishnu. The alvars were such great and certain forms of the Goddess to devotees that their combined energy communicate with human beings, was sufficient to provoke Vishnu’s mani- although the highest gods in the pan- festation. Overwhelmed with ecstasy, theon virtually never use this medium. each burst into song, which formed the Possession by a deity can bring a person first of each of their compositions. For high religious status but is generally said further information see Kamil Zvelebil, to be physically exhausting; through Tamil Literature, 1975. the medium the deities can interact with human beings, both to make their wishes known and to give their help and Prabhakara advice to those who need it. One of the In Indian philosophy, one of the two more unusual cases of this occurs at the great seventh-century commentators in annual pilgrimage at Kataragama in Sri the Purva Mimamsa school, one of the Lanka. Devotees (bhakta) suspend six schools of traditional Hindu philoso- themselves from trees by hooks stuck phy; the other great commentator was into the flesh of their backs and, while Kumarila. The Mimamsa school was suspended, are believed to be speaking most concerned with the examination for the god Murugan. and pursuit of dharma (“righteous Possession by departed spirits (bhut action”), the Mimamsa school believed or pret) or by witches and other malefic all necessary instructions were con- beings is always seen as an inopportune tained in the Vedas, the oldest Hindu event and a dangerous imposition on religious texts. Much of Mimamsa the sufferer that must be remedied as thought is concerned with principles soon as possible through healing or and methods for textual interpretation exorcism. As Sudhir Kakar masterfully seeking to uncover and interpret these shows, the language of possession and instructions. Although both Kumarila exorcism can be interpreted as an and Prabhakara were committed to dis- “idiom,” using traditional Indian cultural covering the boundaries of dharma by categories, for what modern psychia- interpreting the Vedas, there are signifi- trists might call the diagnosis and treat- cant differences in their philosophical ment of mental illness. For further positions, seen most clearly in their information see Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, theories of error. Mystics, and Doctors, 1991. Prabhakara believes in a concept similar to the Nyaya concept of inher- ence (samavaya), a weak relational Poygai force that is assumed to connect objects (7th c.) With Pey and Bhutam, one of the and their attributes—for example, con- first three Alvars, a group of twelve poet- necting the color red with a particular 515 Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta

ball, thus making the ball red. This Purana, and this emphasis on publish- assumption leads him to characterize ing has continued after his death. error as akhyati (“nondiscrimination”), For an insider’s perspective on his life, the inability to make sharp distinctions. see Satsvarupdas Dasa Goswami, For example, a person mistakes the sil- Prabhupada, 1983; and Robert D. Baird, very flash of sea shell for a piece of silver. “Swami Bhaktivedanta and Ultimacy,” To Prabhakara, the person errs by in Robert D. Baird (ed.), Religion in uncritically connecting two simple judg- Modern India, 1998. ments: “that object is silvery” and “silver is silvery.” By themselves, both of these statements are true, what is false is their Prabodhachandrodaya combination into the complex judg- (“Rising of the moon of wisdom”) ment “that object is silver.” Kumarila is Sanskrit drama written by Krishna- closer to the bhedabhada (“identity- mishra, probably in the latter half of and-difference”) philosophical position, the eleventh century. Clearly allegori- which holds that all things both identify cal, the play celebrates the triumph of with and differ from all other things. Vaishnava piety, that is, of the devotees Kumarila explains error as viparitakhyati, (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. The play is the mistaken pairing of the similarities particularly notable for its third act, in between two things, rather than the which representatives for four non- failure to note their differences. Vaishnava sects appear: a materialist, a Jain monk, a Buddhist monk, and a (a member of an ascetic com- Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta munity that worshiped the god Shiva). (b. Abhay Charan De, 1896–1977) The last is portrayed as thoroughly Devotee (bhakta) of the god Krishna depraved, indulging in meat, wine, and and founder of ISKCON (International sexual gratification, and having a pen- Society for Krishna Consciousness), chant for violence. In the play, all four more popularly known as the Hare heretical characters plot to capture . ISKCON has its roots in the another character, named Faith, for Gaudiya Vaishnava religious community their king, named Passion. However, founded by the Bengali saint Chaitanya, they discover that Faith is a devotee of in which the primary religious action Vishnu and is outside their powers. In was the repeated recitation of Krishna’s the end Faith is reunited with her son name, often in public settings. Tranquillity and a character named Prabhupada was initiated into Krishna . Although the reader may devotion in his university years, at safely assume that this play is written which time his guru commanded him to from a biased perspective, it is instruc- bring the worship of Krishna to the tive in the attitudes it reveals toward West. At the age of 58, after a successful ascetics and all other non-Vaishnava career as a pharmacist, he boarded a religious groups. steamer for the United States, arriving with a few books, a typewriter, and eight dollars in his pocket. His timing was Pracharak exquisite—or, as he put it, reflected (“director”) In the Rashtriya Svayam- Krishna’s grace—for he came during sevak Sangh (RSS), a conservative Hindu the countercultural movement in the organization whose express purpose is second half of the 1960s; by the time of to provide the leadership cadre for a his death he had thousands of followers. revitalized Hindu India, the pracharaks In his later years he focused on translat- are the full-time RSS workers who pro- ing and commenting on important vide the link between the local units, Vaishnava texts, particularly the known as shakhas (“branches”), and the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata RSS higher authorities. The RSS is a highly 516 Pradakshina

A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada was the founder of ISKCON, a religious community devoted to the god Krishna that is popularly known as the Hare Krishnas. authoritarian organization, with all Saffron, 1987; and Daniel Gold, power ultimately vested in a single, “Organized Hinduisms: From Vedic unelected leader, the sarsanghchalak, Truth to Hindu Nation,” in Martin Marty and the pracharaks are the crucial link and R. Scott Appleby (eds.), Funda- between this highly centralized leader- mentalisms Observed, 1991. ship and the highly decentralized local units. The pracharaks are responsible for coordinating and managing RSS Pradakshina activities in their area, as well as for (“toward the right”) Circumambulation reporting on these at RSS meetings at of an object or person as a sign of wor- various levels; they may also be sent out ship, reverence, or respect. This is on loan to provide leadership to RSS- always done in a clockwise direction, so affiliated organizations. As a rule, that the walker’s right side (considered pracharaks are completely devoted to the purer and more auspicious side) is the RSS cause, and most have been asso- always turned toward the object or per- ciated with the RSS since childhood. son being circled. Just about anything Their ethos is one of service and sacri- can be so circled—one’s parents or fice to the RSS, and by implication to the teacher, the image of a deity, a temple, country as a whole: They are generally a city, or the entire Indian subconti- unmarried, have no other employment, nent. In many larger temples, particu- receive no salary from the RSS (although larly in the Nagara architectural style, the local unit generally provides their the pradakshina is the name for one of living expenses), and are famous for liv- the architectural features. In this case, ing a simple and spartan lifestyle. Most it is a semicircular processional pas- of them are also well educated and are sageway surrounding the temple’s selected for their ability to get along main image, so that people can cir- well with others. For further informa- cumambulate the main image either tion see Walter K. Andersen and before or after worship. Pradakshina is Shridhar D. Damle, The Brotherhood in also the fifteenth of the sixteen tradi- tional upacharas (“offerings”) given to 517

a deity as part of worship, on the model Pradyumna is the rebirth of the god of treating the deity as an honored Kama, who has been completely annihi- guest. The underlying motive here, as lated by the fire from the god Shiva’s for all the upacharas, is to show one’s third eye. After Kama’s death, Shiva reas- love for the deity and to minister to the sures Kama’s wife that her husband deity’s needs as one would to a living will be reborn as Pradyumna to kill the person’s needs. demon Sambhara. Through his magic powers Sambhara is well aware of the threat; when he finds the child, he Pradhana throws it into the ocean and thinks that (“principal”) In the Samkhya philo- he has killed it. Pradyumna is swallowed sophical school, pradhana is another by a great fish, which is caught and pre- name for prakrti, the “primal matter” sented to king Sambhara; when the fish that the Samkhyas consider the first is split open, the child enchants his wife principle from which all material things Mayavati, in whose form Rati has taken have evolved. In the secret, ritually birth to aid her husband. Pradyumna based religious practice known as kills Sambhara in a ferocious battle and tantra, the word pradhana is used to is reunited with Rati. denote the goddess Shakti, as the active principle behind the formation of the universe. Grammatically, the word is Prahlada feminine, indicating a connotation of In Hindu mythology, the son of the fertility and fecundity. demon-king Hiranyakashipu, and a great devotee (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. Through harsh physical asceti- Pradosh Vrat cism (tapas) Hiranyakashipu has gained (“twilight vow”) Religious observance a series of divine boons that render him celebrated on the thirteenth day of each virtually invulnerable, yet despite his lunar fortnight, mainly by women, often power, his son Prahlada refuses to aban- for the birth of children or to sustain the don his devotion to Vishnu. Prahlada’s general family welfare. The vow (vrat) is devotion in the face of his father’s ever- dedicated to the god Shiva, and its most growing pride generates an escalating important part takes place on the pattern of abuse that culminates in the evening of the thirteenth day (the word demand that Prahlada worship him pradosh is interpreted as meaning “twi- rather than Vishnu. At that point Vishnu light”) when worshipers present Shiva comes to Prahlada’s aid as the Man-lion with the sixteen traditional offerings avatar, slays Hiranyakashipu, and (upacharas), following which they may establishes Prahlada as king in his place. take their only meal of the day. In some cases worshipers stay awake through the night so that the observance may finish on the fourteenth day of (“Lord of Creatures”) Deity appearing the month, a lunar day connected late in the Vedas, the earliest Hindu with Shiva. When the thirteenth day sacred texts, who is described as the falls on a Monday (associated with creator of the universe and is consid- Shiva), Saturday (associated with ered superior to the Vedic deities. The Saturn), or Sunday (associated with means by which Prajapati carries out the Sun), this rite is believed to be creation are different in different especially efficacious. places. In Rg Veda 10.121 he is described as the Golden Embryo from which all things developed, whereas in Pradyumna Rg 10.90, also known as the Purusha In Hindu mythology, the son of the god Sukta, he is described as the primal person Krishna and his divine queen . 518 Prakashatman

(purusha) who is sacrificed by the gods Brahman is the mahavakya associated and from whose parts the world devel- with the Bhogawara division of the ops. In later Hindu practice the name Dashanami Sanyasis. Prajapati can also be used to refer to the god Brahma, as fashioner of the uni- verse, or to the gods Vishnu or Shiva, as Prakamyam the universe’s supreme deities. (“irresistible will”) One of the eight superhuman powers (siddhi) tradition- ally believed to be conferred by high Prajapatya Marriage spiritual attainment. This particular One of the eight ways to perform a mar- power removes all obstructions to the riage recognized in the dharma litera- movement of one’s body, such that one ture, the treatises on religious duty. In can go wherever one desires, even pass- Hindu mythology Prajapati was the ing through solid objects as if moving name of the creator, and this name sug- through water. gests that the purpose of this marriage was for people to fulfill their duties to the ancestors by procreating. A Prakasha Prajapatya marriage takes place when a (“illumination”) In Hindu tantra, a father gives away his daughter to a man secret, ritually based religious practice, with the condition that they will per- prakasha is one of the bipolar oppo- form their civic and religious duties sites that are used to characterize the together. This was one of the four nature of all reality, with its counter- approved (prashasta) forms of mar- part being reflection (vimarsha). riage, because it was arranged by the These two terms are particularly girl’s father. However, it was considered important for the creation of the world, less commendable than the other which is said to happen when the pure approved forms, because the girl was and radiant consciousness (prakasha) given in marriage with conditions. In of the ultimate Brahman becomes Indian culture, the best way to give a self-conscious through the reflection daughter is to impose no conditions. See (vimarsha) of this original conscious- also marriage, eight classical forms. ness. From one single consciousness, the absolute then evolves into a binary divinity—the god Shiva and his con- Prajnanam Brahman sort Shakti—whose continued interac- (“Wisdom is Brahman”) In the Hindu tion combines to create the world. For philosophical tradition, one of the “great further information see Jaideva Singh, utterances” (mahavakyas) expressing Pratyabhijnanahrdayam, 1982. See the ultimate truth. The truth here is the also cosmology. identity of prajnanam (ultimate wis- dom) and Brahman (Supreme Reality); this identity is the heart of the specula- Prakashatman tive texts called the Upanishads. Aside (13th c.) Proponent of the Advaita from their importance in a philosophi- Vedanta school, one of the six schools of cal context, as encapsulating funda- traditional Hindu philosophy. Praka- mental truths, the four mahavakyas shatman’s Vivarana, a commentary on were also appropriated as identifying the work of the Advaita philosopher symbols by the four divisions of the Padmapada, provides the name for the Dashanami Sanyasi ascetics. Each divi- Vivarana school of Advaita Vedanta. sion had a different mahavakya, just as Prakashatman is traditionally described each had a different Veda, a different as Padmapada’s disciple, but since the primary monastic center, and a different latter is an attested pupil of Shanka- paradigmatic ascetic quality. Prajnanam racharya (9th c. C.E.), the time difference makes this unlikely. 519 Prakrit

Since Brahman is believed to be the prakrti—roughly, spirit and nature—are locus of all things, Vivarana Advaitins the source of all things. Prakrti is better conclude that ignorance must also be a conceived of as force or power rather part of Brahman. However, they try to than a specific material object. It con- maintain Brahman’s integrity by invok- tains within it three different forces with ing a theory of reflectionism to explain three different qualities (guna): the apparent difference between Self tends toward the good, towards and Brahman, even though they are ulti- activity or passion, and towards mately identical. Just as an image darkness and decay. In the primal appearing in a mirror is based on the prakrti these forces are in perfect equi- original but different from it, so human librium, each perfectly balancing the Selves are identical with Brahman but others, but when prakrti’s equilibrium appear to be separate. The basic posi- is disturbed, it sets in motion a pattern tion of the Vivarana school is an uncom- of evolution that creates both the exte- promising affirmation of Brahman as rior physical world and the interior the sole “reality,” in which anything that psychological world. All of these evo- exists must belong to it. lutes—material or psychic—have a dif- fering balance of the three gunas, which ultimately determines their Prakrit character as wholesome, active, or (“formed”) Collective term for the gram- unwholesome. For further information matically simpler vernacular languages see Gerald Larson and Ram Shankar that developed from Sanskrit through Bhattacharya (eds.), Samkhya, 1987; the natural process of linguistic change. and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and The existence of Prakrits is evident as Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in early as the fifth century B.C.E., at which Indian Philosophy, 1957. time several different dialects are spo- ken. The Prakrits were contrasted with Sanskrit (“perfected”), the language of Pralaya temple, court, and other elite contexts, In Hindu mythology, the dissolution of which was subject to strict grammatical the universe that comes at the end of the canons and did not change. Even those kalpa or Day of Brahma. Pralaya is con- fluent in Sanskrit would have learned it sidered the “night” of Brahma, and lasts as a second language—as a static, for the same amount of time as the day learned language, it is inherently artifi- (by one estimate, 4.32 billion years). The cial—and would have spoken in Prakrit approach of this “night” is preceded by with lower status people (such as ser- the destruction of the earth, first by fire, vants, commoners, and most women). and then by torrential rains that trans- Despite its “lower” status, Prakrits are form the entire planet into one vast vitally important historically: They were ocean. During this time the only living the languages for royal inscriptions up thing is the god Vishnu, who reclines on to the Gupta era (ca. 350–550), and one the back of his serpent vehicle Shesha, of the Prakrits, Pali, is famous as the lan- deep in a yogic trance. When the time guage for the Theravada Buddhist again comes for creation, a lotus sprouts canon. See also Gupta dynasty. from his navel, which opens to reveal Brahma, and the world begins anew. Prakrti (“nature”) One of the two fundamental Pramana principles in the Samkhya school, the In Indian philosophy, a means by other being purusha (“person”). which human beings can gain true and Samkhya espouses an atheistic philo- accurate knowledge, generally classified sophical dualism, in which purusha and as one of three types: Perception

520 Prana

Pramukh Swami, the present spiritual leader of the religious community. (pratyaksha), which includes magical or Swami (1781–1830), who because of his yogic insight as well as direct sensory piety and charisma was deemed by his perception; inference (anumana), followers an avatar of the god Vishnu. which ultimately depends upon direct Pramukh Swami is the uncontested experience; and testimony (shabda), head of the Akshar Purushottam which can be either scriptural or the Samstha, a branch of the Swaminarayan instruction of one’s teacher. Some philo- movement that separated from the par- sophical schools also include a fourth ent group in 1906. He is a strict ascetic source, analogy (upamana), but those who serves as religious teacher (guru) to who do not recognize this categorize it an estimated million followers all over as another form of inference. The first the world. His devotees (bhakta) are three are accepted by all philosophical predominately members of the Gujarati schools except for the materialists, who community and mostly affluent mer- recognize only perception. The Purva chants, making the movement finan- Mimamsa school affirms two additional cially robust. pramanas—presumption (arthapatti), and knowledge from absence ()— which they argue give one knowledge. Prana The root meaning of this term comes (“breath”) As a collective noun, the from the verb “to measure”; thus these name for the five “winds” considered to are tools for measuring and interpreting be responsible for basic bodily func- the world we experience. tions. The first of these, located in the chest, is labeled by the general term prana. Because it performs those func- Pramukh Swami tions necessary for sustaining life—res- (“President Swami,” b. 1921) Title of piration, the movement of food into the Shastri Narayanswarupdas Swami, the stomach, and the circulation of blood present spiritual leader of the through the body—its name is often Swaminarayan religious community. used to designate all five winds. Of the Swaminarayan Hinduism is based on other four winds, apana (in the anal the life and teachings of Sahajananda region) is concerned with elimination, 521 Pranapratishtha

samana (in the navel) aids digestion, Prapatti udana (in the throat) conveys things out (“throwing oneself down”) Prapatti of the mouth—like speech, song, burps, refers to a devotee’s (bhakta) complete etc.—and vyana circulates throughout surrender to God’s power as the only the body, mixing things together. These means of salvation. This attitude is winds are the focus of the yoga exercise particularly stressed among the known as , the aim of which Shrivaishnavas, a southern Indian is to achieve control over the central religious community who are followers forces of life. of the god Vishnu and whose founder was the great philosopher Ramanuja Pranapratishtha (11th c.). Although ultimate power is believed to be vested in God’s grace by (“establishing the prana”) Pranapratishtha the practitioners of prapatti, believers is the final rite in the consecration of a nevertheless possess a concern for deity’s image, usually performed by continuing religious practice. Thus, brahmins, since they have the necessary prapatti is not meant to replace conven- ritual purity and training. The image is tional religious activities such as wor- infused with the breath of life (prana) ship. These activities are still performed, through the performance of ritual and but with the consciousness that God’s the intoning of sacred sounds known as grace will be sufficient. They are there- . After this rite is performed, the fore not seen as a means toward salva- deity is believed to be resident in the tion, but as reflections of the grace one image, which thereafter must be treated has already obtained. with the care such a spiritual entity requires. Prapti Pranava (“acquisition”) One of the eight super- human powers (siddhi) traditionally Name denoting the sacred sound Om. believed to be conferred by high spiritual See Om. attainment. This particular power gives one the ability to gain any object simply Pranayama by desiring it. (“restraint of breath”) In the ashtanga (“eight-part”) yoga first codified by Patanjali (1st c. C.E.?), pranayama is Hindu reformist organization centered the fourth of the eight constituent in Bombay, whose most important fig- elements of yoga practice. Pranayama ure was M. G. Ranade (1842–1901). The requires a conscious control of respir- Prarthana Samaj’s reformist mission ation, specifically halting one’s breath- focused more on social issues than on ing before inhaling and exhaling. theological or worship-related ones. When both of these actions have Their primary aim was to rid Hindu become automatic, this is described as society of “evils” such as child marriage “total” restraint. This practice is sup- and the ban on widow remarriage. posed to weaken and destroy the prac- Although its members were educated titioner’s unwholesome karma, and and progressive, they were also reli- render the mind fit for concentration. giously conservative and devout Hindus Removing karma is necessary for liber- with deep roots in the tradition. They ation of the soul, since all karma (both saw their work as a slow and gradual good and bad) ties one to the cycle of process of reforming Hinduism by birth and rebirth. removing its most objectionable prac- tices rather than by radically remaking it from start. In this they differed from the 522 Prashna (“Question”) Upanishad

Brahmo Samaj, who attempted to Brahma is the only one of these four remake the tradition wholesale by practiced in modern India and is the giving it a strong, quasi-monotheistic idealized form of marriage. See also emphasis, a quality heavily influenced marriage, eight classical forms. by European missionaries. The Prarthana Samaj lost its steam by the early 1920s, when social reform associations became absorbed into the (5th c.) Author of the Padarthadharma- Indian National Congress. sangraha.This text is the most influential commentary on ’s Vaisheshika Sutras, the founding text of the Prasad Vaisheshika school, one of the six (“favor”) Prasad is food or drink that has schools of traditional Hindu philoso- been offered to a deity as part of normal phy. The Vaisheshika school was atom- worship and, having been sanctified by istic, believing that all things were made the deity’s power, is later distributed to up of a few basic constituent sub- worshipers as a symbol of the deity’s stances: the five elements (earth, fire, grace. In this process, the deity is water, wind, and ) along with believed to have “consumed” part of the space, time, mind, and individual selves food offering, and thus—in keeping (atman). The five elements combined to with everyday ideas about the contami- form the things in the world, though nating power of saliva—to have selves were considered ultimately differ- “imprinted” the food with its substance. ent from matter. Since this substance has been “charged” with divine presence, it is given to devo- tees (bhakta) as an emblem of the Prashna (“Question”) Upanishad deity’s grace, and worshipers consume it One of the later and more developed in the belief that this sanctifies them. Its upanishads, the speculative religious sacred qualities mean that prasad is texts that form the latest stratum of the treated differently than regular food: It oldest Hindu sacred texts, the Vedas. As cannot be refused and can never be with most of the upanishads, the Prashna thrown away. If one cannot eat it, the Upanishad’s underlying concern is to favored method of disposal is to feed it investigate ultimate questions, in particu- to a cow. See also jutha. lar the nature of the Self (atman). Considered one of the later upanishads, the Prashna Upanishad is similar to the Prashasta (“Approved”) Marriages earliest upanishads, the Brhadaranyaka In the dharma literature, or the texts on and the Chandogya, but is far shorter, and religious duty, these are the four the text is much more focused. Like the approved forms of marriage: the older upanishads, the Prashna is written Brahma marriage, the Daiva marriage, as a dialogue. It takes the form of a con- the Arsha marriage, and the Prajapatya versation between the sage Pippalada and marriage. These forms are deemed com- six questioners. In each section (called a mendable because in each case the prashna in the text) one of the hearers asks father of the bride is responsible for a question, to which Pippalada replies. arranging the marriage: In the Brahma The six sections all have different themes: form the bride is given as a gift without the nature of time, prana as the most conditions, in the Daiva she is given as a important human power, the nature of life sacrificial fee, in the Arsha she is given in after death, sleep, meditation, the sound exchange for a pair of cattle for sacrifice, Om, and the nature of the Self. In this and in the Prajapatya she is given with way, it uses the older dialogue form to the condition that the husband and wife advance a far more developed and perform their duties together. The cohesive philosophical perspective.

523 Pratihara Dynasty

Pratihara Dynasty all concepts based on dualistic thinking. See Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. The “Five Forbidden Things,” therefore, provides a ritual means for breaking the duality of sacred and forbidden, Pratijna by sacralizing several things that are (“assertion”) In , a part in the ordinarily forbidden. generally accepted form of an inference These five things are used in their (anumana), or logical statement. The actual form in “left hand” (vamachara) accepted form for an inference has tantra, and by substitution in “right hand” three terms: an assertion (pratijna), a (dakshinachara) tantra. Substitution reason (hetu), and examples (drshtanta). allows the adept to perform the ritual Each of these three also has its own con- and at the same time to avoid the disap- stituent parts. The pratijna’s two con- proval that would result from breaking stituent parts are the paksha and the certain social rules. Although tantric sadhya. The paksha is the subject of the texts allow for substitution in this rite, assertion and names a class of things, they are usually quite specific about while the sadhya is the claim to be what sorts of things are acceptable proven about that class. For example, in substitutes, a signature quality of strictly the assertion “this mountain is on fire,” defined ritual systems. For further infor- the paksha is “this mountain” (the class mation see Swami Agehananda Bharati, of things about which a claim is being The Tantric Tradition, 1975; and Douglas made), and the sadhya, or thing to be Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three proven, is “is on fire.” Cities, 1990.

Pratiloma (“against the hair”) Forbidden marriage (“recognition”) Doctrine advanced by union, in which the husband has lower many different schools of tantra, a social status than the wife. See hypoga- secret, ritually defined religious prac- mous marriage. tice, and particularly by the Kashmiri philosopher , the most influential figure in Trika . It Pratinidhi holds that the final realization of the (“substitute”) In the context of tantra, a Absolute is simply a “re-cognition” of secret, ritually based religious practice, one’s essential unity with the Divine. anything that can correctly be used as a This unity has always existed and has substitute. Certain tantric rites make rit- never been altered, the only factor pre- ual use of substances or actions that are venting it from being clearly seen being normally forbidden; the most famous of the obscuring power of false under- these rites, the Five Forbidden Things standing. Final unity with the Divine, (panchamakara), incorporates violating therefore, comes not through doing any- the social taboos on drinking wine, con- thing, but simply through realizing what suming nonvegetarian food, and engag- has always been the case. This doctrine ing in illicit sex. The ritual use of such clearly shows the influence of the normally forbidden things must be seen Advaita Vedanta philosophical school, in the larger context of tantric practice. but with an important shift. The Advaita One of the most pervasive tantric school upholds a philosophical position assumptions is the ultimate unity known as monism, which is the belief of everything that exists. From this that a single abstract ultimate princi- perspective, adepts affirm that ple—which they call Brahman—lies the entire universe is one principle— behind all things, and that all things are often, conceived as the activity of a only particular manifestations of that particular deity—and therefore reject one principle. The “Recognition” school 524

Yoga asanas contribute to the development of pratyahara, or withdrawal from the senses. adopts this general principle but con- Pratyaksha ceives of Ultimate Reality theistically, (“concerning the eye”) In Indian philos- as the god Shiva. For Trika Shaivism, ophy, pratyaksha is the general term for Shiva is the sole true reality, who is sense perception. All philosophical both supreme god, and the source of schools accept perception as one of the the material universe. For further pramanas, the means by which human information see Jaideva Singh, Pratya- beings can gain true and accurate bhijnanahrdayam, 1982. knowledge, and it is the only pramana accepted by the materialist school. Pratyahara Although the word’s literal meaning implies only information from the eyes, (“withdrawal [of the senses]”) In the this pramana includes sense data from ashtanga (“eight-part”) yoga first cod- the other four human senses, as well as ified by Patanjali (1st c. C.E.?), pratya- “perceptions” obtained through magical hara is the fifth of the eight cognition, yogic insight, or any other constituent elements of yoga practice. supernormal abilities or phenomena. Pratyahara occurs when one with- draws the senses from the sense objects they ordinarily perceive. It is Pravahana Jaivali done after one has mastered the sit- A character in the , ting positions (asanas)—and thus can one of the speculative religious texts sit comfortably for long periods—and that form the latest stratum of the after one has gained control of Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts. “breath” (pranayama), which allows In the text, Pravahana Jaivali is a mem- heightened command of one’s physio- ber of the warrior (kshatriya) class who logical capacities. Having gained rela- serves as teacher to members of the tive mastery over the body, one is then scholarly-priestly (brahmin) class. His ready to focus attention inward. first students are Silaka Shalavatya and Caikitayana Dalbhya, then Aruneya and his father Gautama. This is 525 Pravara

one of several episodes in the Upanishads Prayashchitta in which kshatriyas instruct brahmins, A general term meaning atonement for thus inverting the accepted pattern one’s misdeeds. The Hindu religious tra- that holds brahmins as religious dition gives considerable attention to authorities. These episodes reveal the penance and expiation, based on the nature of wisdom as conceived in the almost universal Hindu belief in the Upanishads—it is conferred, not by inexorable workings of karma. birth or social position, but by individ- According to this notion, all good and ual striving and realization. bad deeds will eventually have their effect, either in this life or the next, and Pravara thus one must either atone for the evil one has done or face its consequences A lineage system, primarily among in the future. Prescriptions for such brahmins, which builds on the assump- expiation can be found as far back as the tions of the system (the tracing of Vedas, and the acts prescribed for brahmin lineage to one of seven mythi- atonement fall into several categories: cal sages). In his daily worship a brah- confession, repentance (which was usu- min would not only mention the name ally seen as preparation for expiation, of his gotra, who is the sage believed to rather than absolution of the evil itself), be the family’s immediate progenitor, restraint of breath (pranayama), physi- but also the names of other sages cal asceticism (tapas), fire sacrifice believed to be remote ancestors. Both (), recitation of prayers (), these “lineages” were passed down only gift-giving (dana), fasting (upavasa), through men, since it was customary for and travel to sacred sites (tirthayatra). a married woman to adopt her hus- The prayashchitta literature is quite band’s gotra as part of her new identity. well developed, both in detailing The only context in which gotra and differing kinds of offenses and their pravara were really important was in potentially mitigating circumstances, fixing marriages, because of the and in laying out the types of atonement kinship conferred by these mythic to be performed for each offense. For lineages. Marriage within the gotra further information see Pandurang was strictly forbidden, since the Vaman Kane (trans.), A History of assumption that such people were Dharmasastra, 1968. directly related made this marriage incestuous. Marriage within the pravara was also forbidden, although in Prayoga medieval times different groups inter- (“use,” “application”) In the context preted this prohibition differently. of Hindu ritual, any prescribed proce- For some groups, any shared pravara dure to be followed during worship, ancestry would forbid the marriage, but meditation, or when performing other for other groups one shared “ancestor” ritual actions. was deemed permissible. The more lenient interpretation may well have been spurred by practical difficulties in Pregnancy making matches. As in all societies, Hindus regard the impending birth of a child as a time of eager expectation tinged with anxiety. Part of this anxiety stems from purely Prayaga physical worries that the pregnancy and (“Place of Sacrifice”) The traditional birth proceed normally, and that the Hindu name for Allahabad, the city at mother and child remain in good physi- the junction of the Ganges and Yamuna cal health. Expectant mothers are usually rivers. See Allahabad. encouraged to rest and are often given 526 Prinsep, James

food considered especially nourishing ensure the child’s good health and the (such as milk products and nuts) to mother’s easy delivery. Although the build their strength. From the mother’s dharma literature prescribes these rites perspective, pregnancy is an extremely as obligatory, none of them are widely significant event, since the birth of chil- performed now except by the most dren (especially sons) will solidify her orthodox brahmins. status in her marital family; but this significance also contributes its own quotient of expectation and anxiety. Pret Since the mother’s emotional state (“departed,” “deceased”) The spirit of a during pregnancy is believed to affect person who has recently died but is still the child, all efforts are made to shelter inappropriately connected to the world the expectant mother from unpleasant of the living, often as a troubling or thoughts and situations and to generate malevolent presence to the departed’s happy thoughts. family or the general population. Prets Aside from protecting the expectant are believed to be the spirits of people mother’s physical and psychological who died in childhood and whose health, Hindus take numerous precau- untimely death left them with certain tions to guard her from other sorts of unfulfilled desires, particularly longings misfortune. As at other life transitions, relating to marriage and family life. Prets during pregnancy and the child’s first make themselves known to the living in days the mother and her child are con- two ways, either through dreams or sidered particularly vulnerable to black possession. In some cases they have magic, particularly the witchcraft of specific requests and can be placated those who might be jealous of the through worship and offerings. In such expectant or new mother. Another instances, dreams offer a method of avenue for harm comes from inauspi- communicating with the living, so that cious events, such as an eclipse, during necessary actions can be performed for which a pregnant woman should stay the pret. In other cases, the spirit may inside (away from its malevolent rays) resort to bodily possession in an and remain perfectly still, lest her child attempt to realize unfulfilled desires be born with missing limbs. These hos- directly. These spirits are typically tile forces can also be countered by vari- malevolent and require an exorcism to ous rites of protection, such as wearing be removed. For further information on amulets, charms, or iron (considered to the care of unquiet family spirits, see render one impervious to spells), by cut- Ann Grodzins Gold, Fruitful Journeys, ting back on social interaction to avoid 1988; for a psychological interpretation possible contact with inauspicious peo- of spirits, possession, and healing, see ple and things, and by attention to reli- Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics, and gious rites. Doctors, 1991.

Prenatal Rites Prinsep, James Life-cycle rituals (samskaras) performed (1799–1840) British official and amateur by a husband before his child’s birth, as Indologist. In 1837, Prinsep became the prescribed in the dharma literature, the first modern person to decipher the texts on religious duty. According to this , and was thus able to literature, there were three such rites: translate the edicts of the Mauryan , which ensured concep- emperor Ashoka (r. 269–32 B.C.E.). tion; , which guaranteed that Unfortunately, his career was cut short the newly conceived child would be a by an early death, a pattern distressingly boy; and , which was familiar for colonial administrators in performed late in the pregnancy to British India. See also Maurya dynasty. 527 Priyadas

Priyadas philosophies: the combined Nyaya- (early 18th c.) Author of the Bhaktirasa- Vaisheshika school, the combined bodhini (“Awakening the Delight in Samkhya-Yoga school, the Purva Devotion”), a commentary on the Mimamsa school, and even the Bhaktamal of Nabhadas, completed in Bhamati and Vivarana schools of 1712. In his text, Nabhadas had given Advaita Vedanta. very brief (six line) biographies of over two hundred contemporary bhakti Prohibition (devotional) figures. These original Most traditional Hindus have clearly biographies are notably free of mar- and strongly disapproved of consuming velous and miraculous events, with their liquor, a substance which, because it major emphasis being the devotee’s may lead to a loss of control, is seen as (bhakta) personal qualities, to serve as a impure. Among wealthier Indians, model for others. In his commentary, drinking alcoholic beverages is seen as a Priyadas gives greatly expanded habit that signals the acceptance of accounts for each one of the devotees Western values and alienation from mentioned by Nabhadas, and usually one’s roots, whereas among poorer citi- describes events to which Nabhadas zens, particularly laborers, drinking is makes no reference. At least in the case often seen as a misuse of money needed of the poet-saint Ravidas, Nabhadas to support a family. For all these reasons, clearly drew his material from the texts the imposition of total or partial prohi- written by the biographer Anantadas, bition has become an effective part of but in many other cases his sources electoral platforms designed to appeal are not clear. The accounts by Priyadas to traditional and conservative Hindus. are larded with miracles and wonders, In 1997, prohibition had been estab- and the prevalence of such events, lished in three Indian states: Gujarat, combined with his chronological dis- Andhra Pradesh, and Haryana. Of these tance from his subjects, makes him three, Gujarat is the only one with a a less reliable source for the lives of long-standing history of prohibition, these devotees. while prohibition in Andhra Pradesh in 1995, and in Haryana in 1996, was Progress Philosophy imposed to fulfill campaign promises (“jativada”) Progress philosophy affirms made during the state elections in those that one can attain complete freedom years. In both cases, the imposition of from bondage—which in the Indian prohibition also stimulated widespread context is identified as the end of rein- bootlegging and illegal distilling. carnation (samsara) and final liberation of the soul (moksha)—and that one can Prostitution also specify the necessary and sufficient Prostitutes or courtesans were a regular conditions that allow human beings to feature of ancient Indian life. But far bring about this freedom. As a rule, from simply offering sexual pleasure, progress philosophy tends to stress these prostitutes were in many cases gradual spiritual attainment, in which women of culture and learning. One of very small beginnings can gradually lead the sections in the pertains one to the ultimate goal. Progress to such individuals, and the author philosophers thus tend to stress partic- Vatsyayana portrays prostitutes as ular religious paths that will lead one women who, while clearly outside nor- to the final goal, and also tend to place mal society, have far greater indepen- a great significance on actions (espe- dence than most women. One finds a cially ritual actions) as essential parts similar picture in The Little Clay Cart of this path. In the Hindu tradition, (Mrcchakatika), a drama in which the most philosophical schools are progress 528 Puja

courtesan Vasantasena is sought by all reign is considered a golden age. Prthu is the men of the city because of her beauty, magically born from the right hand of wealth, and mastery of the sixty-four king , a man so wicked that he has aesthetic arts. This picture is doubtless prohibited all sacrifices to the gods. idealized and was probably realistic for After Prthu’s birth the people in his king- only a tiny fraction of the women plying dom suffer famine, since the Earth has the sex trade, however. refused to produce food in protest The existence of prostitution also against Vena’s wickedness. Prthu chases appears in relation to a group of women the Earth, who has taken the form of a connected to certain temples. Called cow. She finally agrees that, if Prthu will servants of the deity (), these spare her life, she will produce food women were not allowed to marry. again. It is in memory of this deed that Instead, they were considered to be the Earth is given the name Prthivi married to the god, for whom they (“related to Prthu”). would sing, dance, and perform various rites, just as any Hindu wife would for her husband. These women could hold Puja property and resources of their own, but (“homage”) The most common word for their status was clearly unusual, and it worship in modern Hinduism. The root was not uncommon for them to develop of the word carries the sense of rever- long-term liaisons with local men for ence or respect, but puja is primarily mutual enjoyment. In some cases this focused on actions, particularly offer- degenerated into prostitution—through ings to the deity, who is treated as an which such women became a source of honored guest. Although, according to income for the temple—but in other one list, there are sixteen such offerings instances they were successful in retain- (upacharas), in practice the worship ing some autonomy. Since Indian inde- performed in any particular setting is pendence in 1947 there has been a subject to wide variation—based on prohibition on initiating devadasis, but regional or local custom, individual some older women remain who were inclination, and the person’s social sta- initiated before that time. In 1995, a tus and learning. At the heart of puja, furor developed when the Jagannath however, is a series of transactions temple management committee began between the deity and devotee (bhakta). to explore the possibility of new initia- One such transaction comes in darshan, tions. For further information see the exchange of glances between Vatsyayana (tr. Alain Daniélou), Kama an image of the deity and a devotee, Sutra of Vatsyayana; and Frederique which initiates the relationship between Apffel Marglin, Wives of the God-King, the two. The other transactions come 1985. See also Yellamma. from offerings given by the devotee, to which the deity responds by giving prasad sanctified by divine contact, Prthivi most often food or drink for the devotee The most common name for the Earth, to consume. which, in addition to its material form, is Aside from the transactions, the conceived of as a goddess. This particu- other most common feature of most lar name for the Earth goddess comes puja is the emphasis on purity, both of from a mythic story connecting her to worshiper and of context. The only the righteous king Prthu. exception to this arises in certain forms of tantra, a secret, ritually based reli- gious practice in which the performer Prthu deliberately inverts normal ideas of In Hindu mythology, an ancient king purity and impurity (ashaucha) as a way who rules over all the Earth, and whose of symbolically destroying all duality. 529

brahmin priest acts as an intermediary between the high deities and other wor- shipers, shielding the deity from poten- tially contaminating contact. His high ritual purity also makes the brahmin a universal donor, from whose hand all people can receive prasad without fear of pollution. For further information see C. J. Fuller, “Hindu Temple Priests,” in T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion in India, 1991.

Pujari In its most basic meaning, the word pujari denotes “one who does puja (worship).” In theory this word could refer to any worshiper, but in general usage the meaning is more restricted. It usually designates a man performing worship as his means of livelihood, either as a priest in a temple, or as a religious “technician” hired to perform ceremonies for others. For further infor- Puja offerings, including flowers and red tika mation see C. J. Fuller, “Hindu Temple powder, are left for a deity as a sign of honor Priests,” in T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion in and respect. India, 1991. Devotees commonly purify themselves before worship, and the purity of the site, and the objects used in worship, must be either established (in the case In Hindu mythology, one of the six sons of a place or things not generally used of Brahma, all of whom become great for worship) or maintained (as in the sages. All are “mind-born,” meaning that case of a temple or other regularly estab- Brahma’s thoughts bring them into lished place). being. The others are , , In its most basic conception, the , , and . temple is a home for the deity, a ritually pure environment. Most temples have at Pulakeshin II least two different “purity zones,” an (r. 609–42) Greatest king in the outer zone into which the devotees may Chalukya dynasty, which ruled much enter, and an inner zone closest to deity, of the Deccan peninsula from the restricted to the temple priests. In their Chalukya capital at modern Badami. purity requirements, deities show as Pulakeshin was a contemporary of the much variation as one finds in the Pushyabhuti emperor Harsha, whom human community, and stricter con- Pulakeshin defeated in battle to con- cern for purity indicates higher status, tain Harsha’s southward expansion. just as for human beings. Whereas vil- Pulakeshin also defeated the Pallava lage deities are often served by non- dynasty king Mahendravarman, who brahmin priests and typically take was killed in battle with Pulakeshin’s offerings of meat, blood, and liquor, the army. He, in turn, was finally defeated higher deities are always served by brah- and killed by Mahendravarman’s son min priests, and the food offered to Narasimhavarman. For several cen- them is invariably vegetarian. As the rit- turies afterward, the Chalukya and ually purest of all human beings, the Pallava Dynasties warred with one 530 Punjab

Farmers harvesting wheat in a field in Punjab. another, and although each was strong constellation, at which time the woman enough to defeat its opponent at various should have several drops of the juice points in this conflict, neither was capa- from the tree inserted into her ble of keeping the other under subjuga- right nostril (a common practice in tion. See also Pushyabhuti dynasty. ). This samskara is seldom performed in modern times. Pulastya In Hindu mythology, one of the six sons Pundit of Brahma, all of whom become great Term still used in modern times to sages. All are “mind-born,” meaning that denote a scholar or learned man. In tra- Brahma’s thoughts are enough to bring ditional usage, the word pundit denoted them into being. The others are Kratu, a person proficient in Sanskrit and Angiras, Pulaha, Marichi, and Atri. Sanskrit learning.

Pumsavana (“engendering a Punjab male”) Samskara Modern Indian state that lies south of In traditional calculation, the second of the state of Jammu and Kashmir on the the life-cycle ceremonies (samskaras). border of Pakistan. Modern Punjab is The Pumsavana samskara was one of one of the so-called linguistic states, cre- the prenatal samskaras performed ated to unite people with a common before birth, done to ensure that a language and culture (in this case, newly conceived child would be a boy. Punjabi) under one state government. Various writers give differing prescrip- The present state of Punjab was created tions as to the correct time during in 1966, when the former state (also the pregnancy to perform this rite, but called Punjab) was divided into three they generally specify that it be areas: Punjab (the Punjabi-speaking performed when the moon is in a male region), the state of Haryana (from the 531 Punya

Hindi-speaking regions), and Himachal good deeds in one’s karmic career. Pradesh (from the hill regions). The (According to the theory of karma, all of Punjab region is replete with history, for it one’s deeds will eventually be realized, has been the traditional route by which so the merit one has earned in the past is invaders have gained access to the north- stored up to bring benefits in the future.) ern Indian plains. The first of these were Its opposite is pap, the most general the , who coined its name from the word for religious demerit. five rivers (pancab) flowing through it. The abundant water from these rivers, carried by an extensive irrigation net- Purana work, has made the Punjab exceptionally (“old”) An important genre of smrti texts, fertile, and today it remains the largest and the repository of traditional Indian wheat-growing area of India. mythology. The smrtis, or “remembered,” The Punjab is famous as the birthplace texts were a class of literature that, of the Sikh religious community, and is although deemed important, was consid- today the only Sikh-majority state. The ered less authoritative than the shrutis, or partition of India into Hindu and Muslim “heard” texts. In brief, the shrutis denoted states in 1947 hit the Sikhs the hardest, the Vedas, the oldest and most authorita- since the division essentially carved their tive Hindu religious texts, whereas the homeland in half. In the aftermath of the smrtis included the two great epics, name- partition millions of people became ly the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, refugees, and many of them fell victim to the dharma literature, the Bhagavad Gita, the atrocities of the time. For most of the and the compendia known as the puranas. 1980s, Sikh proindependence groups According to one traditional defini- waged an undeclared war against the tion, a purana should contain accounts Indian government. In one of the most of at least five essential things: the cre- dramatic events of this period, the Akal ation of the earth, its dissolution and Takht, the traditional symbol for Sikh tem- recreation, origins of the gods and patri- poral power, was stormed by the Indian archs, the reigns of the , army in June 1984, and the Indian prime and the reigns of the Solar and Lunar minister, Indira Gandhi, was assassinated Lines. In practice, the puranas are com- four months later. By the mid-1990s this pendia of all types of sacred lore, from movement seemed to have been quelled, mythic tales to ritual instruction to exal- although no one can predict whether this tation of various sacred sites (tirthas) is permanent. Punjab is most famous for and actions. Individual puranas are the Sikh Harmandir (Golden Temple) in usually highly sectarian and intended to Amritsar, a short distance from the promote the worship of one of the Jallianwala Bagh, site of a massacre that Hindu gods, whether Vishnu, Shiva, or was one of the pivotal events in the strug- the Goddess. By tradition the major gle for Indian independence. For general puranas number eighteen, but there are information about Punjab and all the hundreds of minor works. Along with regions of India, an accessible reference is the epics, the puranas are the store- Christine Nivin et al., India. 8th ed., Lonely houses of the mythic tales that are the Planet, 1998. common religious currency for tradi- tional Hindus. In this respect the puranas are much more influential than Punya any of the Vedas, because the tales in (“holy”) Word most often used as a noun the puranas are common knowledge. to mean “religious merit”—sometimes to The contents of the Vedas, though more denote the religious distinction arising authoritative, are less well known. from a particular deed, but more often Judgments on the importance of indi- to refer to the collective body of religious vidual puranas vary according to sec- merit one has accumulated through the tarian persuasion, but some of the 532 Puri

Rath Yatra festival in Puri. most important puranas are the structure of his songs is believed to have Purana, , , laid the foundations for the Karnatic , , school of Indian music, the predomi- Harivamsha, and Purana. nant musical form in southern India. For a general translation of stories from puranic texts, see Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Purattasi Mythology, 1978. The sixth month in the Tamil solar year, corresponding to the northern Indian solar month of Kanya (the zodiacal sign Purana Kassapa of Virgo), which usually falls within In early Indian philosophy, philosopher September and October. The existence opposed to moral rules, whose views are of several different calendars is one clear mentioned in Buddhist scriptures. sign of the continuing importance of According to these texts, Kassapa regional cultural patterns. One way that believed that there was no religious the Tamils retain their culture is by merit in good acts, and no demerit in preserving their traditional calendar. evil acts—that neither of these had any Tamil is one of the few regional affect on the Self at all. Beyond this, very languages in India with an ancient, little is known about him. well-established literary tradition. See also Tamil months, Tamil Nadu, and Tamil language. Purandaradas (1480–1564) A devotee (bhakta) of the god Vishnu who was the founder of the Puri , a sect of saint-composers in City and sacred site (tirtha) on the Bay the southern Indian state of Karnataka. of Bengal in the state of Orissa. Puri is Aside from the literary merits of the best known for its temple to the god poetry Purandaradas wrote, the musical Jagannath, a local deity assimilated 533 Puri Dashanami

into the pantheon as a form of the god Puri Dashanami Krishna and therefore, by extension, a One of the ten divisions of the form of Vishnu. The temple was com- Dashanami Sanyasis, ascetics who are pleted in 1198 C.E. and is currently devotees (bhakta) of Shiva. The receiving much needed restoration, Dashanamis were supposedly estab- after several pieces fell off the tower in lished by the ninth century philosopher the early 1990s. The most important Shankaracharya in an effort to create a annual festival held in Puri is the Rath corps of learned men who could help to Yatra. During this festival, Jagannath, revitalize Hindu life. Each of the divi- his brother Balabhadra, and his sister sions is designated by a different are carried in procession name—in this case, puri (“city”). Upon through the city’s main street in enor- initiation, new members are given this mous wooden carts. They travel to name as their new surname, thus allow- another temple about a mile away, ing for immediate group identification. where they stay for a week, and then Aside from their individual identity, return to Puri. Aside from the spectacle, these ten “named” divisions are also the ceremony is an important ritual divided into four larger organizational theater used to demonstrate the rela- groups. Each group has its headquarters tionship between Jagannath and the in one of the four monastic centers kings of Puri, who were considered to (maths) supposedly established by be deputies ruling in his name. Shankaracharya, as well as other partic- Although the kings no longer wield ular religious associations. The Puri actual power in modern times, by Dashanamis belong to the Kitawara virtue of their status they still play an group, which is affiliated with the important ritual role. Shringeri Math in the southern Indian Aside from containing the temple town of Shringeri. of Jagannath, Puri is one of the four dhams, which symbolically mark the geographic boundaries of India. It is Purity also the home of the Govardhan () Along with its opposite, Math, one of the four Dashanami impurity (ashaucha), purity is one of the Sanyasi sacred centers supposedly fundamental concepts in Hindu culture. established by the philosopher Although to outsiders purity can be eas- Shankaracharya. Puri’s character as a ily confused with cleanliness, it is funda- holy city has made it an attractive mentally different—purity is a religious place for religiously inclined people to category marked by the presence or make their homes, most notably the absence of pollution or defilement, Bengali saint Chaitanya (1486–1533), whereas cleanliness is a hygienic cate- who lived there for much of his adult gory. In some cases these categories can life. The cultural life generated by the overlap, but in most their disjunction worship of Jagannath also made Puri becomes clear. For example, from a reli- a center for the arts, and it is the gious perspective, bathing (snana) in traditional home of the classical the Ganges River makes one pure, dance form known as Orissi. For fur- whereas from a hygienic perspective the ther information see Anncharlott lower reaches of the Ganges are quite Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, and Gaya heavily polluted. Charan Tripathi, The Cult of On a personal level, purity can be Jagannath and the Regional Tradition best described as the absence of defile- of Orissa, 1978; and Frederique Apffel ment, gained through removing impuri- Marglin, “Time Renewed: Ratha Jatra ties in some manner, most often by in Puri,” in T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion bathing. After becoming purified, one in India, 1991. remains pure until coming into contact with a source of impurity. These sources 534

of impurity include essential bodily functions, such as urination and evacu- ation; sexual activity; contact with impure things both inside and outside one’s home; and even contact with cer- tain groups of people deemed impure. Thus, although purity is always easy to regain, it is impossible to retain, since it is breached by many of the actions of everyday life. It is also important to real- ize that impurity brings no moral stigma to an individual—becoming impure means simply that one has come into contact with some contaminant, and that this must be removed. The only times when purity is particularly impor- tant are in worship and in eating—the former to keep from contaminating the deities and their environs, the latter to protect oneself, since the circum- stances surrounding what one eats are considered to have long-term effects on an individual. Pilgrim bathing in the sacred Narmada River. Aside from its personal dimension, Bathing is believed to be purifying, especially purity has a social dimension as well. when it is done in sacred waters. Higher status groups, such as brah- Meaning, 1976; see also Pauline mins, are considered to have inherently Kolenda, “Purity and Pollution,” in T. higher ritual purity. This social dimen- N. Madan (ed.), Religion in India, sion of purity comes with birth and is 1991. See also caste and jati. the religious basis determining the hierarchical divisions in the traditional social system. To some extent, a Purochana group’s purity level corresponds to its In the Mahabharata, the later of the two hereditary occupation. People who great Hindu epics, Purochana is a minis- had continual contact with substances ter of , the epic’s antago- considered impure (such as latrine nist. He advises Duryodhana to build the cleaners, corpse burners, and scav- House of Lac as a means to kill the engers) were seen as tainted by work, Pandavas, the five brothers who are and rendered impure. Brahmins, as Duryodhana’s cousins, and the epic’s scholars and priests (the latter a task protagonists. After the Pandavas move that brought them in contact with the into the House of Lac, Purochana sets gods), were the purest. Between these fire to it. The Pandavas, whose uncle extremes fell the other groups, whose has alerted them to the danger, relative status in a specific locale was are able to escape through a secret determined by local factors. For theo- underground passage, but Purochana retical consideration of the impor- himself is killed in the fire. tance that purity plays in modern Hindu life, see Louis Dumont, Homo Purohit Hierarchicus, 1980; for another analy- (“[one] placed in front”) The most sis of social ordering, see McKim important of the priestly functionaries Marriot, “Hindu Transactions: in the cult of sacrifice found in Diversity Without Dualism,” in Bruce the . The purohit was Kapferer (ed.), Transaction and 535

responsible for supervising the other the Self with the latter rather than the sacrificing priests, such as the rtvij former. For further information see and the hotr, and for making sure that Gerald Larson and Ram Shankar the animal sacrifices were completed Bhattacharya (eds.), Samkhya, 1987; without error. The purohit would often and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and be attached to a particular ruler and Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in was also called to perform rites for Indian Philosophy, 1957. communal well-being. In modern times this latter meaning has persisted, the word is often used to denote one’s family Purushartha priest, who will perform various rituals The Aims of Life, traditionally num- for the family. bered at four: material wealth and power (), pleasure (kama), reli- gious duty (dharma), and final libera- Pururavas tion (moksha). All of these were seen as In Hindu mythology, a prominent king legitimate goals in traditional Hindu of a royal lineage who trace their ances- society. See Aims of Life. try to the moon. Pururavas is a righteous king who performs one hundred horse sacrifices (), and the merit from these gives him great power. He is (“Hymn to the Primeval Man”) The most best known for his dalliance with the common name for the hymn in the Rg celestial nymph () , by Veda (10.90) that describes the creation whom he has several children. Although of the material and social world as the the two are forced to spend sixty years result of a primordial sacrifice. apart because of a curse, in the end they According to the text, in the beginning are happily reunited. there was one primeval man, who was dismembered in sacrifice. Different parts of his body became different parts Purusha of the physical universe, as well as the (“person”) One of the two fundamental four traditional major social groups first principles in the Samkhya philo- (varnas): the brahmins came from the sophical school, the other one being primeval man’s mouth, the kshatriyas prakrti (“nature”). Samkhya upholds an from his shoulders, the from atheistic philosophical dualism in his thighs (a common euphemism for which the twin principles of purusha the genitals), and the shudras from his and prakrti—roughly, spirit and feet. This hymn clearly reflects the sacri- nature—are the source of all things. ficial paradigm that was so central to the Purusha is conceived as conscious but later literature, and is thus completely inactive and unchanging. It believed to be one of the latest hymns in is the passive witness to the myriad the Rg Veda. It is also notable for giving transformations of prakrti going on the first known articulation of the four around it, and as the source of con- varnas, as well as the symbolic functions sciousness purusha is ultimately identi- associated with each: for brahmins, fied with a person’s true Self (atman). speech and the authority of the sacred Thus purusha is inferred as plural, given word; for kshatriyas, protection and the plurality of conscious beings and military valor; for vaishyas, generation the fact that one person can gain final and production, and for shudras, service enlightenment while all the rest remain to others. in bondage. According to the Samkhyas, the ultimate source of bondage lies in people’s failure to distinguish between Purushottama Mas purusha and prakrti and in identifying Religious observance that occurs when the intercalary month falls during the 536 Purva (“Earlier”) Mimamsa

lunar month of Ashadh. The intercalary composed either by God or by human month is an extra lunar month inserted beings but were rather simply heard into the calendar about every thirty by the ancient sages through their months, to maintain general agreement advanced powers of perception, and between the solar and lunar calendar. It then transmitted orally from generation begins after any “regular” lunar month to generation. in which the sun has not moved into the Since they accepted the Vedas as the next sign of the zodiac, and takes the primary source of authority and assumed name of the preceding month. Since the that the Vedas contained codes and pre- intercalary month is an unusual phe- scriptions pertaining to dharma, the nomenon, it is generally considered to Mimamsas then developed complex be inauspicious, and the most common rules for textual interpretation to dis- colloquial name for this month is the cern these, and it is for these rules that malamasa, the “impure month.” When they are best known. Mimamsas this extra month falls in the lunar month believed in the existence of the soul and of Ashadh, however, devotees (bhakta) in the necessary connection of actions of the god Vishnu take the opposite per- with their results inherent in the notion spective and treat it as an exceedingly of karma—two ideas attested to in the holy time, dedicated to Vishnu in his Vedas. In cases where the result of an form as Purushottama (“best of men”). action comes some time after the act, the Vaishnavas celebrate this month by Mimamsas believed that the result existed reading the sacred texts, chanting as an unseen force called . This Vishnu’s divine names, and other sorts force would invariably bring on the result, of worship. The month of Ashadh, and thus maintaining the Vedic truth. The its intercalary month, are especially Mimamsas were less unified on the exis- important for the Jagannath temple in tence of God. (4th c. B.C.E.?), the the city of Puri, whose presiding deity, author of the Mimamsa Sutras and the Jagannath, is considered a form of founder of the school, seems to ignore the Krishna and therefore, by extension, a issue completely, and 1,000 years later form of Vishnu. During every year another Mimamsa luminary, Kumarila, Ashadh is the month in which the Rath argued against the existence of God. Yatra festival is performed in Puri, and in Aside from developing methods for years when the intercalary month falls in interpreting the Vedas, Mimamsas also Ashadh, new images of Jagannath and contributed to logic and epistemology. his siblings are created. One of their notable contributions was postulating two new pramanas, which are the means by which human beings Purva (“Earlier”) Mimamsa can gain true and accurate knowledge. One of the six schools of traditional All the philosophical schools accepted Hindu philosophy, most commonly perception (pratyaksha) as a pramana, referred to simply as Mimamsa (“inves- and most also accepted inference (anu- tigation”); it was given the name Purva mana) and authoritative testimony Mimamsa to distinguish it from the (shabda). The two new modes devel- Uttara (“Later”) Mimamsa school, better oped by the Mimamsas were “presump- known as Vedanta. The Mimamsa tion” (arthapatti) and “knowledge from school’s name is quite apt, for it empha- absence” (abhava). The Mimamsas jus- sizes the investigation of dharma tified these additions by claiming that (“righteous action”), particularly as they accounted for knowledge that revealed in the Vedas, the earliest and could not be subsumed under the exist- most authoritative Hindu religious texts. ing pramanas. Arthapatti is an inference Mimamsas affirmed that the Vedas were from circumstance, in which a judg- the source of perfect knowledge, and ment is made about one case based believed that the Vedas had not been solely on similarities to related cases. An 537

The city of Pushkar is built around a sacred lake used for ritual bathing. example would be the presumption that things; he is also considered to be the a traveler had reached his or her desti- keeper and protector of flocks, and nation after the train’s arrival time had bringer of prosperity. By the turn of the passed. According to Indian philosophy, common era, and perhaps significantly this is not a true inference, since the lat- earlier, his presence had almost com- ter must always be confirmed by direct pletely disappeared, and today he perception. In the same way, abhava or remains only historically important. the perception of any absence (e.g., the absence of some object before one) could not be accounted for by any of Pushan the existing pramanas, and thus (2) In Hindu mythology, the name of an required this new one to explain it. aditya (minor deity) who attends the Aside from Jaimini, the two most sig- sacrifice sponsored by the demigod nificant figures among the Mimamsas . The sacrifice is a disaster, since are Kumarila and Prabhakara, who Daksha insults the god Shiva by not both lived in the seventh century. For inviting him to the ceremony. When further information see Karl H. Potter, Daksha’s daughter Sati, who is also Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies, Shiva’s wife, inquires why Shiva has 1972; and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and been excluded, Daksha begins to insult Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in her in full view of the company. Indian Philosophy, 1957. Mortified and humiliated, Sati commits suicide. When Shiva learns of this, he comes with his ghoulish minions Pushan and utterly destroys the sacrifice. In In the Vedas, the oldest and most the process many of the guests authoritative Hindu religious texts, suffer injuries or indignities, and Pushan is one of the deities identified Pushan’s teeth are broken and lost. with the Sun. Due to this connection, Pushan is described as the witness to all 538 Pushti Marg

Pushkar ways and often depends on the wor- (“blue lotus”) City and celebrated sacred shiper’s inclinations. In some cases the site (tirtha) a few miles north and west flowers will simply be presented before of the city of Ajmer in the state of the deity’s image, with the understand- Rajasthan. Pushkar’s center is a natural ing that the deity has taken them, lake, and its major importance is as a whereas in other cases flowers will bathing (snana) place—according to be placed on the deity’s image, or a tradition, its lake is so holy that Pushkar garland hung around its neck. In is said to be the religious preceptor either instance, the underlying motive (guru) of all other sacred sites. Pushkar’s is to show love and respect for the lake is surrounded by temples. Of these, deity and to minister to its needs as the best-known is dedicated to the god one would to a living person. This par- Brahma and is his only temple in all of ticular act of respect and love can also India. Two nearby temples dedicated to be accorded to other human beings; the Goddess are said to be Shakti garlanding a person with flowers is a Pithas, a network of sites spread sign of high esteem or congratulations. throughout the subcontinent and sacred to the Goddess. Each Shakti Pitha Pushpak Viman marks the site where a body part of the (“Flower chariot”) In Hindu mythology, dismembered goddess Sati fell to earth. the most famous of the aerial cars. The two temples in Pushkar mark the Pushpak Viman is built by the divine places where both of Sati’s wrists fell. architect . Vishvakarma’s Pushkar’s largest festival is known as daughter has married the Sun Kartik Purnima (October–November), but is so overwhelmed by his brilliance and falls on a full moon (generally asso- that she begs her father to reduce his ciated with enhancing the sanctity of luster so she can stand to be with him. bathing places). Aside from being a time Vishvakarma does this by trimming for bathing, this event is also marked by some bits off the sun, which are later the holding of an enormous livestock fashioned into the Pushpak Viman as market, particularly for camels and well as several divine weapons. For horses. The state government is currently some time the Pushpak Viman is held promoting this as a tourist attraction, by the minor deity , who obtains and it has drawn over 200,000 people in it as a reward for performing intense recent years. See also pitha. physical asceticism (tapas). It is later taken from Kubera by the demon-king (“Blue Lotus”) Dvipa Ravana, who uses its powers to wreak all In traditional mythic geography, the sorts of tyranny, culminating in the name of the seventh and outermost abduction of Rama’s wife Sita. After of the concentric land masses (dvipas) slaying Ravana, Rama uses the Pushpak making up the visible world. See Viman to return to the city of Ayodhya also cosmology. and then returns the car to Kubera.

Pushpa Pushti Marg (“flower”) The tenth of the sixteen tradi- Religious community founded by the tional upacharas (“offerings”) given to philosopher Vallabhacharya (1479–1531), a deity as part of worship. In this offer- whose teachings remain the sect’s pri- ing (based on the model of treating the mary influence. Vallabhacharya charac- deity as an honored guest) the deity is terized his philosophical position as given flowers, valued both for their color “pure monism” (Shuddadvaita); his fun- and their fragrance. The actual act of damental position is that the god offering can be performed in various Krishna is the Supreme Being and the 539 Pushyabhuti Dynasty

ultimate source of everything that exists. vacuum after the demise of the Gupta The world, and human beings, thus empire and in some measure regained share in his divine nature, although only its greatness. The dynasty’s greatest in a limited fashion, and the human soul ruler was the emperor Harsha is imbued with divinity as its inner light (r. 606–47), whose reign was chronicled and controller. in panegyric fashion by the playwright Since Krishna is the ultimate source Bana, and perhaps more factually by the of everything and thus everything Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hsuan Tsang. depends ultimately on God, the school’s The latter’s journals give a detailed primary religious emphasis is on the picture both of Harsha himself, in whose importance of God’s grace. This grace is court Hsuan Tsang stayed for some time, seen as nourishing (pushti) the devotee and of everyday life in Harsha’s (bhakta) and is best attained by devo- kingdom. See also Gupta dynasty. tion (bhakti), which is conceived of as the only effective religious path. This emphasis on grace and devotion has Pustaka meant that the Pushti Marg have put lit- A book, traditionally made of palm tle stress on asceticism or renunciation, leaves connected by a string running and the bulk of Vallabhacharya’s through a hole punched in the middle, followers came from affluent merchant with a wooden cover on top and bottom communities. The stress on devotion to keep the leaves from being bent or was soon articulated in elaborately broken. In Indian iconography, the book arranged forms of image worship in the is most strongly associated with the Pushti Marg’s temples. Devotees would goddess Saraswati, in keeping with her visualize themselves as Krishna’s com- identity as the patron deity of the arts, panions during his daily activities— culture, and learning. It also commonly waking, eating, taking his cows to appears as one of the objects held by the graze, coming home, etc.—and thus god Brahma. gain the opportunity to take part in the divine play (lila). This emphasis on visualization and participation was fos- In Hindu mythology, Putana is one of tered through the development of vast the demon assassins sent by , liturgical resources, which were com- the king of , in an attempt to posed by eight poets (the ashtachap) kill his nephew, the child-god Krishna. who were associated with Vallabhacharya Through her magic powers, Putana and Vitthalnath, his son and successor. assumes the form of a beautiful young The third leader, Vitthalnath’s son woman and, after cooing over Krishna Gokulnath, further consolidated the for awhile, puts him to suckle at her poi- developing community, whose major soned breast. When Krishna latches on, sacred site is now in Nathdwara in the however, it is Putana who is in dire trou- state of Rajasthan. For further informa- ble—Krishna sucks at her breast so hard tion see R.K. Barz, The Bhakti Sect of that he sucks the life right out of her. As Vallabhacharya, 1976. she dies, she reverts to her original form, gigantic and hideous, and the crash of Pushyabhuti Dynasty her falling body shakes the earth and (6th–7th c.) Northern Indian dynasty fells trees. whose capital was at Kanyakubja, the modern city of Kanuaj in the Ganges Putrada Ekadashi river basin, and whose territory ran Religious observance that occurs twice through the northern Indian plain from per year: on the eleventh day (ekadashi) the Punjab to Bihar. The Pushyabhutis of the bright (waxing) half of the lunar filled the northern Indian political month of Shravan (July–August), and 540 Puttaparthi

on the eleventh day of the bright (wax- ing) half of the lunar month of Paush (December–January). As with all the eleventh-day observances, these are dedicated to the god Vishnu. Most Hindu festivals have certain prescribed rites, which usually involve fasting (upavasa) and worship, and often promise specific benefits for faithful performance. Faithfully observing the ekadashi rites on these days is believed to give one a son (putra), which is a major concern in traditional Indian cul- ture. Sons are necessary for this world and the next, not only to care for their parents in their old age, but also to perform certain ancestral rites after one’s death. The strength of this desire for sons is demonstrated by the fact that this particular ekadashi occurs twice during the year—the only ekadashi to do so.

Puttaparthi Town in Andhra Pradesh near the bor- der with Karnataka, about ninety–five miles north of Bangalore. Puttaparthi is best known in connection with the modern Hindu teacher , not only as the place where he was born and raised, but also the site of his most important religious dwelling (ashram) and primary residence.

541 Radha

of Krishna in which his connections with his devotees (bhakta) are por- trayed as a form of “play” (lila), the Krishna found in the Gitagovinda seems less lofty and detached, more R intimately and intensely involved with Radha as the object of his affection. The poem renders Krishna as one who feels emotions deeply and truly and meaningfully reciprocates the feelings Radha of his devotee. In later devotional (bhakti) literature, Jayadeva’s poetic focus is on the Radha is the woman portrayed as the inner dynamic between the two lovers, god Krishna’s lover and companion. and he reveals little about Radha outside Radha’s love for Krishna is a symbol of this relationship. In the time after the the soul’s hunger for union with the Gitagovinda, Radha’s character devel- divine, expressed through the poetic oped in various ways. Some poets conventions of erotic love. describe her as married to another man, Although a few references to Radha thus giving Radha’s trysts with Krishna in poetry date back to the seventh cen- the color of adulterous, forbidden love. tury, her first developed portrayal is in This love is considered more intense in Jayadeva’s lyric poem the Gitagovinda, Indian poetics, since the lovers have written around the twelfth century. The nothing to gain from the liaison but the Gitagovinda tells the story of Radha and love itself and stand to lose everything Krishna’s passion, their conflict and sep- should they be discovered. Here Radha aration, and their eventual reconcilia- stands as the symbol of one willing to tion. Jayadeva’s portrayal of Radha is risk and lose all for the sake of love itself. unique. In the poem Radha wishes to The other way in which Radha’s char- have Krishna all to herself, as his sole acter is developed runs contrary to this lover and companion. She sulks jealously adulterous portrayal. In some traditions when he flirts with other women and Radha is not drawn as a simple woman angrily dismisses him when he comes to consumed with love for Krishna, but as her marked with the signs of another his wife, consort, and divine power tryst. In the end, however, they reconcile (shakti), through whose agency Krishna and make passionate love as a symbol of is able to act in the world. This deified their union. image of Radha was particularly impor- This picture of love, separation, and tant for the Nimbarka religious commu- reunion between Radha and Krishna nity, which conceived of Radha and gains a sharper focus through the con- Krishna as forms of Lakshmi and text set by Jayadeva’s hymn Narayana. Another group espousing . In it Jayadeva lists the achieve- this equality was the Radhavallabh ments of Krishna’s ten incarnations community, whose members particularly (avatars) immediately after the text’s stressed the love Krishna felt for Radha. introductory verses. The concluding For further information about Radha, verses of the hymn explicitly refer to see Barbara Stoller Miller (ed. and Krishna as the ultimate source of the trans.), The Love Song of the Dark Lord, ten avatars, reminding hearers that the 1977; and David R. Kinsley, Hindu person taking part in this drama of Goddesses, 1986. jealousy, repentance, and reconcilia- tion is none other than the Lord of the Universe Himself, who in ages past has Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli acted to preserve the world from (1888–1975) Modern Indian philosopher destruction. Unlike earlier depictions and statesman. Like many elite Indians 542 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli

Radha, the god Krishna’s lover and companion. 543 Radhashtami

of his generation, Radhakrishnan was Shiv Dayal Singh, more commonly educated at Christian missionary referred to as Soamiji Maharaj. Soamiji’s schools, and the contrast between the family had been influenced by Tulsi Hindu piety of his home and the Saheb, a devotional (bhakti) saint who Christian doctrine he encountered at lived in that region, and Soamiji’s teach- school sparked his interest in compara- ings reflect the importance of that tive philosophy. He spent the rest of his contact. The two pillars of Radha Soami life as an interpreter and apologist for doctrine are the importance of the classical Hindu thought, particularly spiritual teacher (guru) and the practice the Vedanta school, and as a proponent of a spiritual discipline called surat- of philosophical , the notion shabd-yoga. that absolute truth can be found According to Radha Soami teachings, through intuition alone. Aside from his contact with a guru is the single most work as a college teacher and adminis- important factor in a person’s spiritual trator, he also served as the vice presi- development, and this spiritual progress dent of India from 1952 to 1962, and as hinges on complete surrender to the president from 1962 to 1967. For further guru’s grace. It is essential for the devo- information on his thought, see his An tee (bhakta) to be associated with a Idealist View of Life, 1981; Paul A. “true guru” (satguru), since not only Schilpp, The Philosophy of Sarvepalli does such an individual have access to Radhakrishnan, 1952; and Robert N. the divine, he is considered a manifesta- Minor, “Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and tion of the divine itself. Surat-shabd- ‘Hinduism’ Defined and Defended,” in yoga stresses joining (yoga) the Robert D. Baird (ed.), Religion in Modern devotee’s spirit (surat) with the Divine India, 1998. Sound (shabd). The Divine Sound emanates from the Supreme Being and is always present. Most people cannot Radhashtami hear it, due to their preoccupation with (“Radha’s eighth”) Festival falling on the worldly things, but with proper training eight day of the bright (waxing) half of and devotion to a true guru, anyone can the lunar month of Bhadrapada eventually become attuned to the (August–September); this day is cele- Divine Sound and resonate in harmony brated as the birthday of Krishna’s con- with it. sort Radha. Radha is seen differently by In the era since Soamiji Maharaj, the various Vaishnava religious communi- Radha Soami Satsang has split numer- ties: For some she is a human woman, ous times, usually based on disagree- the symbol of the perfect devotee ments over spiritual authority. Given the (bhakta) who forsakes all else to be with Radha Soami emphasis on the satguru her lover, for others she is considered as the Supreme Being, disagreements the queen of heaven and an equal to over spiritual succession—in effect, dis- Krishna himself. In either case, her agreements over the identity of the closeness to him is shown by her birth Supreme Being—made schisms virtually on the same month and lunar day as inevitable. It also seems clear that the Krishna, but in the opposite half of the underlying forces in many of these month. Radhashtami festival is celebrated schisms were disagreements over with particular fervor in Barsana, the far more mundane things, such as village in the Braj region in which Radha power, status, and property. Various is said to have been born. branches of the Radha Soamis have made successful missionary Radha Soami efforts and established centers in Modern Hindu religious community Europe and the United States. For founded in 1861 in the city of Agra by further information see Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors, 1991; 544 Rahu

Lawrence Babb, Redemptive Encounters, Raghuvamsha 1987; and Mark Juergensmeyer, Radha- (“Raghu’s Lineage”) One of the great soami Reality, 1991. poetic works by , who is gener- ally considered to be the finest classical Radhavallabh Sampraday Sanskrit poet. The Raghuvamsha is a quasi-historical epic in nineteen cantos, Religious community whose members devoted to the kings of the Solar Line, are devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu and particularly to its most eminent (that is, Vaishnavas), and whose founder member, the god-king Rama. The story was the sixteenth-century poet-saint of Rama in Kalidasa’s poem is fairly close Harivamsh. Harivamsh held distinctive to that of the epic Ramayana, although views on the status of Radha, which his Kalidasa describes Rama as an avatar or community has preserved. Whereas divine incarnation in a way that earlier poetry had often portrayed does not. Kalidasa’s poem also uses the Radha as the god Krishna’s adulterous kings of the Solar Line as examples of mistress, the Radhavallabhans conceive devotion to the four aims of life of her as his lawful wife and as a deity (purushartha): wealth (artha), pleasure whose status was equal with Krishna’s. (kama), religious duty (dharma), and Their devotion was focused on Krishna release (moksha). In Kalidasa’s portrayal, and on his status as the “beloved of the kings at the end of the line are Radha” (Radhavallabh). completely immoral and devoted solely to pleasure. Such abject neglect Raga of their duty to rule righteously brings In Indian music, a concrete melodic on the destruction of the line and mode of at least five notes. Any musician provides a exemplary lesson for hearers playing a raga is limited by the con- of the poem. straints of its established form. The order of these established notes in the raga does not follow their musical order Rahu A malevolent “planet” in but differs according to whether the (jyotisha) that has no counterpart in note sequence is ascending or descend- Western astrology and was originally the ing. There are over 200 recognized ragas, head of a demon. According to the story, but only about thirty are in general use. as the gods drink the nectar of immor- Each raga has very particular symbolic tality they have churned from the ocean associations—particularly with the time of milk, the demon Sainhikeya slips into of day or with the seasons—and is also their midst in disguise. As the demon believed to convey a particular aesthetic begins to drink, the sun and moon alert mood () to listeners. As in all the Vishnu, who uses his discus to cut off Indian arts, the musician who plays a the demon’s head. Sainhikeya’s two raga endeavors to convey a certain halves become immortal, however, after mood to an audience and to awaken coming into contact with the nectar. The corresponding feelings within them. severed head becomes Rahu, and the decapitated body another evil planet, Raghu Ketu. Rahu is regarded not as a physical In Hindu mythology, Raghu is a famous planet, but as the ascending node of the king of the dynasty and the moon. This is the point where the grandfather of King . One of moon’s northward path intersects the Dasharatha’s sons is Rama, the protago- path of the sun in the sky, causing an nist of the Ramayana, the earlier of the eclipse. Rahu has particular enmity for two great Hindu epics. the sun and moon, as the deities responsible for his demise, and tries to swallow them whenever he meets them 545 Raidas

in the heavens. He always succeeds, but Rajagrha since he no longer has a body to digest Ancient name for the city corresponding them, they escape unharmed through to modern Rajgir, in the Nalanda district Rahu’s severed neck. This, of course, is of the state of Bihar. Although contem- the traditional explanation for solar and porary Rajgir is a small and insignificant lunar eclipses; their association with the city, at the time of the Buddha it was the malevolent Rahu has led eclipses to be capital of the Magadhan empire and the seen as highly inauspicious times. See center of the region’s political and intel- also Tortoise avatar. lectual life. According to Buddhist tradi- tion, Rajgir was the site of the first Raidas Buddhist council, held shortly after the Buddha’s death and organized to docu- A variant name for the Hindu poet- ment his teachings. This story is almost saint Ravidas. certainly apocryphal, since the Buddhist scriptures went through a much longer Rajabhiseka period of development, but its setting (“royal anointing”) Royal consecration illustrates Rajagrha’s centrality in the ceremony that replaced the earlier raja- middle of the first millennium before suya rite. The Rajabhiseka includes ritu- the turn of the common era. als of anointing that were believed to have transformative power, but were less complex than the Rajasuya, and did Raja Raja (r. 985–1014) Monarch under whose rule not involve the ritual slaughter and sac- (and that of his son Rajendra) the Chola rifice of animals. dynasty reached the apex of its power, stretching its influence from the Tanjore Rajadharma district of Tamil Nadu throughout General name for the “king’s dharma,” southern India and into southeast Asia or religious duty, which fell to him (or far all the way to Malaysia. Raja Raja directed more rarely, her) by virtue of his role as the wealth that such power brought ruler. This notion proceeded from the toward the construction of massive assumption in the dharma literature temples. Of these, he is most noted that every person had a unique role to for the Brhadeshvar temple in the city play in society, a role that provided for of Tanjore, dedicated to the “Great social stability but also brought individ- Lord” Shiva. ual fulfillment. The king’s most basic duty was to maintain order in the realm, since such peace enabled all others to Rajas (“passion”) One of the three fundamen- fulfill their own individual religious tal qualities (gunas) believed to be pre- duties (svadharma). The dharma litera- sent in all things, the other two gunas ture conceives of maintaining order pri- being sattva (“goodness”) and tamas marily through inflicting punishment (“darkness”). According to this model, (danda), designed to remove some evil- differing proportions of these qualities doers and frighten the rest into good account for differences in the properties behavior. If the king succeeded in main- of concrete things, and in the range of taining social order, then he could oth- individual human capacities and ten- erwise do as he pleased, with the proviso dencies. Unlike sattva and tamas, which, that taxation should not be so high that respectively, carry exclusively good and it was burdensome to the people. bad associations, rajas and its effects can Beyond this, the Indian theory of king- be either positive or negative, depending ship was largely pragmatic. on context. Rajas is negative, for example, when it leads to an enslavement to the 546 Rajasthani

passions that may blind one to careful and conscious thought. Alternately, the energies derived from passion can also engender useful activity and industri- ousness. The notion of the gunas origi- nated in the metaphysics of the Samkhya school, one of the six schools of traditional Hindu philosophy, and although much of Samkhya meta- physics connected with the gunas has long been discredited, the idea of the gunas and their qualities has become a pervasive assumption in Indian culture.

Rajashekhara (10th c.) Dramatist notable for writing plays both in Sanskrit and Prakrit. Rajashekhara’s Sanskrit plays were highly literary, and it seems that they were probably intended for reading rather than performance.

A miniature painting in the Rajasimhavarman Rajasthani style, circa 1730. (8th c.) Ruler in the Pallava dynasty who, like his predecessors, was a great Geographically, the state is split diago- patron of the arts. His reign saw the con- nally by the Aravalli Hills, creating two struction of the last of the magnificent distinct climatic zones. The south gets shore temples built on the Bay of more rainfall and has traditionally been Bengal, at Mahabalipuram in Tamil more thickly settled, whereas the north Nadu. The temple’s major deity was the blends gradually into the Thar Desert— god Shiva, but a smaller shrine also held rendered cultivable in recent years by a an image of the god Vishnu. Although system of irrigation canals. While the these temples have been weathered by state’s most important pilgrimage site is time and the elements, they remain the city of Pushkar, other locales of some of the most visited sites in south- interest abound. Among them, the tem- ern India. ple of at Mehndipur has gained regional importance as a site for curing mental illness, and the Karni Rajasthan Mata temple in the village of Deshnok is (“land of kings”) Modern Indian state on noted for its sacred rats. For general the border of Pakistan between the information about Rajasthan and all the states of Punjab and Gujarat, created by regions of India, an accessible reference combining a network of princely states is Christine Nivin et al., India. 8th ed., with Ajmer, formerly under British con- Lonely Planet, 1998. trol. These principalities were the rem- nants of small kingdoms, usually maintained by force of arms, giving Rajasthani Rajasthan its well-entrenched martial One of the two influential “schools” of tradition. Many cities in Rajasthan have Indian miniature painting, the other large forts originally built as defensive being the Pahari. Distinctions between strongholds, which in modern times the two schools are largely geographical have been popular tourist attractions. and thus somewhat arbitrary, since the 547 Rajasuya

Basohli paintings of the Pahari school and the Rajatarangini is one of the few are stylistically closer to those of indigenous Indian histories. Rajasthan than to works in the later Pahari style. The Rajasthani was the earliest Rajendra I developed school; it flourished in the (r. 1014–42) Monarch under whose rule seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in (and that of his father, Raja Raja) the the small kingdoms of the Malwa region Chola dynasty reached the apex of its such as Mandu, and in the kingdoms power, stretching its influence from the that now comprise regions in modern Tanjore region in Tamil Nadu, through- Rajasthan—particularly Bundi, Kota, out southern India, and into southeast and Mewar, but also Jaipur and Asia all the way to Malaysia. In 1023 Bikaner. The Rajasthani style is gener- Rajendra defeated one of the kings of ally characterized by a flat perspective Bengal to extend his empire all the way and by visual power derived from vivid to the Ganges but was unable to main- colors, bands of which often serve as a tain authority over this expansive backdrop to the painting. For further domain for long. He also fought a cam- information see W. G. Archer, Indian paign against the Shrivijaya Empire in Painting, 1957. modern Malaysia, to retain control of trade from China. Like his father, Rajendra was a great patron of temple- Rajasuya building and other public monuments, Royal consecration ceremony that is including the great temple at Ganga- one of the most famous of the sacrificial ikondacholapuran, built to commemo- rites that appear in the Vedas, the earli- rate the victory that opened the way to est and most authoritative Hindu reli- the Ganges. gious texts. The ceremony is believed to have developed in the latter part of the Vedic era. Preparations for this rite could Rajneesh, Bhagwan Shri last for a year, and the rite itself served (b. Mohan Rajneesh, 1931– to raise the king to semidivine status. As 1990) Controversial Hindu teacher who with many Vedic sacrifices, an impor- mixed traditional Hindu teachings with tant part of the rajasuya sacrifice was ideas gleaned from modern psychology. the ritual slaughter and offering of ani- He is most popularly associated with a mals. This rite has long fallen into dis- permissive attitude toward sexuality use, partly because of the trouble that attracted many of his followers, required to prepare for it and partly both Western and Indian, although the because of general disapproval over ani- former tended to predominate. This was mal sacrifices. The coronation rite that part of a more generally indulgent atti- has replaced it is the rajabhiseka. tude in which people were encouraged to act upon their desires, as a way to remove impediments to ultimate real- Rajatarangini ization. For some time his ashram was (“River of Kings”) Historical chronicle of located in Pune in the state of the kings of Kashmir, written in verse by Maharashtra, but in 1981 he relocated the Kashmiri poet Kalhana. The to southern Oregon, propelled by local Rajatarangini is an unusually descrip- opposition and an investigation by tive and accurate and Indian tax officials. For several years the the region’s political, social, and reli- new site was highly successful, but local gious institutions; the text’s only short- opposition to his teachings and unease coming is that it pays little attention to about his lifestyle—he reportedly owned the outside world. Kalhana’s historical ninety-three Rolls-Royces and was pro- emphasis is unusual for Indian writers, tected by Uzi-toting bodyguards—

548 Bandhan

caused the spectacular collapse of this modern times, through the medium of community in 1985. Rajneesh returned parliamentary politics. to India, where he eventually took up residence in Pune again. In his last years he changed his name several times— Rajrajeshvar Temple once claiming that the spirit of Massive temple in the city of Tanjore in had entered him— state of Tamil Nadu, dedicated to the and at the time of his death had taken god Shiva in his form as “Lord of Kings.” the name Osho. Tanjore was the capital of the Chola dynasty, and this temple, built approxi- mately 1000 C.E. by the Chola king Raja Rajput Raja, conveys the confidence of a king- (“king’s son”) Traditional Indian society dom on the rise. Architecturally speak- was modeled as a collection of endoga- ing, the temple is an enlargement of the mous, or intermarried, subgroups simplest sort of Hindu temple, with a known as jatis (“birth”). These jatis were garbhagrha covered by a spire, but it is organized (and their social status deter- breathtaking in its scale. The tower over mined) by the group’s hereditary occu- the central shrine is 190 feet high and pation, over which each jati had a looks even higher, since the construc- monopoly. The Rajputs were a martial tion minimizes any distracting elements Hindu jati that at times ruled large parts that would arrest the eye’s upward of western India, and have always journey. It is capped by a single piece claimed to be kshatriyas—buttressing of stone weighing an estimated this claim by creating genealogies link- eighty tons, which required a four-mile- ing their families to the mythical Solar or long ramp to put in place. See also Lunar Lines of kings. Their origin is Moghul dynasty. uncertain, for they first appear around the end of the first millennium, and many scholars speculate that they were descended from the Hunas and later Festival day celebrated on the full moon assimilated into the small kingdoms. in the lunar month of Shravan The four main Rajput clans were known (July–August); this festival’s theme is the as the Agnikula (“fire lineage”), because bond of protection (raksha) between they claimed descent from a single brother and sister. On this day sisters tie mythical king who had arisen from a (bandhan) a string around the brother’s sacrificial fire pit in , right wrist, which is sometimes just a Rajasthan. These four ruling clans were simple thread and sometimes an elabo- the Pariharas in southern Rajasthan, the rately constructed ornamental bracelet. Chauhans in the region around Delhi, Sisters then mark a tilak (tika) on the the Solankis in Gujarat, and the Pawars brother’s forehead as a sign of respect in western Madhya Pradesh. and feed their brothers sweets. For their Whatever their origin, the Rajputs part, brothers give their sisters money, were warrior princes whose martial clothing, jewelry, or other gifts. code stressed death before dishonor As with the festival of Bhaiya Duj, and swift reprisals against any insult. Raksha Bandhan symbolizes the protec- During the Moghul Empire era tive bond between brothers and sisters. (1525–1707) Rajput kings were often In the long term, brothers are seen as feudal vassals, given kingdoms in the family members who will protect exchange for their loyalty and service. their sisters’ interests—since in many After the breakup of the Moghul Empire cases daughters long outlive their many of them continued to reign as the fathers and their brothers are the natal rulers of small princely states. They relatives on whom they must depend. remain an important ruling class even in Sisters perform these rites to protect 549

their brothers from misfortune—the marriage has never been one of the string tied around the wrist is believed accepted forms of marriage, there are to ward off evil. The festival of Raksha groups in which a ritualized battle and Bandhan is also performed by men and capture of the bride is part of the wed- women who are not related by blood but ding ceremony. One could even inter- who are close to one another. Tying on pret the barat, the procession of the the string “makes” them brother and sis- groom and his family to the wedding ter, and thus rules out the potential for location, as a ritualized triumphal entry any romantic involvement, which would following conquest. See also marriage, be seen as a form of incest. eight classical forms, marriage cere- monies, and marriage prohibitions. Rakshasa In Hindu mythology, a particular type of Rakshasi (demon). are generally A female form of the type of demon considered to be extremely powerful— known as a Rakshasa. not only in terms of their prodigious physical strength but also in their con- siderable skill in the magical arts. They Raktabija are also generally characterized as In the Devimahatmya, the earliest and malevolent toward human beings, most important textual source for the whom they not only kill but also eat. worship of the Goddess, Raktabija is the According to one myth, rakshasas are name of one of the demons vanquished born from Brahma’s anger when he by the goddess Kali. Raktabija has becomes hungry while reciting the received the boon that any drop of his Vedas. The capital of the rakshasas is in blood falling to the earth will instantly Lanka, and their most celebrated leader turn into another version of himself, is Ravana, whose death at the hands of rendering him practically unconquer- Rama is the climax of the Ramayana, able. Kali defeats this demon by drink- the earlier of the two great Hindu epics. ing his blood as it is shed, until finally it is completely gone, and so is he. Rakshasa Marriage One of the eight ways to perform a mar- Raktadantika riage recognized in the dharma litera- (“bloody teeth”) Powerful and protective ture, the treatises on religious duty. The form of the Goddess, particularly noted rakshasas are a class of demon, and the for killing demons and drinking their rakshasa form of marriage took place blood. During the fall festival of when a man had intercourse with a Navaratri, in which the Goddess is wor- woman after carrying her away by force. shiped in a different form on nine suc- Not surprisingly, this was one of the four cessive nights, Raktadantika is her reprehensible (aprashasta) forms of manifestation revered on the fifth night. marriage and was forbidden because of the woman’s lack of consent, even Rama (Rama Avatar) though it was deemed a valid marriage. The seventh avatar or incarnation of the (Here the writers’ concern seems to have god Vishnu, the crown prince of the been to give the “bride” legal status as a Solar Line and the protagonist of the wife rather than to legitimate the actions Ramayana, one of the two great Indian of the “groom.”) Theoretically valid, this epics. As with all of Vishnu’s avatars, form of marriage has been forbidden Rama is born to destroy a being power- since the dharma literature was first ful enough to throw the cosmos out of codified in the centuries before the balance, in this case Ravana, the common era. Although the rakshasa demon-king of Lanka. The focal conflict 550 Rama (Rama Avatar)

in the Ramayana is Rama’s quest to regain his wife Sita, who has been kid- napped by Ravana. The climactic sequence of the epic features Rama’s struggle with Ravana, Ravana’s death, and the reestablishment of cosmic equi- librium, signified by Rama’s ascension to divine kingship. Unlike the god Krishna, whose divine play (lila) often subverts or ignores accepted social values, Rama is a pillar of society. As a whole the Ramayana tends to espouse and uphold the traditional social values of religious duty (dharma), social hierarchy (), and the stages of life (). As the epic’s protagonist, Rama is the epitome of all these values. He is solid, depend- able, stable, righteous, and predictable. In Hindu culture Rama is the model of the perfect son, and he shows this by being utterly devoted to his parents, giving far greater weight to his duties as a son than as a husband. Unlike The god Vishnu’s Rama avatar. In the Hindu epic Krishna, who has multiple liaisons the Ramayana, Vishnu appears as Rama to defeat with his female devotees (bhakta), all in Ravana, the demon king. the name of divine play, Rama is performing physical asceticism (tapas), married and monogamous. When a privilege reserved for his betters, and the time comes for battle, he is the has molten lead poured in the ears of fiercest of combatants, incarnating another who was discovered lis- the warrior (kshatriya) ideal of using tening to the sacred Vedas—a forbid- strength to uphold justice, protect den act for such a person. Both the righteous, and punish the wicked. incidents show the hierarchical nature In all these things he personifies some of idealized Hindu society, and the of the most deeply embedded values king’s role in preserving and sustaining of Hindu culture. this hierarchy. When Rama and his Yet there are also some unsettling brother Lakshmana are propositioned incidents, particularly in the Valmiki by Ravana’s sister , they Ramayana, the epic’s earliest version. first mislead and ridicule her, then These incidents either feature Rama mutilate her by cutting off her ears inexplicably stepping out of character and nose. These actions seem incom- or else point to problematic tensions in patible with the kshatriya ethic of traditional Hindu values. In an attempt respect for women and the righteous to help the monkey-king use of force, and prompt Ravana to kid- against his rival , Rama shoots Bali nap Sita in revenge. in the back from a concealed place— Perhaps the most troubling ques- an action incompatible with the notion tions arise from Rama’s behavior toward of fair and honorable warfare. His his wife Sita. Immediately after being actions in enforcing the existing social liberated from enslavement, she under- order also show its oppressive and goes an ordeal by fire, from which her restrictive nature. In one incident, Rama emergence unscathed upholds her kills a low-status shudra whom he finds

551 Ramakrishna

claim that she remained chaste while Hinduism. Ramakrishna was the son of being held captive. Despite this defini- a village priest and received little formal tive proof, Rama later insists on a education during his life. He retained second test, in which Sita, in protest, is much of his rustic simplicity and spent swallowed up by the earth. Thus, the his adult life as a temple priest at the picture of Rama conveyed by the epic Kali temple at Dakshineshwar, outside is of a figure righteous by the standards the city of Calcutta. From his childhood of his time but on occasion rigid Ramakrishna had been devoted to the and inflexible. Goddess Kali, and characterized him- In later versions of the Ramayana, self as being “intoxicated with God.” particularly the by He sought and found the divine, first the poet-saint (1532–1623?), through Kali but later through a variety this picture subtly shifts, possibly in an of other religious paths, including the attempt to soften or remove these trou- abstract monism of the speculative bling incidents. Certain changes in Upanishads, devotion to the god Tulsidas’s text also highlight the central- Vishnu, Christianity, and Islam. Out of ity of devotion (bhakti) over all other these experiences came his conviction religious attitudes. Tulsidas’s Rama is that the inner experience in all reli- more explicitly portrayed as God incar- gious traditions was the same and led to nate, a figure who is aware of his divine the same divine presence. Although status and whose actions are undertaken Ramakrishna did not publicize himself, for the benefit of his devotees. This he became known in Calcutta’s religious Rama is still concerned with social val- circles through his association with ues, particularly the kshatriya obligation Keshub Chander Sen, the leader of the to uphold and protect religious duty reformist Brahmo Samaj. This associa- (dharma). Yet this ethic is in tension tion brought him disciples who would with—and sometimes in opposition spread his teachings, particularly to—the importance of bhakti, which is Narendranath Datta, better known as portrayed as the ultimate religious goal. . For a devotee’s These subtle shifts in the later text point perspective on Ramakrishna, see to an occasional conflict between two Christopher Isherwood, Ramakrishna differing ideals—dharma and bhakti— and His Disciples, 1965; for a modern both of which are affirmed as essential. psychological reading, see Jeffrey Kripal, For further information on Rama, see Kali’s Child, 1995. the texts of the Ramayana (the Valmiki Ramayana, Kamba Ramayana, and Ramcharitmanas) or translations from the Sanskrit puranas, such as Cornelia Hindu religious organization founded Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen (eds. in 1897 by Swami Vivekananda to prop- and trans.), Classical Hindu Mythology, agate the religious message of Vive- 1978; secondary sources include V. kananda’s teacher, Ramakrishna. Since Raghavan (ed.), The Ramayana its inception, the Ramakrishna Mission Tradition in Asia, 1980; Edmour J. has been equally dedicated to spiritual Babineau, Love of God and Social Duty uplifting and to social service, based on in the Ramcharitmanas, 1979; and Frank Vivekananda’s realization that India Whaling, The Rise in the Religious needed material development as much Significance of Rama, 1980. as it needed religious instruction. The mission has sought to fulfill part of this charge by publishing inexpensive edi- Ramakrishna tions of religious texts, including but not (1836–86) Bengali mystic and saint who restricted to the teachings of Rama- was one of the most remarkable figures krishna and Vivekananda, and by spon- in the nineteenth-century revival of soring social service in the fields of 552 Ramanandi

education, medical care, and other Ravidas, Pipa, and others. The Sants charitable works. For further informa- were a group of poet-saints from central tion see George M. Williams, “The and northern India who shared several Ramakrishna Movement: A Study in general tendencies: stress on individual- Religious Change,” in Robert D. Baird ized, interior religion leading to a per- (ed.), Religion in Modern India, 1998. sonal experience of the divine; disdain for external ritual, particularly image worship; faith in the power of the divine Ramana name; and a tendency to ignore conven- (1879–1950) Modern Hindu sage, whose tional caste distinctions. Ramananda is life and message reiterated the funda- said to have been a charismatic spiritual mental insight of the ancient specula- leader, and is claimed to have been a tive Upanishads, namely, that the inner direct disciple of the southern Indian Self (atman) is identical with Supreme philosopher Ramanuja, who sent Reality (Brahman). Ramana was born Ramananda north to help spread the into a middle-class Indian family and devotional movement. The latter claim during his youth demonstrated no is almost certainly false, given that the unusual abilities. In 1895 he obtained a only verse incontestably attributable to copy of the Periya Puranam, a text Ramananda is found in the Adigranth, chronicling the lives of the poet-saints the scripture of the Sikh community. known as the Nayanars, and in reading This verse does not reflect Ramanuja’s about their lives Ramana began to desire Shrivaishnava tradition, in which the to renounce the world. This inclination primary deity is Vishnu, but instead was realized the next year, when he shows the influence of the Nathpanthi imagined the death of his body and ascetics, who stressed yoga. There are reached the conclusion that his real other verses ascribed to Ramananda in identity was the Self. He left his family later sources, but their authenticity is and went to the temple of Tiru- doubtful, and little can be definitely vannamalai, also known as Arunachala, known about his life. where he remained until his death fifty- four years later. For some time at the start he was deep in meditation and Ramanandi barely attended to his physical needs. Renunciant ascetics, devotees (bhakta) Soon he attracted disciples, through of the god Vishnu, who are by far the whom his family eventually discovered most numerous and most influential of his whereabouts, although Ramana the Vaishnava ascetics. The Ramanandis refused to return home with them when claim that their order was founded by they came to see him. His mother the religious teacher Ramananda, about moved to Tiruvannamalai in 1916, and whom little is definitely known. For after her death five years later Ramana some time the Ramanandis maintained relocated his dwelling to be near her that Ramananda had been a disciple of the grave. Although he spoke very seldom, southern Indian philosopher Ramanuja, he managed to compose two short and thus that their sect had sprung out works—Self-Enquiry and Who am I?—in of Ramanuja’s Shrivaishnava religious which he stated his basic insights. For community, but this claim was for- further information see T. M. P. mally renounced after a dispute at the Mahadevan, , 1977. Kumbha Mela festival in the city of Ujjain in 1921. Ramananda is also tra- ditionally thought to have been the Ramananda guru of many northern Indian bhakti (14th c.?) Sant poet-saint who is tradi- figures, most notably Kabir, Ravidas, tionally cited as the spiritual teacher Pipa, and Sen, although on this matter (guru) of the poet-saints Kabir, too there is little hard historical evidence. 553 Ramanand Sagar

All of the stories about Ramananda, immediacy of the oral experience of however, point to someone who was traditional storytelling in the modern firm in his commitment to devotion and medium of television.) In the mid- was willing to initiate people from all 1990s Sagar devoted his attention to walks of society. other mythological television serials, The tutelary deity for the Ramanandi with an extended series on the life of ascetics is Rama, particularly as described the god Krishna. in the Ramcharitmanas, a vernacular ver- sion of the epic Ramayana written by the poet-saint Tulsidas (1532–1623?). Ramanuja Tulsidas portrays Rama as God incar- (11th c.) Southern Indian philosopher nate, come to earth for the benefit of his who was the greatest exponent of the devotees, and the text’s primary theme philosophical position known as is on the power of devotion. Yet within Vishishthadvaita (“qualified nondual- the larger confines of the Ramanandi ism”) Vedanta, and the most important fold there are several distinct variations figure in the Shrivaishnava religious on practice, which have little or nothing community. Ramanuja lived most of his in common with one another. One life at the temple-town of Shrirangam strand is that of the tyagis, who stress in the state of Tamil Nadu, in service of renunciation and asceticism. A second the temple’s resident deity, Ranganatha, strand is that of the Nagas, who in earli- a form of Vishnu. Ramanuja was con- er times were fighting ascetics but vinced that Brahman, or Supreme whose military organization is now Reality, was a personal deity rather than important only during the bathing an impersonal abstract principle, and he (snana) processions for the Kumbha was also convinced that devotion Mela. The final strand is that of the (bhakti) was the most important form of rasiks (“aesthetes”), whose religious religious practice. Vishishthadvaita practice is based on highly complex Vedanta, his philosophical position, patterns of visualization in which they stressed both of these convictions. imagine themselves as present in the According to Ramanuja, in his essential court of Rama itself; this sort of visual- nature God is completely transcendent ization was undoubtedly imitated and free from imperfections. The world from the patterns of Krishna devotion develops from God through a process of as practiced in the Braj region. The evolution, an idea adapted from the rasik tradition is by far the most liter- Samkhya philosophical school. The ate and sophisticated; the tyagis and world is thus similar to God, since it the Nagas perform similar sorts of rites proceeds from him, but also different, as other ascetics, although their inter- since matter is unconscious and pretation and their chosen deity is insentient. In the same way, human unique to their order. For further beings are similar in nature to God, information see Peter van der Veer, because they have him as their source, Gods on Earth, 1988. though unlike God they are subject to ignorance and suffering. For Ramanuja and his followers, God is not identical Ramanand Sagar to human selves or to the world, all of Director of the televised production of which are perceived as having real and the Ramayana, which was completed in independent existence. The differ- the late 1980s. The episodes were aired ences in capacity between God and each Sunday morning for about a year, human beings makes devotion the and were wildly successful despite prob- most effective means to gain final lib- lems with production quality. (Some of eration (moksha) of the soul, a libera- these problems undoubtedly derived tion that is conceived of as eternal from the difficulties of preserving the communion with God. For further 554 Ramayana

information see Sarvepalli Radha- virtuous king, Lakshmana and Bharata krishnan and Charles A. Moore (eds.), A his ideal younger brothers, and Sita the Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, 1957; model wife. Despite this, the story is not and John B. Carman, The Theology of without some troubling moral issues, Ramanuja, 1974. particularly connected with Rama’s treatment of Sita. The story has been altered some- Ramavali what over the years, with the most (“Series [of poems] to Rama”) A series of important change being the elevation 330 short poems dedicated to the god of Rama to divine status as an avatar or Rama, written in the Braj Bhasha form incarnation of the god Vishnu. The ear- of Hindi by the poet-saint Tulsidas liest Ramayana, attributed to the sage (1532–1623?). The Ramavali is one of Valmiki, mentions Rama’s divinity only Tulsidas’ longest extant works—shorter in the first and last books, whereas in only than the Ramcharitmanas. The other portions of the poem he is seven sections in the Ramavali parallel described merely as a great hero. Given the structure of the Ramayana, but dif- the position of these references to fering sections receive unequal empha- divinity, scholars speculate that they sis. Tulsidas gives his greatest attention could easily have been added to the to Rama’s childhood and paints lyrical original core story of exile, abduction, images of the child Rama’s divine play and revenge. (lila). Here Tulsidas clearly borrows The text of the Ramayana is divided from devotional poetry to the god into seven sections (khandas), each of Krishna, in which such childhood which has a different focus. In the open- images are well established. Yet the ing section, the Balakhanda (“childhood Ramavali’s portrayal of Rama de- section”), the text describes the birth of emphasizes the mischievous qualities Rama and his brothers (Lakshmana, associated with Krishna, to stress Bharata, and ) to King instead the generally milder nature of Dasharatha, and their lives as young Rama, and to highlight the devotee’s princes. Rama and his brothers take part (bhakta) quiet delight in sharing his in an archery contest, sponsored by divine presence. King , at which Rama’s prowess as an archer wins the hand of Janaka’s Ramayana daughter Sita. They are married and live One of the two great Sanskrit epics, tra- happily at Dasharatha’s court. ditionally ascribed to the mythical sage The Ayodhyakhanda (“Ayodhya sec- Valmiki. The Ramayana is much shorter tion”) tells how Dasharatha makes than the other great epic, the preparations to anoint Rama as his suc- Mahabharata, and in many ways is a cessor but how, on the night before the less complex work. The Ramayana’s text ceremony, these plans are spoiled by was composed later than the core story Rama’s stepmother Kaikeyi. Many years of the Mahabharata, but the before, Kaikeyi receives the offer of two Mahabharata’s final recension was favors from Dasharatha, which she has compiled after the Ramayana had been never used. At the suggestion of her fixed. The Mahabharata is the story of hunchback maid , Kaikeyi an “evil” royal family for whom greed demands of Dasharatha that Rama be and power-mongering ultimately lead banished to the forest for fourteen years, to destruction. In contrast, the and that her son Bharata be crowned in Ramayana is the tale of a “good” royal his place. This disaster seems grounded family, and many of the epic’s characters in malice but is presented as the culmi- are symbols of established Indian family nation of a curse placed on Dasharatha, values: Rama is the perfect son and the which predicts he will die bereft of his sons. When informed of his stepmother’s 555 Ramayana

Ramayana Characters

A. The Solar Line of Kings

▲ Ikshvaku ❍ No Name Listed

▲ Trishanku ❍ No Name Listed

▲ ❍ Chandramati

❍ Keshini ▲ Sagar ❍ Sumati

▲ Asamanjasa ❍ No Name Listed 60,000 sons

▲ Anshuman ❍ No Name Listed

▲ Dilip ❍ No Name Listed

▲ Bhagirath

❍ Kaikeyi ▲ Dasharatha ❍

❍

▲ Bharata ▲ Rama ❍ Sita ▲ Lakshmana ▲ Shatrughna

▲ ▲

B. Rakshasas (Epic’s Antagonists)

▲ ❍ Kaikasi

❍ Shurpanakha ▲ Ravana ❍ ▲ ▲

▲ ▲ Akshakumara ▲

C. Monkey Lineages

▲ Vayu ❍ Anjana ▲ Surya ❍ ▲ Indra

▲ Hanuman ▲ Sugriva ▲ Bali ❍ ▲ Male ▲ ❍ Female Marriage Non-Marital Several Generations Lapse

556 Ramayana

wish, Rama immediately prepares to kingdom Rama helps to regain by slay- leave, refusing to seize the throne by ing Sugriva’s brother Bali. After enjoy- force, and Sita and Lakshmana ing the spoils of kingship, Sugriva and announce their intention to accompany his monkey subjects, particularly his him. Bharata is put on the throne but lieutenant Hanuman, begin searching only as a regent in Rama’s place, and the throughout the country for any trace heart-broken Dasharatha dies of grief. of Sita. Hanuman decides to leap over In the Aranyakhanda (“Forest sec- the sea, to Lanka, to see if he can find tion”), Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita settle her there. into life in forest exile. Rama and The Sundarakhanda (“Beautiful sec- Lakshmana kill many of the demons tion”) begins with Hanuman leaping the (rakshasas) who plague the forest- sea to Lanka and describes how, after dwellers, thus bringing peace to the much searching, he finally manages to area. One day the female demon locate Sita. Meanwhile, Ravana unsuc- Shurpanakha comes to their dwelling, cessfully tries to convince Sita to accept is smitten by the two young men, and him as her husband. The demon’s asks them to marry her. The brothers actions are motivated by his desire first mock her, then mutilate her by cut- to avoid a curse, which states that he ting off her ears and nose. Shurpanakha will drop dead if he ever rapes a woman goes to her brother Ravana, the demon- who resists him. Hanuman reassures king of Lanka, and demands revenge for Sita that all will be well, and after the attack. When frontal assaults fail, many adventures makes his way back Ravana commands his uncle to to Rama, to inform him that Sita has assume the form of a golden deer in been found. order to lure Rama away from his hut. At The Lankakhanda (“Lanka section”) Sita’s behest, Rama pursues the deer describes the beginning of a war after giving Lakshmana strict orders not between the forces of Rama and Ravana. to leave Sita’s side. Rama slays the deer, Aided by armies of monkeys and bears, which with its dying breath calls out Rama builds a causeway across the sea Lakshmana’s name in a voice that mim- to Lanka and begins to besiege the city. ics Rama’s. Sita hears the call and flies In his struggle he is helped by Ravana’s into a rage when Lakshmana refuses to youngest brother Vibhishana, who leave her. She finally drives him off, in opposes Ravana’s evil deeds and casts in an uncharacteristic show of temper, by his lot with Rama. Ravana is assisted by accusing him of neglecting his brother his brother Kumbhakarna and his son in a time of peril so that he can have Sita Indrajit, but in the end Ravana and his to himself. When Lakshmana departs, demon allies are killed in battle. After Ravana comes to Sita disguised as a being rescued, Sita undergoes a trial by mendicant ascetic. He lures her out of a fire to prove her chastity, and when the protective magic circle that Lakshmana fire refuses to burn her, she is shown to has drawn around her, then kidnaps her. have been completely faithful to Rama. Ravana’s escape is briefly delayed by a They return in triumph to Ayodhya, virtuous vulture named , who where Bharata renounces the throne, attempts to rescue Sita. In the ensuing and the couple rule happily. combat Jatayu is mortally wounded, but In the “Final section” (Uttarakhanda), he lives long enough for Rama and which was almost certainly added later, Lakshmana to find him and learn the Rama has further doubts about Sita’s identity of Sita’s abductor. virtue. While roaming the capital one The Kishkindhakhanda (“ night, he hears a washerman abusing section”) narrates Rama’s and Laksh- his wife for staying out all night. The mana’s trip south to the Kishkindha washerman says that he is not as big a forest. There they become allies with fool as their king. Rama is troubled by the monkey-king Sugriva, whose lost this and, although he is supposedly 557 Ekadashi

convinced of Sita’s innocence, sends her performance. This ceremony is named into exile to please his subjects—here after Rambha, a famous apsara or celes- showing a distrust uncharacteristic of a tial damsel. Its charter myth tells how, by figure who supposedly represents the faithfully observing this rite, a certain epitome of virtue. While in exile, Sita king was born in heaven and served by gives birth to twin sons, Lava and Rambha and other . Kusha, whose prowess makes them known to Rama, and they are eventually acknowledged as his heirs. Yet after all Ramcharitmanas her suffering, Sita is not amenable to (“Holy Lake of Rama’s Deeds”) Vernacular reconciliation. As a final proof she calls retelling of the Ramayana, the earlier of on her mother, the Earth, to bear wit- the two great Sanskrit epics. The ness to her virtue, and as a sign that this Ramcharitmanas was written by the is true Sita sinks beneath the earth, poet-saint Tulsidas (1532–1623), in the never to be seen again. Soon after, Rama language known as Avadhi, an eastern himself leaves his body and takes again variant of medieval Hindi. Evidence his true form as Vishnu. indicates that Tulsidas began the text The Ramayana has been an extremely in Ayodhya in 1574. At nearly 10,000 influential text, primarily because of the lines, this text is by far his longest work social virtues modeled by its characters. and is generally considered to be his The epic is known throughout the sub- greatest. For the most part the poem is continent, and its popularity can be structured in groups of six to eight seen by its numerous retellings in ver- verses written in the chaupai form, fol- nacular languages, of which the most lowed by a verse in the shorter famous are the Tamil Ramayana of form. (The doha verse either sums up the poet Kamban (9th c.), and the the essence of the preceding chaupai Ramcharitmanas of the poet- verses or serves to foreshadow later saint Tulsidas (17th c.). The epic developments.) There are also verses continues to be a prominent text in written in longer meters such as the modern day, as witnessed by its savaiya, as well as invocations in fluid astounding popularity as a weekly tele- Sanskrit poetry at the beginning of vision serial produced in the mid-1980s each of the seven sections. Tulsidas under the direction of Ramanand was a masterful epic poet, as evi- Sagar. The Valmiki Ramayana has been denced both by the sheer size of his translated numerous times, the most text and the high poetic quality of the recent partial translation of the work is verses contained in it. by Robert Goldman and Sheldon As with all the Ramayana’s vernacu- Pollack. See also Tamil epics. lar retellings, Tulsidas did not merely translate the story of Rama but inter- preted it according to his own religious Rambha Ekadashi convictions. His two most important Religious observance falling on the changes to the poem are the over- eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark whelming emphasis on the importance (waning) half of the lunar month of of devotion (bhakti), and the saving Kartik (October–November). As with all power of the name of Rama, to which the eleventh-day observances, this is Tulsidas gives greater importance than dedicated to the worship of the god Rama himself. Tulsidas also includes Vishnu, on this particular day in his mythic material from a variety of other form as Krishna. As with most Hindu sources, most notably the Shiva Purana festivals, Rambha Ekadashi requires that and the Adhyatmaramayana. This certain rites be performed. These rites material is largely added to the first and involve fasting (upavasa) and worship, last chapters, in which Tulsidas makes and promise specific benefits for faithful his greatest changes from the original 558 Rameshvar

epic. One theory to explain why Tulsidas nor did he serve as the leader of any brought in this other material argues organized religious community. His that he endeavored to transcend narrow original followers came to him because sectarian boundaries, for example, by he was able to meet their needs, and for having the god Shiva narrate much of this reason pilgrims come to him still. the text in the form of a dialogue to his wife Parvati. Later, in part of the final book, Shiva is supplanted as narrator by Ramdevra the crow Bhushundi, who symbolizes Village and sacred site (tirtha) in the the power of devotion to rescue even a northwest corner of the state of common carrion-eating crow. Rajasthan, about sixty miles east of the The Ramcharitmanas has popularly city of Jaisalmer. Ramdevra is famous for been called the “Bible of northern the grave of the fifteenth-century saint India,” reflecting its enormous influence Ramdev, as well as the grave of his low- on ordinary people’s piety. Although caste disciple Dadi Bhai. During his life- according to legend Tulsidas faced some time Ramdev was famous for his piety opposition from brahmins who thought and generosity, and was credited with it sacrilegious to translate the Ramayana performing various miracles to aid those into a vernacular tongue, the text has in need. Since his death he has come to been immensely popular with ordinary be regarded as an incarnation of the god people. Even now there are many people Krishna. Although pilgrims can come who can recite large sections from throughout the year, most come during memory (“discourses” (katha) on the the annual religious fair (mela), at which text can draw hundreds or thousands time the near-deserted town takes on of people) and many of the verses have the semblance of a bustling city. Many become proverbial expressions in of the visitors come to ask Ramdev modern Hindi. Aside from reading or for something, often related to hearing the text, millions of people see concerns over health or prosperity. it each autumn, in the dramatic pre- Others come to show gratitude, espe- sentation known as the Ram Lila. The cially those whose past wishes have oldest and most traditional Ram Lila, been granted, and to maintain their held at Ramnagar in Benares, uses the relationship with him. text from the Ramcharitmanas, and takes great pride in this traditionalism. Rameshvar For further information see Philip Manifestation of the god Shiva, in his Lutgendorf, The Life of a Text, 1991. form as “Rama’s Lord” at Rameshvaram in the state of Tamil Nadu. The image of Ramdev Rameshvar at this site is a linga, a pillar- (1404–58) According to legend, a Rajput shaped object said to represent Shiva’s prince whose piety and ability to per- symbolic form. The Rameshvar linga is form miracles won him renown during one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a network his lifetime, and who was considered an of twelve lingas deemed especially holy incarnation of the god Krishna after his and powerful, and at which Shiva is death. His tomb in the village of thought to be uniquely present. The Ramdevra, east of the city of Jaisalmer site’s mythic charter is drawn from the in the western part of the state of Ramayana, the earlier of the two Rajasthan, has become a pilgrimage site Sanskrit epics. According to tradition, for devotees (bhakta) who come seeking Shiva is worshiped here by the god various favors. Little is known about Rama, the epic’s protagonist, although Ramdev’s life, and unlike many of the there are differing accounts of when this other medieval saints, he has no poetry happened. In some stories, it is to gain or body of literature attributed to him, Shiva’s blessing immediately before 559 Rameshvaram

Rama’s attack on the demon kingdom of special class of women who served the Lanka. In other accounts the worship deities of certain temples. comes after the conquest of Lanka, as a rite of thanksgiving. In either case, both sets of stories portray Rama as a devotee Ram Janam (bhakta) of Shiva and thus buttress Site in the city of Ayodhya, where some Shiva’s status as the greatest god of all. claim the god Rama was born; since the early 1980s this spot has witnessed some of India’s most intense postindepen- Rameshvaram dence religious conflict. The site has (“Rama’s Lord”) Sacred site (tirtha) on long been a source of controversy an island off the coast of the state of between the Hindu and Muslim com- Tamil Nadu in the Palk Strait, which sep- munities, and British sources record arates from the mainland. hostilities there in 1855 and 1934. Until Rameshvaram is one of the most impor- 1992 Ram Janam Bhumi was occupied tant sacred sites in India, for several dif- by the Babri Masjid, a mosque con- ferent reasons. It is one of the four structed in 1528 by command of Mir dhams associated with the philosopher Baqi, a general of the Moghul emperor Shankaracharya, which mark the geo- Babar (1483–1530). Local tradition holds graphical boundaries of the subconti- that the mosque was built after the raz- nent. It also has specific mythic ing of an existing Hindu temple there, associations that make it holy both to although there is little evidence for this devotees (bhakta) of Shiva and Vishnu, claim. A few months after India gained two of the most important Hindu independence in 1947, several local deities. For Shiva’s devotees, the pillar- Hindus secretly installed images of the shaped image (linga) of Shiva there rep- child Rama, his wife Sita, and his brother resents the god in his manifestation as Lakshmana in the mosque, claiming Rameshvar (“Rama’s Lord”). This image that the images had miraculously is also one of the jyotirlingas, a network appeared in a ball of light. The govern- of twelve lingas deemed especially holy ment, having only recently quieted the and powerful, and at which Shiva is said Hindu-Muslim massacres that accom- to be uniquely present. For Vishnu’s panied the partition of British India into worshipers, Rameshvaram is held to be India and Pakistan, was loath to ignite the place from which the god Rama religious passions, and its solution, staged his attack on the demon king- therefore, was to padlock the com- dom of Lanka. According to tradition, pound’s gates and send the case to the upon Rama’s return with his rescued courts for resolution, where it lan- wife Sita, the image of Rameshvaram guished for almost forty years. was consecrated in gratitude for his suc- The early 1980s saw renewed contro- cess. Rameshvaram also has very old versy over the site, when the Vishva connections with the sacred city of Hindu Parishad (VHP), a Hindu nation- Benares, and even today pilgrims come alist organization, first began calling for from there bearing Ganges water to the site’s “liberation,” proclaiming that offer to Shiva. the existing mosque was an insult to all Hindus. The VHP’s campaign portrayed the mosque as a symbol of Muslim icon- Ramgarh oclasm and depicted government efforts Architectural site in the Vindhya Hills, to protect it as an attempt to appease 160 miles south of Benares. An inscrip- the Muslim community and retain their tion in one of the caves at Ramgarh, votes. In 1986, the VHP’s drive to liberate estimated to be from the third the site was aided by Rajiv Gandhi’s B C E century . . ., contains the earliest national government. Together, the VHP datable reference to devadasis, a and the Gandhi administration 560 Ram Lila

An effigy of Ravana from the Ram Lila, a dramatic presentation of the Ramcharitmanas. succeeded in unlocking the com- city of Bombay, where over three pound’s gates so that Hindus could thousand people were killed, most of worship there, though observers called them Muslims. the action a clear bid to attract the Even after the destruction of the Hindu vote. Babri Masjid, the site remained an area Pressure throughout the 1980s, cul- of contention between Muslims and minated in a series of campaigns to Hindus. Immediately after the demoli- begin construction of a new temple at tion, Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao Ram Janam Bhumi. Many of these cam- promised to rebuild the mosque but did paigns coincided with national elec- nothing to accomplish this during the tions, and the emotion that they next five years he was in office. generated boosted the electoral fortunes Meanwhile, various Hindu groups have of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a been calling for the construction of a political group with close links to the Ram Janam Bhumi temple, including VHP. The final campaign came on traditional religious leaders such as the December 6, 1992, a day that was sched- . Seeing nothing but uled to have “symbolic” meaning, and trouble ahead, the government again ended a little over five hours later with sent the matter to the courts for resolu- the mosque’s demolition. The whole tion, where it remains to this day and operation was carefully planned— may remain for decades to come. For demolition crews ordered the destruc- further information see Christophe tion of all television cameras prior to Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist leveling the building in order to prevent Movement in India, 1996. any media coverage by outsiders. The razing was also carried out with the blessing of the BJP-led state government, Ram Lila which made no attempt to protect the Any public dramatic presentation of the temple. Riots ensued, particularly in the Ramayana, the earlier of the two great Hindu epics. The epic’s basic plot 561 Ramnagar

revolves around the unjust exile of the the oldest and most traditional Ram Lila, god-king Rama; the abduction of a production of the epic Ramayana Rama’s wife Sita by Ravana, the dramatized in a month of nightly demon-king of Lanka; and Rama’s shows. Aside from sponsoring this Ram search to regain Sita, a struggle that Lila and underwriting its costs, the ultimately ends in Ravana’s death. Ram royal family also continues to play an Lilas are prominent during the autumn important symbolic role in the produc- in northern India, and usually corre- tion itself. For further information see spond with the festival of Dussehra Anuradha Kapur, Actors, Pilgrims, (October–November), which celebrates Kings, and Gods, 1990. Rama’s victory over Ravana and thus the symbolic triumph of good over evil. Late in the nineteenth century the Ram Lilas Ram Navami were important symbolic vehicles for Festival celebrated on the ninth day of demonstrating pride in Indian culture. the bright (waxing) half of the lunar Additionally, they were considered a month of Chaitra (March–April). Ram coded symbol of resistance to British Navami is celebrated as the birthday of rule. Today, Ram Lilas can be found the god Rama, the seventh avatar of the throughout northern India in many of god Vishnu, and this festival also ends the larger cities, while neighborhood the spring Navaratri festival of the associations often sponsor their own Goddess. The Goddess festival of local productions. Navaratri, observed twice yearly in the The longest, most elaborate, and spring and in the fall, ends each time arguably the oldest Ram Lila is held at with a celebration for Rama. The reason Ramnagar, the fortified town where the for this festival sequence is not entirely kings of Benares reside. The Ramnagar clear but probably reflects cultural Ram Lila was begun in the early nine- imperatives to contain the explosive but teenth century, during the reign of Udit uncontrolled fertile feminine energy Narayan Singh, and the Maharaja of personified by the Goddess with the sta- Benares still plays an important symbolic ble and predictable masculine energy of role in the production even though he Rama. Ram Navami is widely celebrated no longer wields temporal power over across India, but especially in Ayodhya, the city. It lasts for thirty-one days, dur- the city traditionally deemed his birth- ing which the action moves to different place. In their celebrations, devotees places in and around Ramnagar. (bhakta) may worship in their homes, Thousands of faithful viewers follow the fast (upavasa), attend religious dis- drama for the entire month, but on peak courses (katha), or go to temples for days the audience can reach 100,000. darshan and worship. With the recent For further information on the Ram Lila, growth of (militant, politi- see Norvin Hein, The Miracle Plays of cized Hinduism) this holiday has Mathura, 1972; and Anaradha Kapur, become a day for large demonstrations Actors, Pilgrims, Kings, and Gods, 1990. and political action. This has been particularly true in Ayodhya, where the continuing struggle to build the Ram Ramnagar Janam Bhumi temple at the site of Fortified city just south and across the Rama’s birthplace has made this day Ganges from the sacred city of Benares particularly significant. in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The Maharajas of Benares built their fort on this site because it was relatively easy to Ramprasad defend, and continue to live there, (early 19th c.) Bengali poet-saint and although they no longer possess ruling devotee (bhakta) of the goddess Kali, power. Ramnagar is famous as the site of who is justly renowned for the power 562 Ram Rasik Sampraday

and expressive quality of his poems. As life of servitude, although the party did with many of the devotional (bhakti) leave them a few meager windows for figures, little is definitely known about advancement. One of these was manag- his life. According to tradition, he ing shoe factories, since leather is con- worked for a short time as a clerk before sidered religiously impure by the higher his indulgent employer, finding him castes, and thus working with leather is spending his days composing poetry to the traditional occupation of certain low Kali, became his literary patron to allow status groups. Aside from their views on him to write full time. Ramprasad’s the validity of the caste system, the Ram poetry invokes the Goddess in many of Rajya Parishad also supported other her different personae—as the goddesses conservative Hindu causes, particularly Uma, Durga, and —but the a total ban on cow slaughter and a com- majority of his poems are addressed to plete ban on the production and con- Kali. Despite Kali’s fearsome qualities, sumption of liquor. The Ram Rajya Ramprasad persistently addresses her as Parishad’s constituency came mainly “mother,” and, like a child, clings to her from conservative, upper-class Hindus, despite all her attempts to discourage particularly those in the Ganges River him. The end result is that his unflinch- basin. Its conservatism gave those out- ing and unquestioning devotion to Kali side this group no incentive to support removes all fear and brings him libera- it. Although it had limited electoral suc- tion. For further reading, see David R. cess in years immediately after indepen- Kinsley, The Sword and the Flute, 1975; dence, within a dozen years the party and Clinton Seely and Leonard Nathan had been reduced to a completely mar- (trans.), Grace and Mercy in Her Wild ginal presence. Hair, 1999. Ram Rasik Sampraday Ram Rajya Parishad Religious lineage among the Ramanandis, (“Organization for Ram’s Reign”) a community of renunciant ascetics. All Northern Indian political party formed Ramanandis are devotees (bhakta) of immediately after Indian independence the god Rama, but members of the in 1947. It was founded by Swami Ram Rasik Sampraday stress the wor- Karpatri, an influential modern Hindu ship of Rama and his wife Sita as the ascetic. The term Ram Rajya carries divine couple. They focus their wor- mythical significance, referring to the ship on the time of domestic bliss period of righteous rule by the god-king when the newly married couple lived in Rama, the protagonist of the epic Ayodhya, before Rama’s unjust banish- Ramayana, after his return from four- ment from that city. Rasik (“aesthete”) teen years of exile in the forest. devotion involves complex forms of According to popular belief, Rama’s visualization, in which devotees imag- reign was marked by perfect peace, jus- ine themselves to be servants and com- tice, and social harmony. panions of Rama and Sita, and spend The Ram Rajya Parishad sought to their days in service to the divine cou- reshape India according to the vision of ple. Rasik devotees also draw up exact- this mythical time, and the party’s polit- ing “schedules” of the deities’ daily ical platform was solidly rooted in con- routines—in some cases, down to the servative Hindu religious ideas. The quarter-hour—so that through this party strongly supported the caste sys- imaginative exaltation they can savor tem, with its traditional division of the bliss of being God’s companions. social status and labor, and believed that (This form of dedication is clearly influ- it was essential for a smoothly function- enced by devotional patterns to the god ing society. This position would have Krishna, particularly the divine rever- condemned most low-caste people to a ence found in the Gaudiya Vaishnava 563 Ramsnehi

religious community.) Because Rasik of economics, to provide practical guid- worship is complex and highly devel- ance for economic development. oped, it has remained an elite phenom- enon largely confined to a small group of ascetics. For further informa- Ranganatha tion see Peter van der Veer, Gods on (“the rocking lord”) A particular form of Earth, 1988; and Philip Lutgendorf, the god Vishnu, in which the god is The Life of a Text, 1991. depicted as sleeping on the back of his serpent couch, Shesha, floating in the sea of cosmic dissolution (pralaya). Ramsnehi The most famous example of this image Renunciant ascetic community made is housed in the Ranganathaswamy up of devotees (bhakta) of the god temple in Shrirangam, in the state of Vishnu—in his form as the god Rama— Tamil Nadu. whose practice stresses the love (sneha) of Rama. The Ramsnehis have three main centers, all located in the state of Rasa Rajasthan. These centers are unique in (“tastes”) In Indian aesthetics, the nine that each pays homage only to its own moods that can be generated in an audi- founder, and no founder or preceptor is ence by various types of artistic expres- honored by all three. Ramsnehi religious sion: erotic, comic, compassionate, practice focuses on the repetition of the cruel, heroic, terrifying, loathsome, name of Rama, but has also been influ- marvelous, and peaceful. These nine enced by the Jains. Because of this latter rasas correspond to the nine bhavas influence the Ramsnehis voluntarily (“states”): sexual excitement, laughter, take on many restrictions to avoid grief, anger, energy, fear, loathing, won- destroying life. der, and peace. The nine bhavas are considered to be the most basic unadult- erated emotions, and although each of Ranade, Mahadev Govind the rasas corresponds to one of the (1842–1901) Lawyer, judge, and one of bhavas, there is an important difference. the great Hindu social reformers of Human emotive states come and go in nineteenth-century India. Along with response to circumstances largely his younger contemporary, Gopal beyond our control. Such emotive states Krishna Gokhale, Ranade was marked often cannot be sustained, and they are by his commitment to reform Hindu life generally not objects of aesthetic satis- by seeking the cooperation of the British faction. The case is very different for an government and by working within aesthetic mood (rasa), which can be sus- established institutions. Ranade was tained, since it is artificially generated among the first generation of Indians to through artistic expression. This be educated in British schools and, after emphasis on creating and sustaining earning his degree at Bombay such a mood for an audience is the University, chose a career in law. In thirty dominant goal of the performing arts in years as a judge Ranade worked dili- the Hindu tradition. gently to reform certain religious prac- tices that were deemed social abuses, particularly issues concerning child Rasayana marriage and widow remarriage. He was (“method of essences”) Alchemical also a founding member of the school specializing in the use of certain Prarthana Samaj, a Hindu reformist chemicals, particularly compounds organization that sought to attain simi- made from elemental mercury, in a lar goals. In addition to his interests in quest to transmute the body and render law, Ranade applied himself to the study it immortal. Some scholars have charac- terized rasayana as the Buddhist school 564 Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh

of , with the Hindu school known as dhatuvada. The reported dif- ference is that the latter relied solely on the consumption of mercurials, whereas the former used mercurials only to pro- long life until the body could be trans- muted through meditation, ritual, and extramaterial means. Despite these dif- fering conceptions of the end of the process, the two schools overlap consid- erably on many other points. Both also probably draw from a common alchem- ical tradition. For further information see David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body, 1996.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (8th–10th c.) Central Indian dynasty whose core area was in the middle of Maharashtra, and whose capital was the Maharashtrian city of Achalpur. The Rashtrakutas were originally vassals of In their daily meetings, members of the Rashtriya the Chalukya dynasty, but overthrew Svayamsevak Sangh practice martial drills that them in the middle of the eighth century include sparring with sticks. and remained the premier power south a cultural and character-building of the Vindhya Mountains until the organization and, for much of its exis- middle of the tenth century. The dynasty tence, has shunned direct political directly ruled most of the modern states involvement, although it has exercised of Maharashtra and Karnataka, along considerable influence through its with parts of the states of Andhra many affiliated organizations. Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, but had vassal RSS training stresses loyalty, obedi- states through the entire Deccan ence, discipline, and dedication to the plateau, southern India, and Ceylon. advancement of the Hindu nation, but Their hegemony ended in 973, when does not encourage the development of they were overthrown by the later independent thought. The heart of its Chalukya dynasty. The Rashtrakutas’ program are the daily meetings of its greatest monument is the Kailasanatha neighborhood units known as shakhas temple at Ellora in the state of (“branches”). At these meetings mem- Maharashtra, which was completed late bers, known as svayamsevaks (“volun- in the eighth century. teers”), spend part of their time playing games, part of their time practicing mar- tial drill—including sparring with Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh sticks—and part of their time discussing (“National Volunteer Corps,” hereafter and absorbing RSS ideals. The shakhas in RSS) Hindu nationalist organization any given area are overseen by a full- founded in 1925 by Dr. K. B. time RSS worker known as a pracharak Hedgewar. Since its inception the RSS (“director”), who serves as a liaison has ascribed to the ideals of Hindutva, between the local units and the RSS lead- the notion that the Hindus are a ership and who oversees RSS activity in nation despite their regional, linguis- his area. tic, and cultural differences. The RSS As an organization, the RSS is pro- has historically characterized itself as foundly elitist, and its self-proclaimed 565 Rasik

mission is to provide leadership for a tion see Walter K. Andersen and renascent Hindu India. Most of its Shridhar D. Damle, The Brotherhood in members will never advance beyond Saffron, 1987; K. Jayaprasad, The RSS and the local level, but those who do are , 1991; Daniel Gold, generally remarkably efficient, effective “Organized Hinduisms: From Vedic leaders. Although the RSS has shunned Truth to Hindu Nation,” in Martin direct activism that would tarnish its Marty and R. Scott Appleby (eds.), self-proclaimed cultural emphasis, it Fundamentalisms Observed, 1991; Tapan has exercised considerable influence Basu et al., Khaki Shorts and Saffron through the formation of affiliated orga- Flags, 1993; Lise McKean, Divine nizations, for which it has provided the Enterprise, 1996; and Christopher leadership cadre. These organizations Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement are spread throughout every level of in India, 1996. Indian society, from labor and student unions to service organizations, reli- gious organizations such as the Vishva Rasik Hindu Parishad (VHP), and political par- Person able to appreciate a developed ties such as the Bharatiya Janata Party. artistic mood (rasa); someone who is Although the RSS has produced some cultured and sophisticated. In the con- remarkably effective leaders, it has also text of religious practice, the word refers generated considerable controversy. to a person who has transposed this One reason is that it is a highly authori- appreciation of aesthetic mood into a tarian organization, run on the model of devotional setting. Rasik devotees the . All authority is (bhakta) would engage in elaborate vested in a single supreme leader, the visualizations of their chosen divinity sarsanghchalak, and proceeds down- and mentally accompany that divinity ward from there. In this way the RSS is during the day. These meditative visual- profoundly undemocratic, and many of izations were said to give the devotee a its opponents—particularly in the polit- sense of participation in the divine play ical arena—have felt uneasy about hav- (lila) of God’s presence on earth and ing it as the controlling hand behind thus sharpen his or her enjoyment of its affiliated organizations. Other it. The two religious communities that opponents have also worried about its laid the greatest stress on this ability anti-Muslim and anti-Christian tone— were the Pushti Marg and the Ram non-Hindus were not allowed to join the Rasik Sampraday, whose objects of organization until 1979—a tone rooted devotion were the gods Krishna in the organization’s Hindutva ideals. A and Rama, respectively. This type of final reservation about the RSS comes on worship is almost exclusively focused social grounds. The RSS has long con- on these deities, or on other forms of demned untouchability, and has also the god Vishnu. long asserted that caste distinctions did not exist within its ranks—in keeping Raskhan with its Hindutva roots, it proclaims that (late 16th c.) Poet-saint and devotee all its members are Hindus and Hindus (bhakta) of the god Krishna who was only. Nevertheless, critics have noted born a Muslim, specifically a Pathan that most RSS members come from (Afghan) and whose name may have brahmin and other privileged castes, been Saiyid Ibrahim. According to leg- and that all of its leaders have been end, Raskhan spent the early part of his brahmins. These critics contend that life in Delhi, where he became enam- such public disavowal of caste distinc- ored of a handsome boy. When the tions is a mask to perpetuate brahmin object of his affections proved unattain- control and to conceal whose interests able, he migrated to Brindavan, the the RSS truly serves. For further informa- 566 Rath Yatra

town where Krishna is said to have lived rats die they are reborn as members of as a child, and spent the rest of his life the families that comprise the temple’s sublimating that attraction through his hereditary servants, and thus the rats devotion to Krishna. The main themes and the temple priests are all members in his poetry are the attraction of the of one extended family. cowherd women () to Krishna, sparked by Krishna’s physical beauty and, especially, the enthralling music Rath Yatra of his flute. With Raskhan one finds Festival falling on the second day of the a person who was a Muslim by birth bright (waxing) half of the lunar month but who used images and attitudes of Ashadh (June–July). The primary belonging to Hindu culture in an deity worshiped in this festival is absolutely genuine manner. Jagannath, who is considered a form of the god Krishna. This festival is cele- brated all over India but especially in the Ras Lila sacred city of Puri, where the principal In the mythology of the god Krishna, the temple of Jagannath is located. During ras lila is the “circle dance” that Krishna the festival in Puri, Jagannath, his brother and his devotees (bhakta), the gopis, Balabhadra, and his sister Subhadra perform on autumn nights on the shore are carried in procession through the of the Yamuna River. In this dance—a city’s main street to another temple symbol of communion with the divine— about a mile away. They stay in this Krishna offers a form of himself to every nearby temple for a week, and then woman present, in order to convince return to the Jagannath temple. each one that God is paying attention to The deities are processed by their her and to her alone. devotees (bhakta) in three enormous wooden chariots (rath), which the devo- tees pull using long ropes. The largest of Rat the three, belonging to Jagannath, is An animal with a prominent place in at forty-five feet high, thirty-five feet broad least two religious contexts. On one and wide, and travels on sixteen wheels hand, the rat is famous as the animal each seven feet high. The English word vehicle of the elephant-headed god “juggernaut” is a corruption of Jagannath, Ganesh, and reinforces Ganesh’s iden- and the connotation of a juggernaut as tity as the Lord of Obstacles. If Ganesh’s an unstoppable force undoubtedly elephant head represents his power to derives from the momentum that these remove obstacles by simply knocking carts attained once they began to them aside, his rat vehicle shows a move. One of the staple fictions of stealthier approach. Rats are famous British colonial lore described Jagannath’s for their ability to work their way frenzied devotees committing suicide around obstacles, slipping through the by throwing themselves under the smallest cracks in granaries to get to car’s wheels, so that they would die in the grain inside. In their ability to slip the sight of God. Despite such tales around and between obstructing being widely repeated, suicides of this objects, they stand as a worthy comple- sort were extremely uncommon. Still, ment to Ganesh’s power. there was some risk in pulling the Rats are also important to the temple carts, since people losing their footing of the goddess Karni Mata in the village in the massed crowd would be unable of Deshnok, in the state of Rajasthan. to get up, and could potentially be The Karni Mata temple is inhabited by crushed by the wheels. For further thousands of rats, considered to be information see T. N. Madan (ed.), Karni Mata’s sons and thus sacred ani- Religion in India, 1991. mals. According to tradition, when the

567 Rati

Relief sculpture of the demon king Ravana from Angkor, . As the antagonist of the Hindu epic, the Ramayana, Ravana acquires great magical powers, which he abuses until Rama kills him in battle. Rati culture is widely believed to generate (“pleasure,” particularly sexual pleasure) spiritual power and bring boons from the The wife of Kama, god of love. Rati is gods. When the god Brahma finally both Kama’s wife and his ally, reflecting appears and directs Ravana to choose his the way that sexual pleasure can both boon, Ravana requests that he be able to accompany and amplify desire. be killed by no one but a human being. This seems to make him practically immortal, since his powers are such that Ratri no ordinary human will be able to harm Name of the goddess of Night. See Night, him, much less kill him. Ravana then pro- goddess of. ceeds to terrorize the gods, secure in the knowledge that they will not be able to harm him. He begins with his half-broth- Ravana er, the minor deity Kubera, who loses his In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two home and all his possessions to Ravana. great Indian epics, Ravana is the ten- Ravana’s virtual invulnerability goes headed demon king of Lanka. To destroy to his head, and the powerful demon Ravana, the god Vishnu is born in his begins to disregard all rules of decency incarnation as Rama. Ravana is a reincar- and morality. He is particularly guilty of nation of Vishnu’s gatekeeper Jaya, who molesting and abducting women, acts has been cursed by a sage to be reborn which result in various curses being laid three times as a demon and to be killed upon him by his helpless victims, many by Vishnu each time. As a rakshasa, a of them predicting his death. As a result type of demon, Ravana possesses enor- of one of these curses his sister mous physical strength and various Shurpanakha is mutilated by Rama’s magic powers. He augments these natur- brother Lakshmana. Ravana is deter- al abilities by performing intense physi- mined to avenge this insult, and decides cal asceticism (tapas), which in Indian that the best way will be to abduct 568 Ravidas Jayanti

Rama’s wife Sita. Although his wife Given his low social status, Ravidas Mandodari and his brothers rebuke him was almost certainly illiterate. His poet- for this act and advise him to return Sita ic songs were likely first transmitted and make peace with Rama, Ravana orally, though their personal appeal stubbornly refuses to listen. His inflated made him one of the most popular sant pride and desire to avenge the insult to poets. The two oldest attested sources his sister deafen his ears to their good of his work are the Adigranth, the scrip- counsel, and he eventually pays for his ture for the Sikh community, and the stubbornness with his life when Rama Panchvani collections, compiled by the kills him in battle. Dadupanth. In modern India, Ravidas As with all demons, Ravana is not has also served as a model for the completely villainous by nature but depressed classes; his followers call rather greatly powerful and greatly themselves Ravidasis. For further flawed at the same time. According to information see John Stratton Hawley some stories he is a devotee (bhakta) of and Mark Juergensmeyer, Songs of the god Shiva, and the hymn to the the Saints of India, 1988; and dancing Shiva known as the Winand M. Callewaert and Peter Shivatandava Stotra is often attributed Freidlander (trans.), The Life and Works to Ravana. of Raidas, 1992.

Ravidas Ravidasi (ca. 1500) Sant poet-saint who lived his Name taken by followers of the life in the city of Benares and is tradi- untouchable poet-saint Ravidas. The tionally believed to have been a younger Ravidasis emphasize many ideas found contemporary of the poet-saint Kabir. in the poetry of Ravidas, such as the The Sants were a loose group of central irrelevancy of ideas of purity and impu- and northern Indian poet-saints who rity (ashaucha), the futility of trying to shared several general tendencies: stress contain the divine in texts and rites, and on individualized, interior religion lead- his vision of a society in which all people ing to a personal experience of the can have equal status, whatever their divine; disdain for external ritual, partic- background. It is unlikely that the ularly image worship; faith in the power Ravidasis were established by Ravidas of the divine Name; and a tendency to himself, nor is Ravidas an object of wor- ignore conventional caste distinctions. ship for them, although he is held as a Both tradition and references in his model for religious equality, based on poetry describe Ravidas as a leather the messages in his poetry. In modern worker (chamar), a social group whose times the Ravidasis have focused on contact with dead animals and their opposing all sorts of caste-based skins rendered them untouchable. He is discrimination and have also taken believed to have supported himself by up the empowerment of various low- his hereditary trade, and much of his caste groups. This movement is very poetry speaks on issues of worldly birth recent, and to date little has been and status. He never denied the impor- published about it; for some informa- tance of heredity but ultimately felt that tion see the introduction to Ravidas in his devotion to God had helped him to John Stratton Hawley and Mark transcend his birth and given him status Juergensmeyer (trans.), Songs of the based on different criteria. His poetry Saints of India, 1988. reflects this staunch personal faith, as do his frequent warnings to his listeners that life is short and difficult, and that Ravidas Jayanti they should pay great attention to reli- Festival falling on the full moon gious practice. in the lunar month of (January– 569 Rawal

February), celebrated as the birthday of of Badrinath, and was responsible for the medieval bhakti poet-saint Ravidas, performing worship during the six born near Benares. Ravidas’s birth into months that the temple is open. the untouchable caste of leather work- Because of these duties, the rawal was ers (chamar) afforded him a very low required to remain a bachelor, lest the social status. His poetry is set in a per- ritual impurity arising from the birth of sonal voice and contrasts this lowly sta- a child (sutakashaucha) render him tus with the honor and renown he unable to attend to his duties. Until the gained through his devotion to God. In Badrinath Temple Act of 1939 estab- modern times many members of the lished a temple board as the ultimate depressed classes see Ravidas as a authority, the rawals had sole rights to model, and his birthday is celebrated the offerings given at the shrine. with great fervor. Rawat Rawal A particular subgroup of the warrior Title given to the head priest (pujari) at princes known as the Rajputs; the the temple of Badrinath in the Rawats’ major area of influence was in Himalayas. The Rawal is invariably a southwestern Uttar Pradesh state. Nambudiri brahmin, who must remain unmarried to retain his position. In Hindu belief, Badrinath is one of Reciprocal Dependence the four dhams (“divine abodes”) In Indian logic, one of the fallacies to connected with the philosopher be avoided in constructing an argu- Shankaracharya. Seeking to combat the ment. Reciprocal dependence occurs spread of and revitalize when two things each stand as cause Hindu religion, Shankaracharya report- and effect to the other—when A depends edly chose one Hindu sacred center in on B, and B in turn depends on A. This each corner of the subcontinent, and at is seen as an extended case of self- each established a Dashanami Sanyasi residence, and equally objectionable. monastic center (math) to train learned monks. Badrinath is associated with Reconversion the Jyotir Math in the Himalayan General name for the rites by which town of Joshimath, forty miles south, people who have converted to other reli- which is also the place where the deity gious traditions are accepted back as Badrinath is symbolically transported Hindus. See . for the winter. According to Badrinath temple records, for several hundred years the Reflectionism position of head priest was filled by Theory used in later schools of Advaita Dandi Sanyasis, who were also Vedanta to explain how one single pri- Nambudiri brahmins, the same caste mal ignorance could afflict multiple into which Shankaracharya is supposed ignorant selves. Reflectionism is rooted to have been born. When the last of in the idea of an image appearing in a these died without a successor in 1776, mirror; different from the original, it is the local king who served as the protec- nonetheless based on it. In the same tor of the shrine invited a non-ascetic way, according to this explanation, the Nambudiri brahmin to serve as the tem- ignorance affecting each individual is ple’s priest. This priest was given the title simply a reflection of a primal igno- rawal (from the word raja, “deputy”), rance. For further information see Karl and his extended family has run the H. Potter, Presuppositions of India’s shrine since then. The rawal was the Philosophies, 1972. only person allowed to touch the image 570 Reservations

Reincarnation replete with tales of the troubles they One of the fundamental assumptions of faced from guardians of conventional Indian religious life. See samsara morality, usually said to be brahmins. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there was a running and often bloody Religious Duty conflict between two groups of militant See dharma. ascetics—the Naga class of the Dashanami Sanyasis, and the Bairagi Nagas—although in that case the Religious Law motives might just as well have been See dharma, dharmashastra, and economic, namely, the control of trade dharma literature. in the Ganges valley. A final example of religious persecution appears in the rise Religious Persecution of Hindutva in the 1980s. Propelled by In popular belief India is visualized as a verbal attacks on Muslims and land of perfect religious tolerance in Christians, this persecution has all too which all schools of thought have been often prompted physical violence. allowed to grow unchecked. Although true in its basic form, this picture is greatly simplified. There is a long history In Hindu mythology, the wife of the sage of competition between differing reli- Jamadagni and mother of the Para- gious communities and schools of shuram avatar, the fifth avatar or incar- thought, sometimes fueled by scathing nation of the god Vishnu. polemics designed to persuade listeners that one was correct and the others false. What has been quite rare, however, Republic Day are acts of violence accompanying these Indian national holiday, falling on arguments, or the notion that people January 26, that marks the day the should have to fear for their lives Indian constitution was adopted in because of their ideas. In the literature 1950. As a holiday connected with of the Nayanar and Lingayat communi- Indian independence, it is one of the few ties—both devotees (bhakta) of the god celebrated according to the common Shiva—language toward the Jains has a calendar. Republic Day is comparable genuinely hostile edge, and the Nayanar to the Fourth of July in the United States leader Sambandar has been persistently and is celebrated with massive parades implicated in the impalement of 8,000 in India’s major cities. The largest occurs Jains in the southern Indian city of in New Delhi—from which it is televised Madurai. In the same way, the northern to the rest of the nation—and includes Indian king Sashanka, who was also a singers and performers from all over the devotee of Shiva, harbored a pathologi- country, as well as large displays of mili- cal hatred of Buddhists. Sashanka tary hardware, including fly-overs by the reportedly not only persecuted newest jet planes. Buddhists themselves, but also tried to destroy the tree in Bodh Gaya under which the Buddha purportedly Reservations gained enlightenment. Modern government policy designed to Sectarian competition aside, people rectify the long-standing economic and whose religious faith has led them to social disadvantages faced by certain ignore generally accepted social con- poor or low-status groups by offering ventions have been quite likely to them preferential treatment in employ- encounter stiff opposition. Stories of the ment and education. This is usually devotional (bhakti) poet-saints are done by setting aside, or “reserving,” for such groups certain percentages of 571 Rg Veda

government jobs or places in institu- 1,028 hymns collected in ten books. tions of higher learning, which admit Judging by their content, the hymns people from disadvantaged communi- were clearly composed over a long period ties under much lower standards than of time, but the actual dates are the sub- those for the general public. Those ject of sharp disagreement. Traditional groups who qualify for such reservations Hindus assert that the Vedas were not are generally referred to as Scheduled composed either by God or by human Castes and Scheduled Tribes, after the beings but, rather, simply heard by “schedule” or official government list on ancient sages through their advanced which the names of these groups powers of perception, and then trans- appear. The Scheduled Castes are low- mitted orally from generation to gener- status caste Hindus, who in earlier times ation. Because of their origin, the Vedas would have been called untouchables, thus belong to the class of religious texts while the Scheduled Tribes are aborigi- known as shruti (“heard”). Scholarly nal peoples (adivasis), who mainly live consensus maintains that the Vedas in central India. were begun in the earlier part of the Although the reservations policy has second millennium B.C.E., perhaps been implemented for some time, it 1800–1500 B.C.E., and were finished remains a continual source of contro- somewhere around the end of the versy. Proponents claim that it is moving second millennium B.C.E., perhaps socially disadvantaged people into 1200–900. All these dates are highly the mainstream of Indian life and help- speculative, since the hymns themselves ing to correct centuries of injustice. have no internal evidence to allow pre- Opponents decry the fact that less- cise dating, which has instead been qualified people are being deliberately based primarily on a comparative study chosen, making a mockery of the notion of changes in the language of certain of merit. Critics also argue that the peo- Vedas. Some of the hymns, for example, ple who benefit the most from such poli- are thought to have been created rela- cies are the best-off members of such tively later than others, both because communities—the so-called creamy their language is less archaic and closer layer, designating their position at the to classical Sanskrit and because the top—whereas the truly disadvantaged locations mentioned in them reflect a remain in the same positions as they broader geographical area. have always been. Aside from the philo- Most of the hymns in the Rg Veda are sophical debates about this policy, it has addressed to a particular deity. The pri- had a recognizable impact on people’s mary deities are Indra, Agni, and , livelihoods. Such reservations have although is prominent in the made competition even more ferocious earliest hymns. It is generally accepted for the remaining spots, and made that the hymns were chanted at sacri- reservations a politically volatile issue. fices as a way to invoke these deities. Given the benefits derived from reserva- Evidence from the hymns themselves tions, there has also been considerable describes these sacrifices as large public lobbying to include other, less-disad- rites, usually involving the slaughter of vantaged groups under its rubric, as a animals, which were burned on a sacri- way to spread benefits to other sectors ficial fire, and the preparation and con- of Indian society. sumption of the mysterious beverage soma. In this context, the Vedic hymns reflect a body of sacred learning known Rg Veda to only a small group of religious spe- The oldest and most important of the cialists. Accordingly, these hymns were four Vedas, which are themselves the never meant for universal public dis- most ancient and authoritative Hindu semination, since all except twice-born religious texts. The Rg Veda is a group of men were forbidden to hear them. 572 Rishikesh

The Rg Veda’s tenth and final book differs sharply from the preceding ones. Its language is closer to classical Sanskrit, and its content is far more speculative than that of the earlier books, hinting at a major conceptual shift. This book features the famous Creation Hymn (10.129), in which the poet speculates on how the world came to be, only to conclude that the answer may be unknown even to the creator. Another notable hymn in this book is the Purusha Sukta (10.90), which describes both the earth and human society as the product of a primeval sac- rifice. The former hymn foreshadows the religious and cosmological specula- tion found in the texts known as the Upanishads. The latter, which contains the first known articulation of the four The city of Rishikesh lies on the Ganges River. major social groups (varnas), along with It contains many and is a their symbolic functions, is distin- popular place for ritual bathing. guished as foreshadowing the later Hindu religious texts. The figure most dharma literature. often credited with developing the teachings used by the Jains today is Rhythm, in Music Mahavira, who is considered the twenty- fourth tirthankara. See tala.

Right Hand Tantra Common word to designate a sage, seer, Name for a type of tantra, a secret, ritu- or inspired religious leader. It is most ally based religious practice. Certain often used to indicate religious figures of tantric rituals make use of substances the distant past, and is not usually that are normally forbidden, such as applied to contemporary figures. liquor and nonvegetarian food, in an effort to unify the world by destroying all conceptual dualities, including that Rishikesh between sacred and forbidden. These City and sacred site (tirtha) in the substances are used in their actual Himalayan foothills of the state of Uttar forms in “left hand” (vamachara) tantric Pradesh. Rishikesh lies about fifteen ritual, and by substitution in “right miles up the Ganges River from the hand” (dakshinachara) tantric ritual. sacred city of Haridwar. As with many See dakshinachara. sites on the Ganges, Rishikesh is famous primarily as a bathing (snana) place, although it is also noted as a dwelling- place for ascetics, particularly at the According to Jain tradition, Rishabha ashrams in the area around Lakshman was the founder of the Jains. He is con- Jhula. As a sacred site, Rishikesh is also sidered the first of the Jain tirthankaras, notable for having no single charter the founding figures in the Jain reli- myth. According to one story, this is the gious tradition. He is one of three Jain place where the god Rama kills several tirthankaras who are mentioned in demons, enabling the sages to carry out the Yajur Veda, one of the earliest 573

their sacrifices undisturbed. Another and periods of the year are considered story names this as the place where inauspicious. At these times the very Rama does penance (prayashchitta) for tone of the cosmos is disagreeable and killing the demon-king Ravana. A third all sorts of bad fortune can befall the story names Rishikesh as the site where ignorant or the unwary. Rites of protec- a sage named Raibhya receives a vision tion are used to counter these dangers, of the god Vishnu. The most famous as well as the problems of one’s past temple in Rishikesh is named after karma, which can be diagnosed through Rama’s brother Bharata. an inauspicious conjunction in one’s birth horoscope (natal horoscope). Some inauspicious times are unlucky Rishi Panchami only for certain types of activities. Festival falling on the fifth day Potential misfortune can be avoided (panchami) of the light (waxing) half of simply by refraining from these activi- the lunar month of Bhadrapada ties. However, certain events that cannot (August–September). This festival is be avoided, such as eclipses, are also dedicated to the Seven Sages (rishi) believed inauspicious. In such cases, born of Brahma: Bhrgu, Pulastya, one can prevent the negative effects of Kratu, Pulaha, Marichi, Atri, and inauspiciousness by transferring it to Vasishtha. Worshiping these seven sages another person, usually through the on this day is said to bring prosperity medium of gifts (dana); giving gifts is and happiness. also the preferred means for getting rid of inauspiciousness stemming from a Rishyashringa bad conjunction in one’s birth horo- A sage in the Ramayana, the earlier scope. People also safeguard themselves of the two great Indian epics. King by performing prayer and worship as Dasharatha commissions Rishyashringa positive protective forces. to perform a great sacrifice, to enable Inauspicious forces are also generat- the king’s wives to conceive. At the con- ed by human jealousy, greed, and clusion of Rishyashringa’s sacrifice, a hatred, which can find their agency in shining figure emerges from the sacrifi- black magic, the evil eye (nazar), or cial fire, places a pot of milk-rice before other sorts of witchcraft. Finally, some Dasharatha, and directs him to feed it to Hindus believe there are a host of non- his wives. Dasharatha divides the con- human beings, such as spirits, ghosts, tents among his wives Kausalya, and witches, who sometimes seek to Kaikeyi, and Sumitra, and in due time harm human beings through the exer- they all bear sons. Kausalya is the moth- cise of supernormal powers. Despite the er of Rama, the Ramayana’s protagonist. power and prevalence of all of these Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata, and malevolent forces, if one is aware and Sumitra is the mother of Lakshmana careful of them there are ways to and Shatrughna. counter them. For problems stemming from human malice, there are well-established solu- Rites of Passage tions. One is to avoid those people who General term for rites that recognize and are considered inauspicious, such as mark transitions in an individual life- widows. Another strategy is to avoid cycle, and that often signify a change of inciting people’s jealousy by never pro- state or status. See samskara. claiming one’s good fortune too openly, praising a child too lavishly, or flaunting one’s wealth too freely. In many cases, Rites of Protection people will counter potentially vulnera- For many Hindus, the world is a ritually ble moments in the life cycle by various dangerous place. Certain hours, days, protective rites. It is still common for 574 Roy, Ram Mohan

people to wear talismans or amulets, Daksha lays a curse on the Moon to lose which are believed to protect the wearer. his luster. The curse is later modified so Another common protective measure is that the moon will alternately wane and to carry iron, which is believed to render wax, but that its disappearance will the person carrying it impervious to never be final. witchcraft. Young children will often have a black smudge of lamp-black put on their faces, to symbolically disfigure them and take away the motive for jealousy. (2) In Hindu mythology, birth mother of Another protective strategy is to hang up , the god Krishna’s brother. an object (such as a clay pot with a Balarama’s birth is unusual. After his painted face) intended to absorb all the conception the fetus is magically trans- bad feelings, which is then discarded. ported from the womb of to that For further information see Lawrence of Rohini. This is done to protect him Babb, The Divine Hierarchy, 1975; Gloria from harm, as Devaki’s wicked uncle Goodwin Raheja, The Poison in the Gift, Kamsa has already killed her first seven 1988; and David F. Pocock, “The Evil children and will certainly do the same Eye,” in T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion in to Balarama if she carries him to term. India, 1991. Roy, Ram Mohan Rock Edicts (1774–1833) First major Indian propo- Name for a set of inscriptions commis- nent of Hindu social and religious sioned by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka reform, who founded the organization (r. 269–32 B.C.E.). The inscriptions were Brahmo Samaj for this purpose. He official pronouncements on royal policy, came from a wealthy Bengali family and and advice and instructions to his sub- was a successful businessman and civil jects on a variety of topics, including servant. He moved to Calcutta in 1815, religious tolerance. In general, the rock at the time when the British were first edicts were carved into large boulders or beginning to take serious notice of tradi- rock faces in places that would have tional Indian society, especially the been at the borders of the Mauryan aspects they considered “evil.” Roy’s Empire, thus symbolically defining its reformist interests largely meshed with boundaries. The text was fairly consis- that of the British. From an early age Roy tent throughout the empire, even had rejected the practice of using images though different examples of these in worship, perhaps through exposure edicts were found in widely separated to Sufi ideas, and his first public crusade places. The other major class of Ashokan was against such worship of gods and inscriptions, the pillar edicts, were goddesses. Like most Indian reformers, inscribed on pillars of polished Chunar Roy used Sanskrit texts selectively, and sandstone and set up on the major for him the most important ones were roads running through the empire, the speculative Upanishads, which where they would have been visible to (under the influence of the English passersby. See also Maurya dynasty. Unitarians) he translated to reflect a monotheism (belief in the existence of only one God). In his later years he pro- Rohini moted many different educational and In Hindu mythology, a daughter of the social works, but is especially known for demigod Daksha who, along with her his opposition to sati, the custom of twenty-six sisters, is married to the burning a widow on her husband’s Moon. The Moon favors Rohini over all funeral pyre. Although later seen as too her sisters, despite Daksha’s entreaties heavily influenced by the British, his to give them all equal time. In the end reinterpretation of the past provided a

575 Rta

model for others to use. For further con- perhaps reflects the religious tension sideration see Robert D. Baird (ed.), associated with the figure of Shiva, who Religion in Modern India, 1998. was a deity outside the Vedic sacrificial cult but was gradually absorbed into established religion and is now one of Rta the primary . In the Vedas (the oldest and most authoritative ) rta is the cos- mic order and regularity that allows the rhythms of time and the seasons to (“eye of ”) The dried seed of the occur in orderly succession. According tree Elaeocarpus ganitrus, which is con- to the texts, rta also had a moral dimen- sidered sacred to the god Shiva. sion, which human beings had an oblig- are often strung into gar- ation to support. One such moral lands and worn by Shiva’s devotees dimension was truth, which was seen (bhakta). The seed itself is round with a as upholding the cosmos, whereas its knobby, pitted surface, with a natural opposite, anrta, came to signify false- channel in the middle through which a hood. The connection between natural thread can easily be drawn. Each seed and moral world came through the also has natural longitudinal lines run- Vedic god Varuna, who was both ning from top to bottom, which divide the guardian of rta and the deity who the seed into units known as “faces” punished untruth, usually by affliction (mukhi). The most common rudrakshas with dropsy. have five faces, but they can have up to fourteen. Each differing number of faces has been given a symbolic association Rtvij with a particular deity. The rarest form In the Hindu sacred texts (Vedas), one is the ekmukhi rudraksha, which has no of the priests who officiated at sacri- faces at all and is considered to be a fices. The four chief priests at sacrifices manifestation of Shiva himself. This were the hotr, udgatr, adhvaryum, rudraksha is so valuable that street sell- and brahman. ers routinely make counterfeit versions by carving them out of wood. Another Rudra rare form is the Gauri-Shankar, in (“howler”) Fearsome deity who first which two rudraksha seeds are longitu- appears late in the Vedas, the oldest dinally joined; this is considered a Hindu religious texts, later identified manifestation of Shiva and Shakti. with the god Shiva. Several hymns in the Aside from the number of “faces,” the Rg Veda are dedicated to Rudra, where quality of rudrakshas is judged by their he is identified with the storm-god color and size. The color runs from Indra, and the fire-god Agni. A more reddish brown to a light brown, with the developed picture of Rudra appears in former considered more desirable, while the , one of the smaller sizes are preferable to the the later speculative texts known as the larger ones. Upanishads. In the third chapter (adhyaya) of this text, Rudra is identified Rudranath as the ruling power in the universe and Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in the the source and origin of the gods them- Garhwal region of the Himalayas in the selves. Rudra’s depiction in this upan- valley between the Mandakini and the ishad shows considerable ambivalence, Alakananda rivers, about thirty miles from both mentioning the destructive arrows the district headquarters at Chamoli. The that he bears and imploring him to temple’s presiding deity is the god Shiva in appear in a form that is auspicious his manifestation as “Lord Rudra.” (shivam) and peaceful. This ambivalence 576 Rukmini

Rudranath is one of the Panchkedar, a network of five sacred sites spread throughout the Garhwal region; the other four sites are Kedarnath, Kalpeshvar, Tungnath, and Madmaheshvar. This net- work of five sites is seen as a symbolic rep- resentation of Shiva’s body, since Shiva is believed to dwell in the Himalayas. Rudranath is believed to be Shiva’s face.

Rudraprayag Himalayan town and sacred site (tirtha) at the junction of the Mandakini and Alakananda rivers, two Himalayan tribu- taries of the Ganges River. As with all the other river junctions in the Garhwal Rudraksha seed. Devotees of the god Shiva region, is considered an often identify themselves by wearing especially holy place for bathing (snana), necklaces made of these seeds. although the raging currents make it The Rudra Sampraday traces its spir- dangerous. Above the junction of the itual lineage through the philosopher rivers is a temple to Shiva in his form as Vallabhacharya and the earlier religious Rudra. According to local tradition, this teacher, Vishnuswami. The followers of marked the place where the sage Narada Vallabhacharya tend to be householders performed physical asceticism (tapas) to rather than ascetics; Vallabhacharya gain his skill as a bard. Shiva, pleased himself was married and had many chil- with Narada’s efforts, instructed Narada dren. It is the smallest and least impor- in music and remained at the spot. tant of the Bairagi Naga sampradays, and the only event at which it figures is Rudra Sampraday the bathing (snana) processions at the One of the four branches (sampraday) of Kumbha Mela. the Bairagi Naga ascetics. The name Bairagi denotes ascetics who are devotees Rukmini (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. The name In Hindu mythology, the chief queen of Naga describes a class of fighting ascetics the god Krishna in his later life as the recruited to protect the other Bairagi king of the city of Dwaraka. Rukmini is ascetics who, because they were saintly, the daughter of the king of , scholarly men, could not protect them- and although both she and her parents selves. Bairagi Nagas were organized in favor her marriage to Krishna, her military fashion into different anis or brother, who is Krishna’s bitter enemy, “armies.” Until the beginning of the nine- makes arrangements to marry her to his teenth century the Nagas’ primary occu- friend . On her wedding day, pation was as mercenary soldiers, with all the guests assembled, Krishna although they also had substantial trad- carries Rukmini off in his chariot. They are ing interests. The Nagas lent money at married, and, according to tradition, interest, engaged in trade, and often have ten sons. owned large amounts of property. They were particularly powerful in parts of the country where the centralized govern- ment had broken down. Their roles as mercenaries and in trade have both large- ly disappeared in contemporary times.

577 Sabarmati

Sacred Ash Substance used in rituals and by devo- tees (bhakta) of the god Shiva to mark their bodies, in imitation of their patron deity. The name given to this ash is vib- S huti. See . Sacred Sites Hindu religious life is intimately con- Sabarmati nected to the land of India itself, which Northern Indian river that rises in the is studded with sacred sites, known as Aravalli Hills in the state of Rajasthan, tirthas. These can be lakes, rivers, and flows south to the Gulf of Cambay in mountains, or any other natural feature; the state of Gujarat. It is best known as they can also be cities, temples, or any the site of the Sabarmati Ashram, across other created environment; they can the river from the city of Ahmedabad in even be the presence of holy men and Gujarat. The Sabarmati Ashram was women. Pilgrimage (tirthayatra) to any home to Mohandas K. Gandhi for six- sacred site is a means of spiritual and teen years after he returned from South religious advancement. See tirtha. Africa in 1915. He organized much of the struggle for Indian independence Sacred Thread from this ashram. A circular cord made of three strands (in which each strand itself has three Sacchidananda strands), which is worn over the left Sanskrit compound word denoting the shoulder, crossing the body to fall on the three generally accepted attributes of right hip. The sacred thread is given to a the supreme Brahman (the Ultimate boy as part of the samskara, Reality of the universe according to which is the adolescent religious initia- some Hindu traditions): being (sat), tion also known as the “second birth.” consciousness (chit), and bliss (ananda). Second birth entitles a boy to study the The differences between the form of the Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts. individual words and their form in the In the dharma literature this initiatory compound are the result of sandhi or rite is prescribed for all young men euphonic combination. belonging to the three “twice-born” In certain Hindu philosophical tradi- social groups (varnas)—that is, the tions, but particularly in the Advaita brahmins, kshatriyas, and vaishyas. Vedanta school, the supreme Brahman The sacred thread would have been the is considered the Ultimate Reality most visible sign of a twice-born man, behind all things. Although Brahman is for whom wearing the thread was considered to be without particular mandatory, since any religious acts per- qualities, these three attributes are formed without wearing it were said to believed to be inseparable from its very be ineffective. nature. It has the attribute of being, In modern times its presence gener- because it is the reality from which all ally means that the wearer is a brahmin, other “being” comes. In the same way, it since it is mainly the brahmins who is consciousness, as the source of all carry out this rite today. The sacred conscious thought. Finally, bliss pro- thread is worn for extended periods of ceeds from its perfection, which is ulti- time, although it must be changed at mate and complete. certain times: after the wearer has suf- fered violent impurity (ashaucha), such as that of death; after performing any 578 Sadashiva

rite of expiation (prayashchitta); and confusing purusha and prakrti— after eclipses or other highly inauspi- roughly, spirit and nature—which are cious times. For further information see the sources of all things. These are the Pandurang Vaman Kane, A History of two Samkhya first principles—purusha Dharmasastra, 1968; and Raj Bali as conscious witness, and prakrti as Pandey, Hindu Samskaras, 1969. The insentient matter—which are always former is encyclopedic and the latter separate from each other, and whose more accessible; despite their age, they attributes can never coincide. For the remain the best sources on traditional Samkhyas, the fundamental error is to Hindu rites. confuse these two completely different principles—that is, to attribute powers of motion and development to purusha, Sacrifice and consciousness to prakrti. Purusha is Generally a rite involving a sacred fire conceived as conscious, but completely and, often, an offering in that fire. This inactive and unchanging. It is the pas- sort of ritual is rooted in the oldest part sive witness to the myriad transforma- of the Hindu tradition, although it has tions of prakrti going on around it. undergone some profound changes, This initial misidentification causes particularly in the decline of animal sac- the evolution of the entire world, both rifice. This sort of sacrificial rite is the interior, subjective world and the known as a yajna. exterior world the subject perceives. Against this background, confusing the Sadachara shell for silver is just an extension of this (“practice of good [people]”) One of the original mistake and is rooted in it. traditional sources for determining reli- According to the Samkhyas, perfect gious duty (dharma) for matters not knowledge would protect one from all treated in the dharma literature, or for sorts of errors, both cosmic and mun- cases in which the literature itself gave dane. For further information see Karl conflicting opinions. This was the least H. Potter (ed.), Presuppositions of India’s authoritative source of dharma, after the Philosophies, 1972. Vedas (the oldest Hindu scriptures) and the dharma literature. Sadachara recog- Sadashiva nizes that life has many ambiguities and In certain schools of tantra practice, uncertainties, and at the same time pro- particularly in the Trika school of vides a resource for determining the Kashmiri Shaivism, the name for the appropriate action, by taking as a model first step in the evolution of the cos- the practice of established and upright mos. According to the Trika school, the people. Another term to designate this Ultimate Reality, conceived as Shiva, is sort of authority was shishtachara, the utterly nondual, and thus neither mas- “practice of learned [people].” culine nor feminine. The first step in cosmological evolution comes when Sadasatkhyati the divine consciousness becomes (“discrimination of the unreal as the conscious of itself through the reflec- real”) Theory of error propounded by tion (vimarsha) of its original illumi- the Samkhya philosophical school. All nation (prakasha). Moved by this self- theories of error attempt to explain why consciousness, the unqualified divine people make errors in judgment, the being transforms itself into a divine stock example being of mistaking the being containing a masculine and femi- silvery flash of a sea shell for a piece of nine nature, the first of many such bipolar silver. The Samkhya theory of error is dyads from which the universe is born. based on dualistic metaphysics, in The masculine part of this first dyad is which the fundamental error comes in Sadashiva, which is considered the 579

A man smokes from a chillum wrapped with a safai, a cloth used to cool the smoke before it is inhaled. material cause of the universe. The is to fulfill one’s own dharma (svadharma), energy for creation comes from the which may supersede or even contradict creative and dynamic power of the the requirements of the common dhar- dyad’s female principle, Shakti. For fur- ma. For instance, it is generally accepted ther information see Jaideva Singh, that a king must occasionally disregard Pratyabhijnanahrdayam, 1982. truth to be an effective ruler. Since a king’s primary duty is to maintain peace and order in the country, so that other Sadhana people have the opportunity to do their (“accomplishing”) The most common duties, he is required to do whatever it colloquial Hindu term designating takes to accomplish this. established and regular religious prac- tice. It is given this name because it is through such practice that one gains spiritual attainments. In modern (“virtuous man”) A general term that can Hindi, the word can also be used to be used for any ascetic, although it more refer to anything to which one has often refers to an ascetic who has not devoted a great deal of time, attention, undergone formal initiation into an and hard work. established ascetic order.

Sadharana (“common”) Dharma Sadhubela In the dharma literature, the religious In the time before the partition of duties required of all human beings, India in 1947, Sadhubela was the name including truth, generosity, and compas- of the most important ascetic center sion. One’s essential obligation, however, for the ascetics; it was in Sukkur

580 Sagara Dashanami

in the province of Sindh province, now hard early life. His father is driven from in Pakistan. his kingdom even before he is born, and Sagar is raised at the ashram of the sage , where his mother has taken asy- Sadhya lum. When he comes to maturity Sagar (“to be proved”) Element in the accept- embarks on a series of military cam- ed form of an inference (anumana) in paigns in which he wins back all the Indian philosophy. An acceptable infer- lands his father lost, and becomes a ence has three terms: an assertion righteous and religious king whose only (pratijna), a reason (hetu), and exam- concern is his lack of progeny. ples (drshtanta); each of these three has To beget sons, Sagar calls on the sage its own constituent parts. The sadhya is, Bhrgu, who gives Sagar’s two wives a along with the paksha, one of the two choice: one wife will bear 60,000 sons parts of the assertion. The paksha is the who will all die childless, and one wife subject of the hypothesis and names a will bear one son who will carry on the class of things, while the sadhya con- line. Each of his wives chooses, and in tains the claim to be proven about that due course both have their children— class. In the standard example, in which Keshini delivers her one son in the nor- the hypothesis is “this mountain is on mal way, whereas Sumati delivers a fire,” the paksha is “this mountain” (the lump of flesh that is divided and put into class of things about which a claim is 60,000 pots, each of which develops into being made); and the sadhya, or thing to a handsome son. be proven, is “is on fire.” In his prosperity King Sagar contin- ues to sponsor religious rites, and is on Safai the verge of completing his hundredth Small cloth wrapped around the base of horse sacrifice (asvamedha), which will a chillum, a clay cylinder used for smok- entitle him to the throne of Indra, the ing a mixture of tobacco and hashish god who is the king of heaven. To fore- (charas). The safai serves two purposes, stall this, Indra steals the sacred horse one ritual and one physical. On one and hides it in the ashram of the sage hand, it forms a barrier intended to pre- . Sagar sends his 60,000 sons vent passing the ritual impurity to search for the horse, but they make (ashaucha) carried by saliva when the the mistake of insulting the sage, who chillum is being passed from person to burns them all to ash through his person. Ascetics who are very conscious yogic powers. To rescue their souls it of purity or status will often wrap their is necessary to bring down the Ganges own safai around the base of the chillum from heaven, a job that Sagar’s descen- before smoking. Aside from helping to dants diligently attempt to complete. protect personal purity, the safai also After several generations of frustration, serves a practical purpose–it is usually his great-great-grandson Bhagirath is dipped in water before being wrapped finally successful. around the chillum, which serves to cool and mellow the smoke being drawn Sagara Dashanami through it. One of the ten divisions of the Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant ascetics Sagar who are devotees (bhakta) of Shiva. In Hindu mythology, a celebrated king The Dashanamis were supposedly of the Solar Line. Sagar, the son of King established by the ninth-century philo- and his wife Yadavi, gets his sopher Shankaracharya in an effort name because one of Yadavi’s co-wives create a corps of learned men who has given her poison (gara) while she is could help to revitalize Hindu life. pregnant with him. Sagar has a very Each of the divisions is designated by a 581 Saguna

different name—in this case, sagara equal in power to the god. With Pandu’s (“ocean”). Upon initiation, new mem- blessing Kunti teaches the mantra to bers are given this name as a surname to Madri, who meditates on the Ashvins, their new ascetic names, thus allowing the divine twins who are the physicians for immediate group identification. of the gods, and thus bears the twins Aside from their individual identity, Nakula and Sahadeva. As the sons of the these ten “named” divisions are divided physicians of the gods, both are skilled into four larger organizational groups. healers of animals and human beings. Each group has its headquarters in Although they are among the five one of the four monastic centers Pandava brothers, they are less impor- (maths) supposedly established by tant to the Mahabharata than their Shankaracharya, as well as other partic- three elder siblings. ular religious associations. The Sagara Dashanamis belong to the Anandawara group, which is affiliated with the Jyotir Sahajiya math in the Himalayan town of Religious community originating in Joshimath. medieval Bengal. The Sahajiyas synthe- size devotional practices to the god Vishnu and the ritual practices of the Saguna secret tradition known as tantra, partic- (“with qualities”) Anything having dis- ularly the extreme practices associated tinguishing qualities. In the context of with the “left-hand” (vamachara) tradi- ideas about divinity it refers to particu- tion of tantra. The name sahajiya comes lar deities with particular attributes. In from the word sahaja (“natural” or the religious traditions based on the “spontaneous”), indicating the group’s ideas of the Upanishads, the speculative belief that one’s natural passions, quali- texts that are the final texts in the Vedas, ties, and tendencies should not be sup- any manifestation of a deity with quali- pressed but should be channeled to help ties is seen as ultimately inferior to the one gain final liberation of the soul unqualified (nirguna) Brahman. This (moksha). Over this foundation of assumption is adamantly opposed by tantric ritual practice was added the certain theistic traditions, such as the devotion to the god Krishna and his Gaudiya Vaishnava religious community, consort Radha, a devotional thrust which insists that the highest deity, in strongly influenced by the Gaudiya this case Krishna, has a particular form Vaishnava religious community, founded (and thus certain qualities). by the Bengali saint Chaitanya. For fur- ther information see Shashibhushan B. Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults, 1962; Sahadeva and Edward C. Dimock Jr., The Place of Fifth of the five Pandava brothers who the Hidden Moon, 1989. are the protagonists in the great Hindu epic, the Mahabharata. Sahadeva’s mother is Madri, who is the junior wife Sahasradalapadma of King Pandu. None of the Pandava In many schools of yoga, and in the reli- brothers are actually Pandu’s sons, gious tradition known as tantra, one of since he has been cursed to die the the sites in the subtle body (an alternate moment he holds his wife in an physiological system believed to exist on amorous embrace. Madri conceives her a different plane than gross matter but sons magically, using a mantra given to with certain correspondences to the her co-wife, Kunti, by the sage material body). The subtle body consists Durvasas. The mantra gives the woman of a set of six psychic centers (chakras), who recites it the power to call down which are visualized as six multipetaled any of the gods and to have by him a son lotus flowers running roughly along the

582 Sakata Chauth

course of the spine and connected by godman, who claims to be the reincar- three vertical channels. Each of these nation of Shirdi Sai Baba. chakras has important symbolic associ- ations—with different human capaci- ties, with different subtle elements (tan- Sainhikeya matras), and with different seed sylla- In Hindu mythology, demon who bles (bijaksharas) formed from the let- appears in the story of churning the ters of the Sanskrit alphabet, thus Ocean of Milk. After the gods and encompassing all sacred sound. Above demons join forces to churn the Ocean and below these centers are the bodily of Milk and obtain the nectar of immor- abodes of Shiva (awareness) and Shakti tality (amrta), the gods succeed in trick- (power), the two divine principles ing the demons out of their share. As the through which the entire universe has gods divide this nectar among them- come into being. The underlying selves, the demon Sainhikeya slips into assumption behind this concept of the the distribution line and is mistakenly subtle body is thus the homology of served some as well. As the demon macrocosm and microcosm, an essen- drinks it, the Sun and Moon alert the tial Hindu idea since the time of the god Vishnu to his presence and Vishnu mystical texts known as the Upanishads. cuts off the demon’s head with his dis- The sahasradalapadma is the site at cus. Although the head and body are the apex of the subtle body, visualized separated, both parts become immortal as a “thousand-petaled lotus” located in through their contact with the nectar. the crown of the head. This is identified The head becomes Rahu, while the as the bodily abode of Shiva, where he is body becomes Ketu, both of which are ever-present. In tantra, final liberation considered malevolent planets in (moksha) comes through the divine Indian astrology (jyotisha). According to union of Shiva and Shakti in one’s own tradition, Rahu is also the cause of body. This is done through awakening eclipses: He roams the sky, chasing the the kundalini, the bodily correlate of Sun and Moon, and tries to get revenge Shakti that lies dormant at the base by swallowing them, but the two planets of the spine, and drawing the kundalini always pass unharmed out of his sev- up to the sahasradalapadma to effect ered neck. See also Tortoise avatar. the divine union. The sahasradalapadma is identified with the seed syllable Sakata Chauth Om, the symbol of completeness and Festival falling on the fourth day perfection. For further information see (chauth) of the dark (waning) half Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe), of the lunar month of Magh (January– Shakti and Shakta, 1978; Philip S. February), which is celebrated as the Rawson, The Art of Tantra, 1973; and birthday of the god Ganesh. Those who Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of observe this festival are believed to gain the Three Cities, 1990. Ganesh’s blessings—wisdom, freedom from troubles, and prosperity. The Sai Baba fourth day of every lunar fortnight is Name used by two different charismatic sacred to Ganesh, and vows marking Hindu teachers, now distinguished by this day may be performed by his devo- the addition of other names. The earlier tees (bhakta). The biggest Ganesh festi- of the two is Shirdi Sai Baba (d. 1918), so val of the year is not his birthday, but named for the town in the state of , which falls on the Maharashtra where he lived much of his fourth day of the bright (waxing) half of life. The latter figure, Sathya (“true”) Sai the lunar month of Bhadrapada Baba (b. 1926), is a modern Hindu (August–September). religious figure of the type known as a 583 Sakha (“companion”) Bhava

Sakha (“companion”) Bhava female companions of the deity’s con- The third of the five modes of devotion sorts, Radha and Sita. Taking on the to the Supreme Being that were most persona of a sakhi provided a devotee prominently expressed by . with a concrete place in the divine Rupa used different types of human world, in which he or she could both relationships as models for the possi- observe and participate in the god’s ble relationships between deity and earthly activity. devotee (bhakta). These five models increased in emotional intensity from Sakshin the peaceful () sense that comes (“witness”) The perceiving conscious- from realizing one’s complete identity ness believed to be the inner Self with Brahman, or Supreme Reality, to (atman), which observes changes going conceiving of God as one’s master, on around it but is utterly unaffected by friend, child, or lover. In the sakha them. It is described in a primitive way bhava, devotees consider themselves as early as the Upanishads, the specula- as God’s friends and companions and tive texts that form the final layer of the thus as taking part in his regular, every- Vedas, the most authoritative Hindu day activities. religious texts. The describes the Self as a thumb-sized per- Sakhi son inside the head. The Samkhya (“friend,” “companion”) The motif of philosophical school develops this friendship as a religious ideal was well notion in a more subtle and sophisticated developed by the devotees (bhakta) of way: of its two fundamental first the god Krishna, and to a lesser extent principles, one is the purusha, which is by devotees of the god Rama. Both of the conscious but inert witness to the these deities are avatars (incarnations) transformations of prakrti, or nature. of the god Vishnu, and Vaishnava Later philosophical schools such as devotion tends to stress not only wor- Vedanta reject the Samkhya school’s ship of the chosen deity, but also the dualism by collapsing all reality into a notions of relationship and commu- single ultimate principle known as nion—both between the deity and Brahman. Vedanta’s conception of devotee, and among devotees them- Brahman as “being-consciousness- selves. Vaishnava religious practice bliss” (sacchidananda) also conceives of often involved elaborate visualization the Self as the conscious and unchang- exercises, in which devotees would ing witness to the material flux sur- envision the deity’s daily activities—for rounding it. Krishna, the simple life of a village cowherd, and for Rama, the life of a Sala prince. Some devotional manuals give In Hindi, “wife’s brother.” The term can detailed daily schedules of the deity’s be used as a serious insult if applied to activities to facilitate this process of someone who is not related in this way. visualization. Such elaborate visualiza- Calling someone “sala” implies that the tion allowed the devotees to symboli- other is in a position of relative sub- cally enter the deity’s world and take servience, since he is a member of the part in the deity’s divine play (lila) on family that “gives” the bride. It also earth, building a relationship with God implies that one is having sexual rela- through sharing the mundane ele- tions with that person’s sister, an allega- ments of everyday life. In this sort of tion that is an insult to a family’s honor, visualization, devotees commonly con- whether or not it is true. sidered themselves to be the deity’s sakhis or companions—in some cases male companions, and in other cases 584 Samavartana (“return”) Samskara

Salmala (“Silk-Cotton places associated with their presence during their lives—whether a room, Tree”) Dvipa building, or particular outdoor site. In In traditional mythic geography, the popular wisdom such ascetics are third of the seven concentric landmasses believed not to be dead but only rapt in (dvipas) making up the visible world. deep meditation (). The See also cosmology. samadhi shrines of very renowned ascetics often have shrines built over Samadhi them, which can become places of pil- (“trance”) In the ashtanga yoga first grimage for those seeking the ascetic’s codified by the philosopher Patanjali, continuing blessings (ashirvad). the last of the eight elements of yoga practice. Along with dharana (“concen- Samana tration”) and dhyana (“meditation”), In traditional Indian physiology, one of samadhi is one of the three practices the five bodily winds considered that make up the “inner discipline” responsible for basic bodily functions, (samyama), the culmination of yogic the others being prana, apana, vyana, training. Samadhi is described as a state and udana. The samana wind is consid- in which the mind is conscious of only ered to reside in the navel, and to aid in the object of concentration, and is the process of digestion. devoid of any notion of the self as per- ceiver. Once one has attained samhadi on the conscious plane, one supposedly Samasthana pursues it on more subtle inner planes. In yoga practice, sitting position in The loss of subjectivity in samadhi is which the legs are bent, with the soles of believed to make people unaware of the the feet pressed flat against one another outside world, such that they will not and the outer edges of the feet on the respond to stimuli and may sometimes ground. See utkutikasana. appear almost dead. For this reason, the burial places of deceased ascetics are usually referred to as samadhi shrines, Samavartana (“return”) Samskara since it is popularly believed that The fourteenth of the life-cycle cere- they are not dead, but only rapt in monies (samskaras), which marks the deep meditation. end of a young man’s life as a celibate student (brahmacharin) and the return to his parental home. The most impor- Samadhi Shrine tant element in this rite is a bath, after Burial place of a deceased ascetic. Part which the young man changes into new of the process of ascetic initiation is the clothes, marking his change in status. initiate’s ritualized death, in which he The young man is supposed to ask his (or far more rarely, she) performs his (or guru’s permission before performing her) own funeral rites, followed by the ceremony, and gives him his rebirth with a new name and a new teacher’s fee (dakshina), both as pay- identity. Consequently, upon the physi- ment for services rendered and as a sign cal death of an ascetic the funeral rites of respect. Shortly after his return to his (antyeshthi) are not performed, since natal home, the young man usually the ascetic is (ritually speaking) already gets married. In modern times this dead. The body is often disposed of by rite is not often observed, due to the being weighted down with rocks and decline of the traditional paradigm thrown into a river, but well-known and of the brahmacharin stage of life, powerful ascetics are often buried, usu- although sometimes it is performed in ally in a sitting position as if in medita- preparation for a marriage. tion. Such people are often buried in 585 Samavaya

The four Vedas in Sanskrit. The Sama Veda is the second of the four Vedas.

Samavaya Sama Veda (“inherence”) Fundamental category Traditionally considered the second of in the worldview of the Nyaya- the four Vedas, the oldest and most Vaisheshika philosophical school. authoritative Hindu religious texts. The This school conceives of the world as Sama Veda is a collection of hymns, made up of atomistic parts, which are arranged for singing as one of the com- connected to form larger things. The ponents of the Vedic sacrifices (yajna). fundamental function of samavaya is While drawn mostly from the Rg Veda, as a subtle glue to connect various the singing patterns are far more elabo- things: wholes and their parts, sub- rate than the simple chanting generally stances and their attributes, motions associated with the Rg Veda. Thus it is and the things that move, and general believed that the Sama Veda developed properties and their particular later than the Rg Veda. instances. It also connects both plea- sure and pain to the Self. Thus samavaya is the fundamental thing Sambandar holding the universe together. The (7th c.) One of the earliest of the philosophical problems raised by the Nayanars, a group of sixty-three south- idea of inherence—particularly the ern Indian poet-saints who were devo- claim that inherence was one single tees (bhakta) of the god Shiva. Along principle, and not a collection of with their contemporaries the Alvars, things—were ultimately responsible who were devotees of Vishnu, the for the rise of Navyanyaya school, Nayanars spearheaded the revitalization which attempted to explain these rela- of Hindu religion through their passion- tionships in a more sophisticated way. ate devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, conveyed in hymns sung in the Tamil language. Along with his contemporary

586 Samkhya

Appar, Sambandar actively opposed the performance of the sacrifice, and the unorthodox sects of the times, particu- and the Upanishads, which larly the Jains, whom he reviles in his ask speculative questions about the poems. The depth of his hatred can be power behind the sacrifice. seen in a well-established tradition that, after converting the king of Madurai, of the Pandya dynasty, from Samkalpa to Shaivism, Sambandar was (“intention”) Important ritual sequence instrumental in having eight thousand at the beginning of many religious rites Jain ascetics executed by impalement. in which the person performing the rite The collected hymns of the three most states his or her identity, the time and important Nayanars—Appar, Sambandar, place at which the action is being per- and Sundaramurtti—comprise the formed, the performer’s intention to Devaram, the most sacred of the Tamil carry out this particular ritual act, Shaivite texts. See also Shaiva. and the benefits desired from the action. The samkalpa is important as the formal commitment to perform the Samharakrama stated action. For ritual actions that (“destruction method”) Ritual in the promise several different possible Shrividya school of the secretive reli- benefits—for example, birth in heaven gious practice known as tantra. This rit- or final liberation—performing the ual uses the shrichakra, a symbolic dia- samkalpa is believed to give one the gram used in worship. The adept’s ritual result one desires. journey starts at the outer edges of the shrichakra, which represents the appar- ently “real” everyday world, and gradu- Samkhya ally moves toward the center, where a (“enumeration”) One of the six schools single point (bindu) represents absolute of traditional Hindu philosophy, whose unity. This process is called “destruc- founding text is the Samkhyakarikas, tion” because the ritual process system- written by Ishvarakrishna in the third atically deconstructs the notion of the century B.C.E. Samkhya espouses an dualistic world and destroys the notion atheistic philosophical dualism positing of a Self that is separate from the two fundamental principles as the Absolute Reality. For further informa- source of all things. The first of these is tion see Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The called purusha (“person”), which is con- Secret of the Three Cities, 1990. scious, but completely inactive and unchanging. It is seen as a passive wit- ness to the transformations going on around it. As the source of conscious- (“collection”) The most archaic textual ness, purusha is ultimately identified layer in the Vedas, comprising hymns to with an individual’s true and eternal the Vedic deities, benedictions, prayers, Self. Purusha is inferred as plural, given spells, and litanies. The term indicates the plurality of conscious beings, com- that this group of texts is a collection of bined with the fact that one person can various things important, not only for gain enlightenment while all the rest their cognitive meaning, but for their remain in bondage. power as mantra (sacred sound). The The other fundamental principle is were chanted during rites of prakrti, (“nature”), which provides the sacrifice and remain the oldest living object to the purusha’s subject. Prakrti is part of the Hindu tradition. Following better conceived of as force or power the samhitas are the three later textual rather than a specific material object. levels: the Brahmanas, which are Prakrti contains within it forces with three essentially manuals detailing correct different primordial qualities (gunas):

587 Samkhya

sattva tends toward the good, rajas in the nature of things themselves. Since towards activity or passion, and tamas the purusha never changes, there is no towards darkness and decay. In the pri- question of making it into anything else mal prakrti these three forces are in per- or regaining the way that it used to be; fect equilibrium, each perfectly balanc- the real problem is making the distinc- ing the others. The two principles of tion between the differing realities of purusha and prakrti are distinct, sepa- these two principles. Once this has been rate, and alone. done, the evolution of prakrti is said to When prakrti’s initial equilibrium is reverse, leaving the purusha again in its disturbed, it sets in motion a pattern of state of magnificent isolation (kaivalya). evolution that creates both the exterior Of course, once one has a developed (if physical world and the interior psycho- erroneous) idea of (conventional) per- logical world. From prakrti emerges sonality, this discrimination becomes all mahat (“the great one”), which has as its the more difficult. This mistaken idea psychological counterpart the subtlest becomes the basis for one’s volitional form of mental activity (buddhi). From actions (karma) and one’s emotional buddhi evolves ahamkar, which con- dispositions. One’s actions and disposi- tains the first real ideas of individual tions reinforce each other, and both of identity. From ahamkar evolves the these are undergirded by the notion of a mind (manas), the sense organs (jna- Self. nendriyas), the organs of action (kar- The Samkhya metaphysics were mendriyas), and the subtle elements adopted wholesale by the yoga philo- (); from the last evolve the sophical school, and the two schools are gross elements that actually make up usually mentioned together—Samkhya the material world. All of these evo- as the theoretical foundation, and Yoga lutes—material or psychic—have a dif- as the practical component. One of fering balance of the three gunas, which Samkhya’s lasting contributions to ultimately determines their character as Indian thought is the idea of the gunas, a wholesome, active, or unwholesome. basic concept running through Hindu Throughout this process of evolution, culture. Another influential but less per- purusha remains unchanged, a mere vasive idea is their model of evolution, witness to prakrti’s unceasing transfor- which has been adapted by other mations. Their mutual functioning is schools but often subsumed under the- described using the metaphor of the istic assumptions in which God is the lame man (purusha) being carried by source of both consciousness and the the blind man (prakrti). material world. The one philosophical The ultimate source of bondage, problem that the Samkhya could never according to the Samkhya school, surmount was to explain the source of comes because people do not recognize bondage, given their starting assump- the difference between these two princi- tions. If purusha and prakrti are com- ples. Through this lack of discrimination pletely separate, how could the two of between the two, the Self (purusha) them interact—much less mistake one appears as if it is an agent, and the evo- for the other—and how did the process lutes (from prakrti) as if they are con- of evolution begin? Although their con- scious. The Samkhyas illustrate this mis- tributions remain significant, they were understanding using the example of the largely eclipsed by Vedanta, which rose behind the crystal, in which the lat- claimed that the problem is ignorance of ter appears to be colored but is in fact the Self and not-Self, and that the world unchanged. Although for the Samkhyas around us is not an actual evolution, but prakrti undergoes real transformations, only an illusory transformation (vivarta). the primary problem is epistemologi- This philosophical model is called cal—that is, how one comes to know Vivartavada. For further information things—rather than ontological, or rooted see Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and 588 Samsara

Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Between these two lies the human Indian Philosophy, 1957; and Gerald realm, which comprises infinite possi- Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya bilities, based on various factors—such (eds.), Samkhya, 1987. as high status or low, wealth or poverty, health or disability, and the religious piety of one’s natal family. Varying mix- Sampraday tures of good and bad karma combine (“tradition”) Literally, “that which is for many different human circum- handed down,” or the transmitted body stances, and according to popular of teachings that distinguishes one reli- belief one’s present life and body are a gious group from another. Belonging to record of one’s past. The notion that a particular sampraday is based on hav- people are, in life, where they deserve ing received teachings from one’s spiri- to be because of karma can be seen as tual preceptor (guru), thus becoming the basis for the caste system. part of a spiritual lineage, and continu- Fulfilling one’s particular social role ing the life of that sampraday by trans- (svadharma), no matter how humble, mitting the teachings to disciples. not only upholds the social order but is Although the sampraday is often trans- a means for individual spiritual lated as “sect,” this loses its sense of advancement. uniqueness within particular theistic The human realm is widely believed traditions. For example, one can speak to be the best of all for spiritual life, of different sampradays among Tamil partly because human beings can Shaiva brahmins, by virtue of their dif- make rational choices, including the fering spiritual lineages, even though decision to take part in religious life. In they worship the same deity and share a this humans are different from ani- common cultural heritage. mals, which are driven mainly by their instincts, and from ghosts or hell- Samsara dwellers, who are simply expiating (“wandering”) The cycle of reincarna- their past acts. At the same time tion, one of the most fundamental human life, unlike life in the heavens, assumptions throughout all Indian reli- is full of reverses and sorrow continu- gion. In the Indian worldview, reincar- ally reminding human beings about nation involves a series of births and the transience of life and possessions rebirths in different realms and forms, and the need to engage in spiritual all based on the quality and quantity of development. Embodied existence is a karma, formed through previous constant cycling from one realm to the actions and patterns of thought. Beings next, leaving one body and assuming with good karma may be born into the another, and the inherent uncertainty heavens, which are essentially realms of of this condition has led to the search, pleasure and carefree enjoyment; those dating from the time of the speculative with bad karma may be reborn as ani- texts known as the Upanishads, for an mals or as ghosts, or into realms of pun- unchanging state, completely out of ishment, such as hells. Neither pleasure this cycle of rebirth. This unchanging nor punishment is eternal, although state is widely accepted as life’s they may last an extremely long time. supreme goal, although in any genera- Beings in heaven enjoy the results of tion very few actively seek it, with most their past actions, but when their good people content to relegate it to some karma is exhausted they must take indefinite future lifetime. For further another, lower birth; beings in realms of information see Wendy Doniger punishment are paying for their evil O’Flaherty (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in deeds, but when this has been done they Classical Indian Traditions, 1980. will take another birth, presumably in some higher status. 589 Samskara

The samskara, in which a child’s head is shaved as a rite of purification. Samskara this alone is not sufficient to become a (“making perfect”) Collective name for complete and finished person. In an the various life-cycle ceremonies in individual’s development, the raw mate- Hindu society. Although status in Indian rial given by nature must be refined society depends most on one’s birth, through the process of culture, or the 590 Samvad

action of samskaras. This process of These life cycle rites drive and gov- transformation begins before birth, ern the formation of the individual. In with the three prenatal samskaras, and modern times many of these sam- continues to death with the antyeshthi skaras are still performed, but mainly samskaras. In general, samskaras trans- by brahmins who, because of their tra- form people in two ways: by removing ditional role as priests and scholars, latent or residual impurities, such as the conserve this practice to help main- childhood chudakarana samskara, or tain their traditional prestige. For fur- by generating new capacities and enti- ther information see Pandurang tlements, such as the upanayana (initia- Vaman Kane, A History of Dharma- tion) and vivaha (marriage) samskaras. sastra, 1968; and Raj Bali Pandey, Although different writers in the dhar- Hindu Samskaras, 1969. The former is ma literature disagree on the number of encyclopedic and the latter more samskaras, traditionally, sixteen are accessible; despite their age, they accepted. Three were prenatal samskaras: remain the best sources about tradi- one to ensure conception (Garbhadhana), tional Hindu rites. one to ensure the birth of a boy (Pumsavana), and one to ensure an easy delivery and a healthy child (Siman- Samudra Gupta tonnayana). Six samskaras were associat- (r. 335–376) The second monarch in the ed with childhood: ritual actions immedi- Gupta dynasty, son of Chandra Gupta I. ately after birth (), name-giving During his reign Samudra Gupta made (Namakarana), the first outing (Nishkra- significant territorial gains from the mana), the first solid food (Anna- Gupta dynasty’s home base in eastern prashana), head-shaving (Chudakarana), Uttar Pradesh and Bihar westward to and piercing of the ears (). the Ganges basin and eastward into Five samskaras were connected with life as Bengal and Assam. Orissa and much of a celibate student (brahmacharin): begin- the Coromandel Coast gave tribute as ning of learning (Vidyarambha), adoles- independent but vassal states. Samudra cent religious initiation (Upanayana), the Gupta left a personal account of his beginning of Veda study (Vedarambha), prowess inscribed on a stone column at the first shave (), and the return Allahabad. This column had originally home at the conclusion of studies (Sama- been carved to display one of the Pillar vartana). The final two samskaras were Edicts of the Maurya emperor Ashoka marriage, and the last rites for the dead (r. 269–232 B.C.E.), and in claiming it as (antyeshthi samskara). his own Samudra Gupta was attempting These sixteen samskaras were the to appropriate some of the Maurya rites for a twice-born man, whom this dynasty’s luster. literature considered the default person. A twice-born man was one born into Samvad one of the three “twice-born” varnas— (“dialogue”) Technical term for the brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—who speaking parts in the Ramnagar Ram were ritually eligible for the adolescent Lila, a dramatic presentation of the religious initiation known as the “sec- Ramayana staged annually at the forti- ond birth.” Women in the twice-born fied town of Ramnagar, near Benares. groups would undergo all the rites The dialogues are interspersed with through the childhood rites, but would recitations from the Ramcharitmanas, have no further rites until marriage, a vernacular retelling of the Ramayana which was considered equal to all sam- written by the poet-saint Tulsidas skaras for them. People born outside the (1532–1623?), and render the archaic twice-born groups—namely, shudras language of the Ramcharitmanas into and untouchables—would perform few modern vernacular Hindi. The action in if any of these rites. 591 Samyama

the Ram Lila alternates between con- nized in military fashion into different temporary and archaic text. anis or “armies.” Until the beginning of the nineteenth century their primary occupation was as mercenary soldiers, Samyama although they also had substantial trad- (“inner discipline”) In the ashtanga ing interests; both of these have largely yoga first codified by the philosopher disappeared in contemporary times. Patanjali, a collective name for the last The Sanaka Sampraday traces its spiri- three stages in yoga practice, namely tual lineage from the Nimbarki sect, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi. These founded by Nimbarka. Members of this stages are concerned with focusing and sect worship Radha and Krishna as a disciplining the mind, and are the most divine couple, with both deities holding subtle and internalized elements in equal status. yogic practice. Sanandana Sanaka In Hindu mythology, one of four sages In Hindu mythology, one of four sages born of the god Brahma who are par- born of the god Brahma, who are adigms of asceticism; the other three paradigms of asceticism; the other are Sanaka, Sanatana, and Sana- three are Sanandana, Sanatana, tkumara. When Brahma emanates and Sanatkumara. When Brahma these four sages, he commands them emanates these four sages, he com- to begin the work of creation, but they mands them to begin the work of cre- are so detached from worldly con- ation, but they are so detached from cerns that they refuse to do so. They worldly concerns that they refuse to are celibate their entire lives, study do so. They are celibate their entire the Vedas from childhood, and always lives, study the Vedas from childhood, travel together. and always travel together. Sanatana Sanakadi In Hindu mythology, one of four sages (“Sanaka and the others”) In Hindu born of the god Brahma who are para- mythology, a collective name for four digms of asceticism; the other three sages born of Brahma who are para- ascetics are Sanaka, Sanandana, and digms of asceticism; the four sages Sanatkumara. When Brahma emanates are Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatana, these four sages, he commands them and Sanatkumara. When Brahma to begin the work of creation, but they emanates them, he commands them are so detached from worldly con- to begin the work of creation, but they cerns that they refuse to do so. They are so detached from worldly con- are celibate their entire lives, study cerns that they refuse to do so. They the Vedas from childhood, and always are celibate their entire lives, study travel together. the Vedas from childhood, and always travel together. Sanatana (“eternal”) Dharma In the dharma literature, the ultimate Sanaka Sampraday and eternal moral order of the universe. One of the four branches (sampraday) It is the eternal ideal pattern revealed in of the Naga class of the Bairagi ascetics. the Vedas (the oldest and most authori- Bairagi ascetics are devotees (bhakta) of tative Hindu religious texts). This pat- the god Vishnu. The Nagas are fighting tern must be upheld to maintain the sta- ascetics hired by the other Bairagis to bility of society. All aspects of religious protect them. The Naga class is orga- duty (dharma) aim ultimately toward 592 Sandhi the maintenance and fulfillment of this Sandhabhasha order, including common religious Symbolic language used in tantra, a duties (sadharana dharma), religious secret, ritually based religious prac- duties stemming from social status tice. The literal translation of the term (varna dharma) and stage of life (ash- is disputed; it is often translated as rama dharma), and individualized reli- “twilight language” because of its gious duty (svadharma). In more recent shadowy and mysterious character, times, the term has been used but Agehananda Bharati is emphatic by Hindus to identify the religious that the term means “intentional lan- tradition known to the outside world guage.” The elements of tantric wor- as “Hinduism.” ship and practice are described in a coded language drawn from the parts Sanatana Sampraday and functions of the human body con- sidered private by most standards. Another name for the Nimbarki reli- Such coded discourse is used to hide gious community. The philosopher the tradition’s essentials from nonini- Nimbarka was the community’s histori- tiates and also to project the speakers cal founder, but, according to the into an altered understanding. For Nimbarkis, the actual founder was the noninitiates, such language reinforces god Vishnu himself. One of Vishnu’s dis- the general conception of tantric prac- ciples was named Sanatana (“eternal”), titioners as completely debased. hence the name of the sampraday. Douglas R. Brooks reports in The Secret of the Three Cities, 1990, that Sanatkumara although widely used in Buddhist In Hindu mythology, one of four sages tantra, Sandhabhasha is less common born of the god Brahma who are par- among Hindus, who for their coded adigms of asceticism; the other three language favor using common words are Sanaka, Sanandana, and with contextually technical meanings. Sanatana. When Brahma emanates For further information see Swami these four sages, he commands them Agehananda. Bharati, The Tantric to begin the work of creation, but they Tradition, 1977; Appendix A in Linda are so detached from worldly con- Hess and Shukdev Singh (trans.), The cerns that they refuse to do so. They Bijak of Kabir, 1983; and Douglas are celibate their entire lives, study Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three the Vedas from childhood, and always Cities, 1990. travel together Sandhi Sandarshana (“expositing”) Mudra (“junction”) In classical Sanskrit gram- In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, a mar, a term for the euphonic (harmonic) particular symbolic hand gesture combination of words. In general this is (mudra), in which the tips of the thumb done by modifying the final phoneme of and index finger are touching, with the one word, based on the initial phoneme rest of the fingers extended and the of the following word, to facilitate a palm facing the viewer. This is the hand smooth verbal transition between the gesture used to signify explanation or two. An example is the compound word exposition, and for this reason it is also sacchidananda, which designates the known as the vyakhyana (“teaching”) three essential aspects of the ultimate mudra. Since the teaching gesture indi- unqualified Brahman, and is formed cates a person of higher spiritual attain- from the words sat (“being”), chit (“con- ment, it is also known as the chit (“con- sciousness”) and ananda (“bliss”). sciousness”) mudra.

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Sandhya waiting, unfaithfulness, separation, and (“union”) Morning and evening twilight, hardship. Each of these moods had well- the two transitional times between day developed symbolic associations, and night and thus, metaphorically, the including associations with a specific times when day and night are united. type of landscape, time of day and year, The word also often denotes certain flora, fauna, and types of people; such rites performed daily at morning, noon, richly developed symbolism gives these and evening, the three times when dif- poems incredible symbolic depth. The ferent parts of the day are in union. akam poems are arguably the literary These rites are prescribed in the dhar- antecedents to devotional (bhakti) ma literature as mandatory for all poetry, which first developed in Tamil twice-born men, that is, all men from Nadu. For further information see A.K. the brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya Ramanujan (trans.), The Interior groups who have undergone the adoles- Landscape, 1994; and Glenn Yocum, cent religious initiation known as the “Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: “second birth.” At present time these Elements in the Emergence of Popular rites are performed only by the most Tamil Bhakti,” in the Journal of the orthodox brahmins. American Academy of Religion, Vol. 41, No. 1, 1973. See also Tamil epics and Tamil language. Sangam (“coming together”) Meeting-place for two rivers and the point at which their capacity for purification is believed to Minister of the blind king Dhrtarashtra, be heightened. The most famous such an important older figure in the Hindu site is the confluence of the Ganges epic the Mahabharata. Sanjaya tries and the Yamuna rivers at the city of valiantly to avert the war that is the epic’s Allahabad, but numerous other such climax by counseling the king to better sites exist throughout the Indian sub- control his son Duryodhana, and to deal continent. more equitably with his nephews the Pandavas, the five brothers who are the epic’s protagonists. In the end, the king Sangama Dynasty ignores Sanjaya’s advice. Sanjaya is most See Vijayanagar dynasty. famous for his ability to see anything he thinks about (“tele-vision”). This power is given to him as a gift from the sage Vyasa Sangam Literature so he can describe the progress of the war Collection of classical literature from the to Dhrtarashtra without actually having to Tamil culture, composed during the be there. After the war, Sanjaya goes to live early centuries of the common era; in the forest with Dhrtarashtra, and it is he Sangam (also spelled Cankam) means who informs the Pandavas about the blind “academy.” The most famous texts in king’s death in a forest fire. Sangam literature are eight collections of short poems. Three of these collec- tions fall into the genre called puram Sanjaya Belatthiputa (“the outer part”); the other five are in Agnostic thinker in early Indian philos- the genre called akam (“the inner part”). ophy whose views are alluded to in Puram poetry was “public” verse, the Buddhist scriptures. The scriptures describing the deeds of kings, war, portray Sanjaya as an advocate of death, and other heroic actions. Akam profound agnosticism with regard to poetry was about an individual’s inner another world, the effects of good and experience, especially cultured love, of evil deeds, and just about every facet of which the Sangam poets distinguished religious life. five developed moods: union, patient 594 Sanskrit

Sanjna ered a strong protective deity, with the In Hindu mythology, the daughter of power to rescue his devotees (bhakta) Vishvakarma, workman and architect from all kinds of trouble and misfortune. for the gods. Sanjna has been married to Surya, the Sun, but finds his dazzling Sankat Mochan radiance too much to bear. To help his (2) A temple in the southern part of daughter adjust to her husband, Benares dedicated to the monkey-god Vishvakarma trims off some bits of the Hanuman in his form as Sankat Mochan. sun with his divine tools, removing The temple does not have a long history enough of his radiance that Samjna can but first became famous in the nineteenth bear to be with him. The trimmed-off century through some Ramanandi ascetics parts of the sun are used to build the living there, whose piety drew visitors to Pushpak Viman, an aerial car, as well as the spot. In modern times, the temple the god Vishnu’s discus (chakra), the has become popular because the image god Shiva’s trident, and various other of Hanuman is believed to be very pow- divine weapons. erful, but also accessible—qualities that lead petitioners to come with requests and leave with the assurance that help Spoken ritual performed before a reli- is forthcoming. gious act. The person about to perform the act identifies himself by name, tells Sankranti the location of the act, and gives the (“transition”) The transition of a celestial lunar calendar date and time. He goes body (sun, moon, or planet) from one on to describe the religious act and what sign of the zodiac to another. Such tran- benefits he wants to receive as a result. sitions can give the celestial bodies or Sankalpa is done before rituals such as the time in question positive or negative suicide and doing morning puja to the qualities. The most important of these Ganges. See samkalpa. celestial bodies is the sun, whose two directional transitions—northward at Sankarshana Makara Sankranti, and southward at (“dragging away”) Epithet of the god Karka Sankranti—define more and less Krishna’s brother Balarama, referring auspicious times for the entire year. to Balarama’s unusual prenatal devel- opment—he is conceived by Krishna’s Sanskrit mother Devaki but is magically trans- (“perfected”) For much of Indian history, ferred into the womb of her co-wife Sanskrit was the language of the cultural Rohini. This is done to protect him and religious elite. Even in the twentieth from harm, since Devaki’s wicked century, it is still the language with the uncle Kamsa has already killed her highest religious status. Its name reflects first seven children, and will certainly the religious conviction that it was the do the same if she carries Balarama to perfect language—the language of the term. See Balarama. gods. Sanskrit was essentially fixed in the fourth century B.C.E. by the grammarian Sankat Mochan Panini in his Ashtadhyayi. Since it has (“freeing from distress”) Epithet of a partic- not changed from Panini’s time, Sanskrit ular form of the monkey-god Hanuman, is no longer considered a “natural” whose main temple is on the southern part language. Even in Panini’s time, Sanskrit of Benares. Sankat Mochan has been an would have been a person’s second increasingly popular form of Hanuman language, learned by conscious study since the 1970s. As with all manifestations after acquiring a grammatically simpler of Hanuman, Sankat Mochan is consid- mother tongue (one of the Prakrits) 595 Sant

An illustrated page of Sanskrit from the first chapter of the Devimahatmya. The illustration depicts the opening episode, in which a king and a merchant visit a hermit. through the normal process of language As a group the sants shared certain learning. In a religious context Sanskrit general tendencies rather than an has primarily been the province of explicit body of doctrine. Sant religion brahmins, serving both as a sacred was inclined to stress an individual- language and a common language ized, interior religion leading to a per- through which the brahmins from vari- sonal experience of the divine, rather ous areas could communicate with each than participation in established cults. other. Its place of pride as the religious One of the most common sant themes language par excellence has been some- was their disdain for external ritual, what undercut by the influence of the and the general rejection of any wor- devotional (bhakti) religious movement. ship using images. The northern One of this movement’s pervasive fea- Indian sants are the most uncompro- tures was poetry composed in vernacular mising advocates of nirguna devotion, languages, which reflected the conscious in which the divine is seen as beyond choice to speak in a language that every- conception; but even among the one could understand. Pandharpur devotees (bhakta) the stress was on devotion to the god Vithoba, rather than actual worship. Sant The sants stressed the power of the Literally, someone who has found the divine Name and its ability to remove truth, or who is searching for it. The all obstacles. They disregarded caste word is derived from the Sanskrit word distinctions, viewing them as an arbi- sat (“truth”). More generally it refers to trary barrier dividing the human com- two major groups of devotional (bhakti) munity. They stressed instead the value poet-saints. One group was centered of satsang, and the transforming around the temple of Vithoba at effects that such “good company” Pandharpur in the state of Maharashtra, could bring. Satsang thus formed an and includes saints from the Varkari egalitarian community through the Panth community such as Namdev, common bonds of faith and devotion, , Chokamela, and Eknath. as an alternative to the hierarchical The other group included later poet- society established by birth. saints from various places in northern It is sometimes suggested that all of India, among them Kabir, Ravidas, these themes can be traced to the sants’ Dadu, and Guru Nanak, the founder of social background, since many of them the Sikh community. 596 Santoshi Ma

came from very low caste communities. It This film did not invent Santoshi Ma, is certainly true that devotees of low social although it was largely responsible for status would have been forbidden even to spreading her worship. The prescrip- enter temples, much less worship the tions for Santoshi Ma’s religious vow images in those temples, and thus a reli- (vrat) had existed before the film was gious path emphasizing the Name and made, and both the rite’s charter myth interior religious experience, which are and the film focus on the problems of a accessible to everyone, might have new bride and their eventual resolution seemed a more viable option. In the same through her steadfast devotion to way, the socially oppressed might find the Santoshi Ma. Santoshi Ma’s ultimate notion of an alternative, egalitarian com- source is a mystery, but her iconography munity immensely attractive. Yet to suggests that she is an amalgam of other reduce the sant tradition to a simple reac- female deities. She is seated on the lotus, tion by marginal social groups cannot a feature associated with the goddess explain why one of its major figures is Lakshmi; she wields the sword associated Eknath, a brahmin. Such reductionist with the goddesses Kali and Durga, as analyses ignore the sant movement’s real well as the trident associated with the thrust, namely the passionate search for god Shiva. She shows the attributes the divine that permitted no compromis- associated with both married and es and no excuses. For further informa- unmarried goddesses: Like the married tion see Karine Schomer and W. H. goddesses, she is nurturing and caring McLeod, The Sants, 1985. to her devotees, playing the role of the benevolent Indian mother, and like the independent unmarried goddesses, she Santal is powerful and and potentially danger- Tribal (adivasi) community in northern ous—one of the film’s climactic scenes India, particularly in the border districts shows her utterly destroying a temple of Bihar and West Bengal. As with most after Satyavati’s sister-in-law intention- tribals in India, many are very poor and ally ruined the sanctified food (prasad) make a precarious living as cultivators. meant for her devotees. Yet she is also believed to have the power to grant her Santoshi Ma devotees’ requests, no matter how large. (“the mother who satisfies”) Goddess Through her nurturing, benevolent who is one of the most fascinating character coupled with power, she Hindu deities, and whose recent explo- crosses the usual boundaries associated sive popularity illustrates both the flexi- with Hindu goddesses. bility of the Hindu pantheon, and the Part of the popularity of Santoshi way that Hindu religion reflects and Ma’s vrat comes from its simplicity, responds to changes in Indian society. cheapness, and promise of benefits. The Santoshi Ma’s popularity was largely observance is usually kept by women inspired by a film released in 1975, Jai with the aim of attaining concrete goals Santoshi Ma (“Victory to Santoshi Ma”). for themselves and their families: get- The film first details the birth of Santoshi ting a job, passing an exam, conceiving a Ma as the daughter of the god Ganesh, child, or arranging a marriage. The rite but then cuts to the earthly problems involves weekly fasting (upavasa) and suffered by one of her devotees (bhakta), worship. One of the social factors cited Satyavati. Satyavati is a new bride hav- in Santoshi Ma’s explosive popularity is ing problems adjusting to her marital the steadily growing uncertainty in home, particularly because of tensions Indian (and South Asian) life, which with her wicked sisters-in-law. By the makes very ordinary things difficult end of the film, through Satyavati’s to attain and necessitates the use of steadfast devotion to Santoshi Ma, all of all possible resources. In this context, her problems are resolved. an inexpensive rite that promises 597 Santoshi Ma Vrat

concrete benefits for assiduous devotion Sanyasi is an attractive option. See also Santoshi (“renunciant”) According to the dharma Ma Vrat. literature, the last of the idealized stages of life (ashrama) for a twice-born Santoshi Ma Vrat man, that is a man born into the brah- min, kshatriya, or vaishya communi- Religious observance celebrated on ties. Boys born into these communities Fridays in homage to the goddess are eligible for the adolescent religious Santoshi Ma (“the mother who satis- initiation known as the “second birth.” fies”). This religious vow (vrat) is usually After engaging in religious learning as a kept by women with the aim of attaining celibate student (brahmacharin), mar- concrete goals for themselves or (more rying and raising a family as a house- commonly) their families: getting a job, holder (grhastha), and gradually detach- passing an exam, conceiving a child, or ing himself from the world as a forest- arranging a marriage. When one’s wish dwelling recluse (), a twice- has been granted, a final ceremony born man should finally renounce all calls for the observant to feed eight possessions and all attachments to brahmin boys a meal of rice, yogurt, and devote himself exclusively to the search bananas. After this concluding rite, for ultimate truth. Although in a general one is no longer required to observe the sense the word Sanyasi can (and some- vow, although many women choose times does) refer to any such renun- to continue performing it as a means ciant, it is most used as the name of a to maintain the household’s general particular ascetic community, the good fortune. Dashanami Sanyasis, who are believed The Santoshi Ma Vrat has become to have been founded by the great extremely popular throughout northern philosopher Shankaracharya, and who India since the late 1970s, one reason are devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva. being that it is simple and inexpensive. On the day of the fast (upavasa) the wor- shiper should not eat until the evening Sanyasi Rebellion meal, although tea and other beverages Name given by the British to a long-term are generally allowed. In the late after- struggle in the Bengal region in the latter noon the worshiper should light a lamp half of the eighteenth century. This was in front of a picture of Santoshi Ma, offer the period in which the British East her small amounts of chickpeas and raw India Company was consolidating its sugar—things that can be found in even economic, political, and military control the poorest households—and read over the region, causing wide-ranging aloud the rite’s charter myth, which tells dislocations in traditional Bengali soci- how a poor, unfortunate woman solved ety. Among the entrenched powers with all her family’s troubles through her which the British clashed were orga- devotion to Santoshi Ma. After this, the nized bands of soldier-ascetics, both worshiper may eat the evening meal, Hindus and Muslims. These soldier- although it is also subject to restrictions: ascetics were significant local forces, Since Santoshi Ma is a goddess associat- with both military and economic power ed with sweetness, the food must not gained through mercenary services, contain any sour, spicy, or bitter season- trading, and money-lending, and they ings. This observance thus carries the competed with the British East India two common features of most religious Company for political authority and vows: some form of worship and modi- land revenue. fication of one’s diet, with the promise of Conflict between the British and the benefits in return. ascetics peaked shortly after the Bengal famine of 1770–1771. The rebellion was caused partly by competition for greatly 598 Sapindikarana reduced agricultural revenue and by Saphala Ekadashi British-sponsored changes in land own- Religious observance falling on the ership patterns, in which officials in the eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark East India Company replaced many of (waxing) half of the lunar month of the “unprofitable” traditional landowners Paush (December–January). All the with their own Company employees. eleventh-day observances are dedicated Many of the traditional landowners to the worship of Vishnu. Most Hindu owed money to ascetic moneylenders religious festivals have certain pre- (Sanyasis), and had pledged their land scribed rites, which usually involve fast- revenue as security. The Sanyasis were ing (upavasa) and worship and often upset when the landowners were promise specific benefits for faithful replaced and the debts not honored. For performance. Those performing this rite their part, the Company’s officials were must stay up all night singing and telling reluctant to allow the ascetics, who trav- of Vishnu’s exploits. The name Saphala eled in heavily armed bands, to pass means “successful,” and those who through the company’s territories while faithfully observe this will be successful on religious pilgrimage, as the ascetics in all their endeavors. had traditionally done. Ultimately the ascetic attacks were disorganized and local, and the disparate Sanyasi Sapinda bands were unable to withstand (“having a common body”) Term for British resources and organization. A people having common ancestry, who fictionalized account of the Sanyasi could thus be said to share the same Rebellion appeared in the novel body through the ancestor. This rela- Anandamath, by Bankim Chandra tionship was held to cease after seven Chatterjee (1838–1894), who used the generations on the father’s side, and Sanyasi Rebellion as a coded call for after five on the mother’s. Men and resistance to contemporary British rule. women who were sapinda were theoret- ically forbidden to marry, although this prohibition has been routinely ignored Sapaksha in southern India since very early times. One of the parts of an acceptable See also marriage prohibitions. form of inference (anumana) in Indian philosophy. An acceptable inference has three terms: an assertion (pratijna), Sapindikarana a reason (hetu), and examples (drshtanta); Funerary rite (antyeshthi samskara) each of these three has its own con- performed on the twelfth day after stituent parts. The sapaksha is part of death, which symbolically represents the third term, the examples. It is a pos- the one-year anniversary of the death. itive example given to support the claim In this rite, the departed person is trans- made in the initial assertion, by showing formed from a potentially dangerous that similar things happen in compara- wandering spirit (pret) to a benevolent ble cases. For example, in the inference, ancestral spirit (pitr). Each day for ten “there is fire on the mountain, because days following a person’s death, mourn- there is smoke on the mountain,” the ers leave a ball of cooked grain (pinda) sapaksha could be “as in a kitchen,” for the departed spirit. Gradually the ten since this place has both fire and smoke, pindas “construct” a new body for the and thus supports the initial assertion. departed person. Then sapindikarana is Conventionally, an inference also has to performed on the twelfth day. A large have a negative example, to show that pinda, representing the departed, and the claim made in the assertion does not three smaller ones are collected, repre- happen in some other cases. senting the departed’s father, grandfa- ther, and great-grandfather. The rite’s 599 Sapindikarana

A groom and bride circle the sacred fire during the marriage ceremony, a rite often combined with the , or the seven steps. central moment comes when the have been transformed from a wander- departed’s pinda is divided into three ing spirit into an ancestor as well. This parts, one part is mixed with each of the twelfth day rite is the last of the funerary other three pindas, and finally all three rites performed on a strict timetable. pindas are combined into one. At the Mourners may wait for years before per- moment the three pindas are combined, forming the final rite of asthi-visarjana, the departed is believed to have become in which bone and ashes from the dead one (sapindi) with his ancestors, and to person’s cremation pyre are immersed 600 Saraswat

in a sacred river, although with the Hindu mythology, since it was by churn- advent of better transportation this is ing this that the gods obtained the nec- sometimes now performed before the tar of immortality (amrta). See also twelfth day rites. In addition, people Tortoise avatar. still perform annual memorial rites for the deceased. For an excellent account of this rite, see David M. Knipe, Sarama “Sapindikarana: The Hindu Rite of Entry In the Rg Veda, the earliest Hindu sacred into Heaven,” in Frank E. Reynolds and text, a servant of the storm-god Indra. In Earle H. Waugh (eds.), Religious Rg Veda 10.108, Sarama is sent as an Encounters With Death, 1977. emissary to Indra’s enemies, the Panis, to inquire where they have hidden the cows they have stolen, and to threaten Saptapadi them with Indra’s wrath if they do not (“seven steps”) The most important rite reveal their location. in the Hindu marriage ceremony, in which the bride and groom take seven steps together to symbolize their marital Saraswat union. The seventh step completes the Traditional Indian society was modeled transfer of the bride from her natal fam- as a collection of endogamous, or ily to the groom’s family and is also the intermarried, subgroups known as jatis point when the marriage becomes per- (“birth”). Jatis were organized (and their manent. As described in the dharma lit- social status determined) by the group’s erature, the bride and groom would hereditary occupation, over which each perform this rite by taking seven steps in group has a monopoly. This sort of dif- a straight line. In contemporary times ferentiation applied even to brahmins, this rite is often combined with the whose role has been to serve as priests, agnipradakshinam (“circumambulat- scholars, and teachers. The Saraswats ing the fire”), in which the bride and are a brahmin jati counted as one of the groom make seven revolutions around a five northern Indian brahmin commu- small fire—considered to be a form of nities (Pancha Gauda); the other four the god Agni and thus the divine witness are the Gaudas, the Kanaujias, the to the marriage. While circling the fire, Maithilas, and the Utkalas. Unlike most the bride and groom are often physically other brahmin communities, which had joined by tying part of his turban to the a well-defined core region, the Saraswats edge of her sari as a visible sign of their are found in several widely separated marital union. locations. One group lived in the coastal region of Sindh in modern Pakistan, although after Partition in Saptasindhu 1947 most of the group migrated to (“seven seas”) In traditional mythic Bombay. Another group was located in geography, the seven oceans surround- prepartition Punjab, although here too ing the seven concentric landmasses they have tended to migrate away from (dvipas) that make up the visible world. the part of Punjab in modern Pakistan. Each of these seven seas is composed of A third branch, known as the Gauda a different substance. The ocean acces- Saraswats, is found on a narrow strip of sible to human beings is composed of coastline in the southern Indian state salt water, but the oceans beyond that of Karnataka. The Saraswat communi- are composed of sugarcane juice, wine, ty takes its name from Saraswati, ghee (clarified butter), yogurt, milk, and patron goddess of speech and learning, sweet water. Few specific details exist and, as a group, is famous for its erudi- about most of these oceans, but the tion and piety. Ocean of Milk has a prominent place in

601 Saraswati

A depiction of Saraswati, the goddess associated with art, aesthetics, learning, sacred speech, and wisdom. Saraswati speak clearly. Her association with Goddess associated with art, aesthetics, sacred speech goes back to the time of learning, sacred speech, and wisdom. the sacrificial manuals known as the Saraswati is the patron deity of culture Brahmanas, in which the cult of sacri- in all its manifestations. The spoken fice was based on the precise perfor- word is considered very powerful in mance of sacred speech and ritual. Hindu culture and Saraswati can either Her iconography emphasizes her promote or frustrate one’s efforts by connection with the life of the mind: conferring or withdrawing the ability to She holds a book, a crystal (symbolic 602 Sarmanochegas

of a purified mind), a vina (musical These ten “named” divisions of instrument), and a rosary (associated Dashanami Sanyasis are divided into with religious rites, and particularly four larger organizational groups. Each with the repetition of the sacred group has its headquarters in one of the sounds known as mantras). Her ani- four monastic centers (maths) suppos- mal vehicle is the swan, whose white edly established by Shankaracharya, as color is a symbol of purity and whose well as other particular religious associ- high flight is a symbol of transcen- ations. The Saraswati Dashanamis dence. Through Saraswati’s blessings belong to the Bhuriwara group, which is (ashirvad) human beings can tran- affiliated with the Shringeri math in the scend their biological condition to southern Indian town of Shringeri. The create works of art and culture. Saraswati division is elite in that it is one Saraswati is usually believed to be of the few that will initiate only brah- married, although different mythic mins (the other such divisions are sources give her different husbands. In Ashrama, Tirtha, and part of the some cases she is described as the wife of Bharati order). the god Brahma, the creator; here their joint activity encompasses the formation of the material world and its transforma- Saraswati River tion through human cultural activity. In One of the seven sacred rivers of India, other stories she is described as the wife along with the Ganges, Yamuna, of the god Vishnu, and thus a co-wife of Godavari, Narmada, Indus, and Lakshmi. Here the realms of Lakshmi and Cauvery. The Saraswati is particularly Saraswati can be seen as giving differing interesting because no one is sure exactly messages about the “good things” in life— where this river is located. A river by this while Lakshmi grants wealth and materi- name is mentioned in the hymns of the al prosperity, Saraswati brings wisdom Vedas, the earliest and most authorita- and culture. A popular Indian saying tive Hindu religious texts, and thus the reports that Saraswati’s devotee (bhakta) Saraswati River would seem to have will never make money, while a follower been in the northeastern part of India, of Lakshmi (whose vehicle is the owl) will in which these hymns are set. In modern be “blind” to spiritual wisdom. For more times a Saraswati River flows through information on Saraswati and all the god- the northern Indian state of Haryana desses of Hinduism, see David R. Kinsley, and dries up in the desert of the state of Hindu Goddesses, 1986. Rajasthan. Archaeologists have found extensive settlements from the Indus Valley civilization on its banks, indicat- Saraswati Dashanami ing that in earlier times the river was an One of the ten divisions of the active tributary of the Indus. Popular Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant belief holds that the Saraswati continues ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of to flow underground, and joins the Shiva. The Dashanamis were supposedly Ganges and Yamuna Rivers at their con- established by the ninth-century fluence in Allahabad. This reputed con- philosopher Shankaracharya in an fluence of three sacred rivers is the effort to create a corps of learned men source for one of the site’s names, who could help to revitalize Hindu life. Triveni (“triple stream”). Each of the divisions is designated by a different name—in this case, Saraswati (the patron goddess of learning and cul- Sarmanochegas ture). Upon initiation, new members According to the Greek writer Strabo, the are given this name as a surname to name of an ascetic who was part of a their new ascetic names, thus allowing delegation sent to Athens by a king of for immediate group identification. the Pandya dynasty, met by Augustus in 603 Sarvadarshanasangraha

Athens in 20 B.C.E. In Athens, Sarmano- performer’s desire (kama) to obtain cer- chegas, tired of a life of bondage on tain benefits. This element of desire earth, committed religious suicide by makes kamya karma different from the burning himself on a pyre. other two classes of ritual action, nitya karma and naimittika karma, which were each in some way obligatory. The Sarvadarshanasangraha sarvasvara could be undertaken to obtain (“Collection of all [philosophical] any outcome, such as birth in heaven as views”) A philosophical encyclopedia a god, or rebirth in a royal family. The sac- composed by Madhava in the late four- rificer declares the benefit in the part of teenth century. In this text, Madhava the rite called the samkalpa. Although compiled the views of all the existing the sarvasvara had extreme elements, it philosophical schools, which he placed was completely voluntary. in hierarchical order, based on his judg- ment of their truth value. The material- ist schools were ranked the lowest and Sashanka least reliable since their proponents (7th c.) King of Bengal who was an completely denied the virtue of any reli- ardent devotee (bhakta) of the god gious life. After this came various Shiva and a fierce opponent of Buddhist schools, whose low standing Buddhism, which was deeply entrenched can be attributed to the widespread per- in his domain. According to reliable ception that they were nihilists (nas- historical reports, Sashanka not only tikas). Madhava then moves through persecuted the Buddhists themselves the various Hindu philosophical but also tried to destroy the tree in schools, finishing with the Advaita Bodh Gaya under which the Buddha Vedanta school—his own—which was gained enlightenment. This is one of judged the highest and most perfect the few well-documented cases of reli- expression of the truth. Although the gious persecution. Sarvadarshanasangraha is a polemical text with a clear bias, it is one of the few extant sources that considers the per- Sat spectives of all the existing schools. In Indian philosophical thought, the most basic denotation for “that which (really and truly) exists.” The term is a Sarvam Khalu Brahman present participle of the verb “to be,” so (“Truly, this universe is Brahman”) In a fairly common translation is “Being,” the Hindu philosophical tradition, one but the word also carries connotations of the “great utterances” (mahavakyas) relating to the idea of Truth—that things expressing the ultimate truth, here the that exist are both “real” and “true.” Sat sameness of the individual Self (atman) is the first of the three attributes tradi- with the Supreme Reality (Brahman). tionally ascribed to the unqualified, ulti- mate Brahman as sacchidananda, along with consciousness (chit) and Sarvasvara bliss (ananda). Sacrificial rite found in the Vedas, the oldest and most authoritative Hindu religious texts. The most notable feature Satavahana Dynasty of the sarvasvara is that it involved the Central Indian dynasty whose core area suicide of the sacrificer, who concluded was in the Deccan plateau in the west- the rite by entering the sacrificial fire. ern state of Maharashtra, and whose The sarvasvara is an extreme example capital was in the city of Paithan. The of the class of ritual actions known as Satavahana dynasty was at its peak from kamya karma, which consists of the first to the third centuries, when it action performed solely because of the ruled an area spanning the modern 604 Sati

states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, religious figure who presides as religious Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra teacher (guru) over millions of devotees Pradesh. It was in the Satavahana (bhakta), both Indian and foreign. He domains that the first cave temples were was born in the small village of constructed in the chaitya and vihara Puttaparthi in the state of Andhra architectural styles, which paved the Pradesh, where his main ashram is still way for later architectural forms. located. He first claimed to be an incar- nation of Shirdi Sai Baba, a Maharashtrian saint, at thirteen—a Satguru move that gave him religious authority (“true guru”) In the sant religious tradi- and obviated the need to accept a tion, an epithet (label) that can refer human guru and a spiritual lineage. either to the Supreme Being or to a gen- Sathya Sai Baba has since stated that he uinely realized religious teacher, will be reincarnated a third time, thus through whose instruction a disciple eliminating awkward questions about a attains the Supreme Being. The sants successor. His fame rests upon his sup- were a loose group of central and north- posed magic powers, particularly the ern Indian poet-saints who lived ability to heal and to materialize objects between the fifteenth and seventeenth from thin air. Sai Baba has many mid- centuries and who shared several general dle- and upper-class Indian devotees, tendencies: stress on individualized whom he obliges to perform service and interior religion, leading to a per- () to others. Some observers are sonal experience of the divine; disdain highly skeptical about his reputed pow- for external ritual, particularly image ers and about Sai Baba in general. For worship; faith in the power of the divine further information see Lawrence Babb, Name; and a tendency to ignore con- “Sathya Sai Baba’s Saintly Play,” in John ventional caste distinctions. Many of Stratton Hawley (ed.), Saints and the sants, particularly in northern India, Virtues, 1987; “Sathya Sai Baba and the thought of the divine as without quali- Lesson of Trust,” in Redemptive ties (nirguna) and beyond human pow- Encounters, 1987; and “Sathya Sai Baba’s ers of conception. Given these aniconic Miracles,” in T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion and occasionally iconoclastic tenden- in India, 1991. cies, it is not surprising that the sant tra- dition highlights the importance of the spiritual teacher (guru), since the guru’s Sati human form is the only image that a dis- Hindu goddess, daughter of the demigod ciple has to work with. In human form, Daksha and wife of the god Shiva, whose the satguru guides the disciple’s spiritual death and dismemberment are pivotal practice and thus becomes the vehicle incidents in the mythology of both Shiva for spiritual attainment. Yet a true guru, and the Goddess. According to legend, according to the tradition, always after Sati marries Shiva, her father Daksha remains a servant rather than a master, feels that Shiva has not shown him proper maintaining and transmitting the teach- respect and develops bad feelings toward ing of his or her particular lineage. The him. Inflated with pride, Daksha plans a sant notion of the satguru has been great sacrifice to which he invites all the adopted into many modern Hindu gods but deliberately excludes Shiva. movements, most notably the Radha When Sati learns about the sacrifice, she Soami Satsang. insists that she wants to go, since it is in her natal home. Shiva, after trying to dis- courage her by pointing out that one Sathya Sai Baba should not go without an invitation, final- (b. Narayana Peddi Venkappa ly gives her his permission. When Sati Raju, 1926) Modern Hindu teacher and arrives at the sacrificial grounds and asks 605 Satkaryavada

Daksha why he has excluded her hus- others 108—marks the site where a part band, Daksha responds with a stream of of Sati’s body fell to earth, taking form abuse, excoriating Shiva as worthless and there as a different goddess. These despicable. Humiliated by these public differing goddesses, spread all over the insults, Sati commits suicide—in some subcontinent, are thus seen as manifes- versions, by leaping into the sacrificial fire, tations of this one primordial goddess, in others by withdrawing into yogic trance united by the symbolism of the human and giving up her life. body. Aside from establishing this network, Shiva, furious at what has happened, the myth has several other important creates the fierce deity (or messages: It graphically illustrates the in some versions, Virabhadra and the supremacy of devotion (in this case, to fierce goddess ), and dis- Shiva) over the older sacrificial cult; it patches them to destroy Daksha’s sacri- illustrates some of the tensions in the fice. They gleefully carry out his com- joint family, in which women feel the mand, scattering the guests and killing conflict of loyalty between their natal Daksha. The resulting carnage ends only and their marital homes; and it is the when the assembled gods praise Shiva charter myth for the Daksha Mahadev as the supreme deity. Daksha is eventu- temple in the town of , just ally restored to life with the head of a south of the sacred city of Haridwar, goat, and he too repents his arrogance where Daksha’s sacrifice is claimed to and worships Shiva. At Daksha’s request, have taken place. See also pitha. Shiva agrees to remain at the sacrificial site forever and sanctify it. Shiva takes the form of a linga, the pillar-shaped Satkaryavada object that is his symbolic form, and can One of the three causal models in Indian still be seen at the Daksha Mahadev philosophy, along with asatkaryavada temple in the town of Kankhal. and . All three models seek Although Shiva’s anger has been to explain the relationship between causes pacified by this worship, he is disconso- and their effects in the everyday world, late at Sati’s death and wanders the which has profound implications for reli- earth carrying her body on his shoul- gious life. All the philosophical schools ders. In his grief, Shiva neglects his assume that if one understands the causal divine functions, and the world begins process correctly, and can manipulate it to fall into ruin. The gods, concerned through one’s conscious actions, it is possi- over the world’s imminent destruction, ble to gain final liberation of the soul go to the god Vishnu for help. Vishnu (moksha). Thus, disagreements over dif- then follows behind Shiva and uses his ferent causal models are not merely acade- razor-sharp discus to gradually cut away mic disputes but are grounded in basically pieces of Sati’s body, until finally there is different assumptions about the nature of nothing left. When the body is com- things. The satkaryavada model assumes pletely gone, Shiva leaves for the moun- that effects preexist in their causes, which tains, where he remains absorbed in can thus be seen as transformations (real meditation until it is broken by Kama. or apparent) of those causes. The classic Sati is reborn as the goddess Parvati and example is the transformation of milk to later remarries Shiva. curds, butter, and clarified butter. The myth connected with the figure According to satkaryavada proponents, of Sati is important for several reasons. each of these effects was already present in First, it provides the charter myth for the the cause, and emerges from it through a Shakti Pithas (“bench of the Goddess”), natural transformation of that cause. a network of sites sacred to the Goddess This causal model tends to reduce the that spreads throughout the subconti- number of causes in the universe, since nent. Each of these Shakti Pithas— anything can be seen as a transforma- in some lists there are fifty-one, and in tion of other things. Given these strong 606 Satsang

Women singing hymns at a neighborhood temple during a satsang in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. relationships, if one can understand how as they are”). All the theories of error aim these relationships work, they can be to explain why people make errors in manipulated to one’s advantage. The dis- judgment, the stock example being mis- advantage of this model is that it can lead taking the silvery flash of sea shell for a to fatalism. In a world in which everything piece of silver. Ramanuja’s analysis is occurs through natural transformation, it based on the understanding that all can seem as if the universe is running things are composed of the five ele- under its own power, and that human ments, and that the different propor- actions may not be able to influence such tions of the elements account for their strong relationships. The philosophical differences. The viewer is correct in per- schools espousing this model are the ceiving the silvery flash, since this is a Samkhyas, proponents of Bhedabhada, property shared by both shell and silver. Ramanuja’s Vishishthadvaita Vedanta, The error comes in supposing that the and the various branches of Advaita object is silver—that is, taking the part Vedanta. The first three believe that the of the judgment that is true, and making difference between cause and effect is a an incorrect assumption based on that. genuine transformation of the cause, As for some of the other theories, the whereas the Advaita school stresses that ultimate reason one “sees” silver and this transformation is only apparent, and not other silvery things comes from that the real source of bondage (and liber- karmic dispositions stemming from ation) lies in avidya, the fundamental lack avidya, specifically the greed for silver of understanding that causes one to mis- that prompts us to look for such items of perceive the nature of things. For further value. For further information see information see Karl H. Potter (ed.), Pre- Bijayananda Kar, Theories of Error in suppositions of India’s Philosophies, 1972. Indian Philosophy, 1978; Karl H. Potter (ed.), Presuppositions of India’s Philo- sophies, 1972. Satkhyati (“discrimination of the real”) Theory of error propounded by Ramanuja, the Satsang eleventh century philosopher who was (“company of the good”) Quasi-con- the founder of Vishishthadvaita gregational meeting and worship that Vedanta. This theory is also known as was particularly emphasized in devo- yathakhyati (“discrimination [of things] tional (bhakti) religious life as a way to 607 Sattan

associate with fellow devotees (bhakta). the Samkhya school, one of the six The word covers an enormous range of schools of traditional Hindu philoso- activities and contexts, from an informal phy. Although much of Samkhya gathering for singing and conversation metaphysics connected with the in someone’s home, to highly orches- gunas have been long discredited, the trated meetings in which a guru may idea of the gunas and their qualities preach to thousands of devotees, and has become a pervasive assumption in anything in between. In all these cases Indian culture. the importance of satsang lies in the wholesome religious atmosphere gener- ated by the presence of good people, Saturday which is believed to create beneficial (Shanivar) The sixth day of the Hindu effects in terms of reinforcing one’s own week, whose presiding planet is Saturn good qualities and reforming one’s (). Saturn is by far the most feared faults. of all the planets, and Saturday is con- sidered by far the most inauspicious day of the week. In Hindu iconography, Sattan Saturn is depicted as a terrifying black (7th c.) Tamil poet who was the author figure holding a sword and riding a buf- of the Manimegalai, a text that falo; he is also considered easily affront- was clearly written as a sequel to the ed and extremely thorough in avenging earlier poem “The Jeweled Anklet” any offenses. Any misfortune Saturn (Shilappadigaram). Sattan’s story brings will last for fourteen years—a fig- focuses on a young woman named ure doubtless drawn from the fourteen Manimegalai, who was wooed by the years of Saturn’s orbit. local prince but eventually became a Hindus counter this danger by avoid- Buddhist nun. Although the story’s bias ance and rites of protection, just as they clearly favors the Buddhists, the do on Tuesday, the other day consid- Manimegalai has numerous debates ered to be generally inauspicious. with people from competing religious Movements and activities are often traditions, thus giving a rounded if widely restricted on Saturday, and cer- somewhat subjective picture of contem- tain activities, in particular buying porary religious life. See also Tamil epics things made from iron (whose black and Tamil language. color is associated with Saturn), are avoided except when absolutely neces- sary. As on Tuesday, people worship Sattva protective deities and give as charity (“goodness”) One of the three funda- (dana) items associated with Saturn: mental qualities (gunas) believed to iron, mustard oil, black sesame seed, be present in all things. The other two black cloth, and black lentils. Giving gunas are rajas (“passion”) and tamas away such items associated with Saturn (“darkness”). According to this model, is believed to transfer any potential the differing proportions of these inauspiciousness from Saturn to the qualities account for the differences recipient, providing a way to get rid of between the properties of concrete one’s bad luck. things, and in individual human capacities and tendencies. Of the three, sattva is invariably positive and Saturn carries associations with goodness, In Hindu astrology (jyotisha), a truth, wholesomeness, health, cogni- strongly malevolent planet associated tive thought, and deep-rooted reli- with obstruction and death. Saturn’s gious life. The notion of these three power and malevolent nature make gunas originated in the metaphysics of him extremely dangerous, particularly

608 Satyavan since any misfortune he brings will Satyakama last for fourteen years—a figure (“He whose desire is truth”) Legendary doubtless drawn from the fourteen figure in the early speculative text years of Saturn’s orbit. During the Chandogya Upanishad, renowned for week Saturn presides over Saturday, his adherence to the truth. Desiring to considered by far the most inauspi- take initiation as a celibate student cious day of the week. On this day (brahmacharin), Satyakama asks his people refrain from numerous activi- mother about his extended family, so ties and also commonly perform rites that he can have this information to give of protection, such as giving alms his teacher. His mother Jabala replies (dana) as a way to give away any that she does not know who his father is potential misfortune. and tells him to take her name, and call himself . Satyakama, when asked by his teacher Gautama to tell about his family roots, tells the In Hindu mythology, one of the wives whole story. Impressed by his honesty, of the god Krishna, when he has Gautama initiates him at once. This assumed his kingly station as the story is often cited in modern times, to ruler of Dwaraka. emphasize the importance of one’s actions over one’s birth. Satyagraha (“Holding Fast to the Truth”) Organized campaign of nonviolent Satyanarayan Vrat Religious observance that may be resistance or non-cooperation as a observed any day of the month but is political tool, a technique best refined most commonly performed on the day by Mohandas K. Gandhi. For Gandhi of the full moon. The presiding deity is himself, the basis of this technique Vishnu, worshiped in his form as was rooted in his commitment to the Satyanarayan (“Lord of Truth”). The rite truth and his conviction that his oppo- is believed to destroy evil and to pro- nents could be swayed by the power of mote the prosperity of its sponsors truth, if it was put before them. (those who hire a brahmin to perform Gandhi’s satyagraha campaigns would the rite), its performers, and even its begin by publicly pointing out the hearers. The rite’s major features involve injustice in question, in the hope that modification of diet and worship, the this alone could lead to the matter two general characteristics of most being rectified. If nothing was done, a Hindu religious observances. On the day campaign would then begin, but the this rite is performed, the observant adversary would always be informed must keep a strict fast (upavasa) until of what was to happen next. The real the ceremony is over. A pavilion is pre- goal was not to humble the adversary pared in which an image of Satya- but to persuade the other party to see narayan is installed and worshiped (part the rightness of one’s position and to of the worship includes reading the rite’s accept it. The most important thing of charter myth), and after which prasad is all was to retain one’s own commit- given to all those present. ment to the truth and never to com- promise it, even if doing so could gain one some immediate advantage. For Satyavan Gandhi, in the end the truth was the In Hindu mythology, the husband of only thing that mattered, and winning Savitri, a woman famous both for her or losing could only be measured inso- devotion to her husband and for her far as one kept this in perspective. cleverness in outwitting Death to regain her husband after he dies. 609 Satyavati

Satyavati both of whom can appear in either In Hindu mythology, the mother of the form and whose worship can focus on sage Vyasa. Satyavati is born in an either aspect. unusual way. Her mother, a celestial nymph who lives as a fish in the Saundaryalahari Ganges as the result of a curse, one (“waves of beauty”) Poetic text dedicat- day swallows some semen that has ed to the praise of the Goddess as the fallen into the Ganges, becomes preg- supreme power in the universe. The text nant, and delivers a son and a daugh- is traditionally ascribed to the philoso- ter. Satyavati grows into a beautiful pher Shankaracharya, who is also young woman, but because of her ori- believed to have written other hymns in gins she always smells of fish, and praise of Hindu gods and goddesses, because of this is also called despite being the greatest exponent of Matsyagandhi (“fish-scent”). She the philosophical school known as works ferrying passengers across the Advaita Vedanta, in which the Supreme Ganges and one day ferries the sage Reality, called Brahman, is believed to Parashara, who is struck by her be completely devoid of specific attrib- charms. Parashara creates an artificial utes. If Shankaracharya did in fact fog to give the two of them privacy, has author these poetic texts, one possible sexual relations with her, and grants explanation is that Shankaracharya was that from that day onward Satyavati an intensely religious man and will smell of musk instead of fish. The expressed this devotion in various ways. son born of this union is Vyasa. The text has been an enormously influ- Satyavati continues to ply her trade, ential, particularly in those schools of and one day ferries King Shantanu, who tantra (a secret, ritually based religious is also struck by her beauty. Before she practice) in which the Goddess is con- will marry him she demands that her sons sidered the single Ultimate Reality. will rule Shantanu’s kingdom. Shantanu agrees; and to give her absolute certainty, his son takes a vow that he will Savaiya never marry, so that his line will never Syllabic meter in Hindi poetry, com- compete with hers. Satyavati has two posed of four lines of between twenty- sons: Chitrangada dies in childhood, and two and twenty-six syllables each. Its Vichitravirya dies after he marries the loose form gives the poet some flexibility, princesses Ambika and Ambalika but but the challenges of working with such before having any children. In despera- an extended meter place considerable tion, Satyavati thinks of her first son demands on the poet’s skill, making this Vyasa, who conceives a son with each of one of the more “literary” meters. the wives: Pandu from Ambalika, and Dhrtarashtra from Ambika. The descen- dants of these two sons are the warring Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar families in the Sanskrit epic (1883–1966) Hindu nationalist leader Mahabharata, of which Vyasa is famed as and thinker whose ideas have had last- the narrator. ing influence. Savarkar spent his entire life opposing British rule, often by violent means. He was also virulently opposed to Saumya Muslims, whom he saw as invaders and (“mild”) Term used to refer to the intruders in the Indian homeland. After deities in their benevolent, beneficent, being expelled from college for organizing and gentle manifestations, as opposed a political rally, he spent four years in to their terrifying (ghora) manifesta- London, where he and his compatriots tions. This distinction is particularly learned bomb-making and planned applicable to Shiva and the Goddess, political assassinations. In 1911 he was 610

the Hindus were a nation, despite all of their differences—social, regional, cul- tural, linguistic, and religious—because for them India was their motherland, fatherland, and holy land. He called on Hindus to transcend the particular iden- tities that divided them and to gain strength through unity to resist the oppression of outsiders. Sarvarkar’s for- mulation equates Hinduism and Indian nationalism and thus marginalizes both Muslims and Christians as “outsiders.” His ideas profoundly influenced Dr. K. B. Hedgewar, founder of the Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS). The RSS and its affiliates have continued to stress some of Savarkar’s ideas, which, during the 1990s, have gained a national audience with the rise of the RSS-affiliated Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). For further information see Lise McKean, Divine Enterprise, 1996; and Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, 1996.

Image of the sun god Savitr, more commonly Savikalpika known as Surya, sculpted in Bengal during the (“with conceptions”) In certain schools Pala dynasty. of Indian philosophy—among some sentenced to life imprisonment in the Buddhists, the Nyayas, and the Andaman Islands but was released Prabhakara school of Mimamsa—a because of political pressure in 1924, term referring to complex conceptual although he was barred from politics knowledge in which the mind puts until 1937. In the time after that he together and interprets data from the served for seven years as president of senses or from memory. Since such the Hindu Mahasabha, until failing knowledge involves the activity of the health finally forced him to resign. mind, it is susceptible to error. The Throughout his life he had sharp differ- opposite sort of knowledge, called ences with Mohandas Gandhi, first nirvikalpaka, nonconceptual aware- over the latter’s commitment to nonvi- ness, is produced directly by the opera- olence and later over the partition of tion of the senses without any interpre- India, which Savarkar characterized as tation. According to these schools, if the the “vivisection” of the Indian mother- senses producing this awareness have land. Savarkar was brought to trial no defect, such an awareness is true. when Gandhi was assassinated by one of his former associates, Nathuram Godse. Savarkar was acquitted, but the Savitr accusation had a negative affect on the (“generator”) Epithet of Surya, the sun, rest of his life. in his aspect as the progenitor and nour- Savarkar’s keynote work, Hindutva, isher of all things. This particular name was composed and committed to mem- appears in the , a sacred ory while he was imprisoned in the formula whose daily recitation is Andamans. His central thesis was that required of all twice-born men. 611 Savitri

According to the dharma literature, a ensure them a long married life. As a twice-born man was one born into the woman whose entire energies were brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya com- directed toward the well-being of her munities, who was thus eligible for the family, Savitri is a cultural model for adolescent religious initiation known as Indian women; her ability to save her hus- the “second birth.” See Surya. band from death demonstrates her virtue and cleverness as well. Women observing this rite worship Savitri, Satyavan, and Savitri Yama; keep a strict fast (upavasa) before In Indian culture, a mythic figure and the worship; and after worship eat only the model for a virtuous and faithful fruit for the rest of the day. wife, who by her cleverness is able to rescue her husband Satyavan from the clutches of Death himself. Before Savitri is betrothed to Satyavan, she has been (14th c.) A southern Indian brahmin told that he will die within a year. Savitri scholar most famous for his commen- replies that she has chosen him for her taries on the Vedas, the oldest and most husband and will not be deterred. On authoritative Hindu religious texts. the day that he is fated to die, Satyavan Sayana’s commentary is notable, in part goes to the forest to cut wood, accompa- because it is an outstanding scholarly nied by Savitri. After Satyavan falls work, but also because this is generally unconscious while working, Savitri sees believed to be the first time that the Veda Yama, the god of Death, draw out was ever written down, an estimated Satyavan’s soul and start his journey three thousand years after some of the back to the underworld. Savitri follows hymns were composed. Part of Sayana’s them. When Yama tells her that she can- commentary was simply explanatory not follow where they are going, she because, in the time since the Vedas had meekly replies that it is her wifely duty been composed, the meanings of many to follow her husband. Yama grants her of the words had been forgotten. some wishes, although she is forbidden Sayana’s text is noted as a careful and to ask for her husband’s life. Savitri first credible clarification of the text. requests that her blind father-in-law shall regain his sight, then that he shall regain the kingdom from which he has Sculpture been exiled, and finally that she shall Branch of the visual arts most important have many sons. All of these requests in Hindu religion for its use as are granted, and when she points out decoration in architecture and in the that the return of her husband will be construction of images of Hindu deities necessary for her to have many sons, for worship. Both these sculptural forms Yama acknowledges that he has been were regulated by precisely defined outwitted, and leaves the two of them to canons. See also shilpa shastra. many happy years together. Seasons Savitri Puja According to the most traditional enu- Religious observance on the new moon in meration, there are six seasons, each the lunar month of Jyeshth (May–June), spanning two lunar months: Vasanta celebrating the virtue of Savitri, who res- (spring) in the lunar months of Chaitra cued her husband Satyavan from the and Baisakh; Grishma (hot season) in clutches of Yama, the god of Death. This Jyeshth and Ashadh; Varsha (rains) in observance is usually kept only by Shravan and Bhadrapada; Sharad (fall) women, to promote the health and in Ashvin and Kartik; Hemanta (winter) longevity of their husbands, and thus in Margashirsha and Paush; and

612 Self-Residence

Shishira (late winter) in Magh and great fertility and abundance, it is also Phalgun. In actual practice, there are associated with danger, and some of the three major seasons, at least in northern festivals are rites of protection: Nag India: the hot season (April–June), the Panchami, Raksha Bandhan, Ganesh monsoon (July–September), and the Chaturthi, Anant Chaturdashi, and the cool season (October–March). All these Pitrpaksha. Other ceremonies are associ- seasons are approximate, because they ated with water or with the rains, such as are ultimately determined by larger cli- the Shravan festival and Janmashtami. matic phenomena. In the hot season the In the cool season the gods awaken sun bakes the northern Indian plains, from their sleep, and crops that have been eventually setting in motion air currents fed by the rains are ready for harvest. This that suck moist air north from the is the most ritually active time of the year, Indian ocean; the resulting monsoons and is generally auspicious. Major festivals break the heat and provide rain for the include the fall Navaratri, ending with the crops. The weather then gets gradually festival of Dussehra (Vijaya Dashami), cooler until January, when it becomes Diwali, , Kartik Purnima, gradually hotter until the hot season Makara Sankranti, and Shivaratri. The returns. The monsoon arrives at differ- last major festival of the year is Holi, which ent times in different parts of the coun- marks the unofficial beginning of the hot try—earlier to regions further south, season. In ending with Holi, a festival cel- later to regions further north—and at ebrating license, excess, and the dissolu- times the monsoons are sporadic or do tion of all social boundaries, followed by not come at all. Each of these three sea- an abrupt reestablishment of propriety sons has general correlations with cer- and social order, the lunar year thus mir- tain festivals. rors the cycle of the cosmos, which is sub- The hot season is a time of gradually ject to degeneration and periodic renewal. increasing heat, and many of the festi- vals during this time have associations with heat: Holi, Navaratri, Ram Seed Syllable Navami, Shitalashtami, and Ganga A syllable, or set of syllables, that are Dashahara. Although the rising heat believed to have an intimate connection can make life difficult, it is considered a with a deity—either as a way of gaining generally auspicious time. access to the deity’s power or as the sub- The rainy season is a time of both tlest form of the deity itself. They are physical and ritual danger. The sudden seed syllables in that they contain the influx of rain drives venomous animals deity in its briefest form, just as a seed such as snakes and scorpions from their contains the potential for a plant. These holes, and their search for other habita- seed syllables are called bijaksharas. tions often brings them into contact with See bijakshara. human beings. On a bacteriological level, the runoff from the rains often leads to Self-Residence the contamination of water supplies by In Indian logic, one of the fallacies sewage and to a sharp rise in sickness and in constructing an argument. Self- death from gastrointestinal ailments, as residence occurs when the cause and well as other infections. On the ritual effect are believed to be the same thing. level, the gods are considered to be sleep- Although the simplest forms of this ing during part of the rainy season and fallacy are almost never found, since thus less available to protect their devo- it is so patently unconvincing, one does tees (bhakta). At the same time, the com- find extended forms of it, such as recip- ing of the rains is greatly anticipated, and rocal dependence, vicious circle, and the moisture is essential for crops to grow. infinite regress. Consequently, although this is a time of

613 Self-Revealing Knowledge

Self-Revealing Knowledge Sen In Indian philosophy, the notion (15th c.) Poet and saint of the Varkari that certain things, such as knowledge, Panth, a religious community centered are self-revealing and do not need around the worship of the Hindu god proof or substantiation to be known. Vithoba. According to tradition, Sen was Whether such knowledge (or things) a barber—a very low-caste occupa- exists, and what they would be if tion—at the court of the king of Bidar. they did, was a source of lively Sen renounced this occupation to wan- disagreement among Indian thinkers. der and sing Vithoba’s praises. Little is See svaprakasha. known about him, but he is mentioned as a model of devotion in one of the hymns by the northern Indian poet- Self-Validating Knowledge saint Ravidas, which indicates that he In Indian philosophy, a name denoting was well known outside Maharashtra. a sort of knowledge believed to carry For traditional hagiography, see Justin its own stamp of truth, which does Abbott and Narhar R. Godbole, Stories of not need to be verified by anything Indian Saints, 1988. outside itself. See svatahpramanya. Sen, Keshub Chander Semen (d. 1884) Reformist Hindu and leader of As with all bodily fluids, semen is consid- the Brahmo Samaj, to which he gave most ered to make a person ritually impure of his life. His emphases on the ideal of eth- through emission or contact, although it is ical monotheism and rejection of many rit- obviously necessary for procreation, uals were heavily influenced by English which is an auspicious event. Semen is Unitarianism. In 1865, the Samaj split over also considered the concentrated essence Keshub’s insistence that members should of a man’s vital energy, distilled drop by no longer wear the sacred thread. Then in drop from his blood; in Hindu mythology 1878 Keshub had an inexplicable lapse in the semen from the gods is portrayed as principles when he arranged for the mar- having wondrous generative powers, as in riage of his thirteen year-old daughter. the story of the god Skanda, who sponta- Most of his followers left him in protest, neously developed when the god Shiva’s and he spent his remaining years creating semen fell on the ground. Although a mar- what he called the New Dispensation, a ried man is obliged to have intercourse new religion using elements drawn from with his wife at certain times during her various religious traditions. At his death he menstrual cycle, this is also seen as a had few followers but had been influential potentially dangerous depletion of his through his earlier efforts to reform Hindu vital energy. Since in Indian culture society, and to look critically at Christian women are seen as having stronger sex culture and religion. In his curiosity for reli- drives than men, men are faced with the gious ideas, he happened to meet the constant demand on their resources, Bengali mystic Ramakrishna, and it was which must be carefully husbanded to through association with Keshub that maintain their vitality. This problem of Ramakrishna began to attract disciples depletion is particularly pronounced in from Calcutta’s middle class, most notably the unusual case when a man is younger Narendranath Datta, who became famous than his wife, for in that case her needs are as Swami Vivekananda. believed to be far greater than his capaci- ty. Because all seminal emission depletes one’s vital forces, there are strict taboos on Sena Dynasty masturbation, which is seen not only as an (11th–13th c.) Eastern Indian dynasty abject surrender to one’s baser instincts, whose ancestral homeland was in the but as posing actual physical danger. Bengal region but whose territory also 614 Sevagram

The ashram established by Mohandas K. Gandhi in Sevagram, Maharashtra. included the western part of the state of religious teacher (guru), or any superior Bihar. The Senas were originally vassals person. The notion of seva is particularly of the Pala dynasty but became inde- important in the relationship between pendent in 1097 and later seized much religious teacher and disciple. The of the Pala domain in Bihar. The Sena teacher’s task is to further the disciple’s dynasty survived until 1245, when it was spiritual development, which may finally conquered by the Mamluks, who sometimes entail harsh criticism to had been seizing Sena territory since the reform some of the disciple’s faults. The beginning of that century. The Senas ideal disciple will accept such direction (and their predecessors, the Palas) are in a spirit of self-effacement and carry particularly noted for a certain type of out the teacher’s instructions faithfully sculpture in which the images were and without protest, as a sign of submis- carved from black chlorite schist that sion and service. Such arrangements are was polished to a mirror finish. often necessary for spiritual growth, and a teacher can often give a much more objective assessment of the disciple’s Setubandha true spiritual state and what must be (“Building the Bridge”) Early medieval done for advancement. Still, when one poem whose theme is taken from the of the parties is not sincere, this model epic Ramayana and describes Rama’s has great potential for abuse. In such invasion of Lanka by building a bridge circumstances the teacher’s call for obe- across the ocean straits. The poem is dience and service—in which any “resis- written in Prakrit, an umbrella term for tance” to the teacher’s demands can be the grammatically simpler vernacular cited as a sign of spiritual immaturity— languages that developed from Sanskrit can be a way to take advantage of a through natural linguistic change. The devotee (bhakta). poem has been falsely ascribed to Kalidasa, the greatest Sanskrit poet. The true author is unknown. Sevagram (“service village”) City in the eastern part of the state of Maharashtra about Seva fifty miles south and west of Nagpur. It (“service”) Actions springing from an is most famous for the ashram estab- attitude of loving devotion, manifested lished there by Mohandas K. Gandhi in as attendance on and service to a deity, 1933, which was founded to promote his 615 Seven Sacred Cities

ideal of a decentralized village economy. This economic model had political In the Ramayana, the earlier of the and cultural symbolism, since it was two great Indian epics, a tribal woman independent of the industrialized econ- who is a sincere devotee (bhakta) of omy run by the British and intended to the god Rama. Shabari belongs to a counterbalance it by providing a model group known as the Shabaras, and so of an economy based on indigenous her name conveys a sense of anonymi- “Hindu” values. ty, since it is simply the feminine form of the group’s name. Rama and Seven Sacred Cities Lakshmana stop for some time at Shabari’s dwelling during their search Seven sacred cities (tirthas) spread for Rama’s kidnapped wife Sita. throughout the Indian subcontinent Although as a tribal she has very low in which death is traditionally social status, Rama graciously receives believed to bring final liberation of the her hospitality as a reward for the soul (moksha). The seven cities are devotion with which it is given. In the Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Ramcharitmanas, the vernacular Benares, Kanchipuram, Ujjain, and retelling of the Ramayana written by Dwaraka. the poet-saint Tulsidas (1532–1623?), Shabari tastes each fruit before she Shabara gives it to Rama, to be sure that he will In the Purva Mimamsa school of get only the very sweetest—an act that Hindu philosophy Shabara was the violates one of the most pervasive rit- author of the earliest and most famous ual taboos barring the exchange of any commentary on Jaimini’s Mimamsa food that has come into contact with Sutras, the school’s founding text. The saliva, and particularly from lower to commentary is called Shabara- higher status people. Yet in the story . The date of the text is highly Rama eats the fruits very happily uncertain, and estimates range from because of the love with which they the first century B.C.E. to the fourth or are given. The message in this episode sixth century C.E. As often happens, is consistent with a primary theme in later commentators have accepted the Ramcharitmanas, namely, the Shabara’s commentary as part of the power of devotion to override or over- text itself and commented on it as well turn conventional social norms. Soon as on the original sutras. after Rama and Lakshmana’s visit, Shabari dies a happy death. Shabarabhashya (“Shabara’s commentary”) Extensive Shabari Malai commentary on the Mimamsa Sutras Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in the of Jaimini, the founding text of the hills of the southern state of Kerala, Purva Mimamsa school of philoso- about seventy miles north of Trivan- phy. The date of the text is uncertain. drum. Shabari Malai is renowned for the It is believed to have been written by temple to Aiyappa, a regional divinity Shabara in either the first century who has been assimilated into the larger B.C.E., or the fourth or sixth century pantheon as the son of the gods Vishnu C.E. As often happens, later commen- and Shiva; he is born when Vishnu takes tators have accepted Shabara’s com- the form of the enchantress . mentary as part of the text itself and Shabari Malai’s annual month-long pil- commented on it as well as on the grimage occurs from the middle of original sutras. December to the middle of January, with the exact dates determined by astrologi- cal calculations. 616 Shaiva

This pilgrimage is most often taken heavens, the course of the soul after by men, since, according to the charter death, proper religious life, and so myth, the site is forbidden to women forth. With regard to the liberation of of childbearing age. The pilgrimage the soul, it is often the most important itself is a highly structured ritual pramana, since this cannot be discov- process. Pilgrims carry out their spiri- ered in any other way. tual training for the journey in well- defined village groups, each headed by a local leader, who supervises their Shabdabrahman strict religious discipline. Their (“Brahman-as-sound”) This term preparatory vows commence forty-five refers to the notion that the Supreme to sixty days before the actual journey Reality (Brahman) exists in its most begins, and entail strict celibacy and subtle form, not as matter, but as avoiding the company of women, dis- sound. This idea is particularly preva- tinctive dress, a ban on shaving and lent in tantra, a secret, ritually based wearing shoes, a strict vegetarian diet, system of religious practice, and helps daily worship, and the erasing of all to explain the tantric stress on social and status distinctions among mantra, or sacred sound, as the essen- members. In essence, the men training tial means through which one gains for this pilgrimage live as renunciant access to this reality. In this under- ascetics for this period and later revert standing, the primary mantra (- to their normal identities. The pilgrim- mantra) of one’s particular deity age itself is an arduous and exhausting would be the clearest articulation of journey over the twisted ridges of the shabdabrahman, with other mantras Periyar Hills, during which pilgrims conceived as derivative forms of symbolically divest themselves of their that primary mantra; these latter egos, to be filled with the grace of God. mantras were the source for everyday For a first person account of the speech and the mundane sounds of Shabari Malai pilgrimage, see E. ordinary experience. Valentine Daniel, Fluid Signs, 1984. Shachi In Hindu mythology, the wife of the god Shabda Indra, also known as Indrani. See (“word”) In Indian philosophy, the Indrani. general term for authoritative testimo- ny. This is generally accepted as one of Shaddarshana the pramanas, the means by which (“six perspectives”) Collective name for human beings can gain true and accu- the six schools of classical Hindu phi- rate knowledge, except by the materi- losophy. These six were usually grouped alists, who reject all pramanas except in three pairs: Nyaya and Vaisheshika, perception (pratyaksha). Such Samkhya and Yoga, and Purva Mim- authoritative testimony is of two sorts. amsa and Vedanta. See six schools. It most often refers to authoritative scriptural texts, such as the Vedas, but it can also refer to verbal instruction Shaiva given by one’s guru, which is consid- Devotee (bhakta) of the Hindu ered to have equal authority, at least god Shiva, who along with Vishnu is by members of that spiritual lineage. one of the major figures in the Shabda is an important pramana Hindu pantheon. From the evidence at because it tells people about those hand, it seems that the earliest things that the other pramanas cannot sectarian Shaivites were the uncover, such as the nature of the , , and 617 Shaiva Nagas

Pashupatas. All three of these were the Nagas’ primary occupation was as communities of renunciant ascetics, mercenary soldiers, although they also perhaps to accord with the example had substantial trading interests. Such set by their patron deity. The informa- resources allowed many Naga leaders tion for all three must be reconstruct- to become rich and powerful men ed, since the sects have all disap- despite often coming from lower peared. Shaivas can still be found in social strata, and in earlier times such ascetic life in the Dashanami Sanyasis opportunities would have made a and the Nathpanthis, two living career as a Naga an attractive proposi- ascetic communities. The major cur- tion for an ambitious young man. Both rent through which Shaiva devotional- these sources of income have largely ism (bhakti) came into mainstream disappeared in contemporary times, society was through the devotional although some Naga communities are hymns of the Nayanars, a group of still landowners with extensive prop- sixty-three poet-saints who lived in erties and thus both rich and influen- southern India in the seventh and tial. See also shaiva. eighth centuries. Their passionate devotion, conveyed in hymns in the Tamil language, was later system- Shaiva Siddhanta atized into the southern Indian philo- Southern Indian religious community sophical school known as Shaiva that was particularly developed in the Siddhanta. As the Tamil country, and whose members moved northward, it found Shaiva are devotees (bhakta) of the god expression in the Lingayat community Shiva. Shaiva Siddhanta is based on a in modern Karnataka, as well as the series of fourteen texts, all completed Krama and Trika schools of Kashmiri by the fourteenth century C.E., in Shaivism. Shaivism has had a long which the ideas about Shiva found in association with tantra, a secret, ritu- Sanskrit texts were reinterpreted in ally based religious practice, and the light of the devotional faith of the influence of tantra is evident in the Nayanars. The Nayanars were a group Kashmiri schools as well as in the doc- of sixty-three poet-saints who lived in trines of the Nathpanthi ascetics. southern India in the seventh and Shaivism does not show the bewil- eighth centuries. The most famous dering sectarian variety characterizing and influential of these interpreters Vaishnavas, devotees of the god was the ninth-century poet Vishnu, and Shaivites tend to be less Manikkavachakar. Central to Shaiva strict about membership in a particular Siddhanta is the triad of Shiva as the sect. Nevertheless, Shiva has millions “Lord” (pati), human souls held in of devotees in modern India, and a well- bondage (pashu), and the “bonds” established network of pilgrimage (pasha) holding these souls. Shiva is places (tirtha), particularly in the conceived as the supreme divinity, Himalayas. who wields the bonds of maya, or illu- sion, to keep souls in bondage. Yet he is also pictured as gracious and loving Shaiva Nagas to his devotees, a far cry from the Naga (“naked,” i.e., fighting) ascetics capricious and somewhat dangerous who are devotees (bhakta) of the god figure in his earliest mythology. As the Shiva, organized into different akha- supreme lord, Shiva is the source of all ras or regiments on the model of an spiritual illumination and energy, and army. The other major Naga division also the power through which the was the Bairagi Nagas, who were world is created, sustained, and reab- devotees of the god Vishnu. Until the sorbed again. Souls are conceived as beginning of the nineteenth century different from Shiva, since they are 618 Shakha subject to imperfections, although Shakha here too his power is their (“branch”) The name given to a local ultimate source. The only path to “branch” of the Rashtriya liberation is devotion to Shiva, Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS), whose through whose grace the bonds of membership is often drawn from a maya can be broken or transcended. particular neighborhood or section of Even after liberation souls remain dis- a city. The RSS is a conservative Hindu tinct from Shiva, although they remain organization whose express purpose in his presence. For further informa- is to provide the leadership cadre for a tion see M. Dhavamony, Love of God revitalized Hindu India. The RSS has According to Saiva Siddhanta, 1971. historically characterized itself as a See also shaiva and Tamil Nadu. cultural and character-building orga- nization, and for much of its existence Shaka (“Teak”) Dvipa has shunned direct political involve- ment, although it has exercised con- In traditional mythic geography, the siderable influence through its many sixth of the seven concentric landmasses affiliated organizations. Each shakha, (dvipas) making up the visible world. or local RSS unit, holds a daily meeting See also cosmology. for its members, who are known as svayamsevaks (“volunteers”). The Shaka Era meeting’s typical activities include an One of the dating systems in India, opening ceremony in which the orga- which is claimed to mark the defeat of nization’s saffron banner is raised; tra- the Shakas by King Salivahana. For any ditional games or exercises, including given year in the common era, the martial drill, and a discussion period Shaka era date is either seventy-eight or in which RSS ideals can be disseminat- seventy-nine years earlier, a discrepancy ed and propagated. The shakhas in that stems from the differing days on any given area are overseen by a full- which the years begin in these two sys- time RSS worker known as a pracharak tems. In the common era the year begins (“director”), who serves as a liaison on January 1, but in the Shaka era it between the local units and the RSS begins with the sun’s transition into leadership, and who oversees RSS Aries, determined in India as falling on activity in his area. Most of the April 14. Hence, to convert a Shaka era shakha’s members will never advance date to a common era date, one adds beyond this local level, and those who seventy-nine years for dates from do are usually gifted leaders. Thus, the January 1 to April 14, and seventy-eight primary stress at the shakha level is years for dates from April 15 to on forming personal relationships December 31. with other members, as a way to develop loyalty to the organization. Although the shakhas often have very Shakata high attrition, the bonds developed (“cart”) One of the demon assassins sent there are often very strong as well and by Kamsa, the demon-king of Mathura, are particularly beneficial in helping to kill his nephew, the child-god displaced and newly urbanized peo- Krishna. Shakata takes the form of a ple develop a sense of community. For cart, intending to take the infant further information see Walter K. Krishna unaware. Yet Krishna is not Andersen and Shridhar D. Damle, The fooled by this deception: With a kick of Brotherhood in Saffron, 1987. his infant toes Krishna launches the cart into flight, killing the demon with the force of the blow.

619 Shakra

Shakra as differing manifestations of a single An epithet of the god Indra. See Indra. primordial Goddess. It also connects the subcontinent into a single concep- tual unit, knit together by this network Shakta of sites as the body is connected by its Worshiper of the Goddess in any of her members. One should also note that myriad forms. The name itself is different places may claim the same derived from shakti, the divine femi- body part in the drive to enhance the nine “power” that gives the Goddess religious prestige of any particular her vitality. Among the most famous site. As but one example, according to forms of the Goddess are Durga and most “official” lists Sati’s vulva, the Kali, who are both powerful and dan- most powerfully charged part of the gerous goddesses. Aside from these, female body, fell at the temple of there are a host of other goddesses, Kamakhya in Assam, but the same who are often the presiding deities of a claim is made at Kalimath in the particular place. See also Lakshmi, Himalayas. Suffice it to say that there Nirriti, Parvati, , Sati, Shiwalik is no single authoritative list of sites, goddesses, and Ushas. and competing claims are not unusu- al. See also pitha. Shakti (“power”) In Hindu iconography, the Shakumbhari Devi name of the spear carried by the god Presiding deity of the Shakumbhari Devi Skanda. The spear’s head is shaped temple in the district of Saharanpur in either like a leaf or a diamond, and it is Uttar Pradesh, and one of the nine fitted with a wooden shaft. Shiwalik goddesses. This site is one of the Shakti Pithas, a network of sites sacred to the Goddess that spreads Shakti throughout the subcontinent. Each (2) Epithet of the Goddess. Shakti Shakti Pitha marks the site where a body is believed to be a divine feminine part of the dismembered goddess Sati power that is present in each person fell to earth, taking form there as a dif- as the kundalini. See also Goddess ferent goddess; in the case of Shakum- and kundalini. bhari Devi, the body part is said to have been Sati’s head. The temple is in a thin- Shakti Pithas ly settled region, and the major time of (“benches” or “seats” of Shakti) year that pilgrims come to visit is during General term for a network of sites the Navaratri festivals. connected with the worship of the Although Hindi literature identifies Mother Goddess. Although their num- Shakumbhari Devi as a form of Durga, ber differs from source to source— the site’s charter myth shows the nur- some list fifty-one, and others 108—in turing capacities of the Goddess as both cases the sites are spread well as the warrior aspect more com- throughout the subcontinent, from monly associated with Durga. Baluchistan (in modern Pakistan) to According to the story, a demon Assam to the deep south. According to named Durgam gains the boon that he the charter myth, each of these places cannot be conquered by any of the marks the site where a body part of the gods. After subduing all the gods, dismembered goddess Sati fell to Durgam prevents the storm-god Indra earth, taking form as a different god- from sending rain to the earth for one dess in each place. This myth provides hundred years. Seeing the earth’s dis- a way to connect the myriad local tress, the gods approach the Goddess Hindu goddesses by conceiving them and beg for her help. The Goddess, 620

filled with pity, takes a form with one thirteenth, with the condition that, if hundred eyes, because of which one of they are discovered in the thirteenth her epithets is Shatakshi (“hundred year, the cycle will begin anew. In the eyes”). From each eye comes a stream ensuing Mahabharata war of tears, and when these fall to the fights on the side of his nephew and is earth, plants begin to grow again. eventually killed by the fourth Further, when her tears do not reach Pandava brother, Sahadeva. some places, she puts forth vegetables (Shak) from her own body to nourish the creatures of the earth. Her final Shakuntala action is to kill the demon Durgam, A figure in Hindu mythology and the reasserting the Goddess as a strong protagonist in the drama Abhijnana- and protective figure. Although there shakuntala written by the poet is little information on Shakumbhari Kalidasa. Shakuntala is the daughter Devi in English, there are further refer- of the apsara and the sage ences to her in David R. Kinsley, Hindu , conceived when Menaka Goddesses, 1986. See also pitha. is sent to seduce Vishvamitra in an attempt to reduce his spiritual powers. Shakuntala is raised at the ashram of Shakuni the sage , where she grows into a In the Mahabharata, the later of the beautiful young woman. One day she two great Hindu epics, the maternal attracts the eye of King , uncle of Duryodhana, the epic’s who has been hunting in the forest, antagonist. Shakuni’s most famous and they are married by the gandhar- episode in the Mahabharata is as a va form of marriage (consensual sexu- player in the game of dice against al intercourse), conceiving their son Yudhishthira, the eldest of the five Bharata. Shakuntala’s happiness, Pandava brothers who are the epic’s however, is short-lived. As she is think- protagonists. The epic describes ing one day about Dushyanta, who has Shakuni as the world’s best dice player, traveled back to his capital without whereas Yudhishthira is enthusiastic her, she fails to notice the arrival of the but completely unskilled. As sage Durvasas. In his anger at being Yudhishthira begins to lose, he keeps ignored, Durvasas lays a curse that her betting bigger and bigger stakes in an beloved will completely forget her. effort to win back what he has lost. Shakuntala, horrified, manages to After losing his family’s kingdom and convince Durvasas to modify the all their possessions, Yudhishthira curse: Dushyanta will remember wagers himself and his brothers, and everything, as soon as Shakuntala after losing this bet, he wagers and shows him proof of their union. loses their common wife, Draupadi. Shakuntala has Dushyanta’s signet As a result, Draupadi is paraded ring as proof, but she loses it on her through the assembly hall by way to see Dushyanta. Dushyanta (as Shakuni’s nephews, Duryodhana and expected) denies that he has ever met Duhshasana, her clothes stained Shakuntala, and she eventually ends with her menstrual blood, sharpening up working as one of the palace cooks. the already strong enmities between Her salvation comes unexpectedly, these two groups. Shocked at such when she finds the missing ring in the treatment, Duryodhana’s father, King belly of a fish she is preparing for the Dhrtarashtra, gives the Pandavas king’s dinner. When she shows him the back their freedom. Then, because of a ring, Dushyanta immediately recog- loss in a subsequent game of dice, the nizes Shakuntala and acknowledges Pandavas agree to go into exile for her as his wife, and the couple live twelve years and live incognito for the happily ever after. 621 Shalagram

Shamvuka Shudra ascetic who appears both in the Ramayana, the earlier of the two great Indian epics, and in the poet Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha, whose story line is based on the Ramayana. According to the story a brahmin comes to Rama, the epic’s protago- nist, and complains that his son has died because of the unrighteousness running through the land. Since the king is considered responsible for the general moral climate in his kingdom, Rama immediately asks the brahmin for more information. He is told that a man named Shamvuka has been doing physical asceticism (tapas) in a Believed to be a manifestation of the god Vishnu, bid to generate spiritual powers a shalagram is a black stone that contains the through his suffering, even though fossilized spiral shell of a prehistoric sea creature. Shamvuka is a member of the servant Shalagram (shudra) class, and these sorts of reli- Black stone containing an ammonite, gious exercises are forbidden to peo- the spiral-shaped fossil shell of a prehis- ple of such low social status. Rama toric sea creature. The shalagram is pri- finds Shamvuka hanging his head marily found in the upper reaches of the downward over a smoking fire, and Gandaki River in Nepal. The circular when he refuses to desist from his ammonite fossil is understood to be ascetic practices, Rama kills him. This Vishnu’s chakra, and the shalagram is episode conveys several important thus understood as a “self-manifest” messages. One of these is the Indian (svayambhu) form of Vishnu. As with all cultural belief that physical suffering such “self-manifest” forms, the shala- generates spiritual and/or magic gram is believed to be especially holy, powers. When this belief is combined since in it Vishnu has chosen to reveal with a profoundly hierarchical model himself to his devotees (bhakta) rather of society, it becomes important for than coming to an image fashioned by the higher-class people to control the human hands. Because of its holiness, people who are allowed to do this, the shalagram is often an object of wor- lest the lower classes gain power over ship. Its portability (and durability) made their “betters.” Finally, this story it the preferred form of Vishnu for wan- shows the Ramayana’s general ten- dering Vaishnava ascetics. One also finds dency to uphold established social cases in which small images are claimed values and boundaries. to have been revealed when a shalagram was broken open; these images carry the glamour of a finished image as well as the Shankara divine power that accompanies sponta- (“auspicious”) Epithet of the god neous manifestation. Shiva. With the honorific suffix (“teacher”), this is also the name of the most significant figure in Shambhu the Advaita Vedanta philosophical (“causing happiness,” “granting pros- school, Shankaracharya, who is pop- perity”) Epithet of the god Shiva. ularly considered to be Shiva incar- See Shiva. nate. As noted above, the generally accepted meaning of the name 622 Shankaracharya

Shankara has intensely positive con- Many of these claims cannot be sub- notations, yet the verb shank, from stantiated, but the significance of his which this name is almost certainly work cannot be denied. His commen- derived, has associations with doubt, tary on the Vedanta Sutras, the uncertainty, and anxiety. This sort of Brahmasutra Bhashya, gives the classic ambivalence has a long association formulation of Advaita Vedanta, with its with Shiva; the earliest accepted refer- emphasis that the Ultimate Reality is the ence, in the Shvetashvatara Upan- unqualified (nirguna) Brahman, which ishad, mentions both his death-deal- is eternal and unchanging, and to which ing arrows, and his kindness to his the human soul is identical. The chang- devotees (bhakta). The traditional ing phenomenal world (the world we meaning of this name may thus be a see and sense) is an illusion, created form of propitiation—knowing that through the superimposition (adhyasa) Shiva wields awesome and unpre- of mistaken ideas upon the unqualified dictable power but describing him as Brahman. Since Shankaracharya believes “auspicious” in the hope that he will that one is released from bondage by show his kinder side. replacing this mistaken understanding with the correct one, insight and not action is the means to liberation. This Shankaracharya moment of understanding can be (788–820?) Writer and religious thinker described as a flash of realization, but it who is unquestionably the most sig- seems mistaken to characterize Shanka- nificant figure in the Advaita Vedanta racharya as a mystic. This is because philosophical school, and arguably the he strongly emphasizes the authority single greatest Hindu religious figure. of the sacred texts as a source of accu- Very little is known about his life— rate knowledge about the ultimate even his dates are a matter of specula- truth. Although this stress on insight tion—but popular tales abound. devalues the ultimate worth of ritual According to one story, he was the god action, except in a preparatory role Shiva incarnate, who descended to by removing defilements, Shankara- earth to reveal the knowledge of the charya also believed that required ritual absolute. This connection is shown by actions should be performed from a his name—Shankara is one of the epi- sense of duty. thets of Shiva, and acharya (“teacher”) Shankaracharya is as philosophically is an honorific suffix. He is traditional- significant for his silence as for his ly believed to have been born in a speech. He gives no definitive answer Nambudiri brahmin family at Kaladi on many philosophical issues: about in the state of Kerala, to have become whether selves are one or many, about an ascetic at a very young age, and to whether the locus of ignorance (avidya) have traveled widely engaging in reli- was Brahman or the individual, about gious disputes, particularly with the the nature of ignorance itself, and about Buddhists, whose religious influence the real nature of the material world. His he put in permanent decline. He is refusal to take a position on these issues believed to have established the ten left many different routes open to those Dashanami Sanyasi orders and the who came after him. Shankaracharya four maths that are their centers, to himself tended to emphasize epistemo- have written commentaries on the logical issues—how human beings three texts central to the Vedanta come to know things, and particularly school—namely the Upanishads, the how to correct the mistaken ideas Vedanta Sutras, and the Bhagavad through which human beings are held Gita—and to have gone finally to the in bondage. The image that comes high Himalayas, where he died at the through his writing is of a deeply reli- age of 32. gious man whose primary concern was 623 Shankaracharyas

ascetic center and Kanchipuram’s gen- eral status as a religious center. Although by this reckoning there are five places, at present there are only four Shankaracharyas, since Swami Swaroopanand Saraswati holds the seat for both Badrinath and Dwaraka. The other Shankaracharyas are Swami Nishchalanand (Puri), Swami Bharati Tirtha (Shringeri), and Swami Jayendra Saraswati (Kanchipuram). Their trad- itional office gives the Shankara- charyas a great deal of religious status and prestige, and because of this they have become highly influential figures, even in an intensely decentralized reli- gious tradition. A shankha, or conch shell. Used as a musical instrument, it is an identifying object carried by the god Vishnu. Shankaradigvijaya to help his hearers destroy their illusions (“Shankara’s victory tour”) A written and gain final liberation of the soul account of the life of the philosopher (moksha). Given this underlying goal Shankaracharya traditionally attrib- and his acute philosophical mind, one uted to the fourteenth-century writer can argue that he was aware of such Madhavacharya, although evidence metaphysical questions but chose to within the work points to composition ignore them, since they were unrelated several centuries later. The story is clearly to his primary goal. For further informa- hagiographical, for it is filled with fan- tion on Shankaracharya’s thought, see tastic legends intended to highlight Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles Shankaracharya’s achievements and his A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian ultimate identity with the god Shiva Philosophy, 1957; and Karl H. Potter himself. According to this story, after (ed.), Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara gaining full wisdom, Shankaracharya and His Pupils, 1981. embarks on a “victory tour” (digvijaya) of India. During this tour he travels throughout the country, debates all Shankaracharyas opponents, and defeats them all con- The philosopher Shankaracharya vincingly, thus establishing the (788–820) is traditionally said to have supremacy of his Advaita Vedanta established centers for the Dashanami philosophical school. The motif of the Sanyasi ascetics, devotees (bhakta) of digvijaya (literally, “conquest of [all] the god Shiva, at four places in India: directions”) was a common theme in Badrinath, Puri, Shringeri, and works about political and military lead- Dwaraka. The head monk at each ers, and here it has been adapted to tell of these centers has been given the a religious story. title Shankaracharya, as a sign of the status of his office. The head of the Kamakotipith, an ascetic center in the Shankha southern Indian city of Kanchipuram, (“conch shell”) In Hindu religious has also come to be described as a imagery, one of the identifying objects Shankaracharya, even though this site is always carried by the god Vishnu, along not one of the original four; this reflects with the club (gada), lotus (padma), and the Kamakotipith’s importance as an discus (chakra). Vishnu’s conch is 624 Sharada Math

considered both a musical instrument vows never to marry, so that he will have and an instrument of war, since through no heirs to compete with Satyavati’s. its powerful sound he is said to have Bhishma upholds his promise until his struck terror in the hearts of his ene- death, but Shantanu’s willingness to put mies. The conch is also commonly aside the rightful heir has terrible conse- carried by certain powerful forms of the quences. When Satyavati’s son Vichitra- Goddess. The reason for this can be virya dies childless, she calls on her found in her charter myth, in which she elder son Vyasa to sire children by his is formed from the collected radiance of wives. From this union comes Pandu all the gods and receives duplicates of all and Dhrtarashtra. The struggle for royal their weapons. power by their respective sons culmi- nates in the Mahabharata war, in which the family is destroyed. Shanta (“peaceful”) Bhava The first of the five modes of devotion to God that were most prominently articu- Shantiniketan lated by Rupa Goswami, a devotee (“abode of peace”) Town in the Birbhum (bhakta) of the god Krishna and a fol- district of West Bengal, about ninety lower of the Bengali saint Chaitanya. miles northeast of Calcutta. It is most Rupa used five different models of famous for Vishva-Bharati University, human relationships to explain the vari- founded in 1921 by the Indian poet and ety of links followers might have with Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore the deities. These five models showed (1861–1941). As an educational institu- growing emotional intensity, from the tion, the university was dedicated to peaceful (shanta) sense that comes from providing an education that would satisfy realizing one’s complete identity with people’s material and spiritual needs Brahman, or Supreme Reality, to con- and thus develop an integrated human ceiving of god as one’s master, friend, being. It did this in part by promoting child, or lover. The shanta bhava, in the arts and by stressing the intercon- which one finds mental peace through nection between nature and human the realization of complete identity with beings, both themes that were close to Brahman, is the only one of these modes Tagore’s heart. in which the devotee does not have a personalized relationship with God. Given Rupa’s assumption that Krishna Sharada Math was the highest manifestation of god- One of the four maths or sacred centers head, and that true religious life for Hindu ascetics (often translated as involved having a relationship with him, “monasteries”) traditionally believed to the shanta bhava was thus judged inferi- have been established by the great or to the other four modes. philosopher Shankaracharya; the oth- ers are the Jyotir Math, Shringeri Math, and . These four sacred Shantanu centers are each associated with one of In the Mahabharata, the later of the two the four geographical corners of the great Sanskrit epics, Shantanu is the Indian subcontinent; the Sharada father of Bhishma by his first wife, and Math is in the western quarter, in the the husband of Satyavati in his second city of Dwaraka in the state of Gujarat, marriage. Satyavati has agreed to marry on the shore of the Arabian Sea. Shantanu on the condition that her sons Shankaracharya is traditionally cited as reign, despite the fact that Bhishma is the founder of the Dashanami Sanyasis, the eldest and thus is rightly entitled to the most prestigious Hindu ascetic the throne. Shantanu agrees to this con- order. The Dashanami (“ten names”) dition, and to please his father Bhishma ascetics are devotees (bhakta) of the god

625 Sharva

Shiva who are divided into ten divisions, Swami (“President Swami”). See each with a different name. These Pramukh Swami. ten divisions are organized into four larger organizational groups—Anandawara, Bhogawara, Bhuriwara, and Kitawara— Shatakatrayam each of which has two or three of the ten (“The Three Hundred”) Collection of divisions and is associated with one of the Sanskrit poems ascribed to the poet- four maths. Of these, the Sharada Math is philosopher Bhartrhari, who is believed associated with the Kitawara group. to have lived in the fifth century. The text is a three-part collection of poems about political life, love, and renunciation, which Sharva explore all of the conventional ends of life: (from shara, “arrow”) Epithet of the god The first two sections are about power Shiva. In his earliest description in the (artha), sensual or physical desire (kama), Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the god and righteous action (dharma), whereas Rudra (later identified with Shiva) is the final section is concerned with libera- identified as a god whose primary tion of the soul (moksha). Much of the weapons are infallible arrows. This char- poetry carries a cynical, slightly bitter acterization of Shiva as an archer has tone, suggesting the world-weariness of a continued ever since; his bow Pinaka is man who has seen too much of the harsh one of few divine weapons famous realities of life. For further information see enough to have a name. See Shiva. Barbara Stoller Miller (trans.), The Hermit and the Love-Thief, 1978. Shastra (“order”) A shastra is the name given to a Shatakshi technical treatise explaining the standards (“[having] one hundred eyes”) Epithet of of a particular cultural or artistic discipline the goddess Shakumbhari Devi, based in Hinduism, as in Bharata’s Natya- on a story that tells of a time when the shastra, a technical manual that discusses earth is parched with drought, and she dance and the theater. When it is placed at takes a form with a hundred eyes, water- the end of a compound (as in “Shilpa ing the earth with her tears. See Shastra”), the word shastra can also serve Shakumbhari Devi. to denote the whole body of teaching on that particular subject. All of the classical arts were placed under well-defined Shatapatha canons, each with its own specific rules (“Hundred-Path”) Brahmana and standards to guide artists: Sculpture One of the two most important texts in the and architecture were under Shilpa Brahmana branch of sacred Vedic litera- Shastra, music under Sangita shastra, and ture, along with the Aiteraya Brahmana. dance and theater under . The Brahmanas were primarily manuals Given the prevailing emphasis on uphold- describing the correct performance of ing such strict rules, artistic genius meant Vedic ritual sacrifices. Each Brahmana was doing something unusual within the larger in theory connected with one of the confines of the tradition rather than creat- Vedas, which gave them Vedic authority, ing something entirely new or original. but in fact they were quite different from the Vedas in scope and content. According to tradition, the Shastri Narayanswarupdas Swami was connected with the “white” recension The ascetic name of the spiritual leader of the Yajur Veda, a variant form of the text of the Akshar Purushottam Samstha, in which the explanatory notes connected a branch of the Swaminarayan with the Vedic mantras have been collected religious community. He is more into a separate appendix. This is in commonly known by his title Pramukh 626 Shaving

A man shaves an infant boy’s head. Hair is believed to trap impurities. contrast with the “Black” Yajur Veda, in (waning) half of the lunar month of which these notes have been incorporated Magh (January–February). As with all into the body of the text itself. Aside from the eleventh-day observances, this is giving instruction on the practice of rituals, dedicated to the worship of the god the Shatapatha Brahmana includes a wide Vishnu. Most Hindu festivals have variety of texts, one of which is the Isha certain prescribed rites, which usually Upanishad. The upanishad’s presence in a involve fasting (upavasa) and worship Brahmana text clearly shows that there and often promise specific benefits was considerable overlap in the times of for faithful performance. On this day composition of various Vedic literary one should bathe an image of Vishnu styles, rather than clear-cut “periods.” with the five auspicious things (milk, curds, honey, ghee, and sugar water), placing some sesame seed (tila) into Shatrughna each. One should also eat food con- (“Foe-slayer”) In the Ramayana, the earli- taining sesame seed. During the night er of the two great Indian epics, one should sleep before the image of Shatrughna is the second son of King the deity. This ekadashi’s name comes Dasharatha and his wife Sumitra, and the from the six (sat) ways in which youngest brother of Rama, the epic’s pro- the sesame seed has been used. tagonist. Whereas Rama’s brothers Laksh- Faithfully observing this festival is said mana and Bharata play important roles in to cause one to be reborn in Vishnu’s the epic—the former as Rama’s minion realm, . and shadow, the latter serving as Rama’s regent during his exile—Shatrughna is vir- tually invisible and does not play an Shaving important part in the larger epic narrative. An act of ritual purification as well as an act of hygiene. The hair of the head and face is believed to trap impurity Shattila Ekadashi (ashaucha), and shaving one or both Religious observance falling on the is a significant part of many rites of eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark 627 Shesha

purification. Body hair, however, is elsewhere. Shesha is seen as having a rarely shaved, since the Sanskrit lan- protective role. In Hindu astrology guage has different words for these (jyotisha) he is identified as the pro- two types of hair, and they are consid- tective deity for the fifth day of each ered to be different things entirely. half of the lunar month. See also During the period of impurity associ- Tortoise avatar. ated with death (maranashaucha) the mourners will not shave for the entire ten days, signifying their continuing impurity, but at the end of that period In Hindu mythology, sage-king who is they will shave completely to signify famous for his virtue and commit- their final purification. Hindu men ment to his word. Shibi’s reputation will sometimes also refrain from reaches the ears of the gods, who shaving as a sign of austerity while decide to test it. The god Dharma, they are keeping religious vows, and who is righteousness personified (or shave when the vow has been com- in some other versions, the god Agni) pleted. One example occurs during takes the form of a dove, and is pur- the lunar month of Shravan, in which sued by the god Indra, in the form of a men who are devotees (bhakta) of the hawk. The dove flies into Shibi’s lap god Shiva will often refrain from and entreats him for asylum, which shaving. Another example can be Shibi grants. The hawk observes that it found in the ritual preparation for the is inappropriate for Shibi to deprive annual pilgrimage to Shabari Malai; him of the food he needs to eat, and men must keep a strict ascetic disci- demands in exchange an equal weight pline for forty-one days before the pil- of flesh cut from Shibi’s body. Shibi grimage, in which one element is a agrees, but no matter how much of his ban on shaving. flesh he throws into the balance, the dove is still heavier. Finally Shibi sits his whole body into the balance, as a Shesha sign that he will sacrifice his life for (“remnant”) Mythical thousand-head- the dove. At this point the gods ed serpent upon which the god resume their divine forms and bless Vishnu reclines, as on a couch; Shibi for his steadfastness. Shesha is also considered to support the various regions of the earth, par- ticularly the underworlds. His name comes from the fact that he is consid- In the Mahabharata, the later of the ered a partial incarnation of Vishnu two great Hindu epics, the rebirth of and is thus related to Vishnu, both as the maiden , daughter of the incarnation and through his status as king of Kashi. Amba and her sisters Vishnu’s couch. As with most of the have been kidnapped by Bhishma to gods’ animal associates, Shesha does be married to his nephew not play a prominent role in his own Vichitravirya, but when she informs right. The one mythic episode in Bhishma that her heart already which he does play an important part belongs to King Salva, Bhishma gal- is that of churning the Ocean of Milk lantly releases her. Yet Salva refuses to in which Shesha serves as the churn- marry her, for since she has been kid- ing-rope to turn , napped he is not certain of her virgin- with all the gods pulling from one ity. Amba then returns to Bhishma, side, and the demons pulling from the who refuses to marry her because of other. Yet here too he is only instru- his vow to remain a lifelong bachelor. mental, necessary for the episode to In her anger Amba swears to get unfold but with the main focus lying revenge on Bhishma and performs 628 Shiksha harsh physical asceticism (tapas) to Shikhara generate the spiritual powers neces- Temple tower that was the central fea- sary to do this. Her austerities eventu- ture of the Nagara architectural style, ally please the god Shiva, who prevalent in northern and eastern India. promises her that she will be reward- The temple’s tallest tower was always ed in her next birth. Amba then raises directly over the image of the temple’s a pyre and burns herself to death. primary deity, although there were Amba is reborn as Shikhandi to often also smaller, subsidiary towers to King , whose wife has lead the eye up to that primary one. received a boon that she will give birth Within this general pattern there are two to a girl, but that the girl will later be important variations, exemplified by the transformed into a boy. When temples at Khajuraho and Orissa. In the Shikhandi is born, it is announced Khajuraho style a group of shikharas is that the child is a boy and the child is unified into one continuous upward given the training appropriate for a swell, which draws the eye upward like a prince. It is only upon fixing series of hills leading to a distant peak. a marriage for Shikhandi that the In contrast, the Orissan style tends to issue of the child’s gender comes up emphasize the differences between the and it is finally resolved when temple’s parts, with a low entrance hall Shikhandi exchanges sexes with a (jagamohan) next to a beehive-shaped nature spirit () named temple tower (deul), which is often Sthunakarna, who becomes a three or four times taller than the woman, and Shikhandi a man. The entrance hall. switch is originally intended to be for only a short period, but is later extended until Shikhandi’s death, at Shiksha which time Sthunakarna again (“learning”) One of the six Vedangas. becomes male. These were the supplemental branch- During the Mahabharata war es of knowledge connected with the Shikhandi challenges Bhishma in bat- Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious tle but the latter refuses to fight him, texts, and all the Vedangas were asso- since Shikhandi has been born a ciated with the use of the Vedas. woman. Shikhandi takes advantage of Shiksha was concerned with articula- this gallantry to shoot a barrage of tion, proper pronunciation, and the arrows at Bhishma, as does the warrior laws of euphonic combination (sand- Arjuna, who hides behind Shikhandi hi), that is, sounds combined in a cer- for protection. With this assault, tain way to have a pleasant effect. Bhishma finally decides that the time Although this may sound trivial, it has come for him to give up the fight was a central concern in the cult of and die. In the battle that follows after sacrifice laid out in the Brahmana Bhishma falls, Shikhandi is killed by literature. This was because the Ashvatthama, the son of , who power of these sacrifices was believed fights on the side of the Kauravas in to depend on the proper delivery of the war. Based on Shikhandi’s role in the Vedic mantras, with any mistake shielding Arjuna from harm, in mod- being potentially ruinous. Aside from ern Hindi the name Shikhandi is used shiksha, the other Vedangas are vya- to designate a scapegoat, someone karana (), chandas behind whom another person hides (), kalpa (ritual and escapes blame. instructions), nirukta (etymology), and jyotisha (favorable times for sacrifices).

629 Shilappadigaram

their possessions. When he finally returns to his wife, their only remaining valuables are one pair of her jeweled anklets. The couple decides to travel to the town of Madurai to sell the anklets, and use the proceeds to reestablish their family as traders. When they reach Madurai, however, tragedy strikes. The night before the couple’s arrival, a dishonest jeweler has stolen an identical pair of anklets from the queen of Madurai, and when Kovalan goes to sell the anklets, the same jeweler accuses him of being the thief. Kovalan is executed, and when Kannaki hears of this she comes into the city, bearing the other anklet as a sign of his innocence. She gains an audience with the king, who falls dead with remorse when he realizes the disaster he has caused. Still furious, Kannaki rips off her left breast, pronounces a curse on the city, and hurls the breast onto the street; the breast bursts into flames that consume the city. In the end, Madurai’s patron goddess persuades Kannaki to withdraw her curse, and Kannaki dies a few days later. One of the forces assumed to be operating here is the power of a woman’s devotion to her husband. Even though Kovalan squanders all their money through unfaithfulness, Kannaki readily takes him back when he returns, and is Image of the god Vishnu. Crafted according to the rules of shilpa shastra, the image’s proportions are willing to give up her last resource to strictly defined and he holds identifying objects. help him. The power of her devotion gives her the ability to cause widespread Shilappadigaram destruction through a single curse, and (“the Jeweled Anklet”) The greatest epic the strength of this power is still an - poem in classical Tamil literature. It is cle of faith among many Hindus even traditionally ascribed to the poet today. For further discussion of the Ilangovadigal (2nd c.) but almost cer- themes in this play, and more general tainly was written several centuries consideration of images of Hindu later. The poem is a symbolic theater for women, see Sarah Mitter, Dharma’s several important themes that have per- Daughters, 1991. See also Tamil lan- vaded Hindu culture, particularly the guage and Tamil epics. need for a king to rule righteously and the power gained by a wife through her devotion to her husband. The story tells Shilpa Shastra the tale of a married couple, Kannaki General name for rules and standards and her husband Kovalan. In his infatu- governing the mechanical arts and ation with a dancer, Kovalan squanders handicrafts—traditionally numbered at the family’s wealth, selling nearly all sixty-four—through which anything was 630 Shishtachara

formed, made, or fashioned. In the con- He was dressed in the manner of a text of art and architecture, the term Muslim faqir (religious mendicant, or shilpa shastra is most often associated beggar), but claimed to have forgotten with two specific areas, which by the his birthplace and his family. Because of medieval era had had their conventions his dress a local priest forbade him from strictly fixed. One of these governed the staying at a Hindu temple, so he moved creation of sculptural images, according into a small, unused mosque, where he to which the images of the deities had to lived for the rest of his life. He kept a per- be carved to exactly defined propor- petual fire burning in a fire pit, and for tions, along with their identifying attrib- religious rituals performed both Muslim utes. The other area was in regard prayers and Hindu worship. He was to buildings, whether individual struc- most famous for his supernatural pow- tures such as temples, or collections ers: healing (for which he often gave of buildings in city planning. The layout people ash from his fire pit to eat), fore- of temples was modeled after the telling the future, multilocation (the human body (and thus mirrored the ability to be in two places at the same sculptor’s precision regarding the time), and appearing in dreams to guide images of the divine); entire towns his followers. His response to people’s were similarly modeled to create a immediate needs made him famous harmonious urban environment. through much of India, but he always maintained that his purpose in per- forming miracles was to attract people Shipra River to spiritual life. He gradually attracted A distant tributary of the Yamuna River, disciples, and in the time since his death which has its headwaters in the the town of Shirdi has become an Vindhya Mountains in Madhya Pradesh. important regional pilgrimage place The Shipra is considered a holy river (tirtha). Although he referred to himself because it flows through Ujjain, a cen- as Sai Baba, he is now usually called tral Indian city with great religious and Shirdi Sai Baba, to distinguish him from historical significance. Sathya Sai Baba, another religious leader who claims to be Shirdi Sai Baba’s Shirdi reincarnated form. Small town in the state of Mahara- shtra, about 120 miles northeast of Shishtachara Bombay. It is famous as the home of The “practice of learned [people],” the modern saint Shirdi Sai Baba, who which was one of the traditional sources appeared there as an adolescent boy in for determining religious duty (dharma) 1872 and lived there until his death in for matters not discussed in the dharma 1918. He was greatly esteemed by peo- literature, or for cases in which the liter- ple from all religious communities, ature itself gave conflicting opinions. and the shrine built in the place in Although Shishtachara was the least which he lived receives considerable authoritative source of dharma, after the traffic even today. Vedic scriptures and the dharma litera- ture, making it an authority recognizes Shirdi Sai Baba that life has many ambiguities and (d. 1918) Hindu ascetic and religious uncertainties and at the same time pro- teacher whose disciples came from vides a resource for determining the many different religious communities— appropriate action by taking as a model Hindu, Muslim, Parsi, and Christian. His the practice of established and knowl- origins are mysterious, for in 1872 he edgeable people. Another term to desig- simply appeared in the town of Shirdi in nate this sort of authority was sadachara, Maharashtra, as a boy of about sixteen. the “practice of good [people].” 631 Shishupala

Shishupala palindromes (verses that are the same In the Mahabharata, the later of the two when read backward or forward), or that great Hindu epics, Shishupala is the son use only one or two consonants, as a of the king of Cedi. He is also described sign of the poet’s skill. as a reincarnation of Jaya—one of the gatekeepers of the god Vishnu’s heavenly Shishya dwelling, Vaikuntha—who has been (“to be taught”) A word that in its literal cursed by the sages to be born three meaning can refer to any student but in times as a demon and killed by the god its most common sense refers to the dis- Vishnu each time. Shishupala is born ciple of a religious instructor (guru). with three eyes and four hands, but as his horrified parents are about to aban- don him, a celestial voice informs them that the child will grow up into a power- Hindu goddess who is both worshiped ful king. The heavenly voice also says and feared. Shitala was traditionally that Shishupala can be killed by only believed to be the physical representa- one person on earth, that Shishupala’s tion of smallpox, a deadly virus, and a third eye will disappear when he sees person infected with the disease was that person, and that two of his hands thought to be possessed by the goddess, will disappear when the person takes a notion reinforced by the fever and him in his lap. After some time the god delirium that often accompany this dis- Krishna pays a visit to Cedi, and when ease. Shitala is also associated with the signs take place as foretold, heat—both because of the fever caused Shishupala’s parents know that Krishna by smallpox and because her major is the only person who can kill their son. religious observance, Shitalashtami, Shishupala’s mother is Krishna’s aunt, comes near the advent of the hot sea- and when she begs him not to kill her son. Shitala is considered a jealous, son, Krishna promises to forgive spiteful goddess whose wrath is visited Shishupala’s misdeeds one hundred upon those who ignore and displease times. Krishna sticks to his word, but her. The literal meaning of her name, such forbearance only makes Shish- “Cool One,” can be seen as an attempt to upala more reckless, and after the one appease her wrath through flattery. hundred and first insult, Krishna Shitala has retained prominence even throws his discus and cuts off though the World Health Organization Shishupala’s head. has declared that smallpox has been completely eradicated. In a fascinating example of religious change, one writer Shishupala-Vadha details how Shitala has shifted the dis- (“Slaughter of Shishupala”) Sanskrit ease through which she shows herself, drama written by the seventh-century and now appears in the guise of tuber- poet Magha, which is traditionally reck- culosis. See Margaret Thrice Egnor, “The oned as one of the six . The Changed Mother, or What the Smallpox play’s theme is the death of the mythic Goddess Did when There Was No More figure Shishupala, whose mother has Smallpox,” Contributions to Asian been promised by Krishna that he will Studies XVIII, 1984. forgive her son one hundred times. This promise only makes Shishupala more reckless, and after the one hundred and Shitalashtami first insult, Krishna throws his discus Religious observance celebrated on the and cuts off Shishupala’s head. Aside eighth day of the bright (waxing) half from its mythic theme, the play of the lunar month of Baisakh is notable for a number of unusual (April–May), in honor of the goddess verses, such as verses that are perfect Shitala. In northern India this festival 632 Shiva falls at the advent of the hottest time Shiva of year; the climate thus mirrors the (auspicious) Along with the god Vishnu heat and fevers brought on by contact and the Goddess, one of the three most with Shitala herself, in her form as important deities in the Hindu pan- smallpox. Although Shitala is conceived theon. All three are notable for being vir- as spiteful and jealous, she cannot be tually absent from the Vedas, and their ignored, since this will be sure to collective rise to dominance (and the provoke her wrath. gradual eclipse of the original Vedic gods) points clearly to a definitive Shiv Sena change in the Hindu tradition. Of the three, Shiva is not mentioned at all (“Army of Shivaji”) Militant Hindu orga- in the Veda. He is identified with the nization formed in Bombay in the late god Rudra, who first appears in a few of 1960s by Bal Thackeray. It was originally the late Vedic hymns and who is later a movement made up of people native identified in the Shvetashvatara to Maharashtra, a modern Indian “lin- Upanishad as the single supreme deity guistic state” formed to unite people behind all things. The word Shiva with a common language, to resist the (“auspicious”) first appears in this perceived dominance of outsiders, in upanishad, but as an adjective modify- this case migrants from Tamil Nadu who ing the feminine noun body. were taking away jobs from the Despite Rudra/Shiva’s appearance in Maharashtrian “sons of the soil.” This the upanishad as a supreme divinity, his nativist bent is reflected in its name, tak- position is not clear-cut. He is described ing as its symbol the Maharashtrian as a master of archery who dwells in the hero Shivaji, who successfully resisted mountains (and thus away from human the power of the Moghul Empire. In beings) and is implored not to use his more recent times the movement has arrows to harm either man or beast. It is associated itself with Hindutva or certain that Rudra/Shiva is not a Vedic Hindu nationalism, projecting itself as deity, and some have claimed that his defending the interests of the larger roots lie in the ancient urban-cultural Hindu community against the “out- center known as the Indus Valley civi- siders,” in particular Muslims. The Shiv lization, citing as evidence one of the Sena’s potential for violent action is well seals found in Harappa, an ancient city known, and they have always been of Pakistan, which shows a horned fig- ready to defend their interests with ure sitting cross-legged as if in medita- physical force, as well as working tion. This identification is possible but through official channels. The Sena’s hardly compelling. A more likely possi- ability to provide “muscle power” has bility is that he entered the pantheon as given them political strength in a god worshiped by ascetics, who have Maharashtra, both in the municipal always been associated with mountain government of Bombay, and most dwellings. His connection with ascetics recently as a partner (with the Bharatiya is reinforced by several ascetic charac- Janata Party) in running the state teristics attributed to Shiva, such as the government. This political strength matted locks and ash-smeared body. is being translated into a strong Ascetic origins would also account for presence in other areas, particularly his marginal status among the gods, in labor unions, in which the Sena- since this would have rendered him an affiliated union is gaining greater “outsider” to Vedic sacrificial cult, which influence and membership. See also was the “established” religion of the Moghul dynasty. time. Shiva’s dramatic entry into the pantheon comes in the story of the death of his wife Sati. In this story, his

633 Shiva

Statue of the god Shiva from the Kumbha Mela festival in Allahabad. Living outside of society with his hair in matted locks and his body smeared with ash, Shiva is often regarded as the model for the Hindu ascetic. 634 Shivaga-Sindamani

father-in-law Daksha’s insulting remarks— pillar-shaped object that is his symbolic that Shiva was an ascetic with no money, form, whose base and shaft are inter- job, or family, and was unfit to join preted as symbolizing male and female respectable society—finally resulted in reproductive organs. Finally, one can the destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice as a see this transcendence in the tantric sign of Shiva’s supremacy. conception of the subtle body (the Shiva has retained this ambivalent, system of psychic centers, or chakras, sometimes marginal quality in his that run throughout the human body), iconography, his mythology, and his in which religious practice aims for the character. Perhaps his most basic and union of Shiva and Shakti. As Wendy important characteristic is that he is a Doniger O’Flaherty points out, through divinity whose nature allows him to his actions Shiva embodies all the move beyond the opposing forces (or contradictory possibilities for human dualities) within himself and the world experience, and in mythic form provides by being at all times the possibility of a resolution that one ordinary human both forces at once. Shiva can represent life can never provide. both the wild and dangerous side of life In medieval times Shiva’s devotees and the respectable and refined side. On developed a doctrine of avatars (incar- the one hand, he is the typical ascetic, nations of Shiva who take the form of a with matted hair, ash-smeared body, variety of saints, sages, and minor and a home on Mount Kailas in the deities who appear on earth to restore remote Himalayas. On the other hand, balance and perform other necessary he is Hindu society’s ideal for the good acts), probably in response to the older husband, who dotes upon his wife and better developed notion of avatars Parvati. His body is adorned with of Vishnu. Unlike Vishnu’s avatars, snakes and clothed with a bloody ele- Shiva’s do not seem to have been a way phant skin, but he also wears the to create a place for smaller existing Ganges River and the crescent moon, deities in the larger pantheon. Of Shiva’s which are associated with beauty, purity, twenty-one avatars, the most important and auspiciousness. His mythic deeds one is Hanuman, who is the only one stress his overwhelming power, against with a well-established independent which no enemy can stand, and his sud- cult. The others were sages (such as den and sometimes impetuous temper, Durvasas) and important beings, but seen best in the destruction of Kama, the worship of Shiva’s avatars has never the god of love; yet this sudden violence upstaged the worship of Shiva himself, contrasts with his grace and favor as has often happened with Vishnu. For toward his devotees (bhakta), by whom further information on the mythology of he is given the name “quickly satisfied” Shiva, see Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty (Ashutosh) and to whom he will give Shiva, 1981; and Stella Kramrisch, The almost everything. Although he is por- Presence of Shiva, 1981. See also Shaiva. trayed as simple and without deceit (as Bholanath, the “simple lord”), he is also traditionally described as the expositor Shivaga-Sindamani of the , the most secret and By far the latest of the three Tamil epics, hidden religious practice of all. This written perhaps in the late sixth century. transcendence of all opposites can be The story describes the adventures seen in the images that commonly of Shivaga, a man who excels at every represent him: in his form as Nataraja, possible manly art, who with each in which many of these contrary attrib- new challenge wins a new wife for utes are shown, or as , his harem but in the end renounces in which the image is half male and half everything to become a Jain monk. female. This transcendence of duality Although the story clearly has a Jain is also visible in the linga, the bias, the Shivaga-Sindamani paints a 635 Shivaji

Ascetics observing Shivaratri. useful picture of contemporary south- transformed him into a Hindu national- ern Indian life. ist hero, particularly in Maharashtra. See also Moghul dynasty. Shivaji (1627–1680) Maratha chieftain who Shivananda, Swami carved out an independent kingdom in (1887–1963) Hindu ascetic, teacher, and western Maharashtra and Goa, and was founder of the Divine Life Society. able to hold onto it despite the efforts of Shivananda’s first calling was to be a the Moghul emperor Aurangzeb to take doctor; after getting his degree, he spent it back. Shivaji’s father Shahji was a some time practicing medicine in Moghul governor in the city of Bijapur, Malaysia, spurred by a passion to serve and Shivaji began his operations as a others. Later in life he felt the call of robber chief there. He gained the sup- renunciation and, in 1924, settled in port of the local Maratha people, and his Rishikesh, where he was based for the first important conquest was a hill fort rest of his life. Shivananda’s message near the city of Pune. From there he stressed the teachings of the Advaita expanded his territory and consolidated Vedanta school, which is devoted to a his power, building forts to hold the ter- belief in monism (the belief in a single ritory. Shivaji was a devout Hindu, Ultimate Reality where all things are which undoubtedly helped gain him united), and the practice of yoga for a support from the common people. In disciplined life. He saw his own mission modern times his Hindu roots, and his as teaching others, a mission fostered by opposition to Moghul rule, have the Divine Life Society’s publications, 636 Shiwalik Goddesses

which continue to be important today. unlimited religious benefits. The obser- Shivananda’s learning and religious vances for this festival fall into three charisma made him greatly respected, general categories: fasting (upavasa), and in keeping with his original voca- wakefulness, and worship. Those fast- tion, one of the charitable works spon- ing on Shivaratri must abstain from all sored by the Divine Life Society is a free grains—which define the difference medical clinic. For further information between a “snack” and a “meal”—but see David Miller, “The Divine Life are free to eat all other things. During Society Movement,” in Robert D. Baird the night observers stay awake, prefer- (ed.), Religion in Modern India, 1998. ably at a temple, relating and listening to Shiva’s mythic exploits, and worship Shiva early the next morning. Shivaratri Shiva Purana is a major Indian festival, and in many One of the eighteen traditional puranas, places the readings and discourses are which were an important genre of smrti broadcast through loudspeakers, so texts and the repository of much of tra- that those nearby may also share the ditional Indian mythology. The smrtis, religious merit. or “remembered” texts, were a class of The charter myth for this festival literature, which, although deemed describes the power of any religious important, were considered less author- observances performed on this day, itative than the shrutis or “heard” texts. even if unknowingly. According to the In brief, the shrutis included the Vedas, story, a hunter lost in the woods on the the oldest and most authoritative Hindu evening of Shivaratri climbs a tree for religious texts, whereas the smrtis safety, and spends the night. Unknown included the Mahabharata and the to him, at the base of the tree is a linga, Ramayana, the dharma literature, the the pillar-shaped object which is Shiva’s Bhagavad Gita, and the puranas. The symbolic form. The hunter passes a cold puranas are the collection of all types of and miserable night, and through his sacred lore, from mythic tales to ritual shivering shakes the tree, sending dew instruction to exaltation of various and leaves from the tree as offerings sacred sites (tirthas) and actions. Most onto the linga; upon descending the tree of the puranas stress the worship of he kneels to pick up an arrow he has one deity as supreme over all others dropped during the night and thus and as this one’s name clearly shows kneels before the linga. Despite a life- it is focused on the worship of Shiva. time of bad karma generated by his The Shiva Purana is one of the livelihood as a hunter, the religious longer and larger puranas. It gives an merit from this unknowing observance exhaustive account of Shiva’s mythic brought this hunter to the abode of deeds—many of which have become Shiva on his death, and to a later rebirth the common mythology for many as a king. traditional Hindus—as well as instruc- tions for how, where, and when Shiva is to be worshiped. Shiwalik Goddesses Local goddesses from the Shiwalik hills separating the Himalayas from the Shivaratri northern Indian plain. Some have little (“Night of Shiva”) The most important importance beyond the borders of their annual festival for devotees (bhakta) of particular villages, whereas others have the god Shiva, celebrated on the four- become important regional deities. As teenth day of the dark (waning) half with all the goddesses of India, the of the lunar month of Phalgun Shiwalik goddesses are considered to be (February–March). Worshipers of manifestations of the same feminine Shiva on this night are said to receive divine energy—the Goddess. As one 637 Shiwalik Hills

sign of this identity, many of these sites a person’s death, although it may be are claimed to be Shakti Pithas—places repeated on the anniversary of the where a part of the dismembered god- death. It is also usually performed every dess Sati fell to earth and took form as a year during the Pitrpaksha, a two-week different goddess. Shiwalik goddesses period specifically devoted to such rites, are also thought of as relatives. Kathleen on the lunar day during this period that Erndl mentions seven goddesses, known corresponds to the lunar day of death. as the Seven Sisters: Vaishno Devi, A parvana shraddha can be per- Jwalamukhi, Vajreshvari Devi, - formed on a number of different occa- purni, Naina Devi, , and sions, for a number of different rea- Mansa Devi. Modern Hindi language sons. In the dharma literature and its sources list nine—the seven just men- commentaries, shraddhas are classi- tioned plus Shakumbhari Devi and fied as falling in all three categories of Kalika Devi. This group of nine is scat- ritual action: nitya, naimittika, and tered in three different Indian states kamya. Certain shraddhas are obliga- along the Shiwalik Range: Seven are in tory (nitya) because they are pre- Himachal Pradesh, Vaishno Devi is in scribed for certain particular times, Jammu and Kashmir, and Shakumbhari such as during the Pitrpaksha. Other Devi is in Uttar Pradesh. The pantheon shraddhas are occasional (naimittika) here is fairly flexible, and the goddesses because they are necessary only under mentioned in these lists will probably certain conditions, such as the obliga- vary over time, partly reflecting the suc- tion to give a tirtha shraddha when cess or failure to establish the holiness one visits a pilgrimage place (tirtha). of these sites. For further information on Finally, certain shraddhas are freely the Shiwalik goddesses and worship of performed because of the desire (kama) the Mother Goddess in northwestern for certain benefits from them—usually India, see Kathleen Erndl, Victory To The conceived as the well-being of one’s Mother, 1993. See also pitha. ancestors—and these are desiderative (kamya) shraddhas. Whatever the motive for giving the Shiwalik Hills shraddha, the general procedure always Himalayan foothills running through has two particular features: symbolically the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, feeding one’s ancestor(s) by offering Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and balls of cooked grain (pindas), and feed- Kashmir. The hills are an ecological ing real food to a group of brahmins (the transition zone between the plains group with the highest social status in and the mountains but have their own Hinduism) representing one’s ancestors. religious ecology as well. Whereas the Each of these parts is given a great deal sites high in the Himalayas are often of ritual elaboration, and there is con- associated with Shiva, the primary siderable disagreement about which sacred sites (tirthas) in the Shiwaliks are should come first, but in modern times associated with the Goddess. See also offering the pindas generally precedes Shiwalik goddesses. the meal. Many texts exalt the spiritual merits generated from feeding brah- Shraddha mins, but this is hardly surprising, since (“faithful”) Ancestral memorial rite, per- most of these texts were written by brah- formed either for one specific person mins, and for many brahmins living at (ekoddishta), or for a group in which the pilgrimage places these shraddhas were primary beneficiaries were one’s three (and remain) an important part of their paternal ancestors (parvana). livelihood. However, many people deem An ekoddishta shraddha is usually this livelihood parasitic, and it is also first performed on the eleventh day after potentially inauspicious, since it is gained through rites performed for the 638 Shrauta Sutras

dead. For further information see these qualities put them in religious Pandurang Vaman Kane, A History of competition with the brahmin priests, Dharmasastra, 1968; and Raj Bali whose practice stressed mastery of Pandey, Hindu Samskaras, 1969. sacred texts and performing enormously complex rituals; the need for sponsors for these rituals made brahmin religion Shraddhanand, Swami “establishment” religion, serving its (b. Lala Munshi Ram, d. 1926) Key figure patron classes. Indian grammarians use in the development of the , a the pair shramana and brahmin to illus- modern Hindu reformist movement. trate typically bitter opponents, along Shraddanand was born in Punjab and with examples such as mongoose and got a law degree from the Government cobra, and their difference seems to be College in Lahore, but was most influen- between a religious model stressing tial through his support for the Arya individual charisma (shramana), and Samaj’s educational institutions. His one stressing highly trained technical greatest work was establishing the expertise (brahmin). Part of the shra- Gurukul Kangri near the sacred city of mana tradition remained outside the Haridwar in 1901. The Gurukul Hindu fold by virtue of resolutely reject- (“teacher’s household”) was a boarding ing the authority of the Vedas; the Jains, school where Arya Samaj children could Buddhists, Ajivikas, and other religious be raised with “progressive” Arya values, groups developed as a result of this far from the corrupting influences of tra- rejection of the Vedas. Part of the shra- ditional mainstream Hindu society. This mana tradition was absorbed into tradi- model was based on the Vedas, the ear- tional Hinduism in the dharma litera- liest Hindu religious texts, which the ture, which found a place for renunciant Arya Samaj took as the sole religious asceticism in the form of the Sanyasi, authority, and in which a student would the last of the four traditional stages live as a member of his teacher’s family. of life (ashramas). For further informa- Educationally, the curriculum stressed tion on the shramanas and the the arts and sciences necessary for a development of this tradition, see “modern” education, but also traditional Padmanabh S. Jaini, “Sramanas: Their Sanskrit learning, particularly of the Conflict with Brahmanical Society,” in Vedas. Shraddhanand became a Sanyasi Joseph Elder (ed.), Chapters in Indian in 1917 but continued to support politi- Civilization, 1970. cal causes, particularly Indian social and political leader Mohandas Gandhi’s 1919 call for non-cooperation with the Shrauta Sutras British government. His fervor and (“aphorisms on Vedic rituals”) A set of strength of character made him an brief sayings (4th c. B.C.E.) explaining the unpopular figure, and he was assassi- ritual instructions for performing the nated by a Muslim in 1926. public sacrifices prescribed in the Vedas, the earliest and most authorita- tive Hindu religious texts. Such sacrifi- Shramana cial instructions had been prescribed in (from the Sanskrit verb shram, “to the Brahmana literature—itself consid- strive”) General term denoting religious ered part of the Veda—but with the pas- adepts from the middle of the first mil- sage of time the Brahmanas had become lennium before the common era whose too complex and difficult to understand. beliefs stressed renunciation, ascetic The Shrauta Sutras were essentially practices, and the search for intuitive manuals for the priests presiding over insights. Shramana religious practice the Vedic sacrifices, composed to ensure was individualist, experiential, free- that the sacrifices would be performed form, and independent of society. All of correctly. Aside from instructions for 639 Shravan

performing the sacrifice, the Shrauta day, worship Shiva and members of his Sutras also contained an appendix with “family” (Ganesh, Parvati, and Nandi), the exact measurements for the sacred and sometimes stay up late into the , known as the Sulva Sutras. In the- night reciting Shiva’s mythic deeds. ory, the Shrauta Sutras were the first part Some devotees will also refrain of a Kalpa Sutra, which would also con- from cutting their hair and shaving tain prescriptions for domestic rites their beards during this month, in (Grhya Sutras) and appropriate human imitation of Shiva’s primary identity as behavior (Dharma Sutras), with each the great ascetic. Kalpa Sutra being connected to one of Another observance falling in the four Vedas. But in practice the story Shravan is the festival of kanvars, in of the Shrauta Sutras is far more which devotees draw pots of water from complex, since aside from the three the Ganges, suspend them from a bam- complete Kalpa Sutras that have boo pole (kanvar), and carry this water survived, by Apastamba, Baudhayana, to a Shiva temple, where it is offered to and Hiranyakeshin, there are other Shiva. This practice occurs in many Shrauta Sutras, indicating a more places throughout northern India, but independent composition. the most famous place is at in the state of Bihar. There Shiva is present in his form as Vaidyanath (“Lord of Shravan Physicians”), and the image of According to the lunar calendar, by Vaidyanath at Deoghar is one of the which most Hindu religious festivals are twelve jyotirlingas (images considered determined, Shravan is the fifth month especially sacred). Pilgrims going to in the lunar year, usually falling within Deoghar draw their water from the July and August. In northern India Ganges at Sultanganj, and then walk to Shravan is associated with the rains, the Deoghar to offer the water, a distance of breaking of the heat and revival of the over sixty miles. This particular obser- land, and a general feeling of release. vance combines devotion to God with The major holidays in Shravan are Nag the willingness to suffer hardship; it is Panchami, Kamika Ekadashi, Tulsidas often performed to fulfill a vow made Jayanti, Putrada Ekadashi, and Raksha when asking for some divine favor. See Bandhan. In addition, the entire also Solah Somvar Vrat. month is deemed sacred to the god Shiva, with all Mondays and the Shravan Vrat marked out as times for Shri particular observances. (“auspicious,” “bringing good fortune”) Epithet of the goddess Lakshmi, reflect- ing her identification with luck, fortune, Shravan Vrat and prosperity. See Lakshmi. Religious vow (vrat) performed during the entire lunar month of Shravan (July–August), which is dedicated to the Shri Aurobindo god Shiva. During this month devotees Name taken by the Indian philosopher (bhakta) will perform various acts of and social activist Aurobindo Ghose after homage, abstinence, and worship, retiring from political life to become an although the strictness of this obser- ascetic. See Aurobindo Ghose. vance depends largely on individual inclination. Some worshipers observe a vow on each Monday of Shravan to wor- Shrichakra ship Shiva (Monday is the day of the Symbolic diagram (yantra) used in wor- week over which he presides). The ship by the Shrividya school, a branch observant will fast (upavasa) during the of the secret, ritually based religious practice known as tantra. The 640 Shrinathji

Shrichakra is a set of nine interlocking Shrikrishnavali triangles with four pointing up and five (“Series [of poems] to Krishna”) Series pointing down. The figure is surrounded of sixty-one short poems dedicated to by a double series of lotus petals, then the god Krishna, written in the Braj an enclosing circle, and finally angular Bhasha form of Hindi by the poet-saint exterior walls. In the center of the dia- Tulsidas (1532–1623?). This collection is gram is a single point known as the unusual, since Tulsidas is renowned as a bindu, representing the ultimate divinity devotee (bhakta) of the god Rama, and that is the source of all things. The most of his literary work describes shrichakra is considered a subtle form of Rama’s exploits. The Shrikrishnavali is a the goddess Lalita Tripurasundari, a poetic cycle about Krishna’s life, so it goddess who is identified with different begins with poems devoted to Krishna’s local goddesses throughout southern childhood and youth in the Braj region. India. Lalita Tripurasundari is consid- Most of the text, however, describes the ered a “textual” goddess since she sorrow of the cow herd girls (gopis) after appears as an object of worship in the Krishna’s departure for his kingdom in Shrichakra diagram but has no temple Mathura, and their scornful rejection of or image. The Shrichakra is used as a rit- Krishna’s messenger Uddhava, who tries ual aid during the rite known as to convince them that since Krishna is samharakrama, in which the adept the supreme deity, he is everywhere. symbolically destroys the external This work is an example of the ecumeni- world and ideas of a separate Self to cal, or universal, tendencies found become completely identified with throughout Tulsidas’s work. Not only this goddess, who is considered the did he compose poems in praise source of all reality. For extensive of another deity, thus transcending information on the Shrichakra, see sectarian barriers, but he also tran- Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of scended linguistic barriers by writing the Three Cities, 1990. these poems in Braj Bhasha, the most widely read language of his time, rather Shrichandra than his own native Avadhi. (b. 1494–1612?) Historical founder of the Udasi (“indifferent”) ascetic community. Shrinathji Shrichandra was the elder son of Guru The name of a particular image of the Nanak, the first of the Sikh community’s god Krishna, the presiding deity of the ten . By all accounts, Shrichandra Shrinathji temple in Nathdwara, was a devout and pious man, but Nanak Rajasthan. According to tradition, the passed over Shrichandra to designate image was originally hidden on top of one of his followers, Angad, as the second Mount Govardhan, a famous mountain Sikh guru. According to tradition this was in the Braj region that is mythically because Guru Nanak, believing that his associated with Krishna’s humiliation of followers should live married lives in reg- the storm-god Indra. The image’s loca- ular society, disapproved of Shrichandra’s tion was revealed in a dream to status as ascetic. Due to his pedigree and Vallabhacharya, the founder of the reli- his piety, Shrichandra gained a consider- gious community known as the Pushti able following of his own, but the Udasis Marg. Vallabhacharya built a temple to have always been considered as belong- house the image on Mount Govardhan, ing in the Hindu fold. During the and his descendants have remained Kumbha Mela, an important bathing Shrinathji’s hereditary servants since (snana) festival held in different places in that time. The image was taken to northern India, the Udasis march third in Rajasthan in 1669, a move prompted by the bathing procession, behind the fears that it would be destroyed by the Sanyasis and the Bairagis. Moghul emperor Aurangzeb. According 641 Shringeri

Shrirangam, an island in the Cauvery River, contains the Ranganathaswamy Temple, dedicated to the god Vishnu. to tradition Shrinathji revealed his Marg, a religious community devoted wish to stay in Nathdwara by sinking to the god Krishna, who play the major his wagon’s wheels deep into the earth, role in administering it. For more so that it could not go further. A new information see Rajendra Jindel, Culture temple was erected and dedicated in Of a Sacred Town, 1976. See also 1672, and the image has remained there Moghul dynasty. ever since. Whether or not one accepts the claim of the divine mandate, much of the story Shringeri seems reasonable. Given the proximity Town and sacred site (tirtha) in eastern of Braj to Agra, the Moghul capital, Karnataka, about 160 miles west of keepers of well-known images might Bangalore. Although Shringeri is a very have been concerned about their safety, small town, it is religiously significant as and since the neighboring state of the home of the Shringeri Math, one Rajasthan was controlled by the of the four Dashanami maths, the Moghuls’ Hindu vassals, this would have monastic centers believed to have been an obvious place to go. Even today been established by the philosopher Nathdwara is in a remote and thinly set- Shankaracharya. The ascetics of the tled region of Rajasthan, which indicates Shringeri math have a reputation for that in earlier times it would have been a very strict adherence to traditional prac- place of refuge. The Nathdwara temple tice, and the town has a long standing as is particularly important to the Pushti a center for religious learning. 642 Shri Sampraday

Shringeri Math controlled this part of southern India— One of the four maths or monastic cen- Chera, Pandya, Chola, Hoysala, and ters traditionally believed to have been Vijayanagar—although the bulk of the established by the great philosopher construction was done by the last two. Shankaracharya; the others are the Since Vishnu’s image is that of the divine Jyotir Math, Sharada Math, and king, it is hardly surprising that each of Govardhan Math. These four sacred these regional dynasties patronized this centers are each associated with one of site, as a way of using this divine the four geographical corners of the imagery to support and validate their Indian subcontinent; the Shringeri Math own right to rule. is in the southern quarter, in the city of Shringeri in the southern Indian state of Shrirangapatnam Karnataka. Shankaracharya is tradi- Demolished fortress city just outside the tionally cited as the founder of the city of Mysore in the state of Karnataka. Dashanami Sanyasis, the most presti- Shrirangapatnam formerly served as the gious Hindu ascetic order. The capital of Tipu Sultan (r. 1782–1799), the Dashanami (“ten names”) ascetics are last ruler of Mysore. Throughout his devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva, who reign he fought against the encroach- are divided into ten divisions, each with ment of outside powers. However, in a different name. These ten divisions are 1799 he unsuccessfully took up arms organized into four larger organizational against the British and was killed in bat- groups—Anandawara, Bhogawara, Bhuri- tle, leaving the city largely destroyed. wara, and Kitawara—each of which has The city got its name from a temple two or three of the ten divisions, and there to the god Ranganatha, a form of each of which is associated with one of Vishnu in which he is sleeping on his the four sacred centers. Of these, the serpent couch Shesha in the sea of cos- Shringeri Math is associated with the mic dissolution (pralaya). The temple Bhuriwara group. survived the demolition and is still func- tioning today. Ranganatha is considered Shrirangam a divine king, and his most famous Island in the Cauvery River, just north of image, on the island of Shrirangam in the town of Tiruchirappalli in the state Tamil Nadu, has strong associations of Tamil Nadu. The site is most famous with southern Indian kings and king- for the Ranganathaswamy Temple, ded- ship. Even though Tipu was a Muslim, icated to the god Vishnu in his form as invoking Ranganatha’s powerful sym- Ranganatha, who is sleeping on the bolism would have been an astute polit- back of his serpent couch Shesha in the ical move, to legitimate his rule in the sea of cosmic dissolution (pralaya). The eyes of his Hindu subjects. temple is built in the Dravida style of architecture, in which the temple build- Shri Sampraday ings are of modest height but cover an One of the four branches (sampraday) immensely large area and are surrounded of the Bairagi Naga ascetics. The Bairagi by a boundary wall with massive towers Nagas are devotees (bhakta) of the god (gopurams) over each wall’s central Vishnu, organized in military fashion gateway. In the temple’s outer zones one into different anis or “armies.” Until the often finds shops and houses, making beginning of the nineteenth century such temples veritable cities in their their primary occupation was as merce- own right. The Ranganathaswamy tem- nary soldiers, although they also had ple has a series of seven concentric pro- substantial trading interests; both of cessional streets, making it one of the these have largely disappeared in con- largest temples in India. It was built in temporary times. The Shri Sampraday stages by the various dynasties that 643 Shrishaila

traces its spiritual lineage through the centuries. All the Alvars were devotees of poet-saint Ramananda to the southern Vishnu, and their stress on passionate Indian philosopher Ramanuja, who is devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, claimed to have been Ramananda’s guru. conveyed through hymns sung in the This claim can also be seen in the name Tamil language, transformed and revi- of the sampraday, since Ramanuja’s fol- talized Hindu religious life. Two cen- lowers, the Shrivaishnavas, focus their turies later, the Alvars’ devotional out- worship on Vishnu and Shri (Lakshmi). pouring was organized and system- Yet the Ramanandi ascetics worship an atized by the philosopher Ramanuja, entirely different pair of deities—Rama considered the Shrivaishnava founder. and Sita—and the claim of any connec- Ramanuja was convinced that Brahman, tions between the Ramanandis and the or Supreme Reality, was a personal Shrivaishnavas was formally renounced deity, rather than an impersonal at the Ujjain Kumbha Mela in 1921, at abstract principle, and was also con- the insistence of the Shrivaishnavas. As vinced that devotion was the most with another Bairagi order, the Brahma important form of religious practice. Sampraday, the claim to be connected Vishishthadvaita Vedanta, his philo- to a famous religious figure seems to be sophical position, stressed both of these a way to gain the authority and prestige convictions, and thus opposed the of an ancient and established tradition. Advaita Vedanta school founded by the Even without this claim, the Shri philosopher Shankaracharya, which Sampraday is the largest and the most stressed that the Supreme Being was important of the Bairagi Naga orders. impersonal and that realization () For further information see Peter van was the best spiritual path. In the time der Veer, Gods on Earth, 1988. after Ramanuja the Shrivaishnava com- munity split into two smaller groups, the Tengalai and the Vadagalai. The schism Shrishaila stemmed from a disagreement over (“holy mountain”) Sacred mountain in whether human action was necessary to the center of the state of Andhra attain final liberation, or whether the Pradesh, about 185 miles south and hope came in complete surrender (pra- slightly east of Hyderabad. The site is patti) to God’s grace; the Vadagalais held remote and difficult to reach but is the former position, and the Tengalais famous for a temple sacred to the god the latter. Shiva, in his manifestation as Malli- In practice, the Shrivaishnava com- karjuna, “[Lord] White as Jasmine.” munity has been strongly influenced by Shiva’s image as Mallikarjuna is in the the doctrine of divine “emanations” form of a linga, the pillar-shaped image originated by the Pancharatra religious that is his symbolic form, and the community, particularly the notion that Mallikarjuna linga is one of the twelve a properly consecrated image becomes jyotirlingas, a network of sites deemed a form of the deity itself. Shrivaishnava especially sacred to Shiva, and at which piety has tended to center around Shiva is uniquely present. temples, and particularly the service of the temple’s image, which is considered Shrivaishnava a genuine form of the deity. Given Southern Indian religious community this stress on learning and temple- who are devotees (bhakta) of the god based worship, it is not surprising Vishnu and Shri (Lakshmi), and whose that the community has been dominated religious life is rooted in the devotional by brahmins, and the few non- hymns of the Alvars, a group of twelve brahmins in the community have poet-saints who lived in southern distinctly inferior status. For further India between the seventh and tenth information see K. Rangachari, The Sri Vaisnava , 1931; and 644 Shuddadvaita

John Braisted Carman, The Theology of based religious practice known as Ramanuja, 1974. tantra. See Shrichakra.

Shrivatsa Shrutashravas An auspicious mark on the god Vishnu’s In the Mahabharata, the later of the two chest, also found on Vishnu’s form as great Hindu epics, Krishna’s paternal Krishna, which is sometimes described aunt and the mother of Shishupala. as a mole and sometimes as a curl of hair. In statues and pictures, the is usually portrayed as a four- Shruti petaled flower, and it is believed to be (“[that which is] heard”) The most the jewel, which was one of authoritative type of Hindu sacred liter- the precious things churned from the ature, made up of all the Vedas, the old- Ocean of Milk along with the goddess est Hindu religious texts. The Vedas are Lakshmi, the wishing-cow Surabhi, and generally considered to have four types amrta, the nectar of immortality. See of texts: the hymns to the gods known as also Tortoise avatar. samhitas, the ritual manuals called the Brahmanas, and the speculative texts known as the Aranyakas and the Shrividya Upanishads. The term comes from the Southern Indian school of tantra, a traditional Hindu belief that these texts secret, ritually based religious practice, were not composed by human beings in which the principal deity is the but are based in the primordial vibra- goddess Lalita Tripurasundari. The tions of the cosmos itself. The ancient Shrividya tradition is noted for its ritual sages, whose faculties of perception had use of the shrichakra, a particular sym- been sharpened through persistent reli- bolic diagram (yantra) composed of a gious practice, were able to “hear” and series of interlocking triangles. The understand these vibrations, and trans- Shrichakra ritual is known as samhara- mitted them to others in a lineage of krama, and is a systematic ritual decon- learning. Thus, the belief that their ori- struction of the perceivable world and gin is nonhuman makes the shruti the all illusions of duality, to attain union highest religious authority. with the single true reality. The interior counterpart to this exterior ritual is the practice of , which is Shuddadvaita based on the tantric idea of the subtle (“pure monism”) Philosophical school body—the six psychic centers (chakras) first propounded by Vallabhacharya running along the spine—and seeks to (1479–1531). called his school gain ultimate union within the aspirant’s shuddadvaita, or “pure monism,” to dis- own body by bringing together the tinguish it from the Advaita Vedanta microcosmic forms of the deities Shiva school founded by the philosopher and Shakti that exist within the body. Shankaracharya. The latter school pro- For a careful and considered picture of pounds “nondual” (advaita) monism, in the Shrividya tradition, see Douglas its claim that a single Ultimate Reality Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three lies behind all things, and that all things Cities, 1990. are merely differing forms of that reality. The Advaitins call this single reality Brahman, which they conceive as form- Shriyantra less, impersonal, and having no defining Another name for the Shrichakra, a attributes except for being, conscious- symbolic diagram (yantra) used in ness, and bliss (sacchidananda). In the worship by the Shrividya school, a Advaita understanding, since all particular branch of the secret, ritually conceptions of particular deities have 645 Shuddhi

specific attributes, they are thus condi- Because of this emphasis on grace, tioned forms of the ultimate Brahman. Vallabhacharya’s religious community is In fact, any assumption that the world also known as the Pushti Marg. The as it appears is real is a fundamental Pushti Marg believes that God’s favor is misunderstanding that ultimately gained through devotion (bhakti), causes human beings to be trapped which is open to all and for which there in karmic bondage, reincarnation are no prerequisites. The emphasis (samsara), and suffering. on devotion has marginalized all Shankaracharya’s philosophical posi- other forms of religious practice, and tion was based primarily on the Vedas, the Pushti Marg is particularly known the oldest and most authoritative Hindu for rejecting all ascetic endeavors, texts, and particularly on the such as celibacy, fasting (upavasa), or Upanishads, the speculative texts that renunciation. Its members tend to be are the latest part of the Vedas. householders coming from merchant Vallabhacharya used both of these families, particularly from the state of sources in framing his Shuddadvaita Gujarat. The community’s primary school, but also used the Bhagavata temple is at Nathdwara in the state of Purana, which he considered to be of Rajasthan. For further information see equal authority. The Bhagavata Purana Richard Barz, The Bhakti Sect of is one of the later sectarian collections Vallabhacarya, 1976. known as puranas. It is the most impor- tant source for the worship of the god Krishna, whom Vallabha considered to Shuddhi be the ultimate manifestation of the (“purification”) Any ritual purification Supreme Being, rather than the unqual- that removes impurities and thus ified Brahman promoted by returns one to a state of ritual purity. Shankaracharya. Aside from promoting In a more specialized context the a personal conception of the deity over term denotes the “reconversion” back an impersonal conception, another dif- to Hinduism of people who had ference in the two schools concerned either converted to another religion the status of the world. For or who had adopted practices Vallabhacharya, the world as perceived characteristic of other religious tradi- is not an illusion but is real, because it tions. This practice was first instituted and human beings have both evolved in the 1890s by the reformist Arya from God through the exercise of his Samaj, led by Swami Dayanand supreme power. Krishna is conceived Saraswati. There was a tremendous in the traditional threefold divine aspect stir in the Sikh community when several as being–consciousness–bliss. Living Sikhs were a part of a group thus beings possess being and conscious- “purified,” and in Sikh accounts ness, but not the divine bliss, whereas this threat of reabsorption the material, nonliving, world has into the Hindu community was one only being. Since this conception of the major forces behind the Singh gives real value to the everyday Sabha movement, which defined world, Vallabhacharya described it as the Sikhs as a separate religious commu- “pure monism.” nity. In modern times this practice has In Vallabhacharya’s system God is the been employed by the Hindu nationalist inner controller of all souls, which organization , makes human beings dependent on which has used it to “purify” certain God for thinking and perception groups who had adopted some (pratyaksha). This dependence on God Islamic practices. highlights the importance of grace, which he refers to as pushti, meaning “that which nourishes the soul.” 646

Shudra doctrine of the four stages of life (ashra- Among the four major social groups mas). was the son of the sage (varnas) in the traditional Hindu soci- Vyasa, born when Vyasa had a seminal ety, the shudras are the lowest and least emission upon seeing a celestial nymph influential. In this model, the shudras’ (apsara) in the form of a parrot. From social function was to serve all the oth- boyhood Shuka was interested only in ers. This low social status is reflected in spiritual life and had the firm desire the creation story known as the Purusha never to marry, but despite intensive Sukta, in which the shudras are spiritual study he could not find con- described as being created from the tentment. He eventually decided to visit Primeval Man’s feet. The feet are the the sage-king Janaka, who advised lowest and basest part of the body, and Shuka that he could rightly consider the shudra was correspondingly seen as renunciation only after having married the lowest level of caste Hindu society. and raised a family. Shuka returned Unlike members of the “twice-born” home to his father and lived the house- varnas—brahmin, kshatriya, and holder’s life; later in life he took vaishya—whose adolescent males were up renunciation again and became entitled to have a ritual second birth perfectly realized. that entitled them to study the Veda, shudras were always once-born, and Shuka Sampraday thus forbidden to study or even to hear Another name for the Charanadasi reli- the Veda. In practice the status of shu- gious community, since their founder dras differed widely from region to Charanadas was believed to have region—in southern India, many of the received initiation from the sage Shuka. land-owning jatis (endogamous social See Charanadasi. subgroups) were shudras, and they were very influential communities. At the very least, they were accorded a defini- Shukla Paksha tive place in caste Hinduism, unlike the (“light half”) Name denoting the waxing untouchables, who were considered half of a lunar month, so called because completely impure, usually because of the moon’s light increases every night. their hereditary occupations. Shukra Shudraka In Hindu mythology, the religious (early 5th c.) Playwright and author of teacher (guru) of the type of demons the Mrcchakatika (“The Little Clay known as . Shukra is a well- Cart”). This drama describes the love known figure who appears most promi- between a poor but noble brahmin, nently in the tale of the avatar. Charudatta, and a wealthy but virtuous In this tale, the Asura king Bali is per- courtesan, Vasantasena, set in the con- forming a great sacrifice. He is text of a complicated political intrigue. It approached by the god Vishnu, who has is notable for its detailed portrayal of taken the form of a dwarf (vamana), and everyday urban life, exemplified by the asks Bali for three paces of land to build little clay cart, which is a child’s toy. It a sacrificial altar. Shukra suspects a has been translated into several lan- trick, and warns Bali not to grant it, but guages, and is periodically performed Bali ignores Shukra’s cautionary advice. for modern American audiences. As soon as Bali grants the gift, the dwarf grows immensely large. With his first two steps Vishnu measures out the cos- Shuka mos, and with his third pushes Bali (“parrot”) In Hindu mythology, a sage down into the underworld, where he is whose life story upholds the traditional allowed to reign as king. 647 Shula

The god Shiva carrying a shula, or lance, beside his wife Parvati. The type of shula with which Shiva is associated is the trishul, or trident. Shula southern Indian manifestation as A lance or pike; one of the characteristic Murugan. When carried by Skanda- weapons in Hindu iconography. The Murugan, the lance is usually called most famous example of this is the tri- shakti (“power”), rather than shula. dent (trishul), which has three points, although the center one may be larger Shumbha than the side ones. This weapon is most In Hindu mythology, demon killed by intimately associated with Shiva, but it the goddess Kali in the Devimahatmya, is also commonly carried by certain the earliest and most important text for powerful forms of the Goddess. This the mythology of the Goddess. Together may reflect her charter myth, in which with his brother Nishumbha, Shumbha she was formed from the collected radi- is a general in the army of a demon ance of all the gods and received dupli- named Mahishasura, the figure whom cates of their weapons from all of them. the Goddess takes form to destroy. Due The lance with a single blade is associated to a divine boon given to Mahishasura, with the god Skanda, particularly in his 648 Shvetashvatara Upanishad

Shumbha and Nishumbha are able to the conception of true knowledge found conquer the gods and assume control of in the Upanishads and the way that this heaven, but they are unable to resist the differs from earlier conceptions. power of the Goddess. According to a story in the upanishad’s sixth chapter, Shvetaketu is sent away by his father to study the Vedas, and when Shurpanakha he returns twelve years later having ([having] “nails [like] winnowing-fans”) mastered all the Vedas, he incorrectly In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two considers himself learned. Shvetaketu’s great Indian epics, Shurpanakha is the father punctures his arrogance, showing sister of Ravana, the demon-king of him the difference between memoriza- Lanka. Although she is a minor charac- tion and true knowledge, by asking ter in the epic, she plays a pivotal role in Shvetaketu questions about the nature advancing the action of the story. As of the cosmos. When Shvetaketu cannot Ravana’s sister, Shurpanakha is a demon answer these, he admits his ignorance woman of high status, and is free to and accepts instruction from his father choose her own husband according to on the nature of the Self (atman). This her inclinations. As she roams through instruction contains the teaching “That the forest one day, she happens to see thou art” (tat tvam ). This is one of Rama, the epic’s protagonist, and is the “great statements” (mahavakya) in immediately smitten by his handsome Indian philosophy, and asserts the form. Assuming the shape of a beautiful ultimate nondifference between Brahman woman, she approaches him and and atman, the cosmos and the indi- expresses her desire for him. Rama tells vidual Self. her that since he is already married, his brother Lakshmana will be a more appropriate match for her. When Shvetashvatara Upanishad Lakshmana gives her reasons why he A text generally regarded as one of the too cannot marry her, Shurpanakha latest upanishads, the speculative reli- becomes angry. Realizing that Rama’s gious texts that themselves form the wife Sita is the real impediment to her most recent stratum of the Vedas. This desires, Shurpanakha tries to harm her, judgment is based on both the Shvet- and in the struggle that follows, ashvatara Upanishad’s form and on its Lakshmana mutilates her by cutting off content. Stylistically, the earliest upan- her ears and her nose. Shrieking with ishads tend to be written in prose, or pain and humiliation, Shurpanakha prose mixed with verse, whereas the returns to her brother Ravana’s court, later upanishads, including the Shvet- who swears that her insult will be ashvatara, are completely in verse. In avenged. After their brothers Khara and terms of content, the earlier upanishads Dushana are killed in a direct attack on tend to be long and rambling, whereas Rama, Ravana decides to get revenge by in the later ones the ideas are far more kidnapping Sita, an action that eventu- concise and clearly developed. The ally causes his own death. Shvetashvatara Upanishad’s most origi- nal idea is its description of the Supreme Being in completely theistic Shvetaketu terms, in contrast to the abstract, A character in the Chandogya Upan- impersonal representations in the earlier ishad, one of the speculative texts that upanishads. It identifies Ultimate form the latest stratum of the Vedas. Reality as the god Rudra, who was later In the upanishad, Shvetaketu is the identified with the god Shiva, one of the son of Uddalaka Aruni, and a para- most important modern Hindu deities. digm for a seeker of knowledge. The text is also notable for an explicit Shvetaketu’s education also symbolizes description of the process and results of 649 Shyam

yoga, which is the first known written straight up. This is called the “perfected” explanation of this tradition. posture partly because of its difficulty— Although it is best noted for these only those perfected in yoga can do it— new ideas, the upanishad also reveals but also because it is believed to bring continuity with the older tradition. The substantial spiritual benefits. second chapter begins with an extended invocation to the god Savitr (Surya), the sun, using verses drawn directly Siddhi from Vedic texts composed a thousand (“attainment”) The most common word years earlier. Such anachronisms used to denote a superhuman power indicate that there was no clear dividing or faculty. The siddhis are first referred line between the four differing types to in yoga’s founding text, the Yoga of Vedic text—samhita, Brahmana, Sutras of Patanjali (3.45), and are , and upanishad—but rather traditionally said to number eight: that these textual styles were composed minuteness (anima), lightness (lagh- in overlapping periods. ima), greatness (madhima), acquisition (prapti), irresistible will (prakamyam), control (vashitvam), superiority (ishit- Shyam vam), and suppression of desire (“black”) Epithet of the god Krishna, (kamavasayitvam). based on the dark color of his skin. The possession of such siddhis is See Krishna. generally seen as the evidence of high spiritual attainment, but the attitude toward the powers is mixed. They give one great abilities, but they are also seen (“perfected one”) Name for a religious as being highly seductive, since they can adept who is believed to have attained be used for both good and evil. The abil- the perfect knowledge, enlightenment, ity to keep from being beguiled by them and ultimate spiritual realization. is the true sign of spiritual maturity, and a spiritually immature person could eas- Siddhapith ily fall into using them for selfish pur- (“seat of the perfected”) Name denoting poses. For this reason, religious aspi- a site believed to have particular power rants are discouraged from aiming to in conferring spiritual attainments upon gain such powers, since the very act of those who carry out religious practices seeking is considered a selfish desire. In there. This power is usually tied to a contrast, when one has gained such mythic charter in which a deity became powers as a by-product of spiritual resident at the site—and is thus still pre- attainment, one is believed to be able to sent to assist people—but such sites keep them in proper perspective. have often been further sanctified by the presence of charismatic ascetics whose Simantonnayana Samskara lives and spiritual discipline serve as Traditionally, the third of the life-cycle examples to others. ceremonies (samskaras), and the last of the prenatal samskaras. This was per- Siddhasana formed when the pregnancy was further (“perfected posture”) One of the com- advanced, although various writers gave mon sitting postures (asana) used for differing times for this. The major ele- meditation. In this position one foot ment in this rite is the husband parting (often the left) is placed with the heel in the hair of his wife, supposedly to pro- the area between the anus and genitals, tect her from the misfortune and black with the other foot resting on the oppo- magic that are supposed to plague preg- site calf, turned so that the heel is nant women. One can also interpret 650 Sinhastha Mela parting the hair as symbolizing an easy Singh, Udit Narayan delivery, and since this was a rite of pro- (r. 1796–1835) Maharaja of Benares tection, it would also give the expectant whose reign saw the first performances mother psychological assurance that of the Ram Lila at his palace in everything would be all right. One bit of Ramnagar. The Ram Lilas are drama- evidence supporting this interpretation tized versions of the epic Ramayana, is that many of the dharma literature which transcend simple theater to writers classify this samskara as being become a form of worship. The Ram for the woman rather than the unborn Lila at Ramnagar, the fort that is home to child, and as only needing to be per- the kings of Benares, is the most famous formed during the first pregnancy. This and traditional of all these Ram Lilas. samskara is seldom performed in According to tradition, the Maharaja modern times. was a great devotee (bhakta) of the god Rama and a patron of the Ram Lilas in Simhakarna Benares itself, but on several occasions found it difficult to get across the (“lion’s ear”) Another name for the hand Ganges because of the seasonal flood- gesture (hasta) known as kataka hasta, ing. As a solution to the problem, he in which the fingers are loosely pressed sponsored his own Ram Lila—no doubt onto the thumb, creating a ring. This also symbolically intended to reinforce particular name comes from the fanciful his kingship—which has become the notion that the shape of the hand oldest, most traditional, and most resembles a lion’s ear. See kataka hasta. important Ram Lila in Benares. Udit Narayan Singh finalized the Simuka locations of the Ram Lila, which is (1st c. B.C.E.) Founder of the Satavahana performed throughout the city, whereas dynasty, which for over three centuries his son Prasad Narayan Singh ruled over much of central India and the was responsible for writing the Malwa region from their capital in the dialogues (samvads) spoken by the city of Paithan. characters. For further information see Anaradha Kapur, Actors, Pilgrims, Kings, and Gods, 1990. Singh, Ishvari Prasad Narayan (r. 1835–1889) A Maharaja of Benares who, with the help of local scholars, Sinhastha Mela wrote the dialogues (samvads) for the Name for the Kumbha Mela festival held characters in the Ramnagar Ram Lila. in the holy city of Ujjain. The festival is The Ram Lilas are dramatized versions called Sinhastha because it is celebrated of the epic Ramayana, which transcend when Jupiter is in Leo (Sinha). The simple theater to become a form of wor- Sinhastha Mela’s climactic bathing ship. The Ram Lila at Ramnagar, the (snana) day comes on the full moon in fort that is home to the kings of the lunar month of Baisakh (April– Benares, is the most famous and tradi- May). The Kumbha Mela is a massive tional of all these Ram Lilas. The religious festival celebrated at three- Ramnagar Ram Lila began because of year intervals in four different cities: the royal family’s patronage, and the Haridwar, Allahabad, Ujjain, and annual performance is still sponsored Nasik; the festival thus comes to each by them. Although they are no longer city every twelve years. The Kumbha the actual political rulers, the royal Mela is chiefly a festival at which partic- family continues to play an important ipants bathe in sacred rivers. The festi- ceremonial role. For further informa- val’s primary participants are ascetics, tion see Anaradha Kapur, Actors, who come from all over South Asia to Pilgrims, Kings, and Gods, 1990. bathe in the sacred waters. According to 651 Sinhastha Mela

Depiction of Sita and her husband Rama. In the epic the Ramayana, Sita is abducted by the demon king Ravana and Rama must search the earth for her. tradition, the Kumbha Mela was orga- gods and their demon opponents begin nized by the great philosopher Shan- to quarrel over the pot of nectar. The karacharya to promote regular gather- gods snatch the pot and run off with it, ings of learned and holy men, as a but the one carrying the pot grows tired, means to strengthen, sustain, and spread and in twelve days of carrying it sets it Hindu religion. on the ground in twelve different places. The charter myth for the Kumbha Eight of the places are in heaven, but the Mela is taken from the story of Churning other four are on earth and these are the the Ocean of Milk. After the ocean has four sites where the Mela is held. In each been churned and the nectar of immor- place a bit of the nectar splashes on the tality (amrta) has been extracted, the ground, sanctifying the site, and since a 652 Sita

divine day is considered to be a her husband and his allies first to search human year, the twelve-year cycle is the earth for her and then to fight a cli- established. According to popular mactic battle to regain her, concluding belief, at each Kumbha Mela’s most with Ravana’s death. Throughout all the providential moment, the waters in tumult Sita simply waits to be rescued, which people are bathing become the sure that this will provide her husband nectar of immortality, and all those with greater glory. who bathe in these waters gain According to her charter myth, Sita is immeasurable religious merit. not born in the normal way but is found Historically speaking, the two most in a furrow by King Janaka as he plows important sites have been Haridwar and his field. Sita thus carries a strong asso- Allahabad; one measure of their domi- ciation with the earth, fertility, and pros- nance is that they have held “half” perity; as David Kinsley points out, her (ardha) Kumbha Melas after six years, marriage to Rama symbolizes the union and that these have consistently drawn between the fecund earth and a right- bigger crowds than the “full” Kumbha eous king that will make it prosper. Her Melas at Ujjain and Nasik, which fall connection with the earth is also seen in during those times. In recent times, her disappearance, when in response to however, political considerations have Rama’s accusations of unfaithfulness, increased the attendance at the she calls on the earth to swallow her up Sinhastha Mela. Ujjain is located in cen- as a witness to her chastity, and disap- tral India, in the heartland of the Hindu pears forever. nationalist groups such as the Rashtriya Sita’s primary virtue is her devotion Svayamsevak Sangh, Vishva Hindu to her husband, and in her unflagging Parishad, and Bharatiya Janata Party. love for him she is a model Hindu wife, The city of Ujjain is also close to the just as many of the Ramayana’s other ancestral kingdom of Vijaya Raje characters incarnate cultural ideals. An Scindia, the matriarch of a former royal early sign of her devotion is shown family and a prominent figure in the when Rama has been wrongly exiled in Bharatiya Janata Party. In such a politi- the forest for fourteen years. Even cal climate and local environment, the though Sita has never known anything Sinhastha Mela has been seen as a good but luxury and ease, she is determined opportunity for religious-political the- to accompany him into exile, based on ater, in order to generate publicity, deliver the conviction that a faithful wife patronage, and give the people in these should always accompany her hus- organizations greater status and visibility. band. Rama objects, reasons, and even See also Tortoise avatar. forbids her, but Sita does not give in— perhaps the only time that she does not observe her husband’s wishes. She Sita goes to the forest with Rama and her (“furrow”) Daughter of King Janaka, brother-in-law Lakshmana, cheerfully wife of the god-prince Rama (himself taking on the difficult life of an ascetic, the seventh avatar or incarnation of the since this means she can remain with god Vishnu), and the major female her husband. character in the Ramayana, the earlier The more difficult test of her devo- of the two great Sanskrit epics. Unlike tion to her husband comes when she is many other Hindu goddesses, Sita’s abducted and held captive by Ravana. identity stems almost completely from She holds steadfast despite Ravana’s her husband, and she has little indepen- unceasing persuasion, threats, and dent worship or personality of her own. attempts to convince her that Rama has Her abduction by the demon-king been killed. According to one story, the Ravana is the single major event driving only part of Ravana that she ever sees is the plot of the Ramayana, prompting his feet, since as a devoted wife she kept 653 Sitamarhi

her eyes modestly downcast rather than The Divine Consort, 1986; David R. look directly at another man. When Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, 1986; and Rama’s ally Hanuman discovers where Sara Mitter, Dharma’s Daughters, 1991. Sita is hidden, she refuses to let him carry her away, since this will have meant touching another man, as well as Sitamarhi depriving her husband of the opportu- City in the northern part of the state of nity to rescue her. Bihar, about ten miles from the border Her devotion is severely tested after with Nepal. It is in the Panchala region her rescue, when Rama insists that she traditionally reckoned as the kingdom of must have been unfaithful to him dur- King Janaka, and Sitamarhi is believed ing her long captivity. This accusation to be the place where the goddess Sita reflects the Indian cultural assumption was found in a furrow of the earth while that women have much higher sex dri- King Janaka was plowing. ves than men, and much less ability to control these drives. Stung by this accu- Six Schools sation, she asks Rama to have a funeral Collective name for the six developed pyre built for her and enters it with the schools of traditional Hindu philoso- wish that, if she is innocent, the fire will phy. All six schools consider the reli- not harm her. When the blaze dies down gious texts known as the Vedas to be the she emerges unscathed, with the god most authoritative pramana, the means Agni (fire personified) as a witness to by which human beings can gain true her chastity. Despite this proof, Rama and accurate knowledge. All six schools banishes her from Ayodhya after their also assume that philosophical reflec- return. When Rama later demands a tion must ultimately serve religious second ordeal, Sita calls on the earth goals, to release the embodied soul to swallow her up as a witness to her (atman) from an otherwise unending purity, and disappears forever. cycle of transmigration. Aside from Sita’s ability to withstand both these basic similarities, each of these ordeals reflects the widespread Indian schools developed distinctive and char- belief that women gain power through acteristic perspectives. Despite their dif- their devotion to their husbands, power ferences, by the early centuries of the that can be so great that they can even common era the schools had become curse the gods themselves. Encoded in associated in pairs: Nyaya-Vaisheshika, this notion are cultural messages about Samkhya-Yoga, and Purva Mimamsa- the role of women and the importance Uttara Mimamsa, with the final school of their relationships with others. Sita more commonly known as Vedanta. represents the model Indian woman, Of these, the Nyaya school focused whose primary loyalty is to her husband on examining and cataloguing the pra- and his family. This reflects the northern manas, the means by which human Indian marriage pattern in which brides beings can gain true and accurate are brought into the groom’s home and knowledge, and their conclusions become part of their marital families, became accepted by all six schools. The severing their connection with their Vaisheshika school was a descriptive birth family. Wives are expected to place that categorized the world in other people’s welfare before their own, atomistic fashion, in which all things so that they may live a happily married were considered to be constructed from life. In return for such self-sacrifice, a smaller parts. This school had inherent wife becomes a model for all to respect philosophical problems that con- and honor. tributed to its eclipse. Samkhya is an For more information on Sita and all atheistic dualism based on the distinc- the goddesses of Hinduism, see John tion between a conscious but inert Stratton Hawley and Donna Wulff (eds.), 654 Skanda

end of the millennium Vedanta had become the most significant philosoph- ical perspective, largely eclipsing the others, although it had absorbed certain influences from them. For further infor- mation see Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Source- book in Indian Philosophy, 1957.

Skanda Hindu deity who is the son of the god Shiva. Skanda is born to destroy the demon Taraka, who has received the divine boon that he can only be killed by a son of Shiva. When Taraka makes this request, Shiva is deep in meditation in his grief after the death of his wife Sati, and it seems unlikely that such a son can ever be born. After Taraka grows too strong, the other gods begin the process of trying to encourage Shiva to marry, which results in his wedding with the goddess Parvati. Despite the marriage of Shiva and Skanda, the god Shiva’s son. Skanda is a warrior Parvati, Skanda is born in an unusual prince, born to defeat the demon Taraka. way. According to the legend, Shiva and Parvati are disturbed while making love, purusha (“person,” or spirit), and an and Shiva inadvertently spills his semen unconscious but active prakrti on the ground (the verb skand means (“nature”). According to the Samkhya “to leap” or “to ooze”). In Indian culture proponents, failure to discriminate semen is seen as a man’s concentrated between the two leads to the evolution essence, and for a deity like Shiva this of the world and the individual person, means that the semen is inordinately whereas correct understanding reverses powerful, capable of destroying the this process. Samkhya provides the the- earth. The semen is first held by the god oretical basis for the Yoga school, which Agni, who is fire personified, but it essentially details techniques to help proves too powerful for him. Agni then one gain the correct understanding puts it in the River Ganges, and after between these two entities. Purva 10,000 years the river deposits a shining Mimamsa stresses the study of the Vedas child in the reeds by its bank. The child as the source of instruction for human is discovered by the Krittikas (the beings, an emphasis that led it to Pleiades personified), each of whom develop sophisticated theories of lan- want to nurse him. To oblige them guage and methods for textual interpre- Skanda grows five extra heads. As a tation. These tools were used by the mark of the Krittikas’ care, one of his Vedanta school in its efforts to reveal the epithets is Kartikkeya. Skanda grows ultimate meaning of the Vedas. Most of rapidly, assumes command of Shiva’s the first millennium during the com- heavenly host (), and kills the mon era was a time of lively debate troublesome Taraka. His persona among these schools, each of which remains that of a warrior prince, unlike held varying positions on basic things that of his brother Ganesh, who is a such as the reality of the world. By the scholar and sage. 655 Smallpox

In northern India Skanda is consid- Smarta ered a member of Shiva’s household, Name for a particular group of brahmins and although his power is acknowl- distinguished not by region or family, edged, he is generally not a primary but by the religious texts that they hold object of worship. In southern India most authoritative. For the Smartas, the Skanda has been identified with most authoritative texts are the texts Murugan, a regional deity associated known as the smrtis—either the texts primarily with the hunt, but also with themselves or commentaries and com- war. In this atmosphere he has taken on pilations based on them. The smrtis or a much greater role, particularly in “remembered” texts were a class of liter- Tamil Nadu, and has assumed the man- ature that, although deemed important, tle of a philosopher and exponent of the were considered less authoritative than Shaiva Siddhanta school. the shrutis or “heard” texts. In brief, the shrutis denoted the Vedas, the oldest Smallpox and most authoritative Hindu religious texts, whereas the smrtis included the In traditional Hindu belief, smallpox dharma literature, the Bhagavad Gita, was personified as the goddess Shitala the Mahabharata, and Ramayana, and (“Cool One,” a euphemism), and the the collection known as the puranas. fever and skin eruptions accompanying The Smartas thus stand in contrast with the disease were interpreted as signs of sectarian brahmins, whether Shaiva possession by this goddess. In the time (devotees of Shiva) or Vaishnava (devo- since the World Health Organization has tees of Vishnu), for whom their particu- declared smallpox officially eradicated, lar sectarian scriptures have the highest in some regions Shitala has been identi- religious authority. Smarta brahmins fied with tuberculosis. See Shitala. can therefore claim to be following the oldest and best established religious Smara texts and thus in some way to be the (“memory”) Epithet of the god Kama, most orthodox. Since Smartas are dis- the deification of desire, reflecting the tinguished by their authoritative texts importance of memory in generating and practice rather than by the deity and maintaining desire. See Kama. they worship, individual Smartas may worship different Hindu deities, and many do. Yet particularly in southern Smarana India, many Smartas perform the pan- (“remembering”) One of the standard chayatana puja to the five divine religious practices mentioned in lists forms—Vishnu, Shiva, Surya, Ganesh, of religiously meritorious actions. and the Goddess—which is intended to Smarana is most often associated with show the ultimate unity behind the dif- deities but is also mentioned in con- fering manifestations of divinity. junction with sacred sites (tirthas), one’s spiritual teacher (guru), or even particu- lar acts of worship. This practice Smrti involves thinking constantly upon the (“[that which is] remembered”) An deity, person, place, or object, and in the important class of Hindu religious liter- case of a deity this often involves mental ature that, despite its sacrality, is recitation of the deity’s name. The pri- deemed less authoritative than the mary emphasis in this practice is to cre- other major category, shruti. According ate habitual behavioral patterns that, to tradition, the shruti (“heard”) texts over the long term, will have beneficial were not composed by human beings effects on one’s character. but are based in the primordial vibra- tions of the cosmos itself. The ancient sages, whose faculties of perception had 656 Snana

Snana, or bathing, at a festival in Rajasthan. Before performing any ritual, one must obtain purity by bathing. been sharpened through rigorous reli- because their contents are much better gious practice, were able to “hear” and known. This is particularly true for sec- understand these vibrations, and trans- tarian Hinduism, in which a group’s sec- mitted them to others in a lineage of tarian literature will often be given the learning. The smrti texts, in contrast, are highest religious authority. attributed to human authors, who are putting forth matters that are “remem- bered” and thus carry with them the Snana possibility of error. The smrti literature (“bath”) Bathing is arguably the single is wider and much more varied than the most commonly performed Hindu reli- shruti, which is restricted to the texts in gious act, and it is a necessary one the Vedas; smrti literature includes the before performing any rite or worship. dharma literature, the sectarian compi- An early morning bath is the norm for lations known as puranas, the two great just about all Hindus, and this has been epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana), true for centuries. The earliest European the Bhagavad Gita, and the tantras, visitors invariably remarked on this which are manuals detailing the secret, practice, since some of these visitors ritually based religious practice of tantra bathed only a few times in their lives. followers. Although theoretically the For Hindus, bathing not only keeps one smrtis have less religious authority than clean but is a way to regain ritual purity the shrutis, in practical terms they are by using water (most commonly) to often far more important, in part remove any source of defilement. 657 Snataka

Bathing is normally the last part of one’s samavartana samskara, the life-cycle morning rites, preceded by cleaning ceremony that marks the end of one’s teeth and tongue, rinsing the his stage of life as a celibate student mouth (), and (immediately (brahmacharin) and return to his before bathing) voiding one’s bladder parental home. The most important ele- and bowels. These latter acts are a nec- ment in the rite was a bath, after which essary part of life, but they also render he changed into new clothes, marking one ritually impure, a state that the bath his change in status. Before doing this removes. People generally perform any he was supposed to ask his guru’s per- daily worship immediately after mission, and also to give him his bathing, while this ritual purity is teacher’s fee (dakshina), both as pay- still unbroken. ment for services rendered and as a sign Most people bathe only in the morn- of respect. A young man who had per- ing, although those scrupulously con- formed this rite would be eligible to get cerned with purity (generally brahmins married, and the literature prescribes or ascetics) will bathe more often. The that this should follow in short order. bath itself is usually quite brief and some in cases consists of simply immersing oneself in a natural body of Solah Somvar Vrat water, or pouring a bucket of water over A religious vow (vrat) that is a variant of one’s head. In modern times people the worship of the god Shiva prescribed often use soap, but the traditionally pre- for every Monday (Somvar), the day of scribed cleansing medium is earth. It is the week over which he is believed to preferable to bathe in running water, preside. In the Solah Somvar Vrat, the since the bath purifies by removing the observer vows to do perform this rite for impurity (ashaucha) and carrying it sixteen (solah) consecutive Mondays. away and although bathing in a large Each week’s observance is marked by pond is seen as acceptable, bathing in a fasting (upavasa), worship, and reading bathtub is seen as simply spreading the aloud the charter myth for this particu- impurity around rather than getting rid lar observance. As with most literature of it. Although the most common medium pertaining to such rites, the text ends for bathing is water, when this is impos- with a catalog of the benefits brought by sible one can ritually cleanse oneself the rite—in essence, it gives whatever with oil, or one can perform ritual one desires. cleansing with mantras by using sacred According to the vow’s charter myth, sounds to remove defilement and bring as Shiva and his wife Parvati are playing one to a state of ritual purity. dice in a temple, Parvati asks a nearby In the context of worship, snana is brahmin which of them will win, and the sixth of the sixteen traditional when he replies that it will be Shiva, she upacharas (“offerings”) given to a deity angrily curses him to be afflicted with lep- as part of worship, on the model of treat- rosy. The curse comes true (as with all ing the deity as an honored guest. In this curses in Indian mythology) and the offering, the deity is bathed, either liter- brahmin is in a terrible state. Shiva takes ally or symbolically. The underlying pity on the brahmin, tells him to perform motive here, as for all the upacharas, is the Solah Somvar Vrat, and on the six- to show one’s love for the deity and min- teenth Monday, the brahmin is completely ister to the deity’s needs. cured. Some time later Parvati sees him and is amazed at his recovery. When she asks how he has been cured, the brahmin Snataka tells her about the vow, which she later (“[one who has] bathed”) In the dharma uses to cure her son of disobedience (thus literature, this is the name for a emphasizing the power of the vow, since young man who had performed the it is even used by the gods themselves). 658 Someshvara 1

Solar Line proposed by R. G. Wasson, who In Hindu mythology, one of the two contended that soma was Amonita mus- great lineages, the other being the Lunar caria, a mind-altering mushroom that Line. The Solar Line traces its descent has a long history of use in Asian from Ikshvaku, the grandson of the Sun shamanic traditions. Although Wasson’s himself. Its descendants include many theory would explain soma’s ability to of the principal characters in the take immediate effect, many Indologists Ramayana, the earlier of the two great have taken issue with this claim. See Indian epics. One of these descendants Robert Gordon Wasson, Soma, 1971; for is Rama himself. In many of the small contrary remarks, see J. Brough, “Soma former princely states in Rajasthan, the and Amonita Muscaria,” in The Bulletin rulers claimed descent from the Solar of the School of Oriental and African Line as a way to establish and support Studies, Vol. 34, 1971. their royal authority. Although they no longer wield ruling power, many of these Somavati Amavasya royal houses still exist, and thus this lin- Religious observance celebrated when a eage is believed to be still extant. new moon (amavasya) falls on a Monday, which can thus occur in any Soma month in the year. On the new moon Soma is one of the most enigmatic day the sun and moon travel together deities in the Hindu tradition. The 120 during the daylight sky, and when this hymns to soma in the Rg Veda, the old- happens on the Monday, whose presid- est Hindu sacred text, variously describe ing planet is the moon, this confluence soma as a plant, as the juice pressed is deemed particularly favorable. from that plant, and as the deified form Another auspicious connection arises of both juice and plant. The Vedic because Monday’s presiding deity, the hymns give detailed descriptions of how god Shiva, also has mythic connections the sacrificial priests pressed it, strained with the moon. A Somavati Amavasya is and filtered it, and finally consumed it, thus judged a particularly beneficial which then brought visions upon them. time to worship Shiva, as well as to These hymns portray soma as some sort bathe (snana) in a sacred river such as of mind-altering substance, although the Ganges, or to perform any other reli- there is no general agreement on what gious act. the soma plant might be. Its identity has been lost since late Vedic times, and Someshvara I since then various substitutes have been (r. 1042–1068) Monarch in the Chalukya used in rituals. dynasty. Aside from his long reign, he is Although the hymns describe soma most noted for performing religious sui- as hallucinogenic, one need not take cide by intentionally drowning himself this literally. One can explain such in the Tungabhadra River when his visions in purely psychological terms, as mental faculties began to wane. induced or fostered by the priests’ Although in general suicide was strongly heightened expectations in the sacrifi- condemned, suicide by a person suffer- cial arena. If one assumes that soma was ing from a terminal disease or enduring actually mind-altering, it could not have chronic pain was a well-attested excep- been an alcoholic beverage—since it tion to this rule. This sort of suicide was was prepared and consumed on the performed according to a well-defined same day, this would have given no time ritual, which was intended to put the for fermentation. One theory is that performer in the proper frame of mind. soma was hashish (charas), which is still In about the twelfth century this was consumed in certain ritual contexts. The declared one of the rites “forbidden in most intriguing theory was 659 Somnath

Somnath Shore Temple, Gujarat. the Kali [Age]” (Kalivarjya), although it during the other half he will grow. As had been permitted in earlier times. a sign of this gift, Shiva takes residence there as Somnath, and remains to this day. Somnath Aside from its importance as a sacred Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in the site, the is a potent state of Gujarat. The temple is named political symbol. The original temple for its presiding deity—the god Shiva in was razed and pillaged by Mahmud of his manifestation as the “Lord of the Ghazni in 1024, who reportedly carried Moon.” Shiva is present at Somnath in off astounding booty. The present tem- the form of a linga, the pillar-shaped ple at Somnath was built after Indian image that is his symbolic form, and the independence in 1947 and consecrated Somnath linga is one of the twelve in 1951. As a symbol, Somnath is thus jyotirlingas, a network of sites deemed associated with past oppression and especially sacred to Shiva, and at which depredation, and with the revitalization he is uniquely present. According to the of Hindu culture in India. For this rea- site’s charter myth, the moon is married son, the Somnath temple is a popular to all of the twenty-seven nakshatras, or image for proponents of Hindutva, an signs in the lunar zodiac, but he loves idea that identifies Hindu identity and Rohini nakshatra so much that he stays Indian citizenship. with her all the time, and neglects his other twenty-six wives. His father-in-law Daksha protests to the moon, but when Sonar he refuses to give them equal time, In traditional northern Indian society, a Daksha lays a curse on him that he will Hindu jati whose hereditary occupation lose all his light. The moon overcomes was gold smithing and jewelry making. this curse by worshiping Shiva at Traditional Indian society was modeled Somnath for six continuous months and as a collection of endogamous, or inter- is given the boon that he will only shrink married, subgroups known as jatis during half the lunar month, and that (“birth”). These jatis were organized 660 Sons

(and their social status determined) by to perform the memorial offerings for the group’s hereditary occupation, over the dead known as shraddhas. The men which each group held a monopoly. in each generation are responsible for making these offerings to their ances- tors. They are in turn obliged to have Song of Manik Chandra sons of their own, so that the family lin- Traditional Bengali song describing the eage and the chain of ancestral offerings adventures of the mythical king Manik remains unbroken through the genera- Chandra, his wife Mayana, and their son tions. Sonless couples are not completely Chand; the latter figures are the out of luck, since sons can be obtained primary characters, since Manik through adoption. Chandra dies early in the story. The text The other major reason behind the is a romance but also contains many of preference for sons lies in far more prag- the doctrines associated with the matic motives. According to the tradi- Nathpanthi ascetics. In particular, tional Indian marriage pattern, daugh- Queen Mayana has power over Yama ters move into their marital homes and (death personified), which was one of become members of their marital fami- the primary aims of the Nathpanthi lies, whereas sons bring their brides into ascetics. Furthermore, she acquired this the home and through their own fami- power through the spiritual instruction lies continue the family line. Thus, par- given by her guru Gorakhnath, the ents sometimes see their daughters as Nathpanthi founder. “temporary” family members, while Her power over death is shown in their sons are “permanent.” The sons various ways. When her husband dies, will dwell in their natal house their Mayana descends to Yama’s realm and entire lives, support their parents in physically abuses both Yama and his old age, and produce the family’s minions. In his flight Yama changes into future generations. These traditional various forms to escape Mayana’s wrath, practices and beliefs still hold very but she is never deceived and continues strong, although the forces of modernity to harass him. On other occasions, she have affected the joint family. It has shows her power over death by her become more common for husbands inability to be killed. She mounts her and wives to live separately from the husband’s funeral pyre, and although husband’s parents. the fire burns for seven days and nine The religious, economic, and social nights, not even her clothing is factors behind this preference for sons scorched. Many years later, Mayana sur- have sometimes had terrible conse- vives seven fearsome ordeals, such quences. Consciously or unconsciously, as boiling in oil. When asked how sons may be favored over daughters in she acquired these magical arts, she many significant ways. Sons are often replies that Gorakhnath himself taught given better access to education and her. The appearance of such ideas in economic opportunities, because men an essentially popular tale shows how are traditionally required to support deeply these ideas had sunk into the their families. A similar presumption lies popular mind. behind the inequities in traditional Hindu inheritance laws, which give Sons the sons a much larger share of the It is difficult to overstate the importance inheritance. In poorer families, sons traditional Hindu culture has placed on may even get preference for basic needs the need for sons, and the cultural bias such as food and access to medical care. for sons over daughters. Religious Despite these patterns, in contemporary motives underlie one important reason times many families treat all their for this bias, since only sons are entitled children with equal love and care. Given the trend toward smaller families, the 661 Sopashraya

birth of a daughter can be cause for as earth, fire, water, and wind. Akasha or much rejoicing as that of a son. “space” is not conceived in the sense of “outer space,” but rather the space between or within visible objects on Sopashraya earth. For example, an “empty” pitcher (“using a support”) One of the sitting was not actually empty, but was filled postures (asana) described in commen- with space, until it was displaced by taries to the , some fluid. This elemental sense of the foundational text for the practice of space was thus something closer to what yoga. The name of this posture derives might be considered the “atmosphere,” from a wooden support used by the and was actually seen as having fluidlike sitter to keep erect, often portrayed as properties. In some philosophical a crutch-shaped prop under the chin. schools, each of the elements is paired with one of the five senses; here akasha Soratha is associated with hearing, since it Metrical form in northern Indian devo- is believed to convey the sound from tional (bhakti) poetry, made up of two place to place. lines of twenty-four metric beats, divided unevenly after the eleventh beat. The Sphota metric pattern for the first line is 6+4+1, (“disclosure”) Crucial element in the with the pattern for the second line theory of language propounded by being 6+4+3. The soratha is thus an Bhartrhari (7th c.). Bhartrhari was the inversion of the metrical form doha. founder of the Grammarians, a philo- Although the soratha was a common sophical school that conceived of poetic form, the doha was far more pop- Brahman, the Supreme Reality, as being ular and widely used. manifested in sound, particularly the sound of the spoken word. According to South Africa this theory, a verbal utterance had three One of the countries with significant elements: the sound or sounds pro- Hindu diaspora populations. This is duced by the speaker and heard by the particularly true in Natal province, listener; a phonological pattern, of where Hindus were first brought as which that utterance is an instance; and indentured agricultural laborers, but finally the sphota, which was expressed there is a significant Hindu presence in by the sounds and signified the object of other parts of the country as well. South that utterance. According to Bhartrhari, Africa is best known as the place where sphota had to be postulated to explain Mohandas K. Gandhi first developed how words could carry meaning. They and refined his program of nonviolent do so because they are connected to the resistance, or satyagraha, which he sphota, which designated a particular employed in the service of the Indian object, and in producing the sounds the community there. In contemporary speaker expressed that sphota. times the South African Hindu commu- nity, as with many Hindu diaspora com- Sri Lanka munities, has loosened religious ties to Island nation off the southeastern coast India, and is in the process of forming a of India, formerly known as Ceylon. Hindu religious life in another geo- Local tradition claims that Sri Lanka was graphical setting. the place at which the biblical Adam alighted from paradise. Yet despite the Space island’s idyllic natural beauty, its human One of the five elements in traditional geography has been far more troubled. Indian cosmology, the others being Since 1981 the nation has been in the 662 Stages of Life

throes of civil war between the Sinhalese Sri Lanka has traditionally been part and the Tamils, the island’s two major of the Indian cultural orbit and has a ethnic groups. The Sinhalese comprise long history of cultural exchanges with about 70 percent of the population, are India. According to local tradition, largely Buddhist, live mainly in south- Buddhism was brought to Sri Lanka ern, western, and central Sri Lanka, and from India in the third century B.C.E.by consider themselves the island’s tradi- Mahinda, who was the son of the tional inhabitants. The Tamils comprise Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Another sign little more than 20 percent of the popu- of this connection is that Sri Lanka con- lation, are both Hindu and Christian, tains an important Hindu pilgrimage and are concentrated in the north and place (tirtha), Kataragama, located east. The Tamils came to Sri Lanka in near the island’s southern coast. two different ways—about half are Kataragama’s perceived power draws descended from medieval invaders, who Hindus from abroad as well as Sri established Tamil kingdoms in northern Lankans from all religious communities. Sri Lanka after crossing the straits from Although Kataragama is Sri Lanka’s southern India, others were brought to only major Hindu site, the northern Sri Lanka in the nineteenth and early regions strongly reflect the Tamil culture twentieth centuries, to serve as laborers of the region’s population, which stems on tea plantations. from their geographic roots. See also Since independence in 1948, the Tamil Nadu. Tamils have been at a distinct disadvan- tage vis-à-vis the Sinhalese, whose majority has allowed them to control Stages of Life virtually all aspects of national life. This As described in the dharma literature, precarious position was often further there were four stages (ashramas) in the undermined by anti-Tamil riots, partic- life of a twice-born man, that is, a man ularly in Colombo, the nation’s capital. born into one of the three “twice-born” In 1981 Tamil groups began a struggle groups in Indian society—brahmin, for an independent nation in the Tamil- kshatriya, or vaishya—who are eligible majority areas. The Sinhalese majority for the adolescent religious initiation was deathly opposed to this notion, and known as the “second birth.” In the first since then Sri Lanka has been marked by stage, immediately after this initiation, periods of vicious civil war. Given their the young man would live as a celibate slimmer resources, the Tamils have student (brahmacharin) studying the tended to wage guerrilla warfare. Their Vedas in his guru’s household. The sec- soldiers are famous for wearing a ond stage was that of the householder cyanide capsule around their necks with (grhastha), in which he would marry, which to commit suicide if captured. raise a family, and engage in worldly life. These soldiers are also notorious for In the third stage, as a forest-dwelling their willingness to serve as human hermit (vanaprastha), he would gradu- bombs, striking against civilian popula- ally detach himself from worldly entan- tions in urban areas. In 1991 one such glements. The final stage was as a total human bomb was responsible for the renunciant (Sanyasi), who had given up assassination of former Indian Prime all things in a search for the ultimate Minister Rajiv Gandhi in revenge for religious truth. These four stages are an Gandhi’s perceived treachery in cooper- idealized progression and should not be ating with the Sri Lankan government. understood as describing actual prac- Although the Tamil regions have been tice, since most men never pass beyond offered limited autonomy by Chandrika the householder stage of life and have Kumaratunga, Sri Lanka’s present prime no desire to do so. minister, the conflict has been so bitter Beneath this idealized progression that it is not likely to be easily resolved. lies the tension between two differing 663 Steya

modes of religious life—that of the moving them is virtually impossible). householder, which is based in the The other sort of image is the utsava world, and that of the ascetic, which , a movable image used during renounces the world. The latter ideal festival processions. originated with the religious adepts known as the shramanas and evolved into the monastic asceticism of the Sthunakarna Buddhists and Jains, which was por- In the Mahabharata, the later of the two trayed as a superior religious path than great Hindu epics, Sthunakarna is a the householder’s life. Both these groups nature spirit (yaksha) who exchanges were highly influential—the Jains had a sexes with Shikhandi, the rebirth of significant presence in southern Indian the maiden Amba, daughter of the society up to the eighth century C.E.— king of Kashi. and it is generally accepted that the pat- tern of the four ashramas was evolved as Stridhan a way to appropriate and transform this (“woman’s wealth”) Term denoting any stress on ascetic life. The doctrine of the property owned or inherited by a four stages provided a place and time for woman, which usually included any asceticism, but as the last stage, at the gifts given to her by her family or money end of one’s life. The clear message was that she earned herself. In the patrilineal that one should engage in the search for inheritance systems prescribed by texts religious truth only after fulfilling one’s such as the Mitakshara and the social and ancestral duties. Dayabhaga, stridhan was not consid- ered part of the family property, but a Steya woman’s personal property that she (“theft”) In the dharma literature, one could dispose of as she pleased. of the Four Great Crimes whose com- Stridhan could be inherited, but the mission made one an outcast from soci- inheritance patterns were different than ety; steya was theft of a brahmin’s gold, those for family property. The primary above a certain specified amount. One inheritors were a woman’s daughters; guilty of this crime was to go to the king for women with no daughters, the own- bearing an iron club and receive a blow ership would devolve to her husband to the head intended to be fatal. This and his heirs, or to her birth family. blow would absolve the sin, whether or not one actually died, although one Stridharma was also expected to restore the stolen Term denoting “women’s religious duty” property. For lesser amounts of gold the (dharma), the set of social roles, rules, punishment was less severe and satis- and duties broadly conceived as apply- fied by fasting (upavasa) and other ing to all women. In the dharma litera- penance (prayashchitta). The stress on ture, it was generally assumed that the seriousness of this sin clearly reflects appropriate women’s roles were as the interests of the brahmins, who daughters, wives, and mothers, and that undoubtedly wrote most of the their lives would be primarily defined by dharma literature. their relationships with men—whether fathers, brothers, husbands, or sons. As Sthala Murti described in the dharma literature, their (“fixed image”) Image of a deity that is position seems to have had status, but fixed in a certain place and does not little authority. One well-known passage move from it (in the case of stone from the Manu Smrti warns that a images, this is often because such woman must never be independent, but images are so large and heavy that always under the guardianship of a man; this is followed by an equally famous 664 Subtle Body

passage warning that the treatment of Kulke, and Gaya Charan Tripathi, The women was a marker of the family’s Cult of Jagannath and the Regional honor, and that a household in which Traditions of Orissa, 1978. the women were badly treated would disappear. In real life women exercised considerably more power than in this Subodhini theoretical model, but such power usu- (“Greatly enlightening”) A name given to ally came later in life, when a woman’s commentaries on various texts—pre- sons had formed families of their own, sumably because of the commentary’s and she had thus become the matriarch ability to illuminate the text. The most of an extended family. famous of these commentaries, to which the name Subodhini is often understood to refer, is the one by Subhadra Vallabhacharya (1479–1531) on the The divine sister of the god Jagannath, Bhagavata Purana. The Bhagavata who is invariably pictured with him and Purana is one of the later sectarian their brother Balabhadra. The most compendia known as puranas, and it is important site for these three deities is the most important source for the the Jagannath temple in the city of Puri, mythology of the god Krishna, whom at which Jagannath is the presiding Vallabhacharya considered the Supreme deity. Although Jagannath is identified Being. Vallabhacharya’s Subodhini lays with the god Krishna, he is generally out the basic doctrines of his religious considered an autochthonous (“of the community, known as the Pushti Marg land”) deity who was originally the local because of their stress on god’s grace, deity of Puri. He has been assimilated which they called pushti, meaning “that into the Hindu pantheon by his identifi- which nourishes the soul.” cation with Krishna. One piece of evidence for this theory is the deities’ invariable appearance, Subrahmanya with Jagannath (Krishna) on the right, (“dear to brahmins”) Epithet of the god his brother Balabhadra (Balarama) on Skanda, particularly in his southern the left, and Subhadra as a smaller figure Indian manifestation as Murugan. See in the center. Such a triadic grouping Skanda and Murugan. is virtually unknown in Krishna devo- tion, which tends to stress either Subtle Body Krishna alone or the divine couple Alternate human physiological system of Krishna and Radha. The female figure that exists on a different plane than of Subhadra is also very unusual, since gross matter, but has certain correspon- as Jagannath’s sister she is ineligible dences with the anatomy of the material for the amorous adventures usually body. Different parts of the subtle body associated with Krishna. Although contain the microcosmic forms of the Jagannath is the most important of deities Shiva and Shakti, the bipolar the three deities, the identifications with forces believed to be the powers behind the other two also reveal larger the cosmos. The subtle body is thus syncretizing tendencies. Balabhadra is based on the principle of the homology, sometimes identified as a form of or essential similarities, of macrocosm the god Shiva, and Subhadra as the and microcosm, a fundamental Hindu powerful goddess Durga. In this way, idea since the time of the Upanishads. Puri’s divine trio embody the three The Sanskrit texts describing the subtle most important Hindu deities. For body assume that there are different further information on Subhadra and planes of reality, and thus that the subtle her brothers, the best source is body actually exists, but given the net- Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann work of symbols associated with it, one 665 Subtle Body

Vishnu, surrounded by worshipers, wielding Sudarshana, his discus weapon. need not accept its literal reality for it to the heart region, the vishuddha chakra be religiously meaningful. in the throat region, and the ajna chakra The subtle body is visualized as a set is in the forehead between the eyebrows. of six psychic centers (chakras), running Associated with each of these chakras is roughly along the course of the spine: an elaborate symbolic system: All six can the muladhara chakra at the base of the be seen as symbols for a human physio- spine, the svadhishthana chakra in the logical capacity; the first five are associ- genital region, the manipura chakra in ated with one of the subtle elements the navel region, the chakra in (tanmatras), and the sixth with thought. 666 Sudarshana

The lotus petals on each chakra contain Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of a letter of the Sanskrit alphabet, thus the Three Cities, 1990. encompassing all sacred sounds. Some models of the subtle body are even more developed, with each chakra Suchi Hasta associated with a certain color and a In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, a certain presiding deity. particular hand gesture (hasta), in These centers are capped at the top which the hand is closed except for of the head by the “thousand-petaled the index finger, which is pointing lotus” (sahasradalapadma), which is downward to indicate something to the the abode of Shiva in the human body. viewer. The word suchi means “needle” Connecting all of the centers are three but is derived from a verb that can mean vertical channels (nadi)—the ida nadi either “to pierce” or “to indicate”—both on the left, the pingala nadi on the meanings that imply focusing on a right, and the sushumna in the center. particular place. Coiled three times around the mulad- hara chakra is the kundalini, the latent spiritual force in all human beings. In Hindu mythology, one of the god This is considered an aspect of the uni- Krishna’s childhood friends who is a versal Shakti, or feminine divine symbol for god’s grace and providence. power, but in most people is regarded In later life Sudama is desperately poor as dormant, symbolized by its coiled and, at his wife’s urging, goes to beg for state. The separation of Shakti and help from his childhood friend, who is Shiva at the opposite ends of the subtle now the king of Dwaraka. Sudama is so body also symbolizes the ordinary per- poor that the only gift he can bring for son’s unenlightened state, since enlight- Krishna is a small packet of parched enment transcends this duality, and the rice, but Krishna greets him and gra- two deities are united and identical. ciously accepts it. The two have an The subtle body is a fundamental enjoyable visit in which they reminisce aspect of tantra practices and some about old times, and Sudama goes home forms of yoga. In the types of yoga that without asking for anything. Some of the focus on the subtle body, including stories explain this lapse as stemming kundalini yoga, the ultimate aim is to from shame, but in others Sudama is awaken and straighten the kundalini, portrayed as having had such a nice moving it up the sushumna through time that he simply forgets. During his the chakras to the abode of Shiva. homeward journey Sudama worries Since the kundalini is nothing but raw over the reception he will get from his energy, the process must be carefully wife, but when he arrives he discovers controlled to prevent the aspirant from that his hut has been transformed into a unleashing uncontrollable forces, and palace by Krishna’s divine power, and manuals warn against doing this with- from that day he is never poor again. out being under the supervision of a spiritual teacher (guru). The union of Shiva and Shakti in the aspirant’s body Sudarshana mirrors the action of these divine In Hindu mythology, the name for the forces in the macrocosm, and with this god Vishnu’s discus weapon (chakra), union the aspirant gains bliss and final which is fashioned by Vishvakarma, the liberation of the soul (moksha). For fur- workman and architect of the gods. ther information see Arthur Avalon (Sir According to the story, Vishvakarma has John Woodroffe), Shakti and Shakta, married his daughter Sanjna to the sun, 1959; Philip S. Rawson, The Art of but she finds her husband’s brightness Tantra, 1973; Swami Agehananda too much to bear. To help his daughter Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, 1977; and adjust, Vishvakarma trims off some bits 667 Sudarshana Sampraday

of the sun with his divine tools, remov- Suicide ing enough of his radiance that Sanjna An act whose permissibility and conse- can bear to be with him. He then fash- quences have elicited varying opinions ions the trimmed-off portions into over time. In medieval times commen- Vishnu’s , Shiva’s tri- tators distinguished between several dent, and various other divine weapons, types of suicide, depending on the cir- as well as the Pushpak Viman, an aerial cumstances surrounding the act. Any car. Sudarshana’s divine source makes it suicide prompted by an overpowering a fearful weapon, and it is thus able to emotional impulse such as rage or grief decimate any enemy. was always strictly forbidden, and those who did this were said to reap dire Sudarshana Sampraday karmic consequences. Another case entirely was suicide performed as an Another name for the Nimbarki reli- expiation (prayashchitta) for one’s sins, gious community, since their founder which was often prescribed to expiate Nimbarka was believed to be an incar- one of the Four Great Crimes. A third nation of Sudarshana, Vishnu’s weapon. type was suicide by people suffering from a terminal disease, or who were in Sugriva chronic pain. This sort of suicide was In the Ramayana, the earlier of the performed according to a well-defined two great Indian epics, a monkey king ritual, intended to put the performer in and an ally of the god Rama in his the proper frame of mind. This third struggle to regain his kidnapped wife category was one of the rites designated Sita. Sugriva and his brother Bali as “forbidden in the Kali [Age]” jointly rule the kingdom of Kish- (Kalivarjya), although it had been per- kindha but become enemies because mitted in earlier times. The most of a misunderstanding. On one occa- fascinating sort of suicide was at pil- sion the two are fighting a magician grimage places (tirtha), particularly at who has taken refuge in a cave. Bali Allahabad. This was also done accord- goes in, after instructing Sugriva on ing to a very specific ritual, and part of certain signs that will indicate which the ritual required the performer to of them has been killed. Sugriva waits name the benefit for which the rite was outside the cave for a year, and then being performed—in some cases libera- sees the sign indicating his brother’s tion of the soul (moksha), in other cases death, which the cunning magician life in heaven for many eons. This prac- has engineered during his own death. tice is well documented up to the seven- Thinking that his brother is dead, teenth century, although it is no longer Sugriva rolls a stone over the mouth of done in contemporary times. the cave to trap the magician, and returns home. Bali eventually manages to get out of the cave and, thinking that Sulfur A pivotal substance in Indian alchemy, his brother has used this opportunity the conceptual foundation for which is to get rid of him, forces Sugriva into its analysis of the world as a series of exile and keeps Sugriva’s wife as his bipolar opposites in tension with one own. Sugriva lives in exile until he another, and the conviction that unify- makes an alliance with Rama, who kills ing these opposing forces brings spiritu- Bali by shooting him while Bali fights al progress and the end of reincarnation with Sugriva. After regaining his king- (samsara). Hindu alchemy shares this dom, Sugriva is a faithful ally to Rama, model of uniting or transcending and with his monkey armies aids in the opposing forces with Hindu tantra, a conquest of Lanka. secret, ritually based system of religious practice, and with hatha yoga, which is 668 Sun

based on a series of physical exercises father of Rama. As Rama, his wife Sita, that are also believed to affect the and his brother Lakshmana are going subtle body. into exile, Sumantra accompanies In the alchemical tradition, the gov- them to the River Ganges to make sure erning metaphor for this combination of that the trio will comply with their opposites is the union of sun and moon. orders. When the three board the boat Both are connected to other opposing on which the boatman Guha will take principles through an elaborate series of them over the river, Sumantra bids associations, in keeping with this bipo- Rama a tearful farewell. lar symbolism. In Hindu alchemical conceptions, sulfur is conceived of as the uterine blood of Shakti, and thus a Sumati powerful element. It is also identified In Hindu mythology, one of the wives of with the sun, with heat, dryness, and King Sagar. Through a sage’s boon, withering force. When sulfur is mixed Sumati and her co-wife Keshini are and consumed with elemental mercury, given a choice in the number of children which is identified with the god Shiva’s they would bear—one will bear a single semen, the aspirant’s gross body is puri- son through whom the lineage will con- fied and refined, eventually rendering it tinue, whereas the other will bear sixty immortal. Modern descriptions of this thousand sons who will die before they practice invariably warn that it should have any offspring. Sumati chooses the only be carried out under the direction latter, and when her sixty thousand of one’s guru (spiritual teacher), since handsome sons go out to search for otherwise the combination will be their father’s sacrificial horse, they are harmful. This warning is not surprising, burned to ash by the fury of the sage since by itself mercury is a deadly poison. Kapila. Although these sons die without For further information see Shashib- issue they still have a profound affect on hushan B. Dasgupta, Obscure Religious the world, since Keshini’s descendants Cults, 1962; and David Gordon White, bring the River Ganges down to earth to The Alchemical Body, 1996. bring peace to their souls.

Sulva Sutras Sumitra (“aphorisms on measurement”) A col- In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two lection of brief sayings giving the exact great Indian epics, Sumitra is one of the rules for constructing the sacrificial three wives of King Dasharatha and the for the public Vedic sacrifices. The mother of Rama’s half-brothers, the Sulva Sutras were connected to the twins Lakshmana and Shatrughna. In Shrauta Sutras, which laid down the their fidelity and service to Rama, her ritual prescriptions for these rites, of sons are important characters in the which the preparation of the site was epic, but aside from bearing them, an obvious necessity. Given the Sumitra has little importance. premise that the sacrifice would be unsuccessful unless it was performed Sun exactly right, such precise attention In Hindu astrology (jyotisha), a planet to the altar’s construction seems a generally associated with strength and necessary consequence. vitality, although it can be malevolent, possibly reflecting the relentless Sumantra destructive power of the Indian sun. The In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two sun’s vitality makes it a strong planet, great Indian epics, Sumantra is one of and as in Western astrology the sun’s the ministers of King Dasharatha, the position in the zodiac plays a major role in fixing a person’s natal horoscope 669 Sundaramurtti

The Sun Temple at Konarak, Orissa. It was built in the thirteenth century to resemble the chariot that was believed to carry the sun. (janampatrika). The sun presides over the Tamil Shaivite texts. Sundaramurtti Sunday, a day of the week that is not is also important for his catalog of the strongly marked as either auspicious or sixty-three Nayanars, which forms inauspicious. See also Surya. the first literary source for Tamil Shaivite hagiography. Sundaramurtti (8th c.) The last of the Nayanars, a Sundareshvara group of sixty-three southern Indian (The “Handsome Lord”) Epithet of the poet-saints who were devotees (bhak- god Shiva in his manifestation as the ta) of the god Shiva. Along with their husband of the goddess Minakshi. contemporaries the Alvars, who were Minakshi is the presiding deity of the devotees of Vishnu, the Nayanars Minakshi temple in the city of Madurai spearheaded the revitalization of in the state of Tamil Nadu. See Shiva. Hindu religion through their passion- ate devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, conveyed through hymns sung in the Sunday Tamil language. Along with his prede- (Ravivar) First day of the Hindu week, cessors, Appar and Sambandar, whose presiding planet (and deity) is Sundaramurtti actively opposed the the sun (ravi). As a day, Sunday is con- heterodox sects of the times, particu- sidered generally auspicious but not larly the Jains, whom he reviles in his particularly powerful, probably because poems. The collected hymns of the the sun is acknowledged as a deity but is three most important Nayanars—Appar, not widely worshiped as a primary one. Sambandar, and Sundaramurtti—com- prise the Devaram, the most sacred of 670 Surat-Shabd-Yoga

Sun Temple Surapana The most famous temple to the sun is at (“liquor-drinking”) In the dharma liter- Konarak in Orissa state, right on the ature, one of the Four Great Crimes shore of the . The temple whose commission made one an out- was built by King Narasimhadeva (r. cast from society. Although in modern 1238–1264), a monarch in the Ganga times the word sura is the term for dynasty, and the entire temple was “wine,” here it was believed to refer to a intended to be a likeness of the sun’s particular type of spirituous liquor chariot. It has twelve great wheels made from rice flour. For members of carved on the sides at the temple’s low- the three highest social groups—brah- est level, and in front, statues of several mins, kshatriyas, and vaishyas, the colossal horses. As at the temples of most commonly prescribed penance Khajuraho, the lower levels here are (prayashchitta) for habitually drinking covered with erotic and sexually explicit sura was to drink this same beverage carvings, to which people have given boiling hot, until one died. Interestingly, differing interpretations: Some claim this penalty does not apply to members that these sanction carnal pleasure as a of the lowest social class, the shudras. religious path, some interpret them alle- This difference reflected their lower sta- gorically as representing human union tus, in which they were not held to the with the divine, and still others view same sorts of scrupulous standards as them as teaching that the desire for the “twice-born.” Despite the harsh pleasure must ultimately be transcended penalty for drinking sura, there were to attain the divine. other sorts of intoxicants that kshatriyas The temple was built on a massive and vaishyas could drink without penalty, scale; according to one estimate, the although brahmins who drank these central spire would have been over 200 had to perform mild penances. feet high. It is uncertain whether this spire was ever actually completed, since the sandy soil on which the temple plat- form was built would have been unable In Hindu mythology, Surasa is the mother to support the weight of such an enor- of all the Nagas, a class of minor mous structure. This same unstable soil divinities conceived in the form of ser- has been the greatest contributor to the pents. In the Ramayana, the earlier of temple’s increasing deterioration. The the two great Indian epics, Surasa takes primary structure left at the site is the the form of a gigantic serpent to test the jagamohan (assembly hall), which was fortitude of the monkey-god Hanuman, filled with sand in the nineteenth century, who jumps over the sea to Lanka to in an effort to prevent further collapse. search for Sita, the god Rama’s kid- For further information see Roy Craven, napped wife. Surasa tells Hanuman that Indian Art, 1997. no one can go by without passing through her mouth, and in response Hanuman makes himself larger and Suparna larger. Surasa in turn opens her jaws (“having beautiful wings”) Epithet of the wider and wider, and finally Hanuman god Vishnu’s vehicle, the divine eagle becomes very small and darts in and out Garuda. See Garuda. of her mouth. Surasa, pleased with Hanuman’s ingenuity and courage, gives him her blessing. Superhuman Powers Widely believed to be attainable, either through voluntarily suffering harsh phys- Surat-Shabd-Yoga ical asceticism (tapas) or as products of Mystical discipline in the Radha Soami high spiritual attainment. See Siddhi. religious community, which stresses the 671

joining (yoga) of the spirit (surat) with Vaishnavas”), it was at Vallabhacharya’s the Divine Sound (shabd). The Divine order that Surdas began to compose Sound emanates from the Supreme poems about Krishna’s lila, his playful Being and is always present. Most peo- interactions with the world and ple cannot hear it due to their preoccu- his devotees. He then proceeded to pation with worldly things. With proper compose the 5,000-odd poems of training and devotion to a true guru the Sursagar. (satguru), anyone can eventually The oldest manuscripts paint a much become attuned to the Divine Sound, different picture of Surdas, for most of and resonate in harmony with it. The them contain only a few hundred most important part of this path is con- poems, which are usually quite short. tact with a true guru, since only a true The most important themes in the early guru has access to the divine and is con- poetry are supplication (vinaya) and sidered a manifestation of the divine separation (viraha), and although one itself. Devotion to a true guru is the sin- also finds the depictions of Krishna’s gle most important factor in a person’s childhood for which Surdas has become spiritual development, and this spiritual most famous, these themes are more progress hinges on complete surrender important later in the poetic tradition. to the guru’s grace. Surdas’s poetry thus shows a wide range This metaphor of the Divine Sound, of themes, from his own spiritual life to and human resonance with it, has much devotional “glimpses” of Krishna; the in common with the images used by latter most commonly explore the reli- Guru Nanak, the first of the Sikh gurus, gious tension between the image of and with the Nathpanthis before him. Krishna as a charming child and his alter The overwhelming stress on a guru ego as lord of the universe. As in much of makes it possible for this religious Vaishnava devotional poetry, Surdas discipline to be practiced by just composed these poems to invite his about anyone, and most of the Radha hearers to enter Krishna’s world. Soami followers are householders living The difference between these in the world rather than ascetics. For pictures raises doubts about the further information see Sudhir Kakar, connection between Surdas and Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors, 1990; Vallabhacharya. Although songs by Lawrence Babb, Redemptive Encounters, Surdas have been worked into the rites 1987; and Mark Juergensmeyer, Radha- of the Pushti Marg, Surdas composed soami Reality, 1991. no poetry in praise of Vallabhacharya, unlike the other ashtachap poets. It seems just as likely that, as the popular- Surdas ity of Surdas’s poems grew, he was (early 16th c.) One of the ashtachap, a “claimed” by the Pushti Marg as a fellow group of eight northern Indian bhakti Krishna devotee. In fact, there is very lit- (devotional) poets. The compositions of tle definitely known about him, includ- these eight poets were used for liturgical ing whether or not he was actually blind, purposes by the Pushti Marg, a religious as is generally accepted. Only two of the community whose members are oldest poems mention blindness; one of devotees (bhakta) of Krishna. In the these is clearly metaphorical, and the Pushti Marg’s sectarian literature, all other is part of a litany of the woes of old eight poets are also named as members age. As with so many of the bhakti of the community and as associates poets, one knows a great deal more of either the community’s founder, about the poems than the poet. For Vallabhacharya, or his successor further information see John Stratton Vitthalnath. In this literature, as Hawley, Krishna: The Butter Thief, 1983; recounted in the Chaurasi Vaishnavan and Surdas: Poet, Singer, Saint, 1984; ki Varta (“Lives of eighty-four see also John Stratton Hawley and 672 Sursagar

Mark Juergensmeyer (trans.), Songs of (“great utterances”) that identify the the Saints of India, 1988. Self with Brahman. Sureshvara affirms that actions can have no part in this process, since action is bound up with Sureshvara the world and is pervaded by igno- Philosopher in the Advaita Vedanta rance. For further information see A. J. school, and one of two attested Alston (trans.), The Naiskarmya Siddhi disciples of the school’s founder, of Sri Suresvara, 1959; and Karl H. Potter Shankaracharya (788–820?), the other (ed.), Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara being Padmapada. The Advaita school and His Pupils, 1981. upholds a philosophical position known as monism, which is the belief that a sin- gle Ultimate Reality lies behind all Sursagar things, and that all things are merely dif- (“Ocean of Sur”) Corpus of poetry in the fering forms of that reality. Advaita pro- Braj Bhasha language ascribed to the ponents exemplify this belief in their northern Indian poet-saint Surdas. claim that reality is nondual (advaita)— Traditional versions of the Sursagar are that is, that all things are nothing but the divided into twelve parts, to mirror the formless, unqualified Brahman, despite structure of the Bhagavata Purana, the appearance of difference and diver- which is the most important Sanskrit sity. For Advaita proponents, the source for the mythology of the god assumption that the world is real as per- Krishna. Surdas was a Krishna devotee ceived is a fundamental misunderstand- (bhakta), and this arrangement is a way ing of the ultimate nature of things and to confer the luster of an authoritative a manifestation of avidya. Although Sanskrit text on vernacular religious often translated as “ignorance,” avidya poetry. Just as the Bhagavata Purana is better understood as the lack of gen- lavishly describes Krishna’s youthful uine understanding, which ultimately exploits, the Sursagar is most commonly causes human beings to be trapped in associated with poems painting karmic bondage, reincarnation (sam- intimate and affectionate pictures sara), and suffering. of Krishna’s childhood. In Hindu thought, Sureshvara is the Although the poetry published in only explicit proponent of leap philoso- editions of the Sursagar is ascribed to phy, although one can see traces of this Surdas, most of it is certainly pseudony- in the other figures in Advaita Vedanta, mous. The oldest manuscripts of particularly in his teacher. Leap philoso- Surdas’s poetry have at most a few hun- phy affirms that one can attain com- dred poems, and the size of this corpus plete freedom from bondage, which in roughly doubles every century, reaching the Indian context is identified as the the five thousand poems in the present end of reincarnation and final liberation Sursagar. The general tone of the earliest of the soul (moksha), but that such free- poems also shows a marked thematic dom cannot be gained by a precisely difference. Although they include specified sequence of causes and Krishna’s childhood, a far greater per- effects. According to Sureshvara, since centage express the poet’s pangs of sep- the ultimate problem stems from one’s aration (viraha) from Krishna or com- mistaken understanding, the only solu- plaint (vinaya) about his spiritual trou- tion can come from purified, correct bles. Even the earliest manuscripts show understanding. Sureshvara’s path, such no common body of poems, and it as it is, is to use a negative dialectic to seems likely that from the very begin- distinguish clearly what the Self is not, ning the “Surdas” poetic tradition was and when one’s mind has been pre- drawn from the songs of wandering pared, to gain a flash of mystic insight singers, a characterization that fits well through hearing one of the mahavakyas with the image of the poet himself. For 673 Surya

A painted relief of Surya, the sun god. further information see John Stratton of those who perceive him. Surya is still Hawley, Krishna: The Butter Thief, 1983, worshiped by many Smarta brahmins as and Surdas: Poet, Singer, Saint 1984; see one of the “five-fold” (panchayatana) also John Stratton Hawley and Mark deities (the others being Shiva, Vishnu, Juergensmeyer (trans.), Songs of the the Goddess, and Ganesh), a practice Saints of India, 1988. attributed to the Advaita philosopher Shankaracharya. For some time Surya was also the primary deity for certain Surya communities, particularly in eastern The sun, both in its physical form as a India, although his cult has been largely celestial phenomenon and personified eclipsed in recent times. The most as a deity. The sun has been an impor- spectacular example of this worship tant deity as far back as the Vedas, the is the temple of the sun at Konarak earliest and most authoritative Hindu (now ruined), whose claims to fame religious texts, and has retained a posi- stem from its enormous size and tion of some importance since that time. the profuse erotic sculptures on its One example of this is the Gayatri exterior walls. For further information Mantra, a sacred formula that is sup- see Vibhuti Bhushan Mishra, posed to be recited every day by twice- Religious Beliefs and Practices of born males, that is, men from the three During the Early Medieval “twice-born” groups—brahmin, ksha- Period, 1973; and Sarat Chandra triya, and vaishya—who have under- Mitra, The Cult of the Sun God in gone the adolescent religious initiation Medieval Eastern Bengal, 1986. See also known as the “second birth.” The panchayatana puja. Gayatri Mantra invokes the sun as the generator and nourisher of all things, and requests him to stimulate the minds 674 Sushumna

Suryapraksha humors, their varying proportions are (“effulgence of the sun”) Name given to used to explain differing body types, the banner that is the symbolic emblem metabolic dispositions, and personali- of the Mahanirvani Akhara, a particular ties. The cause of disease is an imbal- group of the Naga class of the ance of these humors—whether Dashanami Sanyasis. The Nagas are caused by environmental sources or devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva, personal habits—whereas the state of organized into different akharas or regi- this equilibrium is the state of health. ments on the model of an army. Until The Samhita has been edited the beginning of the nineteenth century and translated into various languages, the Nagas’ primary occupation was as and served as a source for secondary mercenary soldiers, although they also studies, such as Debiprasad Chatto- had substantial trading interests; both padhyaya, Science and Society in Ancient of these have largely disappeared in India, 1977. contemporary times. All of the akharas have particular features that signify Sushumna their organizational identity, and this One of the vertical channels (nadi) in particular banner—one with strong the traditional conceptions of the subtle connections to a martial identity—is body. The subtle body is an alternate one such feature. physiological system believed to exist on a different plane than gross matter but Suryavarman II with certain correspondences to the (r. 1112–1153) Ruler of the Khmer peo- material body. It is visualized as a set of ple in Cambodia, whose reign saw the six psychic centers (chakras) running construction of the massive temple roughly along the course of the spine, complex at . Although connected by three parallel vertical Suryavarman and his people were channels. Above and below these cen- native Cambodians, the temples at ters are the bodily abodes of the two Angkor Wat were dedicated to Hindu divine principles, Shiva (awareness) and deities, showing the vast influence of Shakti (power)—the latter as the latent contemporary Indian culture. spiritual energy known as kundalini— conceived in the form of a coiled ser- pent. In the types of yoga that focus on Sushruta the subtle body, the ultimate aim is to (4th c.) Physician and writer who is tra- awaken the kundalini, and move it up ditionally regarded as the author of the through the chakras to the abode of . Along with the Shiva. The union of Shiva and Shakti in slightly earlier Samhita, the the aspirant’s body mirrors the action Sushruta Samhita is one of the two of these divine forces in the macro- major sources for ayurveda, an Indian cosm, and with this union the aspirant medical tradition. gains bliss and final liberation of the soul (moksha). The sushumna is the middle of the Sushruta Samhita three vertical channels in the subtle Along with the slightly earlier Charaka body—the side channels are the ida Samhita, one of the two major sources nadi and the pingala nadi—and it is by for the Indian medical tradition known far the most important of the three. The as ayurveda. Underlying ayurveda is the sushumna provides the pathway for the theory of the three bodily humors—vata rising kundalini as it awakens and (wind), pitta (bile), and kapha (phlegm). straightens during the aspirant’s spiritu- Each is composed of different elements, al exercises, piercing through the and although everyone has all three chakras on its way. In most people the 675 Suta

sushumna is closed where it intersects Sutra the chakras, which blocks the flow of (“thread”) In a metaphorical sense, a energy from moving smoothly through sutra is a short phrase or aphorism that it. When the chakras have been pierced can easily be committed to memory. and opened by the rising kundalini, the Many early philosophical and grammat- passageway has been opened for the ical texts were collections of such sutras, kundalini to rise to the abode of Shiva, which are so brief that they virtually pre- and effect the union of Shakti and Shiva suppose a commentary to explain their that will bring ultimate realization. For meaning. In many cases the commen- further information see Arthur Avalon tary would have been an oral exchange (Sir John Woodroffe), Shakti and Shakta, between teacher and student, thus 1978; Philip S. Rawson, The Art of effecting the living transmission that is Tantra, 1973; Swami Agehananda still the norm in tantra, a secret, ritually Bharati, The Tantric Tradition, 1975; and based religious practice. Memorizing Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of such sutras was a way to gain mastery the Three Cities, 1990. over an entire text, and the sutras could also serve as an aid to memory for the Suta commentary, thus enabling a person to preserve the “thread” of the argument. In Hindu mythology, a disciple of the In a more literal sense, the word sutra sage Vyasa, who is said to have recounted can also refer to the cord or cords strung the puranas to other renunciants in the through the centers of palm leaf manu- Naimisha forest. The puranas are an scripts, which kept the pages of the text important genre of religious texts that in their proper order. collect all types of sacred lore, from mythic tales to ritual instruction to exal- tation of various sacred sites (tirthas) Svadharma and actions. Individual puranas are usu- (“one’s own dharma”) In the dharma lit- ally highly sectarian and intended to erature, svadharma is an individual’s promote the worship of one of the unique religious duty (dharma), based Hindu gods, whether Vishnu, Shiva, or on that person’s social position, stage of the Goddess. The traditional puranas life, and gender. The governing assump- are numbered at eighteen, and in tion behind this notion is that every per- many of them Suta is named as the son has a social role to fulfill, and each of narrator, in accordance with the legend these roles is necessary for the mainte- mentioned above. nance of society, no matter how humble it might be. For each person, his or her Sutakashaucha svadharma carries the highest authority, and supersedes all other religious laws. The impurity (ashaucha) caused by As one example, violence is generally childbirth (sutaka). All bodily effluvia prohibited, but it is a necessary part of a (hair, spittle, pus, blood, etc.) are ruler’s svadharma—both to protect the considered to be sources of impurity, land from external invaders, and to pun- and because birth is attended with ish criminals within the country. In both these it is considered impure, even cases the use of violence helps to main- though it is always regarded as an tain social order, which is the king’s pri- auspicious and happy event. There is mary duty. In the same way, society also impurity caused by death, known as depends on a host of other people fulfill- maranashaucha, but the presence of ing their particular social roles. This the corpse renders this impurity more notion of social responsibility and inter- violent; needless to say, it is also consid- connectedness is tied to religious fulfill- ered inauspicious. ment through the notion of the Path of Action (karmamarga). According to this 676 Svakiya

idea, selflessly performing one’s social svadhishthana chakra is associated with duty, for the good of the world rather the human capacity for reproduction. It than through selfish desire, was also a is also identified as the bodily seat for path to ultimate spiritual fulfillment and the subtle element of water, the fluid final liberation of the soul (moksha). medium through which reproduction is According to this conception, since possible. For further information see every svadharma is potentially a path to Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe), final liberation, each person has a path Shakti and Shakta, 1978; and Philip S. that only he or she can tread. Rawson, The Art of Tantra, 1973.

Svadhishthana Chakra Svadhyaya In many schools of yoga, and in the eso- (“study”) Study of the sacred texts, teric ritual tradition known as tantra, which connotes oral recitation, since the svadhishthana chakra is one of the these texts were traditionally studied by six psychic centers (chakras) believed to reciting them. This is one of the meth- exist in the subtle body. The subtle body ods named in the Yoga Sutras as one of is an alternate physiological system, the preparatory elements to yoga, since believed to exist on a different plane the text claims that such study attenu- than gross matter but with certain corre- ates one’s karmic hindrances and fosters spondences to the material body. It is the ability to enter trance. Even in mod- visualized as a set of six psychic centers, ern times the act of reciting a religious which are conceived as multipetaled text is seen to have multiple spiritual lotus flowers running roughly along the benefits and, if performed over a long course of the spine, connected by three period of time, to be able to transform vertical channels. Each of these chakras the person reciting. has important symbolic associations— with differing human capacities, with different subtle elements (tanmatras), Svakiya and with different seed syllables (bijak- (“belonging to oneself”) Mode of con- sharas) formed from the letters of the ceiving the relationship between lover Sanskrit alphabet, thus encompassing and beloved, in which the man all sacred sound. Above and below these and woman are married to each centers are the bodily abodes of Shiva other. The svakiya relationship is (awareness) and Shakti (power), the two socially respectable—sanctioned by divine principles through which the society, upholding social propriety, entire universe has come into being. The fruitful, and procreative in its course. underlying assumption behind this Although this mode of relationship concept of the subtle body is thus is rich and celebrated, this very the fundamental similarity and inter- social approval is said to make it connectedness of macrocosm and less intense than the adulterous parakiya microcosm, an essential Hindu idea relationship, in which the lovers gain since the time of the mystical texts nothing but their love itself. Although known as the Upanishads. in most cases the union between The six chakras are traditionally list- the god Krishna and his consort ed from the bottom up, and the svad- Radha is described as parakiya, some hishthana chakra is the second. It is Vaishnava communities—such as the visualized as a six-petaled lotus located Radhavallabh community—claim that in the region of the genitals. The petals this relationship is svakiya, perhaps each contain a seed syllable formed reflecting reservations about endorsing from a letter of the Sanskrit alphabet, in adultery, even by the deities. this case the consonants from “ba” to “la.” On a symbolic level, the 677 Svaprakasha

lilas in the town of Brindavan—they are actually considered to be forms of the deity, revealed within the context of the lila. As one sign of this status, a regular feature of such performances is time set aside for darshan, in which the actors sit perfectly still for the viewers to view them as an act of worship, in the same way that people would interact with an image in a temple.

Svastika Although in the modern mind the svastika is indelibly associated with Adolph Hitler’s Germany, it has a long and venerable history as an Indian sym- bol, predating the Nazis by several thou- sand years. The name is compounded from su (“good”) + asti (“to be”) + ka (“making”), and a general translation would be something like “bringing good fortune.” In Hindu India the svastika is a symbol of life, prosperity, and good for- In Indian traditions the image of a svastika, arms tune, at least when the arms are point- pointed in a clockwise direction, symbolizes life, ing in a clockwise direction. Circling an prosperity, and good fortune. object in this direction presents one’s right side to the central object, and since Svaprakasha this side is considered purer, the svastika (“self-revealing”) In Indian philosophy, with arms pointing clockwise is consid- the notion that certain things such as ered more auspicious than its counter- knowledge are self-revealing and do not clockwise counterpart. need anything else in order to be known. The issue about whether these things existed, and what they were if they did, Svastikasana was a source of lively disagreement (“svastika-posture”) One of the sitting among Indian thinkers. postures (asana) described in commen- taries to the Yoga Sutras. In this posi- tion, the right foot is inserted into the Svarup space between the left thigh and calf, (“own-form”) In popular devotional dra- and the left foot into the space between mas such as the Ram Lila, which is the right thigh and calf (one of the feet is based on the story of the Ramayana, pointing upwards, and the other down- svarup is the name for the child-actors ward). The opposing directions of the (most often brahmin boys) playing the feet and the crossed legs evokes images parts of the gods and goddesses. of the svastika, hence the name. Viewing these performances is not sim- ply entertainment but also an act of reli- gious devotion, since such dramas are Svatahpramanya considered to be ways in which the gods (“self-validating”) In Indian philosophy, reveal themselves to their devotees the notion that certain things, such as (bhakta). When the actors are in make- knowledge, are self-validating. This up and in character—or wearing means that they can be definitively crowns, as in the case of the Krishna known to be true in themselves, without 678 Svayamsevak

reference to any of the other pramanas, black stone containing the spiral- the means by which human beings can shaped fossil shell of a prehistoric sea gain true and accurate knowledge. The creature, which is believed to be a sym- issue about whether these things existed, bol of his discus (chakra). The god and what they were if they did, was a Shiva’s pillar-shaped symbol known as source of lively disagreement among the linga appears in the widest variety of Indian thinkers. self-manifested forms. Many of these self-manifested lingas are found in nat- ural rock formations, such as at Svayambhu Kedarnath; Amarnath, where the linga (“self-born”) Epithet of the god Brahma. appears as a pillar of ice; and the bana This name underscores his role as the linga, which is a naturally rounded fashioner of the worlds—as the agent stone, usually small enough to be easily responsible for arranging the cosmos, portable. Further, in the Hindu religious he cannot himself be a created being. groups that stress the subtle body, both According to Hindu mythology, at the Shiva and the Goddess are believed to beginning of each cycle of creation be present within one’s own body. In Brahma emerges from the calyx of a some cases for all these deities, carved lotus that sprouts from the god Vishnu’s images are claimed to be self-manifest navel; at the time of cosmic dissolution forms; in their usual motif the statue’s he again enters the lotus, and is reab- location is revealed to a favored devotee sorbed into Vishnu’s body. See Brahma. in a dream. A self-manifested image is a powerful claim for any site and will Svayambhu bolster its importance as a place of divine access. (“self-manifested”) Images Name denoting any image of a Hindu divinity believed to exist by virtue of Svayamsevak divine self-revelation, rather than by (“volunteer”) Rank-and-file member of being made or established by human the Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS). hands. These images are believed to be The RSS is a conservative Hindu organi- intensely holy and powerful, and to have zation the express purpose of which is a more pronounced sense of the deity’s to provide the leadership cadre for a presence. They mark instances where revitalized Hindu India; for most of its these deities have revealed themselves history it has characterized its mission out of grace, in order to become accessi- as cultural and character-building ble to their devotees (bhakta), and rather than religious or political. The they are places where the deities are svayamsevaks are the rank-and-file believed to be particularly present and members of the local RSS branches “awake,” and thus more receptive to (shakhas), and are thus “foot soldiers” requests for favors. who make up the organization’s core Svayambhu images can be found for membership. The shakhas in any given each of the three major Hindu deities. area are overseen by a full-time RSS Images of the Goddess are often natural worker known as a pracharak (“direc- rock formations, such as the image of tor”), who serves as a liaison between the goddess Kamakhya, which is a nat- the local units and the RSS leadership, ural cleft in the rock, or the stone images and oversees RSS activity in his area. of many of the Shiwalik goddesses; they The svayamsevak is the lowest level can take other forms as well, such as the of RSS membership. Most members do image of the goddess Jwalamukhi, not advance beyond this rank, since to which is a burning vent of natural gas. do so requires complete commitment to For the god Vishnu, the best-known the RSS and its ideals; those who do, self-manifested form is the shalagram, a however, are usually gifted leaders. The 679 Svayamvara

primary stress at the shakha level is on Siddhanta (a series of fourteen texts, all forming personal relationships with completed by the fourteenth century other members, as a way to develop loy- C.E., which reinterpret the ideas about alty to the organization. Each shakha, or Shiva found in Nayanar devotional local unit, holds a daily meeting. poetry). The sixth of these temples is said Activities include an opening ceremony to be every other shrine to Murugan in in which the organization’s saffron ban- Tamil Nadu. This belief seems to stress ner is raised; traditional games or exer- Murugan’s presence throughout Tamil cises, including a martial drill; and a dis- Nadu and sacrilize the entire landscape, cussion period in which RSS ideals can giving mythic significance to every be disseminated and propagated. Murugan temple, no matter how small. The cult of Murugan is thus a symbolic vehicle for Tamil pride and identity, and Svayamvara since the number six has connotations (“self-choice”) In Hindu mythology, a of completeness—as in the six direc- form of marriage in which the bride tions, or the six chakras in the subtle would choose the groom she wanted, body—it also suggests that nothing out- indicating her choice by placing her gar- side is needed. For further information land around his neck. In the stories in see Fred Clothey, “Pilgrimage Centers in which a svayamvara occurs, the bride- the Tamil Cultus of Murukan,” in the to-be is usually of royal lineage, as are Journal of the American Academy of her suitors, so the bride’s choice was an Religion, Vol. 40, No. 1, 1972. exercise fraught with potential political consequences. One famous mythic svayamvara was that of Nala and Swaminarayan Sect Damayanti, in which Damayanti prefers Modern religious community devoted to Nala even to the gods who have come as the god Vishnu; its practice is based on suitors. This story also illustrates the the life and teachings of Sahajananda dangers of such a choice, when an Swami (1781–1830), who was born near unhappy suitor cursed the couple to the sacred city of Ayodhya in eastern endure separation and privation. India but spent much of his life in the western Indian state of Gujarat. Sahajananda took initiation as an Swami Malai ascetic and soon became a mahant, or Temple and sacred site (tirtha) on a hill ascetic leader. His followers revered him in the Tanjore district of Tamil Nadu, first as a religious preceptor (guru), and just outside the temple-town of later as a partial incarnation of the god Kumbhakonam. Swami Malai is part of Krishna himself. They believed that the network of six temples in Tamil manifestations of the god Vishnu, such Nadu built to honor Murugan, a hill as Krishna, are born on earth in times of deity who has been assimilated into the extreme trouble. It was in this latter larger pantheon as a form of the god aspect that he was given the name Skanda, the son of Shiva. Five of these Swaminarayan (“Lord Narayan”), and temples have been definitively identi- his followers believed that he was the fied, and each is associated with a par- highest manifestation of God in human ticular region, a particular ecosystem, form. The Swaminarayan sect has sev- and a particular incident in Murugan’s eral million lay devotees (bhakta), most mythic career. In the case of Swami of whom are affluent Gujarati mer- Malai, it is said to be where he taught the chants. In keeping with the commu- meaning of the sacred syllable (Om) to nity’s ascetic roots, however, its most his father Shiva, and thus presents him important figures are the ascetics who in the aspect of a teacher, which is one of run the organization and who serve as his identifying features in Shaiva teachers and advisers to them. For further 680 SYDA

information see Raymond Brady Williams, A New Face of Hinduism, 1984.

SYDA (Siddha Yoga Dham America) Religious organization founded by Swami Muktananda (1908–1982), which has ashrams and centers around the world. Siddha Yoga’s metaphysics are a modi- fied form of Kashmiri Shaivism, but its signature teaching is the notion that the guru’s grace can immediately awaken the disciple’s latent kundalini (spiritual power, the most vital substance of the subtle body) and speed the process of spiritual development. This teaching puts an even greater emphasis on the importance of the guru as spiritual teacher, and the overwhelming empha- sis pervades the whole movement. Although it has Indian members, most of its followers are non-Indian converts, who may be engaged in a spiritual search but who have little interest in becoming culturally Indian. The organi- zation was headed by Muktananda until his death in 1982; for most of the time since then it has been presided over by his successor, Chidvilasananda.

681 Tad Ekam

Tagore, Rabindranath (1861–1941) Poet and Nobel laureate in Literature, an honor bestowed in 1912 for his Gitanjali (“Garland of Songs”). Tagore came from an influential and T extremely wealthy landed family and was thus able to focus all his energy on his literary work. Aside from his prodi- gious literary output, he lectured exten- sively both in India and in other Tad Ekam countries; in the latter he emphasized (“That One”) Epithet used in Rg Veda the need to retain spiritual values, hymn 10.129, the so-called Creation whereas in India he more often gave his Hymn, to designate the first living being attention to the need to fulfill people’s on the earth. The four Vedas are the old- material needs. In 1921 he established est Hindu religious texts, and based on the Vishva-Bharati University at its style and content, the Rg Veda is the Shantiniketan in the state of West oldest of the Vedas. Most of the hymns in Bengal. The university was dedicated to the Rg Veda are invocations addressed to providing an education that would satisfy various divinities, sung to propitiate both of these needs and thus develop an these divinities so that human beings integrated human being. For further may enjoy the good things of this life. information see Krishna Kripalani, The Creation Hymn takes a far more Rabindranath Tagore: A Biography, 1980; speculative tone, standing in marked and Donald R. Tuck, “Rabindranath contrast to the confidence and opti- Tagore: Religion as a Constant Struggle mism found in the earlier hymns. In the for Balance,” in Robert D. Baird (ed.), Creation Hymn, the poet begins by Religion in Modern India, 1998. imagining a time before the existence of Being and Nonbeing and speculates on how the world came to be. Tagore Jayanti In the end, the poet ascribes all cre- Holiday marking the birth date of the ation to a single impersonal agent, That Bengali poet, writer, and thinker One (Tad Ekam). This hymn is notewor- Rabindranath Tagore, celebrated on thy for ascribing the creation of the May 8, the day he was born in 1861. As world to a single power, an idea that with most twentieth-century figures, foreshadows the notion of Brahman in Tagore’s birthday is celebrated accord- the Upanishads, the speculative texts ing to the solar calendar of the common that form the final stratum of the Vedic era, rather than the lunar calendar that literature. The name Tad Ekam, which is governs most religious observances. grammatically a neuter noun, also fore- Although Tagore is best known for his lit- shadows the notion found in the erary work, he was also considered a Upanishads that Brahman is an imper- religious preceptor (guru), and thus his sonal force. After describing how That birthday carries extra meaning. One formed the cosmos and knew all its secrets, the poem ends with the conjec- Tai ture that perhaps That One may not be Tenth month in the Tamil solar year, omniscient and omnipotent after all. corresponding to the northern Indian This hymn thus further foreshadows the solar month of Makara (the zodiacal Upanishads in its speculative tone and sign of Capricorn), which usually falls its admission that the ultimate answer within January and February. The exis- may be unknown. tence of several different calendars is one clear sign of the continuing 682 Tala

Teens drum and dance in Ghoom, Darjeeling. Tala, or rhythm, is a typical part of festival celebrations. importance of regional cultural Despite his fearsome role in this story, patterns. One way that the Tamils retain an earlier story illustrates that Takshaka their culture is by preserving their is not entirely evil. Takshaka’s mother, traditional calendar. Tamil is one of the , bets her sister Vinata that the few regional languages in India with an tail of a certain celestial horse is black, ancient, well-established literary whereas Vinata claims it is white; the sis- tradition. See also Tamil months, Tamil ter agrees that the loser will become a Nadu, and Tamil language. servant to the winner. Kadru asks her children, the serpents, to hang from the back of the horse to make it appear as if Takshaka it is black and thus takes unfair advan- In Hindu mythology, a venomous ser- tage. Some of her children, including pent-king from whose bite King Takshaka, refuse to take part in such Parikshit is killed. After insulting a pow- deceit, and Kadru curses them to be erful sage, Parikshit is cursed to die of a killed by Janamjeya, King Parikshit’s snakebite within seven days. Parikshit son. Takshaka manages to escape this takes all possible precautions to avoid curse—one of the few times that this his fate: He builds a house on a huge pil- happens in Hindu mythic stories—but lar, has all things entering the house most of his siblings are not so lucky. carefully searched, and surrounds him- self with physicians who can cure snakebite. Six days pass without inci- Tala dent, but as the seventh day ends, peo- In Indian music and dance, the most ple begin to relax and bring in some fruit general term for “rhythm,” either as to eat. Takshaka has concealed himself an accompaniment to music or dance as a tiny worm in one of the pieces of or played on a drum as a solo instru- fruit and, when the fruit is cut open, ment. The rhythmic systems in all changes into his real shape, bites the varieties of Indian music are extremely king, and kills him. rich and complex and require years of study to master. 683 Talikota

Talikota times, including religious life. In brief, City in the Bijapur district of the state of the Shilappadigaram (“The Jeweled Karnataka, which in 1565 was the site of Anklet”) is a tragedy that highlights sev- a battle between the Vijayanagar eral important themes that have pervaded dynasty king Rama Raja and a coalition Hindu culture, particularly the need for of Muslim sultans from farther north in a king to rule righteously and the power the Deccan peninsula. Rama Raja’s dis- gained by a wife through her devotion to astrous defeat brought the Vijayanagar her husband. The Manimegalai focuses dynasty to an abrupt end. The sultans on a young woman of the same name, sacked the empire’s capital at Hampi, who is wooed by the local prince but and it has never been inhabited since eventually becomes a Buddhist nun. that time. Although the story clearly has a Buddhist bias, Manimegalai has numerous debates with people from competing religious Tamas traditions. Finally, the Shivaga- (“darkness”) One of the three funda- Sindamani describes the adventures of mental qualities (gunas) believed to be Shivaga, a man who excels at every pos- present in all things, the other two being sible manly art, who with each new sattva (“goodness”) and rajas (“pas- challenge wins a new wife for his harem sion”). According to this model, the dif- but in the end renounces everything fering proportions of these qualities to become a Jain monk. Although the account for the differences both in the later two epics are respectively biased inherent nature of things and in individ- toward Buddhist and Jain religious ual human capacities and tendencies. values, they all give valuable informa- Of the three, tamas is always negative tion about contemporary religious life. and is associated with darkness, disease, See also Tamil language. ignorance, sloth, spoilage, and death. The notion of these three gunas origi- nated in the metaphysics of the Tamil Language Samkhya school, one of the six schools One of the four Dravidian languages, of traditional Hindu philosophy, and along with Kannada, Telegu, and although much of Samkhya meta- Malayalam; all four languages are spo- physics connected with the gunas has ken primarily in southern India. Tamil is long been discredited, the idea of the the predominant language in modern gunas and their qualities has become a Tamil Nadu, which is one of the “lin- pervasive assumption in Indian culture. guistic states” formed after the Indians gained independence. This state was formed to unite people with a common Tamil Epics language and culture under one state Collective name for three early Tamil government. Although all four lan- epic poems: the Shilappadigaram, the guages have literary and cultural signifi- Manimegalai, and the Shivaga- cance, Tamil has by far the richest Sindamani. These poems were com- history as a literary language. Tamil liter- posed in about the sixth and seventh ature begins in the early centuries of the centuries of the common era, when reli- common era with the Sangam litera- gious forms and cultural influence ture, eight collections of poetry that (among them, the composition of epic focused equally on the external descrip- poems) were seeping in from the north tion of battle or internal descriptions of and influencing indigenous forms. Aside love. The Sangam literature was fol- from Sanskrit, Tamil is the only major lowed by the three Tamil epics: the ancient literary language. All three of Shilappadigaram, the Manimegalai, these poems provide important infor- and the Shivaga-Sindamani. Between mation about life in their contemporary the seventh and tenth centuries came 684 Tamil Nadu

the devotional (bhakti) literature com- The eleven months following Chittirai posed by the Alvars and the Nayanars, are Vaikasi, Ani, Adi, Avani, Purattasi, with the former expressing their devo- Aippasi, Kartigai, Margali, Tai, Masi, tion to the god Vishnu and the latter to and Panguni. Such different calendars the god Shiva. Their devotional poetry are one clear sign of the continuing was unprecedented in Hindu religious importance of regional cultural history because it utilized everyday ver- patterns. This regional culture is partic- nacular language as a spectacular vehi- ularly important in the Tamil cultural cle for profound religious expression. area because Tamil is one of the few The Alvars’ poems became a founda- regional languages with an ancient, tional text for the Shrivaishnava com- well-established literary tradition. munity, and the Nayanars’ for Shaiva Siddhanta, and thus both of these col- lections continue to be important in Tamil Nadu Hindu religious life. Even today Tamil is (“land of the Tamils”) Modern Indian a vibrant literary language and a source state at the southern tip of the subconti- of intense regional pride to the people nent, on the Bay of Bengal. Tamil Nadu living there; some of the most violent is one of the so-called linguistic states, recent demonstrations in southern formed after Indian independence in India were the so-called language riots, 1947 to unite people with a common protesting the imposition of Hindi as language and culture under one state the government language, a move that government. Tamil Nadu was thus was seen as a conscious attempt to mar- formed from the Tamil-speaking areas ginalize Tamil language and culture. of the former state of Madras. Tamil Nadu has a long and rich history, and the Tamil literary tradition stretches Tamil Months back to the early centuries of the com- Although the lunar calendar is by far the mon era. Successive regional dynas- most important means for determining ties—the Pallavas, Cholas, and the Hindu religious calendar, these Pandyas—built a host of temples in the lunar months are also set in the frame- characteristic Dravida architectural work of a solar calendar. The latter is style, and even today Tamil Nadu has used for the calculation of the inter- hundreds of temple towns, that is, calary month, which helps keep the towns in which the urban hub is an lunar and solar calendars in rough cor- enormous temple complex that includes respondence. In northern India the shops, markets, offices, and residential months of the solar calendar correlate space. Modern Tamil culture is the prod- with the zodiac, with each month uct of this long and ancient tradition, named after the sign into which the sun and Tamils pride themselves in having is reckoned as entering at the beginning been influenced little by outsiders—nei- of that month. In southern India the ther by the Hindu influences from divisions of the solar calendar are exactly northern India, nor by the Muslim cul- the same as in the north, but the twelve ture whose influence was so profound in months are given different names. The regions farther north. Tamil Nadu has so Tamil months take their names from many cultural sites and holy places that some of the nakshatras, or features in it is impossible to name them, but the the lunar zodiac, or from modifications most important are Rameshvaram, of the lunar months. The Tamil year Chidambaram, Madurai, Tiruchi- begins with the month of Chittirai, rappalli, Kanchipuram, Mahabalipuram, which corresponds to the northern Kumbhakonam, Thiruvaiyaru, Tanjore, Indian solar month of (the zodia- and ; there is also a net- cal sign of Aries), which by the Indian work of six temples to the god Murugan calculations, falls within April and May. scattered in different areas of the state, 685 Tamoyoga

Tamil Nadu is home to the tallest temple tower in India, which is part of the Ranganathaswamy Temple in Shrirangam. which between them lay out the Tamoyoga parameters of the Tamil country. For One of the three classes of beings in the general information about Tamil Dvaita Vedanta philosophical school, Nadu and all the regions of India, an founded by the philosopher Madhva accessible reference is Christine Nivin (1197–1276). Madhva’s fundamental et al., India, 8th ed., Lonely Planet, assumption was that God was utterly 1998. See also Tamil language. transcendent, above and beyond the world and human beings. The strength of this conviction led him to stress the

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importance of grace as the sole means city’s Brhadeshvar temple, and his of salvation because human beings were son Rajendra (r. 1014–1042 C.E.), unable to save themselves. Given this whose greatest monument is the temple dire view of human capacities, Madhva at Gangaikondacholapuran. The divided the beings of the world into Brhadeshvar temple is dedicated to three classes: The muktiyogas were des- Shiva as the “Great Lord”; some of tined for final liberation, the nityasam- the most notable of the other temples sarins were destined for eternal rebirth, built or improved by the Cholas and the tamoyogas were predestined for were at Kumbhakonam, Thiruvaiyaru, eternal damnation. Chidambaram, and Shrirangam.

Tandava Tanka Name denoting one of the two broad Name for a small chisel used by stone categories in Indian dance. The tandava workers, one of the characteristic style is athletic and dramatic and con- objects in Hindu iconography. The tanka veys violence and power, whereas the is mainly associated with Shiva and other dance form, lasya, is soft and lyri- is a minor artifact because it generally cal and conveys a mood of love. The tan- appears only when the deity has dava style received its name from the multiple arms and is holding a number tandava dance of the god Shiva. of objects. According to tradition, this is the dance through which Shiva destroys the world when its time has come. Not all of the Tanmatras dance’s mythic connotations are violent, The tanmatras are the subtle elements, since this athletic dance is also said to the subtle forms of the five gross ele- be the one through which Shiva van- ments (earth, air, fire, water, and quished the goddess Kali in a dance akasha) from which the gross elements contest, when her feminine modesty are derived. The senses corresponding prevented her from imitating his style. to the subtle elements are gandha (smell) for earth, sparsha (touch) for air, rupa (shape) for fire, rasa (taste) for Tanjore water, and shabda (sound) for akasha. City and district in the southern Indian The tanmatras first appeared in the state of Tamil Nadu, the eastern bound- account of the evolution of the universe ary of which is the Bay of Bengal. The propounded by the Samkhya school, Tanjore district lies in the Cauvery River one of the six schools of traditional delta, south of the river’s main channel; Hindu philosophy. In the Samkhya even today this extremely fertile area account, the subtle elements are the grows a large percentage of India’s rice. stage of evolution preceding the evolu- This district was the core homeland of tion of the gross elements. The Samkhya the Chola dynasty, and the land’s agri- school espoused an atheistic dualism in cultural fecundity was the underlying which the two fundamental principles source of the dynasty’s power, which at were purusha (spirit) and prakrti one point stretched through most of (matter); all of this evolution was associ- southern India and even extended to ated with prakrti because, according Malaysia. The Chola dynasty used to the Samkhyas, the purusha their wealth and power to build never changed. The Samkhya account enormous temples throughout Tamil of evolution was appropriated by Nadu, but especially in the Tanjore other groups—although these groups district and Tanjore city, their capital. often adapted it to reflect theistic The Chola zenith came with King Raja assumptions in which the world Raja (r. 985–1014 C.E.), who built Tanjore came from God—and thus the notion

687 Tantra

of the subtle elements became an Power in tantra is manifested in vari- accepted philosophical convention. ous ways. One of these comes in the transmission of the teaching itself, in which the guru’s empowerment is Tantra believed necessary to “activate” the General term for a genre of secret ritually transmitted material, particularly based religious practices. These are mantras. Tantric practice is also claimed most often laid out in texts also known to be far more powerful than regular reli- as tantras (“loom”), so named because gious practice and thus more efficacious these texts weave a distinctive picture of in bringing final liberation of the soul reality. In popular Hindu culture, tantric (moksha). The usual claim is that tantra’s practitioners (tantrikas) are associated potency can bring such liberation in a with illicit sexuality, with consuming single lifetime, whereas other forms of forbidden things such as meat and religious practice take untold aeons. liquor, and with having the ability to kill Such powerful forces must be kept secret or harm others through black magic. from the uninitiated, thus the stress on Such power and perceived amorality secrecy. It is widely accepted that the make tantrikas objects of fear, a quality spiritual attainments gained through that some people have used to their tantric practice also bring superhuman advantage. A more neutral assessment powers (siddhi), as a natural byproduct of tantra would stress three qualities: of such attainment. Although aspirants secrecy, power, and nondualism, the are discouraged from seeking such pow- ultimate unity of all things. ers because the act of seeking is seen as Secrecy in tantra serves two func- rooted in selfish desire, those who gain tions. On the one hand, it conceals the such powers without seeking are rites and practices from the uninitiated, believed to be able to exercise them who are seen as unqualified to receive it, without being corrupted. and on the other, it creates a religious For tantrikas, nondualism—the subcommunity with a particularly assertion that all reality is ultimately one defined identity and sense of privilege. thing—is both a philosophical affirma- This sense of exclusivity, of being privy to tion and the operative principle behind something to which few have access, is their religious practice. Tantrikas usually one of the reasons that tantra is seen as a conceive of this unity theistically, seeing higher religious practice. Even when the their chosen deity (ishtadevata) as the text of a tantra has been written down, it material, efficient, and final cause of all is always assumed that the texts are life- reality. For tantrikas, definitively realiz- less without the instruction of a qualified ing the essential oneness of all things person. This stress on personal transmis- removes the mistaken understanding sion means that diksha (a type of initia- that causes bondage and rebirth and tion) is the only way to gain access to this brings final liberation. Tantric practice tradition, and thus tantra stresses the affirms this nondualism, often through importance of the guru-disciple rela- rituals stressing the unification of oppo- tionship even more strongly than does sites. For this reason, some tantrikas the Hindu tradition as a whole. Gurus are make ritual use of things that are nor- free to initiate anyone they deem quali- mally forbidden, most notably the “Five fied. Although many tantrikas are twice- Forbidden Things” (panchamakara): born men, that is, members of the three fish, wine, meat, parched grain, and sex- highest classes (varnas)—brahmins, ual intercourse. In theory, this rite is a kshatriyas, and vaishyas—who have means to break down duality because it received the adolescent religious initia- violates societal norms forbidding con- tion known as the second birth, in theory sumption of intoxicants, nonvegetarian tantric practice is open to all people, food, and illicit sexuality, in a conscious regardless of gender or social status. effort to sacralize what is normally 688 Taraka

forbidden. Although this rite collapses these practices is that they generate conventional boundaries of good and spiritual power (seen figuratively as bad, pure and impure, the goal is to “heat”) and that a person who generates replace external rites (bahiryaga) with and amasses enough of this power interior ones (antaryaga), thus explod- will gain supernormal powers or the ing the duality of subject and object. The ability to demand boons from the paradigm for this interior practice is gods themselves. Even though many tantric yoga. This is usually some vari- contemporary Hindus are skeptical of ant of kundalini yoga, in which the two the more extreme practices and may divine principles of Shiva and Shakti dismiss them, there is still great cultural are ultimately united in the expert’s respect for ascetic self-control, and subtle body. The final vehicle for tantric combined with the right personality, practice comes in rituals using symbolic such practices can still confer considerable diagrams (yantra), of which one exam- religious authority. ple is the shrichakra. These are often In Hindu mythology Indra, king of particular to specific tantric lineages the gods, pays close attention to those (parampara) and thus ground the amassing such powers to protect him- aspirant in a particular tradition. For self from being replaced by someone further information see Arthur Avalon more powerful. When an ascetic starts to (Sir John Woodroffe), Shakti and Shakta, amass enough power to displace him, 1978; Swami Agehananda Bharati, The Indra’s heavenly throne becomes hot Tantric Tradition, 1977; and Douglas through the “heat” generated by the Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three tapas. Indra must search for the aspirant Cities, 1990. and defuse this power in one of two ways—either by giving the aspirant a boon, which in many cases is the reason Tantrika for performing the tapas in the first Name denoting a practitioner of tantra, place, or by sending a celestial nymph a secret ritually based religious practice. (apsara) to seduce the ascetic, whose power will be discharged along with his Tapas semen. This mythology reflects the (“heat”) Term denoting any physical basic Hindu belief that the starting point asceticism, or what in earlier times was for ascetic power is celibacy, which con- referred to as mortification of the flesh. serves a man’s vital energies by conserv- The term tapas encompasses rites of ing his semen. denial, such as fasting (upavasa) or celibacy, as well as rites of enduring Taraka physical pain, such as the “five fires” In Hindu mythology, an extremely pow- (panchagni) rite. In this rite a person erful demon, who endures such severe sits during the hot season surrounded physical asceticism (tapas) that he by four fires, with the fifth fire being the receives a boon that he can be killed sun overhead. Other rites include only by a son of the god Shiva. This enduring cold from bathing (snana) in boon seems to make Taraka invulnera- snow-fed rivers, and enduring any other ble because at the time, Shiva is lost in sort of physical discomfort. The word meditation and is still grieving for his tapas can also describe bizarre and even dead wife Sati. For a long time Taraka masochistic behaviors, such as remain- grows more powerful and more arrogant ing standing for years on end; keeping until he is eventually able to defeat the an arm upraised until the muscles atro- gods in battle and exile them from heaven. phy, and it cannot be lowered; lying on In their despair the gods turn to the god beds of thorns and nails, and so forth. of love, Kama, and beg him to shoot The governing assumption behind all of Shiva with an arrow of desire so that he 689 Tarakeshvar

will marry the goddess Parvati, and thus about 130 miles northwest of Calcutta. make it possible to bring about Taraka’s is famous as one of the Shakti death. Shiva, however, destroys Kama Pithas, a network of sites sacred to the before he can shoot, burning him to ash Goddess that spreads throughout the with a stream of fire from his third eye. subcontinent. Each Shakti Pitha marks Shiva later marries Parvati, and their the site where a body part of the dis- son, Skanda, kills Taraka in battle. membered goddess Sati fell to earth, taking form there as a different goddess; in the case of Tarapith, the body part Tarakeshvar was Sati’s cornea (tara). Tarapith’s pre- City and sacred site (tirtha) thirty miles siding goddess, Tara, is a fierce form of northwest of Calcutta in the state of the Goddess, who has strong associa- West Bengal, which because of its prox- tions with tantra, a secret ritually based imity to Calcutta, is the most widely vis- religious practice. In modern times ited pilgrimage place in the state. much of the shrine’s fame comes from Tarakeshvar is famous for the temple of an unusual ascetic named Vamakhepa Baba Tarakanath, who is the god Shiva (1843–1911), whose apparent irrational- in his form as the “Lord of Liberation.” ity and lack of respect for generally Shiva is present at Tarakeshvar in the accepted norms—he once urinated on form of a linga, the pillar-shaped object the temple’s image of Tara to show his that is Shiva’s symbolic form. The contempt for a deity made of iron—was Tarakeshvar linga is claimed to be a a perfect match for Tara herself. Tarapith “self-manifested” (svayambhu) image, is said to bestow supernormal powers which was not made by human hands (siddhis) on those who worship there; but established through an act of divine this makes Tarapith not only a very pow- self-revelation. The site’s charter myth erful place but also a potentially danger- describes how the linga of Shiva is ous one. For further information see buried in the earth but is discovered E. Alan Morinis, Pilgrimage in the Hindu when a cow habitually lets down her Tradition, 1984. See also pitha. milk on the spot above it as an act of worship. The charter myth also describes how a man afflicted with ago- Tarjini Hasta nizing hemorrhoids finds relief by In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, drinking the water that has been poured tarjini hasta is the name for a particular on the linga as an offering and thus is hand gesture (hasta) in which the hand blessed by Shiva’s touch. With these two is closed except for the index finger, stories, the charter conveys the image of which is pointing upward as if to a deity who is present and responsive to admonish or scold the viewer. The word his devotees (bhakta) as well as the tarjini is derived from a verb that can sense of a place where human beings mean either “to threaten” or “to cen- can go to find relief from their afflic- sure”—both of which can be understood tions. One of the most unusual manifes- from this gesture. tations of this is the practice of dharna, in which pilgrims lie on the temple’s outer porch, fasting (upavasa) for as Tarka long as it takes the deity to communi- (“reasoning”) In Indian logic, tarka cate with them, usually in a dream. For denotes the mode of argument that further information see E. Alan Morinis, focuses on the identification and classi- Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition, 1984. fication of fallacies. When it is used in argumentation, tarka does not advance one’s own point of view but is used to Tarapith discredit an opponent’s assertion, either (“Tara’s seat”) Town and sacred site by reducing it to absurdity, by showing (tirtha) in the state of West Bengal, that the argument does not fulfill 690 Tat Tvam Asi

necessary conditions, or by showing that it suffers from a fallacy that renders it untenable.

Tarpana (“satisfying”) Tarpana is a memorial rite performed for the satisfaction of one’s ancestors, in which one offers them libations of water to quench their thirst. Tarpana satisfies the “sacrifice to the ancestors,” which is one of the Five Great Sacrifices. These five sacrifices are mandatory daily religious observances (nitya karma) for a “twice-born” house- holder, that is, a householder who has been born into one of the three “twice- born” groups in Indian society—brah- min, kshatriya, or vaishya—and who has received the adolescent religious initiation known as the second birth. Tarpana is also sometimes an occasional religious act (naimittika karma), which Bather performs the tarpana memorial rite in the should be performed on occasions sacred Ganges River, . when one is bathing (snana) at pilgrim- texts called the Upanishads. This partic- age places (tirthas). The rite itself is ular passage is found repeatedly in the quite simple. The performer first bathes sixth book of the Chandogya to become ritually pure, scoops up Upanishad, in which the boy water in his joined hands, then tips his Shvetaketu is being instructed by his fingers forward to let the water drain father. The boy’s father uses a series out. Some sources also specify that the of analogies to convey his instruction water should be mixed with sesame regarding the identical natures of the seeds, a substance associated with atman and Brahman, ending every offerings to the dead. Tarpana was such analogy with this concluding considered a companion rite to the phrase, which contains the wisdom memorial ceremony known as shraddha, of the whole. although as an obligatory daily act, In addition to its textual importance, tarpana was performed much more this and three other mahavakyas—as frequently. In the shraddha ritual, one utterances that capsulize fundamental symbolically feeds one’s ancestors to truth—were appropriated as identifying satisfy their hunger, whereas in the symbols by the four divisions of the tarpana ritual, one gives them water to Dashanami Sanyasi ascetics. Each quench their thirst. division had a different mahavakya, just as each had a different Veda, a different Tat Tvam Asi primary sacred center, and a different paradigmatic ascetic quality. Tat (“You are that”) In the Hindu philosophical tvam asi is the mahavakya associated tradition, one of the “great utterances” with the Kitawara division of the (mahavakyas) expressing the ultimate Dashanami Sanyasis. truth. The truth referred to here is the identity of atman (the individual Self) and Brahman (Supreme Reality); this identity is the heart of the speculative

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Teej their houses, put on new clothes, and Teej is a name denoting two different pass the night singing songs of auspi- Hindu religious observances, both falling ciousness. This festival reveals the cul- in the lunar month of Bhadrapada tural importance of marriage for Indian (August–September). Kajari Teej falls on women. Because the identity for many the third day of the dark (waxing) half of Indian women is still formed primarily the month and Hartalika Teej two weeks through their traditional roles as wives later, on the third day of the bright and mothers, for many women their (waxing) half. Both of these observances marriage is the most important event in have a mythic charter connected with their lives. the god Shiva and his wife Parvati, but The charter myth for Hartalika Teej the latter is far more important. Kajari not only underlines the importance of a Teej is a festival marking the coming of happy marriage but also points to the the monsoons, a season that once woman’s role in gaining her husband. rendered travel impossible. For lovers After the death of the goddess Sati, she is who were together, the monsoon reborn as Parvati in the house of months were very sweet, but for those Himalaya, the mountains personified. who were apart, the coming of the rains Very early in life, Parvati vows that she foretold a time of separation. One of the will have no husband except for Shiva. standard poetic images is the woman Her parents try to discourage her from watching the darkening sky, wondering this wish because Shiva has taken a whether her beloved will make it home vow of asceticism and passes his time in time. On this day people sing songs deep in meditation on Mount Kailas. in the Kajari raga, a melodic mode asso- Undeterred, Parvati goes up into the ciated both with the rains and with mountains and begins to do harsh physi- songs of separation and longing. On this cal asceticism (tapas) of her own. The day people also welcome the rainy season power generated by her asceticism even- by setting up swings and swinging on tually awakens Shiva, and on Hartalika them. The festival is celebrated through Teej he comes to where she is staying, much of India, but especially in the disguised as an aged brahmin. He first Benares and Mirzapur districts of the tries to discourage Parvati by making dis- eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. paraging remarks about Shiva’s lifestyle Hartalika Teej (also known as and personality, but Parvati refuses to lis- Hariyali Teej) is a religious observance ten and remains unshaken in her resolve. practiced by young unmarried women Eventually Shiva reveals his true form to in order to gain a good husband and her, and on that day they are betrothed to have a happy marriage. In Hindu culture be married. the model for the ideal husband is the god Shiva, who despite his wild appear- Teli ance and his unusual habits, is com- Traditional Indian society was modeled pletely devoted to his wife. One sign of as a collection of endogamous, or inter- this devotion is that Shiva and his wife married, subgroups known as jatis Parvati are married only to each other, (“birth”). These jatis were organized no matter which forms they take—as, (and their social status determined) by for instance, when one or the other is the group’s hereditary occupation, over cursed to be born as a human being. As which each group had a monopoly. In the ideal divine couple, Shiva and traditional northern Indian society, the Parvati are the patron deities of this reli- Telis were a Hindu jati whose hereditary gious observance. Women observing occupation was making vegetable oil by this festival should worship Shiva and pressing oil seeds. Parvati (as the model couple whose hap- piness they hope to share), decorate

692 Tengalai

Temple car from the city of Shrirangapatnam, in the state of Karnataka. It is used to transport an image of the temple’s primary deity during festival processions. Temple Cars standard accouterments, and it is made Name for the ceremonial carts in which from precious metals and is richly deco- the movable image of a deity (utsava rated. In either case the deity is being murti) can be transported throughout treated in a manner parallel to that of a the town or, in the case of the temples of king, and the car is a means to move the southern India, around the processional deity in procession to view his or her streets that often ring the temple in con- earthly domain. centric layers. In some cases the carts are made new every year, as at the tem- Tengalai ple of the god Jagannath in the city of One of the two main subsects in Puri; in other cases (as one finds in the Shrivaishnava religious community, many of the southern Indian temples) the other being the Vadagalai. The the temple car is one of the deity’s 693 Thakur

Shrivaishnavas are devotees (bhakta) of kshatriyas, who have traditionally func- the god Vishnu, and their roots lie in the tioned as landlords and village leaders. devotional hymns of the Alvars, a group Its most famous member was the Nobel of twelve poet-saints who lived in laureate Rabindranath Tagore. southern India between the seventh and tenth centuries. Two centuries later, the Alvars’ devotional outpouring Thandai was organized and systematized by (“cooling”) A refreshing sweetened drink the philosopher Ramanuja (11th c.), made of milk or yogurt, ground nuts, who is considered the Shrivaishnava and spices often used as the medium founder. Ramanuja was convinced that for the consumption of ground marijuana Brahman, or Supreme Reality, was a (bhang). As with all milk products, the personal deity rather than an impersonal thandai is considered to have cooling abstract principle, and he was also properties; this effect may be intended convinced that devotion (bhakti) was to balance the bhang, which is the most important form of religious considered to be “hot” because of its practice. Vishishthadvaita Vedanta, his intoxicating properties. philosophical position, stressed both of these convictions and thus opposed the Thanesar Advaita Vedanta school, founded by the City and sacred site (tirtha) adjoining philosopher Shankaracharya, which the sacred site of in the believed that the Supreme Being was northern part of the state of Haryana. impersonal and that realization (jnana) Thanesar is a famous site in the was the best spiritual path. Mahabharata, the later of the two The split between the Tengalais and Sanskrit epics. The epic’s climax comes the Vadagalais came several centuries at Kurukshetra in an eighteen-day battle after Ramanuja and stemmed from dif- between two factions of an extended fering perspectives on what the individ- family, along with their allies and sup- ual must do to gain final liberation of the porters. On one side, there are the five soul (moksha). The Tengalais empha- Pandava brothers, who are the epic’s size the need for absolute surrender protagonists, and on the other, their (prapatti) to the grace of God, through cousins the Kauravas, who are the which devotees will be saved with no antagonists. According to the epic, on action of their own; the Vadagalais stress the eve of the battle, the Pandavas wor- that devotees must also exert them- shiped the god Shiva in a temple at selves on their own behalf. The Tengalai Thanesar, and after their worship Shiva founder was (14th c.), assured them that they would be victori- who is also the community’s most ous. Aside from the temple, Thanesar important figure. also has a renowned bathing tank said to contain all the sacred rivers of India, at Thakur which the primary bathing (snana) day (“master”) The model for traditional is Sunday. Nearby is the Gita Mandir, Indian society was as a collection of at which Arjuna, one of the Pandava endogamous subgroups (i.e., groups in brothers, is said to have received which marriages occurred only between the teaching of the Bhagavad Gita members of the same group) known as from Krishna in the moments before jatis (“birth”). These jatis were orga- the battle began. nized (and their social status deter- mined) by the group’s hereditary occupation, over which each group had A variant name for the southern Indian a monopoly. In northern India, the city of Tanjore. See Tanjore. Thakurs were a jati considered to be 694 3HO/Sikh Dharma Brotherhood

Thief Castes Three Debts The model for traditional Indian society According to tradition, repayment of was as a collection of endogamous sub- three “debts” was incumbent on all groups (i.e., groups in which marriages “twice-born” men, that is, men born occurred only between members of the into one of the three “twice-born” same group) known as jatis (“birth”). groups in Indian society—brahmin, These jatis were organized (and their kshatriya, or vaishya—who had under- social status determined) by the group’s gone the adolescent religious initiation hereditary occupation, over which each known as the second birth. The first of group had a monopoly. Although it these debts was to the gods and was sounds bizarre, this specialization repaid by offering sacrifices. The second extended to all occupations, and there debt was to the sages and was satisfied were hereditary occupational groups by studying the Vedas, the oldest and whose profession was thievery and ban- most authoritative religious texts. The ditry. The most famous individual from final debt was to the ancestors (pitrs) these was Tirumangai (9th c.), by far the and was satisfied by procreating a son, most picturesque of the Alvars, a group to ensure that the ancestral rites would of twelve poet-saints who lived in south- be carried out without interruption. ern India between the seventh and tenth centuries. In the nineteenth century the British composed a list of several hun- 3HO/Sikh Dharma Brotherhood dred such groups, who were subject to Modern religious organization founded relentless scrutiny, opposition, and in by ; the movement’s two many cases resettlement. names reflect differing emphases in the phases in Yogi Bhajan’s teaching. His ini- tial teachings were the traditional disci- Thiruvaiyaru plines of hatha yoga and kundalini Temple town and sacred site (tirtha) in yoga, with his followers organized into a the Tanjore district of Tamil Nadu, group known as the Happy, Healthy, about 170 miles south and west of Holy Organization (3HO). Hatha yoga is a Madras. Thiruvaiyaru’s major temple is system of religious discipline (yoga) dedicated to the god Shiva, but the site based on a series of bodily postures is most famous for being the home of known as asanas; this practice is widely the late-eighteenth-century saint and believed to provide various physical musician . benefits, including increased bodily flexibility and the ability to heal chronic ailments. Kundalini yoga is the religious Thoreau, Henry David discipline whose primary focus is awak- (1817–1862) American writer and ening the kundalini, the latent spiritual philosopher, who by his own account force that exists in every person in the was powerfully influenced by the Hindu subtle body. The kundalini is awakened religious text known as the Bhagavad through a combination of yoga practice Gita, particularly the text’s instruction to and ritual action and is believed to bring perform one’s duties selflessly for the further spiritual capacities and final lib- good of society, without any thought of eration (moksha) of the soul. personal reward. Thoreau refers to this These two disciplines remain an text in both Walden and A Week on the important part of Yogi Bhajan’s teach- Concord and Merrimack Rivers, and in ings, for he claims to be a master of letters to his friends, Thoreau talks tantra, a secret, ritually based religious about his desire to practice yoga. practice. In the 1970s his teaching widened to include traditional Sikh teachings and symbols. The most prominent of these symbols are the “five 695 Thug

K’s” that all Sikhs are supposed to wear, dislocation caused by the arrival of the so called because each of them begins British themselves. Many of the people with the letter k: uncut hair (kesh), a marginalized by these forces took to comb (kangha), a bangle on the right wandering and, in their desperation, wrist (kara), shorts (kacch), and a cere- resorted to banditry. These small-scale monial sword (kirpan). Many of Yogi and essentially local depredations were Bhajan’s followers keep the Sikh symbols transformed into a widespread religious far more strictly than most people born conspiracy. The myth of the Thugs cer- as Sikhs, but the movement has two tainly showed concern about the pre- important divergences with the tradi- vailing law-and-order situation in tional Sikh community. One of these is central India, but it may also have its emphasis on tantra, which has little reflected British colonial fears about importance in the Sikh community. The their ability to control their territory. most significant difference, however, is Even though there are references to the the religious authority that Yogi Bhajan Thugs in texts predating British contact, holds over his followers, which is very on the whole, this was one of the more different from the decentralized, essen- enduring colonial stereotypes. For fur- tially democratic form of the traditional ther information see C. A. Bayly, Indian Sikh community. Society and the Making of the British Empire, 1988; and The Raj, 1990. Thug In the colonialist mythology describing Thursday the savagery of the East and the demonic (Brhaspativar) The fifth day of the week, qualities of Hinduism, one of the most whose presiding planet is Jupiter compelling stories is that of the Thugs, a (Brhaspati). Since in Hindu mythology group of robbers who were devotees the sage Brhaspati is the religious pre- (bhakta) of the goddess Kali. According ceptor (guru) of the gods, another com- to popular belief, the Thugs were wide- mon name for Thursday is Guruvar. In spread throughout India and frequented Hindu astrology (jyotisha) Jupiter is an the highways, seeking travelers as their extremely powerful planet, and because prey. They would travel with their vic- in religious life one’s spiritual preceptor tims, sometimes for days on end, and is often likened to a god, this makes then kill them—sometimes after giving Thursday a ritually important and pow- them sweets laced with drugs, and erful day. One of the “deities” to be hon- sometimes simply by taking them by ored and served on this day is one’s surprise. The victims would be strangled religious preceptor. with a silken scarf, and whenever possi- Another deity worshiped on this day ble, no blood would be shed, for the vic- is the goddess Lakshmi, who is wor- tims’ blood was considered an offering shiped mainly by women. Lakshmi is to the goddess Kali and thus should not the wife of the god Vishnu and the be spilled and wasted. The victims’ embodiment of wealth, prosperity, and worldly possessions were claimed by the good fortune, which she brings with her Thugs themselves, in a division of the wherever she goes and removes when spoils between deity and devotee. This she leaves. As the human counterpart to demonic practice persisted until the Lakshmi, married women worship her 1830s, when it was finally uprooted and to obtain these things or to retain them destroyed by the British. if they already have them. Because it is Although the tale of the Thugs makes well known that good fortune is not per- a gripping story, much of it has been dis- manent and can often change, Lakshmi pelled by more careful recent scholar- is also seen as a capricious and some- ship. One of the major factors in the rise what fickle divine presence. One of the of the Thugs was the radical economic taboos for women, at least in parts of 696 Tilak, Bal Gangadhar

northern India, is changing their jewelry on that day because this is said to annoy Lakshmi and raise the danger that she might depart because of her vexation.

Tiger In Hindu mythology, a tiger or lion is the animal vehicle of the powerful forms of the Goddess, such as Durga. Modern iconography shows both lions and tigers with no apparent difference between them, perhaps reflecting the fact that the Hindi word sher can refer to either animal. In either case, the fact that the Goddess rides such a dangerous animal is clearly a symbol of her power and capacity, because in her mythology these animals are often described as her allies, doing battle on her part in response to her command.

Tika In modern Hindi, a word denoting either a commentary on a text or a col- ored mark (often red vermilion) on one’s forehead. These forehead marks are This ascetic’s tika markings indicate that he applied for various reasons: for sheer belongs to the Ramanandi group. ornamentation, to indicate sectarian sectarian affiliation, or as an outward affiliation, or as an outward symbol of symbol of having worshiped in a temple having worshiped in a temple that day that day. See tika. (since a common element in this wor- ship is to receive some of the vermilion daubed on the feet of the deity’s image, Tilak, Bal Gangadhar as a sign of grace and one’s subordinate (1856–1920) Maharashtrian political status). The former of these two mean- activist who was once characterized as ings is the original sense of the word, but “the father of Indian unrest.” Unlike his the latter meaning is far more common Maharashtrian contemporaries Ranade in contemporary times. The connection and Gokhale, who stressed working between these two meanings could be within existing institutions, Tilak never the notion that just as a primary text is compromised his conviction that the ornamented and highlighted by a com- British had no right to rule India. He mentary, in the same way a forehead resigned from Gokhale’s reformist group mark could ornament the body. in 1890 and devoted himself to educat- ing and organizing ordinary people in Maharashtra. One vehicle for such Tilak organizing comprised two newspapers, A mark on the forehead, also colloquially one written in English and one in known as a tika, made from colored Marathi. The other involved organizing powders mixed with oil, and promoting two new festivals. One paste, or cosmetics. These forehead of these festivals was devoted to marks are applied for various reasons: the Maratha king Shivaji, a regional for sheer ornamentation, to indicate hero who had spent his life fighting 697 Time

domination by the Moghul empire. The Vishnu were the same or else may indi- other festival was Ganesh Chaturthi, cate a difference between personal which Tilak promoted as a visible way to devotion and literary expression. assert and celebrate a Hindu nationalist Ranganatha was a specific form of identity during the time of British impe- Vishnu presiding over a specific place— rial rule. Given British power, outright which at the time was true for rebellion was simply impossible, and most southern Indian temples—whereas the British government heavily restricted Krishna was a form of Vishnu for whom all forms of political dissent. The Ganesh there was already a large body festival provided a way to circumvent of literature, but who was not geograph- these restrictions because the British ically limited. The contents of the had a long-standing policy of not inter- Tirruppavai are poems of separation in fering with religious observances. Tilak which Andal mourns the absence of was imprisoned several times on the Krishna, using the language and images charge of inciting political assassina- of the forlorn lover, feverishly hoping for tions, but he always returned directly to Krishna’s return. the political fray. Aside from his political agitation, his greatest intellectual work is a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, Tirtha a religious text, in which he stresses the (“crossing place”) The most general need for this-worldly activism to defeat name for any holy place. Just as a ford on evil, including violence if necessary. See a riverbank provides a safe place to cross also Moghul dynasty. from one side to the other, in the same way a tirtha provides a way for one to “cross over” from mundane life to a Time sanctified one or, on an even greater For various articulations of time in tradi- scale, to “cross over” from this ephemeral tional Hindu culture, see cosmic time, and ever changing world to the calendar, and lunar month. unchanging, blissful, final liberation of the soul (moksha). Many tirthas are actual places—and many of them are on Tirruppavai the shores of India’s sacred rivers, partic- One of the two collections of poetry ularly the Ganges—and in its most col- composed by the poet-saint Andal loquial meaning, the word tirtha (9th c.), the other being the Nacciyar connotes a pilgrimage place. Yet the tra- Tirumoli. Andal was the only woman ditional pilgrimage literature is emphatic among the Alvars, a group of twelve that tirthas are not just restricted to poet-saints who lived in southern India mere physical places: The word can also between the seventh and tenth cen- refer to holy people (such as ascetics, turies. All of the Alvars were devotees saints, gurus, and sages) as well as to (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their virtues such as charity, wisdom, com- stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) passion, and purity of heart. to a personal god, conveyed through A tirtha is first and foremost a place hymns sung in the Tamil language, or thing that gives one access to sanctity transformed and revitalized Hindu reli- and religious power, and in the case of gious life. Andal’s chosen deity was the physical places (rivers, mountains, Ranganatha, the particular form of cities, temples, or images), this power is Vishnu presiding at the temple of accessible to all. Such holy places are Shrirangam, yet both collections of her seen not only as giving easier access to poetry are dedicated to Krishna, a dif- the divine but also as being areas where ferent form of Vishnu. religious merit is more readily and This seeming divergence may reflect bountifully obtained. When one surveys her conviction that all manifestations of the literature connected with certain 698 Tirthayatra

areas, one of the most common themes one of the four monastic centers is the claim that the merit from religious (maths) supposedly established by acts performed at place X (the physical Shankaracharya, as well as other partic- tirtha) equals that of a thousand (or a ular religious associations. The Tirtha million, or a billion) such religious acts Dashanamis belong to the Kitawara done in ordinary places. The rarefied group, which is affiliated with the atmosphere at tirthas has a similar effect Sharada math in the city of Dwaraka, on evil acts, multiplying their conse- on the shore of the Arabian Sea. The quences manifold. In this way the action Tirtha division is unique in that it is one of a tirtha can be compared to that of a of the few that will initiate only brah- microphone; just as a microphone mag- mins. (The other such divisions are nifies any sound, whether harsh or Saraswati, Ashrama, and part of the pleasant, in the same way a tirtha mag- Bharati order.) nifies, for good or ill, the conse- quences of any action. The pilgrimage literature thus commonly reminds peo- Tirtha Shraddha ple of the religious merit that their acts Name for a particular type of shraddha can bring, and it warns them that care- (ancestral memorial rite) performed less or evil actions can have equally when visiting a pilgrimage place severe consequences. For this reason, (tirtha). A shraddha has two major fea- people performing religious pilgrimage tures: symbolically feeding one’s ances- (tirthayatra) were encouraged to live an tor(s) by offering balls of cooked grain austere, self-conscious life, both to save (pindas), and feeding real food to a themselves from any lapses and to make group of brahmins representing one’s the journey a self-conscious process of ancestors. Tirtha shraddhas belong to a transformation. For further information class of action known as occasional see Diana Eck, Banaras, 1999; E. Alan actions (naimittika karma) because Morinis, Pilgrimage in the Hindu they are incumbent only under certain Tradition, 1984; A. W. Entwistle, Braj, conditions. Under ordinary circum- 1987; Ann Grodzins Gold, Fruitful stances one would not have to perform Journeys, 1988; and Peter van der Veer, this action, but it becomes required Gods on Earth, 1988. when one visits a pilgrimage place. The traditional pilgrimage literature, much of it clearly written by the brahmins who Tirtha Dashanami received such meals and other gifts, is One of the ten divisions of the emphatic that this obligation should not Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant be neglected. ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva. The Dashanamis were supposedly established by the ninth- Tirthayatra century philosopher Shankaracharya, (“Journey to a tirtha”) The general term in an effort to create a corps of learned denoting religious pilgrimage, which is men who could help revitalize Hindu seen as an act generating considerable life. Each of the divisions is designated religious merit (punya). The major focus by a different name—in this case, tirtha of such travel was a visit to a “crossing (“sacred site”). On initiation, new mem- place” (tirtha), a sacred site or person bers are given this name as a surname to through which one could more easily their new ascetic names, thus allowing communicate with the worlds beyond. for immediate group identification. One of the major themes in the tradi- Aside from their individual identity, tional pilgrimage literature was the these ten “named” divisions are divided inherent holiness of whatever place was into four larger organizational groups. being described at that time, which Each group has its headquarters in was invariably described as bringing 699 Tiruchendur

benefit from performing meritorious actions but warned of the heightened consequences from evil deeds, which were much more severe than normal. In earlier times pilgrimage required a large investment of time and money. People would often spend months or years on pilgrimage, usually visiting a series of pilgrimage places. This was seen as a religiously meritorious use of one’s money, a notion still current in contemporary times. For most people, such an opportunity would come only once in their lifetime, generally in their later years, and this long-awaited fulfill- ment must have heightened their expe- rience. The advent of railroad travel in the late 1800s largely reshaped this pat- tern, although it persisted in the Himalayas until well into the twentieth century. With the advent of railroad travel, people were able to visit places with relative ease and speed. This conve- nience encouraged multiple visits, but A group of pilgrims on a tirthayatra also ones in which the person stopped (pilgrimage), . at fewer places on the way. The most recent change in pilgrim- incalculable benefits, even for actions age patterns has come with the develop- performed unknowingly or in jest. A sec- ment of tourism, which is being ond and seemingly contradictory theme marketed by state governments as a way was the stress on the inner state of the to generate income for the local people. pilgrims themselves and the warning It cannot be denied that “seeing the that they would gain no benefits unless sights” has always been a part of pil- they were serious about their visit. In its grimage, which provided a religiously ideal, pilgrimage to the holy places was sanctioned motive for travel. Yet the not a pleasure tour but a vehicle for spir- ideal, then as now, was that this journey itual development, through bathing should not be undertaken merely for (snana) in holy rivers, visiting and wor- enjoyment, but for serious purposes. shiping powerful deities, enduring Some contemporary Hindus worry that hardships, making offerings to the the growth of tourism has commercial- ancestors, gift-giving, and living a sober, ized the sanctity of their holy places; disciplined life. other more sanguine souls consider the In fact, the traditional literature stress on tourism simply a stronger affirms both sides of this tension—the manifestation of trends that have always need for individual commitment and existed, which will have no effect on the the inherent sanctity of the places them- truly pious. selves—although the emphasis may shift depending on the needs of the moment. One explanation, combining Tiruchendur both of these themes, is that these holy Temple and sacred site (tirtha) on the places amplified the effects of all of one’s Bay of Bengal in Tamil Nadu, sixty miles actions there, whether good or bad. up the coast from Kanyakumari. Pilgrims were thus encouraged to Tiruchendur is part of the network of six 700 Tirumalai Nayak

temples in Tamil Nadu built to honor Murugan, a hill deity who has been assimilated into the larger pantheon as a form of the god Skanda, the son of Shiva. Five of these temples have been definitively identified, and each is asso- ciated with a particular region, a specific ecosystem, and a particular incident in Murugan’s mythic career. In the case of Tiruchendur, it is said to be where he killed a demon enemy and thus presents him in his warrior aspect. The sixth of these temples is said to be every other shrine to Murugan in Tamil Nadu. The cult of Murugan is thus a symbolic vehi- cle for Tamil pride and identity, and because the number six has connota- tions of completeness—as in the six directions or the six chakras in the sub- tle body—it also connotes that nothing outside is needed. For further informa- tion see Fred Clothey, “Pilgrimage Centers in the Tamil Cultus of Murukan,” in Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 40, No. 1, 1972. Depiction of Tirumalai Nayak. is a collection of brief verses on reli- Tiruchirappalli gious, social, and moral life, organized City on the Cauvery River in the central according to various themes; it is attrib- part of the state of Tamil Nadu, and the uted to the poet Tiruvalluvar and is capital of the district with the same believed to have been written late in the name. The city’s strategic position fifth century. The Tirukkural’s underly- meant that it was contested by various ing assumptions are theistic, and in this southern Indian dynasties, of which the it differs from the Naladiyar, the tone of most recent were the Nayaks of which is primarily ethical, with no men- Madurai, who built an imposing fort tion of divinity. Many of these epigrams on a stone outcrop in the center of the have become proverbial expressions in city. It is most famous, however, for Tamil and have become the cultural the great temples of Shrirangam and property of Tamils from all religious Jambukeshvar, both of which are on an communities. See also Tamil language island in the Cauvery, north of the city. and Tamil epics. The former is a temple to the god Vishnu, which has important symbolic associations with southern Indian kings Tirumalai Nayak and kingship; the latter is dedicated to (r. 1623–1659) Greatest ruler in the the god Shiva in his aspect as “Lord of southern Indian Nayak dynasty, who the Rose-Apple (jambu) Tree.” took advantage of the collapse of the Vijayanagar dynasty to rule much of modern Tamil Nadu from the capital Tirukkural city of Madurai. The peace and prosper- One of the most important pieces of ity during Tirumalai’s reign was early Tamil literature, along with the expressed with two large pieces of mon- slightly later Naladiyar. The Tirukkural umental architecture—his royal palace, 701 Tirumalisai

and the enormous Minakshi temple, their truth or falsity, these stories reveal named after the goddess considered to a great deal about the passionate be Madurai’s patron deity. Interestingly, devotional commitment of his time. the temple was the real ritual center of For further information see Kamil the city, as is clearly shown by its place- Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, 1975; and ment and the processional streets sur- John Stirling Morley Hooper, Hymns of rounding it. the Alvars, 1929.

Tirumalisai Tirunavukkarashu (9th c.) One of the Alvars, a group of (7th c.) This was the given name of the twelve poet-saints who lived in southern Nayanar poet-saint most commonly India between the seventh and tenth referred to as Appar (“father”). Appar centuries. All of the Alvars were devotees was one of the earliest of the Nayanars, a (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their group of sixty-three southern Indian stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) poet-saints who were devotees (bhakta) to a personal god, conveyed through of the god Shiva and who lived in south- hymns sung in the Tamil language, ern India in the seventh and eighth cen- transformed and revitalized Hindu reli- turies. Along with their contemporaries gious life. According to tradition, the Alvars, who were devotees of Tirumalisai was the son of a sage and a Vishnu, the Nayanars spearheaded the celestial nymph (apsara), who was revitalization of Hindu religion through abandoned by his parents at birth. He their passionate devotion (bhakti) to a was found and raised by a man of very personal god, conveyed through hymns humble status who called his foster son sung in the Tamil language. by the name of their village. For further information see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, 1975. Town in the far southern part of the state of Andhra Pradesh, about 160 miles Tirumangai northwest of Madras. It is most famous (9th c.) By far the most picturesque of for the Holy Hill (Tirumalai) eight miles the Alvars, a group of twelve poet-saints to the north, which is the location of the who lived in southern India between the temple to Venkateshvara and for which seventh and tenth centuries. All the Tirupati is the major gateway. Alvars were devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, Tirupati/Tirumalai Devasthanam conveyed through hymns sung in the Official name for the managing commit- Tamil language, transformed and revi- tee of the Venkateshvara temple, near talized Hindu religious life. According to the town of Tirupati in the state of tradition, Tirumangai was born into a Andhra Pradesh. This temple is the caste of thieves, and theft, robbery, and richest one in India, based largely on the deceit play an important role in the sto- popular belief that any wish made in the ries associated with him. One story deity’s presence will invariably come reports that after taking a vow to feed true. In earlier times all of the temple 1,008 Vaishnavas for a year, he resorted receipts were taken by the priests run- to highway robbery to raise the neces- ning the temple, but since Indian inde- sary funds; on another occasion he took pendence in 1947, the temple to robbery to raise funds to enlarge the committee has been responsible for temple at Shrirangam. In these and them. The committee has channeled other works, he had the continual help these funds into hundreds of charities, of Vishnu, his chosen deity; regardless of but particularly into education and tem- ple building: the former in schools from 702 Tiruttontar Puranam

the primary to the university level, and the sixth is said to be every other shrine the latter in providing the funds to help to Murugan in Tamil Nadu. The cult of build many of the larger Hindu temples Murugan is thus a symbolic vehicle for in the United States and Europe. Tamil pride and identity, and because the number six has connotations of completeness—as in the six directions, Tiruppan or the six chakras in the subtle body—it (9th c.) One of the Alvars, a group of also connotes that nothing outside is twelve poet-saints who lived in southern needed. For further information see India between the seventh and tenth Fred Clothey, “Pilgrimage Centers in the centuries. All of the Alvars were devotees Tamil Cultus of Murukan,” in Journal of (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their the American Academy of Religion, Vol. stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) 40, No. 1, 1972. to a personal god, conveyed through hymns sung in the Tamil language, transformed and revitalized Hindu reli- Tiruttani gious life. According to tradition, Tirtha (sacred site) in the hills of Tamil Tiruppan was a foundling who was Nadu, seventy-five miles of Madras. It is adopted by a musician. As he grew up, famous for one of the six temples in he developed deep devotion for Vishnu Tamil Nadu built to honor Murugan, a in his form as Ranganatha at the temple hill deity assimilated into the pantheon of Shrirangam, but because his family as a form of Skanda. Tiruttani is cele- status was unknown, he never went into brated as the place where he marries his the temple itself out of fear that his pres- tribal bride , which gives him a fam- ence might render it impure. Tiruppan ily connection with southern India. Five finally gained entrance when one of the of these temples are definitively identi- temple’s brahmin priests, who had ear- fied and scattered throughout the state, lier insulted him, received a divine com- but the sixth is said to be every other mand to carry Tiruppan on his shrine to Murugan in Tamil Nadu. The shoulders to Ranganatha’s image. As cult of Murugan is thus a symbolic vehi- with many stories in the lives of the cle for Tamil pride and identity, and bhakti saints, the lesson here clearly because the number six has connota- emphasizes the superiority of devotion tions of completeness—as in the six over birth. For further information see directions or the six chakras in the sub- Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, 1975; tle body—it also connotes that nothing and John Stirling Morley Hooper, Hymns outside is needed. For further informa- of the Alvars, 1929. tion see Fred Clothey, “Pilgrimage Centers in the Tamil Cultus of Murukan,” in Journal of the American Tirupparankunram Academy of Religion, Vol. 40, No. 1, 1972. Tirtha (sacred site) ten miles southwest of Madurai in central Tamil Nadu. Tirupparankunram is famous for one of Tiruttontar Puranam the six temples in Tamil Nadu built to (“history of the holy servants [of Shiva]”) honor Murugan, a hill deity assimilated Another name for the Periya Purana, a into the pantheon as a form of Skanda. hagiographical account (an idealizing It is said to be where he marries biography of saints or venerated figures) Devasena, the bride given by Indra and of the lives of the sixty-three Nayanars, the gods after he has proven his mettle written by the twelfth-century figure in battle, and thus reflects his accep- Cekkilar. The Nayanars were a group of tance into the larger pantheon. Five of Shaiva poet-saints who lived in southern these temples are definitively identified India in the seventh and eighth cen- and scattered throughout the state, but turies. See Periya Purana.

703 Tiruvachakam

Tiruvachakam Tiruvannamalai is also one of the (“holy utterances”) Collection of poetry bhutalingas (“elemental lingas”), a net- composed in the ninth century by the work of five southern Indian sites sacred Tamil poet-saint Manikkavachakar, to Shiva. In each of these sites, Shiva is who was a passionate devotee (bhakta) worshiped as a linga, the pillar-shaped of the god Shiva. Manikkavachakar’s object that is his symbolic form, and at work comes in the tradition of the each site the linga is believed to be formed Nayanars (a group of sixty-three Shaiva from one of the five primordial elements poet-saints who lived in southern India (bhuta)—earth, wind, fire, water, and in the seventh and eighth centuries), space (akasha). Tiruvannamalai’s linga is although he is not counted as one of associated with the primordial element them because he was about a century of fire, making this an extremely later than the last Nayanar, Sundara- powerful image. Aside from the image murtti. The hymns in the Tiruvachakam and the temple, Tiruvannamalai is also bear witness to Manikkavachakar’s famous as the place in which the mod- intense devotion to Shiva, and in their ern Indian saint Ramana Maharshi devotional fervor, they can be seen as spent most of his life, from 1896 until his the culmination of the earlier devotional death in 1950. (bhakti) tradition. Manikkavachakar’s hymns are also the basis for the devel- Tiruvaymoli opment of the philosophical tradition (“Holy words”) Collection of 1,102 known as Shaiva Siddhanta, which stanzas written in the tenth century makes Manikkavachakar a pivotal figure by the poet-saint Nammalvar. in southern Indian Shaivism. For further Nammalvar was one of the Alvars, a information see Glenn Yocum, Hymns to group of twelve poet-saints who lived the Dancing Siva, 1982. See also Tamil in southern India between the seventh language and Tamil epics. and tenth centuries. All of the Alvars were devotees (bhakta) of the god Tiruvalluvar Vishnu, and their stress on passionate (5th–6th c.) According to tradition, the devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, author of the Tirukkural, one of the conveyed through hymns sung in the most important pieces of early Tamil lit- Tamil language, transformed and revi- erature. The Tirukkural is a collection of talized Hindu religious life. brief verses on religious, social, and Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymoli is an out- moral life, organized according to vari- pouring of ecstatic Vaishnava devo- ous themes. Many of these epigrams tionalism and forms the concluding have become proverbial expressions in section of the Nalayira Divya- Tamil and have become the cultural prabandham, the collected composi- property of Tamils from all religious tions of the Alvars. For further communities. See also Tamil language information see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil and Tamil epics. Literature, 1975; John Stirling Morley Hooper, Hymns of the Alvars, 1929; A. Shrinivasa Raghavan, Nammalvar, Tiruvannamalai 1975; and A. K. Ramanujan (trans.), Temple town and sacred site (tirtha) in Hymns for the Drowning, 1981. the northern part of the state of Tamil Nadu, about 100 miles southwest of Madras, the capital. Tiruvannamalai is Tiruvayur most famous as a temple to the god Southern Indian temple town about Shiva in his form as Arunachaleshvar, thirty-five miles east of the city of “the Lord of Arunachal [Hill],” the Tanjore in the state of Tamil Nadu. The hill on which the temple is built. town is most famous for an enormous 704 Tortoise Avatar

temple to the god Shiva, and as with transformed and revitalized Hindu reli- many southern Indian temples, the tem- gious life. According to tradition, ple is located in the heart of the city and Tondaradippodi was born as a brahmin forms a substantial part of the city itself. named Vipra Narayana, and his family’s hereditary labor was to arrange the flow- ers for the worship of Ranganatha, a form of Vishnu who is the presiding A lunar day, that is to say, one of the thirty deity at the temple of Shrirangam. He days occurring during a single lunar became enamored of a courtesan who month, from full moon to full moon. cast her spell on him, and for a time paid Because these thirty lunar days take attention to nothing else. In the end he place in about twenty-eight solar days, was saved by Ranganatha, to whom each lunar day is thus slightly shorter Vipra Narayana devoted himself for the than a solar day. Even in contemporary rest of his life, taking as a symbol of this times, most Hindu religious obser- his new name (“Dust of the Feet of the vances are determined by the lunar cal- Slaves [of God]”). For further informa- endar, which makes the determination tion see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, of these lunar days an important matter. 1975; and John Stirling Morley Hooper, Most people keep track of these holidays Hymns of the Alvars, 1929. with a panchang, an almanac that gives all the lunar days. Tortoise Avatar Second avatar or incarnation of the god Toddy Palm Vishnu. As with all of Vishnu’s avatars, Palm tree that is both the source of the the Tortoise avatar came into being in a slightly fermented beverage tapped time of crisis and served to restore the from its sap known as toddy, and the cosmic balance that had been thrown long, flat leaves that were traditionally out of equilibrium. In this case the used for writing down all sorts of texts, source of trouble was the sage including religious ones. The former use Durvasas, who had cursed the gods to led this tree to be considered unclean, become mortal and their heavenly lus- since alcoholic beverages are proscribed ter to fade. To counter this, the gods in “respectable” Hindu society; the man- made a pact with the demons that they uscripts written on the leaves, however, would jointly churn the Ocean of Milk to could be the holiest of texts. The poet- obtain the nectar of immortality, which saint Ravidas uses this palm to illustrate would be equally divided. how the power of the divine name can The image of churning here is based transform something normally believed on traditional dairy practices, in which to be base and vile. In doing so he is also the person churning uses a string to referring to himself, who as a tanner and rotate a churning paddle. In this leather worker was believed to be instance, however, the churning takes defiled because his work involves han- place on a cosmic scale: The churning dling the skins of dead animals. stick is Mount Mandara, the mountain that is at the center of the earth; the Tondaradippodi churning string is the divine serpent (9th c.) One of the Alvars, a group of Vasuki, who encircles the world; and twelve poet-saints who lived in southern Vishnu himself, in the form of a tortoise, India between the seventh and tenth dives to the bottom of the ocean to pro- centuries. All of the Alvars were devotees vide a stable base for the churning stick. (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their The gods and demons pull Vasuki back stress on passionate devotion (bhakti) and forth, spinning the mountain and to a personal god, conveyed through churning the Ocean of Milk. The churn- hymns sung in the Tamil language, ing separates the Ocean of Milk into 705 Tota Puri

into their midst in disguise. As the demon begins to drink, the sun and moon alert Vishnu, who uses his discus to cut off the demon’s head. Sainhikeya’s two halves become immortal because they have come into contact with the nectar, and both halves are considered malevolent celestial beings: the head as Rahu, the body as Ketu. Rahu has par- ticular enmity for the sun and moon, since these deities are responsible for his demise, and tries to swallow them whenever he meets them in the heav- ens. He always succeeds, but because he no longer has a body to digest them, they escape unharmed through Rahu’s severed neck. This, of course, is the tra- ditional explanation for solar and lunar eclipses; the association with the malev- olent Rahu has thus led eclipses to be The god Vishnu’s Tortoise avatar. He takes this seen as highly inauspicious times. See form to help the gods regain their immortality. also ocean, churning of the. various components, both good and bad. One product is the deadly halahala poison, which is neutralized by having Tota Puri An ascetic initiated into the Puri order Shiva hold it in his throat. Some of the of the Dashanami Sanyasis, as can be other products are the Kaustubha jewel, seen from his surname. Tota Puri was the wishing cow Surabhi, the goddess one of the teachers of the Bengali saint Lakshmi, and finally the physician of Ramakrishna, who appeared to instruct the gods, , who emerges Ramakrishna in Advaita Vedanta as part from the sea bearing the pot containing of the latter’s continuing exposure to the nectar of immortality. many different types of religious prac- The demons grab the pot of nectar tice. In his earlier religious practice, and begin to escape, but Vishnu takes Ramakrishna had been a fervent devo- the form of the enchantress Mohini and tee (bhakta) of the goddess Kali, where- beguiles the demons into giving the pot as the Advaita Vedanta philosophy back to her. She gives the pot to the claims that behind all things lies a single gods, who take off with the demons in impersonal reality that has no defining hot pursuit. According to more recent attributes except for being, conscious- traditions, in their flight the gods stop at ness, and bliss (sacchidananda). In the four different holy places on earth— Advaita understanding, because all con- Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain, and ceptions of particular deities have spe- Nasik—over a twelve-(divine) day span; cific attributes, they are thus conditioned this latter incident is cited as the charter forms of the ultimate Brahman myth for the celebration of the Kumbha (Supreme Reality). Mela at these sites on a twelve-year Although this conception ran basis (because a divine day is believed to counter to his own previous experience, equal a human year). Ramakrishna practiced diligently The gods finally manage to escape under Tota Puri’s direction. When their pursuers and divide the nectar Ramakrishna attained enlightenment among themselves, but they fail to through the practices of Advaita, he notice that the demon Sainhikeya slips discovered that the essence of this 706 Tribhanga

experience was the same as that gained immature person. Traditional wisdom is from his earlier devotional practices. unanimous that a person should not This inner experience of identity was consciously seek such powers, because a pivotal experience for Ramakrishna the very act of seeking is seen as being and reinforced his conviction that all rooted in selfish desires. In contrast, forms of religious practice led the seeker when one has gained such powers as a to the same place. After Ramakrishna’s byproduct of spiritual attainment, one is experience of enlightenment, Tota believed to be able to keep them in Puri disappeared. proper perspective.

Transcendental Meditation Religious organization founded by A particular age of the world in cosmic , whose teach- time. According to traditional belief, ings on meditation comprise its major time has neither a beginning nor an end, thrust. As its name would indicate, but alternates between cycles of cre- Transcendental Meditation (TM) stresses ation and activity, followed by cessation the multiple benefits of meditation: For and quietude. Each of these cycles lasts the individual, it promotes physical, for 4.32 billion years, with the active mental, and spiritual health, whereas for phase known as the Day of Brahma, and the larger environment, it is claimed to the quiet phase as the Night of Brahma. have pacific effects, resulting in reduced In cosmic time, the Day of Brahma is crime and hatred. All of these results can divided into one thousand mahayugas be obtained only by diligent practice, (“great cosmic ages”), each of which but the initiation itself is easy to lasts for 4.32 million years. Each obtain—all one has to do is to attend a mahayuga is composed of four con- seminar sponsored by a TM instructor stituent yugas (cosmic ages), named the and pay the required fee to obtain one’s Krta Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, mantra, or sacred utterance. In more and . Each of these four yugas recent years, TM has offered programs is shorter than its predecessor and ush- leading to the acquisition of super- ers in an era more degenerate and human powers (siddhis) at its head- depraved. By the end of the Kali Yuga, quarters at Maharishi International things have gotten so bad that the only University in Fairfield, Iowa. The claims solution is the destruction and recre- of these programs have been toned ation of the earth, at which time the down since a disgruntled buyer—who next Krta era begins. had been unable to learn to levitate— The Treta Yuga is the second of the won a lawsuit for damages. four yugas, lasting for 1,296,000 years. Although meditation and the use of Although the Treta Age is still relatively mantras are well-established Hindu auspicious, it is less so than the Krta practices, many traditional Hindus are Age, symbolized by its identification uncomfortable with other elements of with the metal silver—not as valuable as TM’s marketing. One controversial point the gold associated with the preceding is the practice of buying (or selling) a Krta Yuga, but more valuable than the mantra, which was traditionally trans- bronze and iron associated with the two mitted from teacher (guru) to disciple following yugas. In popular belief the only after significant association. A Treta Yuga is believed to be the time similar problem comes from the notion when the god Rama reigned on earth. that one can buy and sell superhuman powers. These powers are seen as highly seductive because they can be used for Tribhanga both good and evil and as having (“three breaks”) Name denoting one of the potential to destroy a spiritually the best-known poses in Indian dance 707 Tridosha

and sculpture, in which the line of the alone. Here one “recognizes” something body has three distinct breaks, or that has always been true but until that changes in direction. In this pose, the time had been obscured by a mistaken body’s weight is mainly supported on understanding. For further information one foot, with the corresponding see Paul Eduardo Muller-Ortega, The knee and shoulder inclined toward Triadic Heart of Siva, 1989. See also one side and the hips inclined in the tantra and Shaiva. opposite direction. Trilochan Tridosha (15th c.?) A sant poet who is generally In ayurveda, the term for the set of three associated with the poet-saint Namdev. bodily humours, vata (“air”), pitta The name sant is an umbrella term for a (“bile”), and kapha (“phlegm”). Each of loose group of central and northern these humours is associated with cer- Indian poet-saints who shared several tain physiological tendencies, particu- general tendencies: a stress on individu- larly with regard to digestion and alized, interior religion leading to a per- metabolism. Every person has all three sonal experience of the divine; a of these humours, although one of them disdain for external ritual, particularly is generally dominant. In a healthy per- image worship; a faith in the power of son the three humours are in general the divine name; and a tendency to equilibrium, but an imbalance can lead ignore conventional caste distinctions. to illness or chronic health problems. Trilochan’s only existing poems are a few The solution to these lies in regaining verses in the Adigranth, the sacred the proper balance between the doshas, scripture of the Sikh community. These or humours, for which one of the major verses describe his devotion to Vithoba, solutions is eating a proper diet. the presiding deity of the temple at Pandharpur in Maharashtra, who was also Namdev’s chosen deity. Thus, the Trika poems seem consistent with Maha- Kashmiri religious community whose rashtrian origins. Trilochan is also men- members were devotees (bhakta) of tioned as a devotee (bhakta) by other the god Shiva; the greatest figure in the bhakti poets, most notably by the poet- Trika school was the tenth-century saint Ravidas. philosopher and aesthetic theorist Abhinavagupta. Trika Shaivism is a tantric tradition—that is, a secret, ritually based religious practice—whose philo- Sacred site (tirtha) at the headwaters of sophical underpinnings merge two the Godavari River, in the Nasik district philosophical positions, theism and of the state of Maharashtra. Trimbak is monism. Theism is the notion that a famous as the site for Tryambakeshvar, divinity is the Supreme Reality in the one of the twelve jyotirlingas, the most universe, whereas monism conceives a sacred spot for devotees (bhakta) of the more abstract principle as the basis of god Shiva. all reality. For Trika Shaivism, the sole true reality is the god Shiva, who is both Supreme God and the source for emana- tions from which the material universe (“three forms”) The three deities of is formed. Final liberation of the soul Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, often repre- (moksha) comes through a process of sented as three faces on a single image, to “recognition” (pratyabhijna), in which symbolize the ultimate identity of all three one realizes that the entire universe is forms of divinity and divine activity: nothing but a manifestation of Shiva Brahma as creator, Vishnu as preserver and sustainer, and Shiva as destroyer. 708 Tripurari

Triphala Another name for the Urdhvapundra, the characteristic forehead mark of renunciant ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. Although there is considerable variation, the basic form is three vertical lines, in contrast to the three horizontal lines worn by Shaivite ascetics. See Urdhvapundra.

Tripundra Sectarian mark of three horizontal lines, most commonly applied to the forehead but which can also be applied to the back, heart, shoulders, arms, and legs. The tripundra marks the person wearing it as a devotee (bhakta) of the god Shiva, and although this mark is most com- monly worn by renunciant ascetics, householders also wear it. According to one interpretation, the three lines repre- sent the three prongs of Shiva’s trident; An ascetic wearing tripundra markings, according to another, they symbolize three horizontal lines that indicate he Shiva’s third eye. The three lines are is a devotee of the god Shiva. drawn by dipping the first three fingers of dismayed by their continuing defeats at the right hand into a sacred ash known as the hands of the gods, and they begin to vibhuti (“power”) and then drawing perform harsh asceticism (tapas) to find them across the forehead. In earlier times the means to counter this. The god vibhuti was made from wood ash that Brahma finally comes to them, willing had been sifted through cloth until it was to reward them with boons. However, as fine as talcum powder. This is still done when the demons learn that absolute today, primarily by ascetics who usually invulnerability is impossible, they lay use the ash from a , or smoldering down the condition that each of them ascetic fire, which has sacred character- should build a city that can move over istics; vibhuti can also be bought in stores the earth, which will come together only selling religious supplies. once in a long time, and that these cities can be destroyed only by a single arrow that pierces through them all at the same time. (“three cities”) In Hindu mythology, the This boon renders the demons prac- triple city built by the three sons of the tically invulnerable, and they proceed to demon Taraka: Kamalaksha, Tarakaksha, build three magnificent cities—one of and Vidyunmali. Shiva eventually iron, one of silver, and one of gold. They destroyed the demons’ three cities, and grow rich and prosperous, but over time as a result one of Shiva’s epithets is they are corrupted by power and began Tripurari, the “Enemy of the Three City.” to oppress the earth. Finally the gods petition Brahma for help, and Brahma Tripurari informs them that the only one with the Epithet of Shiva as the enemy (ari) of the strength to fulfill this condition is the Triple City (Tripura). According to the god Shiva. The gods build him a bow mythic charter, three demons are and arrow, and when the conjunction of the three cities takes place, Shiva sends a 709 Trishanku

single arrow through all three, kindling a him up and Vishvamitra will not let him fire that burns the cities and destroys down, he is suspended in midair. Indra their inhabitants. begins to construct a separate heaven This story illustrates one important for Trishanku, but when Vishvamitra facet of Shiva’s character—unlike the threatens to create a new Indra for the god Vishnu, who often manages to trick new heaven, Indra relents and takes those he subdues, Shiva is much less Trishanku to heaven in his material complex and attains his end by using body. The name Trishanku has since power against which no one can stand. become proverbial to refer to a person In some of the stories, one of the three trapped between two options. demons is himself a devotee (bhakta) of Shiva, and when the arrow is loosed and hurtles to destroy the Triple City, Shiva himself rescues his devotee and his In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two family. This is in character, for Shiva is great Hindu epics, Trishiras is a demon portrayed as gracious to his devotees ally of Ravana, the demon-king of and will do just about anything for Lanka. Along with Ravana’s brothers, them. It also shows that the demons are Khara and Dushana, Trishiras leads a conceived not as completely debased frontal attack against the god Rama, the but as another race of beings with epic’s protagonist. The attack is an effort different powers and capacities, and to avenge the insult to Ravana’s sister who have as much potential as deities Shurpanakha, who has been mutilated and human beings. by Rama’s brother Lakshmana. Although he is a valiant warrior, Trishiras is eventually killed by Rama, as are Trishanku Khara and Dushana. The failure of such (“three sins”) In Hindu mythology, a cel- frontal attacks convince Ravana that ebrated king of the Solar Line. He is Rama is too powerful to kill in combat, named Satyavrata at birth but is cursed so he decides to take revenge by kidnap- by the sage Vasishtha to bear the name ping Rama’s wife Sita. Trishanku because of three major sins: He abducts another man’s wife, he incurs the anger of his father, and he Trishul eats beef (which he has earlier obtained (“three points”) The trident, which is by slaughtering Vasishtha’s cow). Along an important weapon associated with with this uncomplimentary name, both the god Shiva and the Goddess. Vasishtha also curses Trishanku to be a The trident is a modified form of chandala (untouchable), which Trishanku the spear (shula). suffers for some time before being restored to his kingship. Tristhalisetu After regaining his throne, Trishanku (“The bridge to the Three Holy Cities”) is a good king, but he desires to be taken Pilgrimage text written by the great bodily into heaven. Vasishtha and his scholar Narayana Bhatta (approx. sons ridicule this desire, but Trishanku 1513–1570) that was intended to give the finds an ally in the sage Vishvamitra, readers precise instructions for correctly who has a long history of conflict with performing the pilgrimage rites at three Vasishtha. Vishvamitra performs the important sites: Allahabad, a bathing sacrifice to take Trishanku to heaven, (snana) place at the junction of the but when he arrives there, he is pushed Ganges and Yamuna Rivers; Benares, back down by Indra, the ruler of heaven, which is renowned as a city of culture and Trishanku falls head downward. and religious learning; and Gaya in Vishvamitra orders Trishanku to remain Bihar, a major site for the shraddha where he is, and since Indra will not let rites for the dead. The text begins with a 710 Tryambakeshvar

section devoted to pilgrimage in general, fifteen miles down from Kedarnath. The giving the rules for its performance, and site for Triyuginarayan is on the top continues with three sections giving the of a mountain, surrounded by forest. prescriptions for pilgrimages to Triyuginarayan’s major temple is dedi- Allahabad, Benares, and Gaya. The cated to the god Vishnu in his form as Tristhalisetu is an important example of Narayana, and in front of the temple is a the class of commentarial literature pit in which a fire is said to have been known as nibandhas (“collections”). smoldering for the past three cosmic The nibandhas were compendia of ages (triyugi). According to its charter Hindu lore, in which the compilers myth, Triyuginarayan is the site at which culled references on a particular theme the deities Shiva and Parvati were mar- from the Vedas, dharma literature, ried, a ceremony to which this continu- puranas, and other authoritative reli- ously smoldering fire (in its guise as gious texts, and then compiled these Agni, the fire-god) stands as the witness. excerpts into a single volume, often with their own commentary. Narayana Bhatta was one of the most learned men Trnavarta of his time, and he was attempting to In Hindu mythology, Trnavarta is one of define everything precisely, based on his the demon assassins sent by Kamsa, the sources, so that people would know how demon-king of Mathura, in an attempt to do the right thing. The initial section to kill his nephew, the child-god of this text has been edited and translated Krishna. Trnavarta is a whirlwind that by Richard Salomon as The Bridge to the sweeps Krishna up into the air, but Three Holy Cities, 1985. Krishna holds tight to Trnavarta until he simply blows himself out. Triveni (“Triple stream”) Traditional epithet for Truth, Power of the confluence of the Ganges and In popular Hindu belief, truth is seen as Yamuna Rivers in the city of Allahabad, having magical power of its own, a in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Although power to which people can appeal in only two rivers can be seen at the con- their time of distress. One way of fluence, the name Triveni comes from appealing to this power is through the the traditional belief that they are joined famous act of truth, a conditional state- by a third river, the Saraswati, which ment in which the first part is a true flows underground and is unseen to the statement about one’s past behavior and naked eye. the second part a request for some spe- cific result (for example, “If I have always given to those who begged from me, Trivikrama may this fire not burn me”). The power (“[taking] Three Steps”) Epithet of the of truth was also invoked in trial by god Vishnu in his avatar, or incarna- ordeal and was seen as the power tion, as a dwarf (Vamana). The name that made the ordeal a valid means of exists because diminutive Vamana begs testing people. three paces of land from the demon- king Bali and then grows to such a large size that these three paces measure out Tryambakeshvar the universe. See Vamana avatar. Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in the village of Trimbak in the Nasik district of the state of Maharashtra, at the head- Triyuginarayan waters of the Godavari River. The tem- Village and sacred site (tirtha) in ple is named for its presiding deity, the the valley in the god Shiva in his manifestation as the Garhwal region of the Himalayas, “Three-Eyed Lord.” Shiva is present at 711 Tuesday

Tryambakeshvar in the form of a linga, magic; that if one calls it the lucky day, it the pillar-shaped image that is his sym- may, in fact, turn out to be. bolic form. The Tryambakeshvar linga is one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a network of sites deemed especially sacred to Tukaram Shiva and at which Shiva is uniquely (1598–1650) Poet and saint in the present. The charter myth for Varkari Panth, a religious community Tryambakeshvar begins with the sage centered on the worship of the god Gautama, who unwisely hits an old cow Vithoba, at his temple at Pandharpur in with a stick, killing it, and thus incurs the modern state of Maharashtra. the sin of cow slaughter. Gautama is told According to tradition, Tukaram was a that to expiate his sin, he first has to shudra (in traditional Hinduism, there amass enough merit to bring the Ganges are four main social groups, the shudras down to earth, and after he has purified being the lowest and least influential) himself by bathing (snana) in the born in the small village of Dehu, where Ganges, he has to make and worship 10 his father was a petty merchant. million Shiva lingas formed from the Tukaram continued in the family busi- sand on its banks. Gautama undertakes ness, which eventually failed because he his penance (prayashchitta) diligently. had little interest in worldly life. He Upon worshiping the 10 millionth linga longed instead for the life of a renun- he is rewarded by a vision of Shiva, who ciant, in which he could completely grants his wish that both the Ganges and devote himself to God. As with many of Shiva will remain there forever—the for- the other bhakti saints, he is reported to mer in her form as the Godavari, the lat- have suffered considerable persecution ter as Tryambakeshvar. by traditionally minded brahmins, who were uneasy about a person of his low status gaining spiritual greatness. An Tuesday unlettered man, he is most famous for (Mangalvar) The third day of the week, the songs known as abhangs, which are presided over by the planet Mars still widely sung in Maharashtra. He had (Mangal). The planet Mars is deemed many disciples, including the poet-saint inauspicious, both because of its red Bahina Bai, and according to tradition, color (reminiscent of blood) and he ended his life by being taken up to because of its associations with war and heaven in a chariot of fire. For further disorder. Tuesday is widely considered information see G. A. Deleury, The Cult an unlucky day, and many people of Vithoba,1960; and Justin E. Abbott abstain from certain kinds of activity on (trans.), The Life of Tukaram, 1980. it. Travel is particularly discouraged unless absolutely necessary. Cutting the hair and beard is also discouraged, and Tulsi in much of northern India, barbers take A small shrublike plant commonly Tuesday off. To counter the day’s poten- denoted the “holy basil.” For devotees tial inauspiciousness, many people also (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, the tulsi perform rites of protection, such as plant is a form of Vishnu’s wife Lakshmi, worshiping strong protective deities who is cursed to take birth as a plant. such as Hanuman—who is close According to the story, Lakshmi sits with enough to human beings to understand Vishnu’s wives, the goddesses Ganga the problems they face, but divine and Saraswati. Ganga makes amorous enough to be able to protect them. eyes at Vishnu, and when Saraswati Paradoxically, the literal meaning of the protests this indecency, a quarrel breaks name for Tuesday is the “auspicious” out. By the time it is over, Ganga and (mangal) day. Giving it this euphemistic Saraswati have cursed each other to be name may simply be a bit of reverse born on earth as rivers. Vishnu has been 712

cursed to be born as a stone (the shala- largely added to the first and last chap- gram); and Lakshmi, who tries only to ters, where Tulsidas makes his greatest mediate the quarrel, is cursed to be born changes from the original epic. One the- as a plant. This plant is thus a form of ory to explain why Tulsidas brought in Lakshmi, and pious Vaishnavas culti- this other material is that he was trying vate a tulsi plant as an act of devotion. to transcend narrow sectarian bound- The plant is especially dear to Vishnu, aries, and a sign of this is that much of and it is believed that all parts of the the text is narrated by the god Shiva, in plant are purifying. Any parts of it used the form of a dialogue to his wife in worship are especially meritorious— Parvati. For part of the final book, Shiva whether grinding the leaves to a paste to is supplanted as narrator by the crow mark one’s body, taking the leaves as Bhushundi, who symbolizes the power prasad (food offered to a deity as an act of devotion to rescue even a common of worship), or using tulsi wood for carrion-eating crow. Aside from the implements or sacrificial fuel. Ramcharitmanas, Tulsidas composed many other works in varying regional languages and dedicated to various Tulsidas deities; the most important are the (1532–1623) Poet-saint and devotee Kavitavali, the , the (bhakta) of the god Rama, whose great- Ramavali, and the Shrikrishnavali. est work, the Ramcharitmanas, retells Tulsidas himself refers to writing down the epic Ramayana in the vernacular his poems, and although the manuscript language of his day. According to evi- tradition is uncertain for some of his dence in his poetry, Tulsidas was born texts, the transition from song to written into a desperately poor brahmin family, text took place much faster than for but his life was transformed by the most of his contemporary poet-saints, power of Rama’s name. This can be many of whom were illiterate. For fur- taken as a reference to his teacher, who ther information see F. Raymond Allchin is believed to have been a Ramanandi, (trans.), Kavitavali, 1964; W. Douglas P. but it can also be taken literally. Tulsidas Hill (trans.), The Holy Lake of the Acts of continually stresses that the name of Rama, 1971; and John Stratton Hawley Rama embodies the divinity’s power and and Mark Juergensmeyer (trans.), Songs thus makes that power accessible to of the Saints of India, 1988. devotees. According to tradition, he lived a fairly hard life despite his fame, and because of his emphasis on devo- Tulsidas Jayanti tion, he reportedly faced problems from Festival falling on the seventh day other brahmins, who were concerned of the bright (waxing) half of the lunar about maintaining their social status. month of Shravan (July–August), cele- As with all of the Ramayana’s vernac- brating the birthday of the medieval ular retellings, Tulsidas did not merely devotional (bhakti) poet-saint Tulsidas translate the story of Rama but inter- (1532–1623). Tulsidas composed many preted it according to his own religious different texts, and he is one of the few convictions. The two most important medieval poet-saints believed to have shifts are his overwhelming emphasis been literate and to have actually writ- on the importance of devotion (bhakti) ten down his work. His most celebrated and the saving power of the name text is the Ramcharitmanas, a vernacu- of Rama, to which Tulsidas gives lar retelling of the epic Ramayana. greater importance than Rama himself. Tulsidas also brings in mythic material from a variety of other sources, most Tulsi Vivah notably the Shiva Purana and the Festival marking the marriage of the Adhyatmaramayana. This material is goddess Lakshmi and the god Vishnu, 713 Tumari

the opening, with the remaining top parts forming the vessel’s handle. Because of its simplicity and use of read- ily available materials, the tumari was a symbol of ascetic life.

Tungabhadra River Important tributary of the Krishna River, which has its source in the Western Ghats in southern Karnataka and then flows north and east toward the Krishna. The most important place on its banks is Hampi, the ruined city that was the capital of the Vijayanagar empire. See also Vijayanagar dynasty.

Tungnath Temple and sacred site (tirtha) in the Garhwal region of the Himalayas in the valley between the Mandakini and the Alakananda Rivers, fourteen miles by Tulsi plant used in Tulsi Vivah festival. footpath north of the village of . The temple’s presiding deity celebrated on the eleventh day of the is the god Shiva in his manifestation bright (waxing) half of the lunar month as the “Lofty Lord.” Tungnath is one of of Kartik. It is also celebrated as the Panchkedar, a network of five Devotthayan Ekadashi. On this day sacred sites spread throughout the devotees (bhakta) place a shalagram (a Garhwal region; the other four are black stone containing the spiral- Kedarnath, Kalpeshvar, Rudranath, shaped fossil shell of a prehistoric sea and Madmaheshvar. This network of creature, understood as a “self-mani- five sites is seen as a symbolic represen- fest” form of Vishnu) in a pot containing tation of Shiva’s body, understandably a tulsi plant (considered a form of so, since Shiva is believed to dwell in the Lakshmi). Thus they symbolically unite Himalayas. Of these five, Tungnath is Vishnu and Lakshmi and perform the believed to be Shiva’s arm. marriage ceremony for them, complete with festive songs. Turiya Tumari (“fourth”) The name for the innermost quarter of the Self (atman), as described Vessel used by renunciant ascetics. In in the Mandukya Upanishad, one of the earlier times it would have been made of speculative religious texts that form the a gourd, although today the shape is latest stratum of the Vedas, the oldest often replicated in brass or some other Hindu sacred texts. As with most of the metal. The tumari is taller than it is wide, Upanishads, the Mandukya Upanishad’s with an open top over which the carry- underlying concern is to investigate ing handle arches. Unlike another piece ultimate questions, in particular the of ascetic equipment, the , nature of the Self. The upanishad which has both a spout and a covered describes the Self as having four top, the tumari is an open vessel. When quarters, each of which removes another made of a gourd, it would simply have layer of egoism. The first quarter is entailed cutting parts off of the top for waking consciousness, which is 714 Twilight Language

characterized by perceptions of subject and object; the second is dream sleep, which is sheer subjectivity; the third is deep sleep, which has neither subject nor object; and the last is a mysterious state simply called “the fourth” (turiya), which is the Self. This state is identified as the ultimate truth, and knowledge of this brings final liberation of the soul (moksha).

Tvashtr (“maker of carriages”) In the Vedas, the oldest and most authoritative Hindu religious texts, is a minor deity known as the workman of the Vedic gods. The Vedic hymns frequently men- tion wheeled chariots as military devices, and his name’s literal meaning shows the esteem in which this craft was held, as the apex of creative work. In the Vedas, Tvashtr is famous for crafting the weapons of the gods, especially the Sadhu carrying a tumari. mace with which the storm-god Indra it was known as the second birth, and slays the serpent Vrtra (Rg Veda 1.32). In thus the initiates were “twice-born.” The later times Tvashtr is identified with first birth was biological and based on the minor deity Vishvakarma, who in nature, whereas the second was cultural later Hindu life becomes the architect and marked higher religious status. and craftsman of the gods. Since Tvashtr Although in its strictest sense this word has a much older textual presence refers only to such initiates, in a more than Vishvakarma, this seems to be general sense it can denote any person an attempt to identify one divine belonging to a varna whose members workman as another, based on their are eligible for this initiation—that is, similar functions. any brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya.

Twice-Born Twilight Language (dvija) In its most specific sense, One of the translations for the term this word denotes a man from the Sandhabhasha. Sandhabhasha is a highest traditional social groups symbolic language used in tantra, a (varnas)—brahmin, kshatriya, and secret, ritually based religious practice, vaishya—who has undergone the ado- in which the elements of tantric lescent ritual initiation known as the worship are described in a coded upanayana samskara. This initiation language often drawn from the private gives the entitlement and the obligation parts and functions of the human to study the Vedas, the oldest Hindu body. This is done to hide the tradition’s religious texts, and definitively divides particulars from the uninitiated. society between those who have this See Sandhabhasha. entitlement and those who do not— namely, all children, women, and men not belonging to these three groups. Because of this initiation’s ritual significance,

715 Tyag

Tyag (“renunciation”) Practice of renuncia- tion stressed most by ascetics, but even among this group, some stress it more than others. Some ascetics carry this to extreme lengths. One famous ascetic, Swami Karpatri, was famous for receiv- ing the food he was given as alms into his cupped hands, signifying the renun- ciation of an eating-vessel. The most extreme examples are ascetics who have given up all clothing as a symbol of renunciation of conventional standards, including shame. The ultimate purpose in such renunciation varies with the individual, but one of the common themes is to serve as a model of how lit- tle one really needs to live a happy and fulfilling life and thus to illustrate the fundamental values that people often forget in the bustle of everyday life. Many ordinary people also share this value in seeking to simplify their lives through giving up attachments and entanglements.

716 Uddhava

considerable friction between the Udasis and the Sikh community in the early twentieth century because the Sikhs were more self-consciously assert- ing their separate identity. See also U Panchayatana Puja. Udayagiri Village just north of the city of Bhopal in Udana the state of Madhya Pradesh. Udayagiri In traditional Indian physiology, one of is famous for its rock-cut cave sculp- the five bodily “winds” considered to be tures from the Gupta era (350–550 C.E), responsible for basic bodily functions, particularly a twenty-foot sculpture of the others being prana, apana, vyana, the god Vishnu in his form as the Boar and samana. The udana wind is consid- avatar, with the earth balanced on his ered to reside in the throat and to be the tusk. See also Gupta dynasty. force that conveys things out of the mouth—primarily speech and song, but Uddalaka Aruni also burps and (presumably) vomit. A character in the Chandogya Upanishad, one of the speculative texts Udasi that form the latest stratum of the Ascetic community founded by Vedas. In the upanishad, Uddalaka is Shrichandra (traditional dates 1492– the father and teacher of the boy 1612), the elder son of Guru Nanak, the Shvetaketu Aruneya, and the two are a first of the ten Sikh gurus. According to model for the transmission of secret one tradition, Nanak passed over teachings passed between guru and dis- Shrichandra as his successor because ciple. According to a story in the upan- Shrichandra had become an ascetic. ishad’s sixth chapter, Shvetaketu is sent Guru Nanak disapproved of this, believ- away by his father to study the Vedas, ing that his followers should live mar- and when he returns twelve years later, ried lives in society. The Udasis have having mastered all the Vedas, he incor- always been an ascetic sect, and since rectly considers himself learned. His their formation they have been seen as father punctures his arrogance by asking distinct from the two other major Shvetaketu questions about the nature ascetic communities, the Sanyasis and of the cosmos and thus shows him the the Bairagis. The latter are separated on difference between memorization and sectarian grounds: The Sanyasis wor- true knowledge. When Shvetaketu ship the god Shiva, and the Bairagis the cannot answer these, he admits his god Vishnu, whereas the Udasis wor- ignorance and accepts instruction from ship the Panchayatana grouping of five his father on the nature of the Self Hindu deities (Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesh, (atman). This instruction contains the Surya, and Durga) rather than one or teaching “That thou art” (Tat tvam asi). another alone. During the bathing This is one of the “great statements” (snana) processions at the Kumbha (mahavakya) in Indian philosophy and Mela, the Udasis march third, behind asserts the ultimate identity between the Sanyasis and the Bairagis. Through Brahman and atman, the cosmos and the legacy of their founder, they have the individual Self. retained some informal connections with the Sikh community, but by and Uddhava large they have always been considered In Hindu mythology, one of the god to belong in the Hindu fold. There was Krishna’s friends and companions. In 717 Udgatr

standoff, with each side unable to con- vince the other. Yet in at least one of the accounts, Uddhava is converted to the gopis’ point of view. For further infor- mation see R. S. McGregor (ed. and trans.), Nanddas, 1973.

Udgatr Type of sacrificial priest in the Brahmana literature, one of the later strands in the sacred literature known as the Vedas. The Brahmanas largely func- tioned as manuals describing how to perform sacrificial rites—which primar- ily involved burning offerings in a sacred fire—and the care and attention devoted to detailing these sacrifices leads to the inference that these were the primary religious act. These rites were so complex that they required spe- cialized ritual technicians: the The Mahakaleshvar Temple in Ujjain. adhvaryum, the hotr, the udgatr, and It is dedicated to the god Shiva the brahman. Of these, the udgatr was in the form of the “Lord of Death.” the sacrificial priest who chanted the the devotional (bhakti) literature, hymns from the Sama Veda that were Uddhava is most famous for the mes- used in the sacrifice. sage he carries from Krishna back to the gopis, the cowherd women of Braj (a Udupi northern Indian region on the Yamuna Town and sacred site (tirtha) on the River south of the modern city of Delhi) Arabian Sea in the state of Karnataka, who are Krishna’s devotees (bhakta) and about thirty miles north of Mangalore. who love him more than life. Uddhava Udupi’s most famous temple is to the tells the gopis not to be concerned with god Krishna, but it is best known as the Krishna’s physical absence, since as the home of the philosopher Madhva, supreme divinity, Krishna is always with founder of the Dvaita Vedanta. them, even though he may not be visi- ble. The gopis reply that such talk is fine for intellectual folk such as Uddhava, but that for simple women like them- In Hindu mythology, the king of selves, who have had the delight of asso- Mathura who is the grandfather of the ciating with Krishna in the flesh, such god Krishna. Ugrasena is supplanted by abstractions are absolutely useless. the evil Kamsa, who is believed to be Uddhava and the gopis are symbols for Ugrasena’s son but is actually not. two different types of religious life: one According to legend, Kamsa is the son of cool and abstract, focused on an imper- a demon who has taken Ugrasena’s sonal divinity, and the other based on form, and who under this guise has passionate love for a particular deity. intercourse with Ugrasena’s wife. Differing accounts of this story give dif- ferent endings, according to the writers’ inclinations. In some of the stories, Ujjain including the earliest version in the City and sacred site (tirtha) on the Bhagavata Purana, the story ends in a Shipra River in the state of Madhya 718 Ulatbamsi

Pradesh, about 100 miles west of Bhairav. Kal Bhairav is another name for Bhopal, the state capital. Ujjain is the , a horrific form of Shiva, traditional center of the Malwa plateau and the traditional offering at the tem- and has a long history as a commercial, ple is liquor—a substance proscribed political, cultural, and sacred center. In and condemned by “respectable” earlier times Ujjain was a major stop on Hindus and thus the ideal offering for a the central trade route, through which marginal deity such as Bhairava. See goods from southern India were fun- also Gupta dynasty. neled to other places farther north. Just before the common era, Ujjain is said to have been the capital of King Ukhimath Vikramaditya, after whom the Vikram Himalayan town on the Mandakini era was named. Vikramaditya’s step- River in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, brother, Bhartrhari, reportedly renounced across the river from . the throne to become an ascetic but is Ukhimath is the winter seat of best known for his poetry. In later days Kedarnath, a form of Shiva whose sum- Ujjain was the de facto capital of the mer home is a temple in the village of Gupta ruler Chandra Gupta II (r. Kedarnath, high in the mountains at the 380–414 C.E.), under whose patronage Mandakini’s headwaters. The village is the greatest Sanskrit poet, Kalidasa, is at such high altitude that it is only acces- said to have worked. sible between late April and October, As a sacred center, Ujjain has multi- after the snows have melted; in October ple attractions, and this is its major the temple is ritually closed until source of contemporary importance. It the next spring. When the temple at is one of the Seven Sacred Cities of Kedarnath has been closed for the India. Dying in one of these cities is said winter, the deity (symbolically repre- to bring liberation. Every twelve years sented by a movable image) takes Ujjain plays host to the bathing (snana) residence in Ukhimath for the winter festival known as the Kumbha Mela, and then moves back to Kedarnath the although the mela there is smaller than following spring. the ones at Haridwar and Allahabad. Given its history, Ujjain is studded with Ulatbamsi important religious sites. The most (“upside-down language”) Word denot- important site is the temple to Shiva ing paradoxical language in which the in his form as Mahakaleshvar, the speaker’s utterances are reversals of “Lord of Death.” Shiva is present at “normal” events, such as “The cow is Mahakaleshvar in the form of a linga, sucking the calf’s teat,” “Mouse stalks the pillar-shaped image that is his sym- cat,” “Rain falls from earth to sky.” The bolic form. The Mahakaleshvar linga is most famous composer of such utter- one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a network ances was the devotional (bhakti) poet- of sites deemed especially sacred to saint Kabir, who inherited a tradition of Shiva and at which Shiva is uniquely coded language (sandhabhasha) from present. Ujjain is also famous for a tem- the Nathpanthi and Sahajiya religious ple associated with Matsyendranath, communities. Ulatbamsi utterances are the religious preceptor (guru) of not intended to be simply nonsensical, Gorakhnath, the founder of the nor is it simply a coded language in Nathpanthi ascetics. In addition, Ujjain which one term stands for another; they has a temple to the nine planets, as are rather intended to stimulate the well as one of the baithaks, a group of hearer to active listening, interpretation, 108 sacred sites associated with the and searching for a truth that lies life and activity of the philosopher beyond right side up and upside Vallabhacharya. Ujjain’s most unusual down. For a long discussion of site is the temple to the deity Kal 719 Uma

ulatbamsi, see Appendix A in Linda Hess country in which one’s name often con- and Shukdev Singh (trans.), The Bijak veys one’s jati, such discrimination is of Kabir, 1983. difficult to escape. In many places these people are still underprivileged and desperately poor, as a legacy of the past. Uma In recent years they have become more Epithet of the goddess Parvati, wife of militant—among other things, adopting the god Shiva. The name supposedly the name (“oppressed”) to describe comes from the exclamation uttered by themselves—and have begun to Parvati’s mother, Mena, when Parvati exercise their power at the ballot announces that she intends to perform box, trying to take advantage of their asceticism to win Shiva as a husband. considerable numbers. According to the story, Mena covers her ears with her hands and replies “U Ma!” (Oh, don’t!) As with all forms of Parvati (and all married goddesses), Uma is (“honoring,” “entertaining”) In its literal a beneficent and benevolent presence, meaning, this word denotes the act of maternal and life affirming, although showing politeness, courtesy, or honor at times she can be capricious and to any superior. In the context of wor- spiteful if insulted. For more informa- ship, the meaning has been extended to tion on Uma and all the goddesses refer to the things that are normally of Hinduism, see David R. Kinsley, offered to the deity as part of the stan- Hindu Goddesses, 1986. dard hospitality that would be offered to any honored guest. Although there are differing enumerations of these offer- Untouchable ings, one of the most common lists has Name denoting certain jatis who were sixteen of them: summoning (avahana), considered so impure that their very offering a seat (asana), water for wash- presence was polluting to caste ing the feet (padya), thirst-quenching Hindus, that is, Hindus belonging to beverages (arghya), water for rinsing the the four varnas (major social divi- mouth (achamaniya), bathing (snana), sions). Jatis are endogamous social clothing (vastra), affixing the sacred subgroups—groups in which members thread (yajnopavit), fragrant unguents are forbidden to marry outside of their (anulepana), flowers (pushpa), particular group—that were often (), lamp (dipa), food (naivedya), defined by the group’s hereditary occu- reverential salutation (namaskara), cir- pation. Untouchability usually stemmed cumambulation (pradakshina), and from occupations considered impure or dismissal (visarjana). To give all sixteen debased, such as working with leather, offerings is a long and detailed ritual, in the case of the Chamars, or the and the most common of the offerings is groups whose hereditary occupation the eleventh, the offering of light, which was to remove night soil, often by carry- is also known as arati. ing it in baskets balanced on their heads. In traditional society, untouchables were subject to numerous restrictions Upadana and prohibitions on where they could In Indian philosophy, the word live, work, draw water, and even move upadana denotes the “material cause” about. In many cases they had to for something, that is, the stuff from announce their presence to allow caste which it is formed. Although this notion Hindus to remove themselves from the seems obvious to modern materialist area. Although untouchability has been ears, it carries several important illegal since independence, social atti- assumptions that not all Indian tudes supporting it persist, and in a philosophical schools were willing to

720 Upanayana (“bringing-near”) Samskara concede—namely, that there were real Upamana objects in the world, that they were (“analogy”) According to some philo- made from other things, and that these sophical schools, upamana was one of things underwent real transformations. the pramanas, or the means by which The notion of a material cause was held human beings can gain true and accu- by the “realist” schools, most notably rate knowledge. The classic example of the Samkhya, Nyaya-Vaisheshika, this pramana describes a traveler going and Vishishthadvaita Vedanta. It was to a certain region who is told that he opposed by the Buddhist schools, whose will encounter a certain animal that assumption that reality was constantly looks somewhat like a cow; upon going changing made the notion of real things there this analogy helps him identify the problematic. It was also opposed by the animal. Some philosophical schools Advaita Vedanta school, whose starting deny that this is a separate pramana assumption was that ultimately there and classify it as a variety of inference was only one “real” thing—the formless (anumana). Those who accept it as a Brahman (Supreme Reality)—and thus fourth pramana—primarily the Nyaya- that the notion of anything becoming Vaisheshika school—stress that accord- anything else was in error. ing to the rules of inference, a valid inference must be grounded in previous Upadhi perceptions. In the case of the traveler, his ability to identify is not based on (“obstruction”) In Indian logic, a coun- any differences drawn from previous terexample that renders an inference perceptions of that type of animal, since (anumana) invalid by showing that the he has never before seen the type of reason (hetu) given as evidence for the animal he actually encounters. He initial assertion (sadhya) is not invari- knows what it is because it looks ably true. For example, the inference “somewhat like a cow.” Thus an that “there is smoke because there is additional pramana was needed to fire” was judged invalid because of the account for this. See also philosophy. counterexample of the red-hot iron ball, which was considered fiery but not smoky. Since the red-hot iron ball was a Upanayana class of fiery things that did not smoke, it showed that the reason given for the (“bringing-near”) Samskara Traditionally, the eleventh of the life inference did not account for every case cycle ceremonies (samskaras), in which of the thing to be proved (sadhya)—and a young man received a religious initia- thus raised the possibility that there tion that functioned as a symbolic “sec- were other such cases as well. This ond birth,” conferring on him new invalid inference fails the requirement capacities and responsibilities. This cer- known as pervasion (), in which emony marks the symbolic end of child- the reason must account for every hood and, as with many such rites of possible case; this is critical for validity passage, the creation of a new social in an inference. Needless to say, the identity. After this rite the initiate search for such counterexamples was an becomes a brahmacharin, the first of essential part of Indian logic, since the stages of life (ashramas) for a one such example could discredit an “twice-born” man. This initiation gives opponent’s argument. For further the entitlement and the obligation to information and elaboration, see study the Vedas, the oldest and most Karl H. Potter (ed.), Presuppositions of authoritative Hindu religious texts, and India’s Philosophies, 1972. according to the traditional model, the young man would have done this while living in the household of his guru. With

721 Upanishad

this entitlement came responsibilities, concrete procedures for performing particularly to observe purity laws, to highly complex sacrificial rites. In con- which younger children were not trast, the Upanishads were concerned subject. If nothing else, this rite is an with more speculative and abstract essential prerequisite to marriage, since questions: the essential nature of the without it the young man is still cosmos, the essence of the human considered a child, and in some being, and the relationship between contemporary cases it is performed these two. The conclusion in the immediately before the wedding. Upanishads is that the essence of the According to the dharma literature, universe is an impersonal reality known this rite was restricted to young men as Brahman, and that the essence of the from the three highest traditional social human being is called the “Self” classes (varnas), namely, brahmins, (atman). The fundamental insight and kshatriyas, and vaishyas. Indeed, it is essential teaching in the Upanishads the entitlement for this rite that makes is the identity of Brahman and atman, these three the “twice-born” groups. For and thus of the macrocosm and the each group, a different age was pre- microcosm. This identity is one of the scribed for initiation and a different most fundamental Hindu religious ideas duration fixed for study, with brahmins and underlies religious thought up to being both earliest to start and the the present time. longest to study. The heart of the The twelve or thirteen oldest upan- upanayana samskara is investing the ishads are not a cohesive set but a series young man with the sacred thread of independent documents, although (janeu), which he must wear from that the later ones were clearly influenced by day forth, and teaching him the sacred the earlier ones. The two oldest are the formula known as the Gayatri mantra. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and the This rite is still important and still widely Chandogya Upanishad. Each is much performed, although it tends to be longer than all the others combined, stressed most by brahmins. This is not they are written in prose as a series of surprising, given their traditional posi- dialogues between famous sages, the tion as teachers and scholars and their Sanskrit language in them is clearly concern for conserving that status, even more archaic, and their ideas are embry- in modern times. For further informa- onic and undeveloped. Later upan- tion see Pandurang Vaman Kane (trans.), ishads—such as the Isha, Kena, Katha, A History of Dharmasastra, 1968; and Raj Prashna, and Mandukya—are much Bali Pandey, Hindu Samskaras, 1969. shorter, are written in verse, and have The former is encyclopedic and the well-developed ideas. Some of these latter more accessible; despite their introduce the notion of theism, but not age, they remain the best sources for until the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is traditional Hindu rites. the Supreme Being identified as a god, in this case Rudra. For much of their history, the Upanishads would have Upanishad been transmitted orally from master to The latest textual stratum in the Vedas, student; this makes it unlikely that these the oldest and most authoritative Hindu texts were widely known because they religious texts. The literal meaning of the would have been secret and carefully word upanishad is “to sit near [a guarded teachings. teacher],” but a better sense of its true The Upanishads are important meaning would be “secret teaching.” because of the speculative questions The Upanishads mark a clean break they ask and because many of their from the immediately preceding Vedic teachings are fundamental assumptions literature, the Brahmanas, in which the in Hindu religious life, even today: the essential concern was to lay out the notion of an eternal Self that gives a 722 Urdhvabahu

being continuous identity; the idea of “food.” In other cases one will abstain reincarnation (samsara) commensurate from certain types of food, such as for with one’s deeds; the concept that some the Santoshi Ma Vrat, in which the per- single unifying power lies behind the son must not eat anything containing world’s apparent diversity; and the con- sour or bitter flavors. viction that this can be attained only When fasting is performed as expia- through individual realization, usually tion (prayashchitta), the prescriptions described as a flash of mystic insight. As are usually concerned with the amount texts carrying the religious authority of of food eaten rather than the particular the Vedas, the Upanishads were also type. The best-known rite of this kind is extremely important in the develop- the chandrayana, a penitential rite last- ment of Hindu philosophical schools, ing for one lunar month in which the particularly Advaita Vedanta, which penitent’s food consumption mirrors shares this overriding emphasis on the monthly course of the moon. The inner realization. For information on the performer begins by eating fourteen Upanishads themselves, see Robert mouthfuls of food on the first day Ernest Hume (trans.), Thirteen Principal of the waning moon, then one less Upanisads, 1965. See also philosophy. mouthful on each successive day, with a complete fast on the new moon day. On each successive day during the Upasaka waxing moon, the penitent eats one (“servant”) A person engaged in more mouthful, finishing at fifteen on —that is, having an intent focus the day of the full moon. on serving and worshiping a deity. Upendra Upasana (“junior Indra”) Epithet of the god (“service”) General term denoting reli- Vishnu. It is first used in some late gious practice or spiritual discipline as a hymns in the Vedas, the earliest Hindu whole. Aside from the explicit notion of religious texts, in which Vishnu is por- serving the deity (or guru), the word trayed as a subordinate and companion also connotes an intent focus on the of the storm-god Indra, who is the pri- part of the performer—not so much the mary Vedic deity. The epithet continues particular things one is doing, but the to be used later despite Indra’s eclipse as overall attitude of care and attention a significant deity, and thus its literal with which one does them. meaning is no longer true. See Vishnu.

Upavasa Upside-Down Language General term denoting fasting, which Term designating the type of utterances is sometimes performed as a pre- known as ulatbamsi, so called because scribed action for particular religious these utterances intentionally describe observances such as festivals and vows things contrary to the way they are in (vrats), and which is also done as the “normal” world. See ulatbamsi. a means of expiating one’s sins. Although upavasa can refer to total abstinence from food and drink, it Urdhvabahu usually entails modification of one’s (“[one whose] arm is upraised”) Name diet. In some cases, as on the festival of for a person practicing a particularly Shivaratri, such “fasting” entails severe form of physical mortification, in abstaining from cooked grains, which which one or both arms are kept contin- are considered such an essential ele- ually raised. After some time the mus- ment in a meal that in parts of India cles atrophy, and the arms cannot be the word rice is also used to mean lowered again. Although urdhvabahu is 723 Urdhvapundra

An ascetic with the urdhvapundra mark on his forehead. It consists of three vertical lines and indicates that he is a devotee of the god Vishnu. not very common, it has a long-attested to the three horizontal lines worn by the history as an ascetic practice. As with all Sanyasis, who are devotees of Shiva. such harsh physical asceticism, this is There are many variations in the design, believed to give one the great benefits of and many different materials can be spiritual awareness and magical power. used: sandalwood paste, white clay, yel- This belief is based partly on the cultur- low clay, and red vermilion. The only ally accepted notion that the willingness thing that is never used is the sacred ash to endure physical suffering generates (vibhuti) characteristic of the Sanyasis. such spiritual power, but this belief The design and materials used for the could also stem from the strength urdhvapundra are quite distinctive of will needed to carry this out—a among various Vaishnava ascetic com- strength of will that would presumably munities, and from this, one can easily have correlates in other dimensions identify a particular ascetic’s affiliation. of one’s personality. For further information see A. W. Entwistle, “Vaishnava — Sectarian Marks Worn by Worshipers of Urdhvapundra Visnu,” IAVRI-Bulletin 11 and 12, 1982. Name denoting the characteristic fore- head mark (tika) worn by the ascetic devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. Urdhvaretas The urdhvapundra’s basic pattern is (“[one whose] semen is drawn made of three vertical lines, in contrast upward”) Epithet for someone keeping

724 Utkutikasana a vow of celibacy, particularly a lifelong Ushas vow. In the Hindu tradition, celibacy is In the Vedas, the oldest and most important not only for removing one authoritative Hindu religious texts, from enjoying the pleasures of the flesh Ushas is a goddess associated and but because on a more basic level, sometimes identified with the dawn. semen is considered the concentrated She is described as lighting the path for essence of a man’s vital energies. the sun and driving away the darkness Expending semen is necessary for pro- and evil; her presence is thus associated creation, but otherwise it should be with the regularity of the cosmic order. retained, as a way to conserve one’s vital Ushas is most notable not for what she forces. In popular belief, when a man does—she is a minor deity, mentioned has been celibate for a certain time, the in only a handful of the Vedic hymns— semen is drawn upward to the brain, but because she is one of the few god- where it nourishes one’s intellectual desses in the Vedas. The virtual absence and spiritual faculties. of female divinities in the Vedas is one of the factors behind the notion that the Urushringa great Goddess, one of the three major deities in later religious life, has her Architectural detail in the temple archi- roots in indigenous goddess worship. tecture of Khajuraho, one of the major For more information on Ushas and all forms of the northern Indian Nagara the goddesses of Hinduism, see David R. style. The Nagara style’s primary feature Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, 1986. is a shikhara, or tower. This primary shikhara is often surrounded by smaller, subsidiary towers, to lead the eye up to Utkala the highest point, which is directly over Northern Indian brahmin group that the image of the temple’s primary deity. makes up one of the five northern brah- The urushringas are turrets built on the min communities (Pancha Gauda); the sides of these towers, whose shape repli- other four are the Kanaujias, the cates that of the tallest central tower and Maithilas, the Gaudas, and the that serve to draw the eye upward to the Saraswats. Utkala brahmins are found highest tower. only in the coastal regions of Orissa, on the Bay of Bengal, but their ritual con- Urvashi trol over the pilgrimage sites there, par- ticularly the city of Puri, have helped In Hindu mythology, a particular celes- them remain a significant group. tial nymph (apsara) who is most famous for her association with King Pururavas. Urvashi comes to stay with Pururavas Utkutikasana under several conditions, including that Sitting posture (asana) in yoga practice she should never see him naked. When in which the legs are contracted, with she has been gone from heaven for a the soles of the feet pressed against each while, the god Indra notices her absence other and the outer part of the feet and and schemes to get her back. One night legs flat on the ground. This posture is he sends several minor deities to steal the one in which images of the deities two lambs of which Urvashi is very fond, are portrayed in Hindu iconography, and when Pururavas leaps up to regain and it seems to be the position called them, a flash of lightning reveals him samasthana in the commentaries to the naked, and Urvashi leaves him. They are Yoga Sutras. This position is also separate for some time but are eventually notable because it appears to be por- reunited—in some accounts for good, trayed on one of the seals from the and in others for only one night a year. Indus Valley civilization; the figure in this position is the mysterious horned 725 Utpanna Ekadashi

deity that some viewers have sought to Hindu images is the sthala murti, identify as a “proto-Shiva.” which is fixed in one place and never moves from it. Utpanna Ekadashi Religious observance falling on the Uttara (“Later”) Mimamsa eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark Another name for the philosophical (waning) half of the lunar month of school also known as Vedanta, which Margashirsha (November–December). was called Uttara Mimamsa to distin- As for all of the eleventh-day obser- guish it from Purva Mimamsa, another vances, this is dedicated to the worship philosophical school. See Vedanta. of Vishnu, and on this day especially, in his form as Krishna. Most Hindu festi- vals have certain prescribed rites, which Uttararamacharita usually involve fasting (upavasa) and (“Later Acts of Rama”) Drama written by worship and often promise specific ben- the Sanskrit playwright Bhavabhuti efits for faithful performance. Those (8th c.), which retells the story of the observing this vow should fast com- Ramayana, the earlier of the two pletely on the tenth and perform full Sanskrit epics. Bhavabhuti’s play largely worship during the brahma muhurta of follows the plot of the original Valmiki the eleventh. On this ekadashi, only Ramayana, with one important differ- fruits should be offered as food for the ence. Valmiki’s text ends with Rama’s deity. Faithfully keeping this festival is banishing Sita because of suspicions believed to bring liberation of the soul about her virtue and Sita’s being swal- (moksha). The name Utpanna means lowed up by the earth, which is her “born,” and the charter myth for this mother and witness to her chastity. The celebration is that of , wife of Uttararamacharita, on the other hand, the sage Atri. Anasuya is famous for her ends with a complete reconciliation devotion to her husband, and the wives between Rama and Sita. This change of the gods become jealous of her. may have been prompted solely by the Lakshmi, Parvati, and Saraswati send desire for a happy ending, which is one their husbands (Vishnu, Shiva, and of the characteristic features of Sanskrit Brahma) to try to compromise her drama. It may also indicate that some fidelity; the gods come begging for food, people were not comfortable with the but they refuse to accept it unless moral ambiguities of the original text, in Anasuya gives it to them naked. Through which Rama, although claimed to be the power she has gained from her devo- divine, sometimes acts in unscrupulous tion to her husband, Anasuya turns the and disturbing ways. three gods into infants and then nurses them until they are satisfied; these three Uttarayana gods are later “born” into her household: Term denoting the six months of the Vishnu as , Shiva as Durvasas, solar year in which the sun is believed to and Brahma as Chandra. be moving northward. In the common era, this would be the period between Utsava Murti the winter solstice and the summer sol- (“festival image”) Image of a deity that is stice (roughly December 20 to June 20) able (and intended) to be moved. These and would be based on the actual are used mainly during festivals, when motion of the sun with respect to the the image of the deity is paraded around earth. The Indian solar year is based on the town or city on the model of a kingly the motion of the sun through the zodiac, procession, symbolically surveying his which is calculated differently than in or her realm. The other general class of Western astrology. The uttarayana begins on Makara Sankranti (the day 726 Uttar Pradesh the sun is calculated as entering Uttar Pradesh Capricorn, usually January 14) and ends (“northern state”) Modern Indian state the day before Karka Sankranti (the day running along the border with Nepal. the sun enters Cancer, usually calculat- Uttar Pradesh is India’s most populous ed as July 14). The uttarayana is consid- state and is thus one of its most politi- ered a more auspicious time than the cally important. The state has a range of (in which the sun is trav- different ecosystems, from the high eling toward the south) because the Himalayas to the rice-growing plains in guardian deity for the southern direc- its eastern basin, which gives it tion is Yama, who is death personified. immense natural and social variety. Uttar Pradesh also contains the sources Uttarkashi and much of the length for both the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers, and the (“northern Benares”) Himalayan town state thus contains many of the holiest and sacred site (tirtha) on the sites in India. Although a full catalog Bhagirathi River in northern Uttar would be difficult to give, some of Pradesh. As its name indicates, the state’s major sacred sites (tirthas) Uttarkashi is claimed as the northern are the four Himalayan Dhams form of the city of Benares, the city of (“[divine] abodes”), , the god Shiva that is one of the most , Kedarnath, and Badrinath; sacred sites in India. Uttarkashi’s charter the sacred cities of Haridwar, myths also claim that in the present age, Allahabad, and Benares; the city of Shiva no longer dwells in Benares, but Ayodhya, the mythic home of the instead lives in Uttarkashi. To buttress god Rama; and the Braj region south the claim to being the northern Benares of Delhi, which is mythically associated Uttarkashi shows many parallels and with the god Krishna. For general homologies with Benares itself: In both, information about Uttar Pradesh and the Ganges River flows in a northern all the regions of India, an accessible direction through the city; both have reference is Christine Nivin et al., their core region defined as the area India, 8th ed., Lonely Planet, 1998. See between the Varuna and Asi Rivers; also four dhams. both are enclosed by a panchakroshi pilgrimage route; and in both, the pri- mary deity is Shiva in his form as Vishvanath. Uttarkashi is a site of great antiquity—inscriptions have been dis- covered from the seventh century C.E.— and although these parallels to Benares might seem slavish, the basis of this claim is not just that Uttarkashi is a holy place, just as Benares is a holy place, but that the holiness of Uttarkashi is equal to that of Benares. Aside from its impor- tance as a pilgrimage town, Uttarkashi is also the district headquarters and a major supply point to the other sites in the region. The town was severely damaged in an earthquake in early 1993 and has been rebuilding slowly since that time.

727 Vachaspati Mishra

thus opposed the Advaita Vedanta school, founded by the philosopher Shankaracharya, which believed that the Supreme Being was impersonal and that realization (jnana) was the best V spiritual path. The split between the Tengalais and the Vadagalais came several centuries later and stemmed from differing per- spectives on what the individual must Vachaspati Mishra do to gain final liberation of the soul (ca. late 15th c.) Commentator and com- (moksha). The Vadagalais not only piler of the dharma literature. He com- stress the saving power of God’s grace, posed dozens of texts in his working life, but also assert that the individual must including a number of digests (nibandha) respond to that grace and take an active organized around various subjects, role in his or her salvation. This belief is including daily religious rites, purifica- in complete contrast to the Tengalais, tion, pilgrimage, death rites (antyeshthi who emphasize the need for absolute samskara), political life, judicial proce- surrender (prapatti) to the grace of God, dures, and funeral rites. In these digests through which devotees are saved with Mishra would draw material relating to no action of their own. the theme from a number of different religious texts, weigh them, and some- times interpret their position on a reli- Vagish gious issue. Mishra was much respected (“Lord of Speech”) Epithet of the poet- for his learning and piety, and his texts saint Appar, reflecting the power of his were an important resource to those devotional poetry. Appar was one of the who followed him. earliest of the Nayanars, a group of sixty-three southern Indian poet-saints of the seventh and eighth centuries who Vadagalai were devotees (bhakta) of the god One of the two main subsects in the Shiva. See Appar. Shrivaishnava religious community, the other being the Tengalai. The Shri- vaishnavas are devotees (bhakta) of the Vaidyanath god Vishnu, and the community’s roots Form of the god Shiva, in his manifesta- lie in the devotional hymns of the tion as the “Lord of Physicians” (vaidya). Alvars, a group of twelve poet-saints A temple is named for him at Deoghar who lived in southern India between in the state of Bihar. Shiva is present at the seventh and tenth centuries. Two Vaidyanath in the form of a linga, the centuries later, the Alvars’ devotional pillar-shaped image that is his symbolic outpouring was organized and system- form, and the Vaidyanath linga is one of atized by the philosopher Ramanuja the twelve jyotirlingas, a network of (11th c.), who is considered the sites deemed especially sacred to Shiva, Shrivaishnava founder. Ramanuja was and at which Shiva is uniquely present. convinced that Brahman, or Supreme Vaidyanath’s charter myth is associated Reality, was a personal deity rather than with the demon-king Ravana, who is an impersonal abstract principle, and he said to be a great devotee (bhakta) of was also convinced that devotion Shiva. Ravana travels to Shiva’s home on (bhakti) was the most important form of Mount Kailas and practices harsh religious practice. Vishishthadvaita asceticism for years, hoping to gain a Vedanta, his philosophical position, vision of Shiva. When his asceticism stressed both of these convictions and proves unsuccessful, the ten-headed 728 Vaisheshika

Ravana proceeds to cut off his heads, unconquerable during the Mahabharata one by one, and to offer them to Shiva. war. The loss of this weapon leaves As he is about to cut off the last of his Karna at a disadvantage against Arjuna, heads, Shiva appears before him and and Karna is eventually killed. grants Ravana a boon. Ravana asks for Shiva to come and live in his palace in Lanka, a request that would have made Vaikasi Ravana invincible. Shiva agrees to come Second month in the Tamil year, corre- in the form of a linga, but warns Ravana sponding to the northern Indian solar that wherever the linga touches the month of Vrshabha (the zodiacal sign of earth, it will stay there forever. As Taurus), which usually falls within May Ravana begins traveling back to Lanka, and June. This name is a modification of he feels the urge to urinate (which in Baisakh, the second month in the lunar some versions is described as being calendar. The existence of several differ- caused by Shiva himself, because the ent calendars is one clear sign of the other gods have begged Shiva not to go continuing importance of regional cul- to Lanka). Given the condition of his tural patterns. One way that the Tamils boon, he cannot put the linga down; retain their culture is by preserving their moreover, since urination renders one traditional calendar. Tamil is one of the ritually impure, the linga would be few regional languages in India with an defiled if he holds it while answering ancient, well-established literary tradi- nature’s call (or touches it before he has tion. See also Tamil language, Tamil taken a purifying bath). Ravana ends up months, and Tamil Nadu. handing the linga to a cowherd, giving him strict orders to keep it off the Vaikuntha ground. The linga is so heavy, however, In Hindu mythology, the name of the that the cowherd eventually has to let it heaven in which the god Vishnu lives. rest on the ground, where it sticks fast, and remains there to this day. Vaishali City and region in northern Bihar; the Shakti region’s western border is the Gandaki In the Mahabharata, the later of the two River, and its southern border the great Hindu epics, this is the name of an Ganges river. Although now the region all-conquering weapon that the storm- is extremely backward, at the time of god Indra gives to the warrior Karna. the Buddha, Vaishali was one of the Karna has been born wearing earrings largest cities in India and a center of and a suit of armor, and Karna’s father, intellectual culture of the time. Vaishali the sun-god Surya, has ordained that as is famous as the birthplace of Mahavira. long as Karna wears these, he cannot be He was the last of the Jain tirthankars, harmed. Indra gains them from Karna the founding figures in the Jain religious by taking the guise of a brahmin, and tradition. Tradition also holds Vaishali begging for them as alms from Karna, as the site of the second Buddhist who is famous for his generosity. council, convened one hundred years Despite being warned in a dream, after the death of the Buddha (ca. 386 Karna cannot bring himself to refuse B.C.E.), at which the Buddhist community and gives them to Indra. When Indra split between the Sthaviravadins and gives him a boon in return, Karna asks the Mahasanghikas. for the Vaijayanti Shakti. Karna keeps this weapon in reserve to kill his neme- sis, Arjuna, but is forced to use it Vaisheshika against another mighty warrior, (“noting characteristics”) One of the , when the latter proves six schools of traditional Hindu 729 Vaisheshika

One of the many forms of Vishnu. Vishnu’s followers are known as Vaishnavas. philosophy, and a school whose special few basic constituent things—and this concern was the elucidation of physics was the root of the school’s and metaphysics. The Vaisheshika metaphysics. Philosophically speaking, analysis of the categories for the the were realists—that is, universe was later combined with the they thought that the world was made stress on reasoning in another of the six up of many different things and that schools, the Nyayas, to form the Nyaya- these things actually existed as per- Vaisheshika school, sometimes called ceived, except in cases of perceptual the Naiyayikas. The Vaisheshika school error. They believed that all things were was atomistic—that is, it espoused the composed of nine fundamental sub- belief that all things were made up of a stances—the five elements, space, time, 730 Vaishnava

mind, and Selves—and that whatever prominently characterized by the doc- exists was both knowable and name- trine of the ten avatars, or divine incar- able. The Vaisheshikas subscribed to the nations: Fish, Tortoise, Boar, Man-Lion, causal model known as asatkaryavada, Vamana (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, which posited that when a thing was Krishna, Buddha, and . It is gener- created, it was a whole new aggregate, ally accepted that the avatar doctrine completely different from its con- provided a way to assimilate smaller stituent parts. This causal model tends regional deities into the larger pantheon to multiply the number of things in the by designating them as forms of Vishnu, universe because each act of creation and it is in the form of these avatars that brings a new thing into being. It also Vishnu is most commonly worshiped. admits that human efforts and actions Of the ten avatars, the two most impor- are one of the causes influencing these tant ones have been Rama and effects, making it theoretically possible Krishna, although in the early cen- to act in a way that brings final libera- turies of the common era, the Boar tion of the soul (moksha). avatar and the Man-Lion avatar were According to the Vaisheshika analy- influential regional deities. sis, the objects of experience can be Early Vaishnava religion is cloudy divided into six categories: substances, and mysterious. Although Vishnu qualities, activity, universals, particu- appears in several hymns in the Vedas, lars, and inherence (samavaya); some the oldest Hindu religious texts, he was later Vaisheshikas add a seventh category, clearly a minor deity, and it is difficult to absences. The first three categories get from there to being the supreme can be perceived, whereas the others power in the universe. Some scholars must be inferred, but the concept of have speculated that the cult of inherence is central to their system of Krishna—a deified local cowherd thought. Inherence is the subtle glue hero—originally came from outside connecting all the elements of the uni- the Vedic religious matrix, and that verse: wholes and their parts, sub- Krishna was identified with Vishnu as a stances and their qualities, motions and way to assimilate Krishna’s cult into the things that move, general properties respectable Vedic religion. Such ideas with their particular instances, and most are intriguing but have little hard evi- important, pleasure and pain to the Self. dence to support them. Inscriptional The philosophical problems with inher- evidence clearly shows that the worship ence—particularly the notion that it was of Krishna was well-established by the one single principle and not a collection first century B.C.E. These devotees are of things—caused them great difficulty generally described as Bhagavatas and were responsible for the rise (“devotees of the Blessed One”), a name of Navyanyaya school, which attempted that for the next thousand years is used to explain these relationships in a to refer to Vaishnavas in general. One more sophisticated way. For further particular subset of this early Bhagavata information see Karl H. Potter and community was known as the Sibajiban Bhattacharyya (ed.), Indian Pancharatrikas (“followers of the Philosophical Analysis, 1992; and Pancharatra”), who later evolved dis- Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles tinctive cosmological doctrines. These A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian mainstream Bhagavatas expressed their Philosophy, 1957. devotion to Krishna by composing texts, including parts of the Bhagavad Gita, the Harivamsha, and various puranas, Vaishnava culminating with the Bhagavata Name denoting a devotee (bhakta) of Purana in about the tenth century. the god Vishnu, in any of his myriad The tone of Vaishnava devotion took forms. Vaishnava theology is most a dramatic turn with the advent of the 731 Vaishnava

Alvars, a group of twelve devotional philosopher Vallabhacharya founding (bhakti) poet-saints who lived in south- the Pushti Marg, the Bengali saint ern India between the seventh and tenth Chaitanya founding the Gaudiya centuries. Singing their hymns in the Vaishnava community, and the poet- Tamil language, the vernacular tongue saint Harivamsh (d. 1552) founding the of their times, the Alvars propounded a Radhavallabh community. All these bhakti that was marked by passionate were based in the Braj region that is devotion to God and characterized by a Krishna’s mythic home, and all of them profound emotional attachment worshiped Krishna: The Pushti Marg between deity and devotee. Along with and the Gaudiya Vaishnavas considered their Shaiva counterparts, the him to be the supreme divinity, whereas Nayanars, the Alvars spearheaded the the Nimbarkis and the Radhavallabh revitalization of Hindu religion vis-à-vis community worshiped him in conjunc- the Buddhists and the Jains, and in the tion with his consort Radha, whom they process, transformed the tradition as the considered Krishna’s wife and equal. It is devotional wave they had begun moved also in northern India that the worship northward. The period between the of Rama has its deepest roots, as exem- twelfth and sixteenth centuries saw the plified in the songs of the poet-saint development of various Vaishnava com- Tulsidas (1532–1623?). Many of these munities, often stemming from a partic- schools with long histories are still vital ular charismatic religious figure. in modern times. This process began in southern The final Vaishnava community that India, where the philosopher Ramanuja must be addressed is comprised of (11th c.) founded the Shrivaishnava ascetics. Vaishnava asceticism is a more community, while the philosopher recent development than that of the Madhva (1197–1276) founded the com- Shaivas (though dates are uncertain), munity that bears his name. The next and it is largely located in the northern great center was in Maharashtra, par- part of India (the Shaivas are spread ticularly in the Varkari Panth, which throughout the country). Vaishnava was centered on the temple of Vithoba ascetics are known as Bairagis (“dispas- in Pandharpur; some of this commu- sionate”) and are primarily organized nity’s greatest figures were Jnaneshvar into four sampradays (religious sects (1275–1296?), Namdev (1270–1350), distinguished by unique bodies of Chokamela (d. 1338), Eknath (1533– teachings), each connected with a major 1599), and Tukaram (1598–1650). The Vaishnava figure. By far the most power- Maharashtra region also saw the rise of ful is the Shri Sampraday of the the Mahanubhav sect, from the thir- Ramanandi ascetics, which traces its teenth century. At Puri on India’s east- spiritual lineage through the poet-saint ern coast one finds the worship of Ramananda to the southern Indian Jagannath, a tribal deity assimilated philosopher Ramanuja, whom they into the pantheon as a form of claim was Ramananda’s guru. The Krishna. This was well established by Sanaka Sampraday of the Nimbarki the twelfth century, as the poet ascetics traces its spiritual lineage to the Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda clearly shows. philosopher Nimbarka. The Rudra Finally, in northern India one finds sev- Sampraday of the Vishnuswami ascetics eral vibrant religious groups. A very early traces its lineage through the philoso- figure is the twelfth-century philosopher pher Vallabhacharya to an earlier figure, Nimbarka, whose Nimbarki community Vishnuswami. Finally, the Brahma bears his name; several centuries later Sampraday, an ascetic subset of the came Vishnuswami, about whom little Gaudiya Vaishnava ascetics, traces its is known. The greatest explosion of spiritual line through the Bengali saint northern Indian devotionalism came Chaitanya to the southern Indian in the sixteenth century, with the philosopher Madhva. 732 Vaishya

Each of these sampradays is differen- name Vaishno is a derivation of Vishnu, tiated not only by its founder, but also by reflecting the claim that Vaishno Devi its tutelary deity or deities. The was born as a partial avatar of Vishnu. Ramanandis worship the god Rama, One sign of this connection is that whereas the others worship the god Vaishno Devi is a vegetarian goddess, for Krishna and his consort Radha, but dif- whom no animal sacrifices can be per- fer in the position that they give to formed. According to another story, Radha. Scholars have noted that these Vaishno Devi was the spot at which the historical claims are either highly sus- arms of the dismembered goddess Sati pect or completely spurious and that the fell to earth. Since this story is never fur- distinctions among the sampradays are ther connected to Vaishno Devi, this largely academic. Given that the over- seems a transparent attempt to tie into whelming majority of these ascetics are the network of the Shakti Pithas, a Ramanandis, the others seem important group of shrines sacred to the Goddess, only for symbolic reasons, to include a which stretch throughout the subconti- representative from each of the great nent. The longest version of the charter Vaishnava religious figures. myth reports that the cave is discovered by a brahmin named Shridhara. Shridhara, a great devotee of the Vaishno Devi Goddess (who tested him in various Presiding goddess of the Vaishno Devi ways), is disturbed by the fact that he shrine, located in a cave on Trikut has no children. The Goddess reveals mountain in the hills near Jammu, and the location of the Vaishno Devi cave to one of the nine Shiwalik goddesses. him in a dream. After an extensive Pilgrims to Vaishno Devi travel by road search he finally finds the cave and is via Jammu to the village of Katra, soon blessed with four sons, emphasiz- whence they walk the ten miles to the ing the claim that Vaishno Devi will shrine itself. As with many of the images grant the desires of her devotees, what- of the Shiwalik goddesses, the images at ever they may be. For further informa- Vaishno Devi are “self-manifested” tion see Kathleen Erndl, Victory to the (svayambhu), in the form of three stone Mother, 1993. See also pitha. outcrops. These outcrops are consid- ered to be , Mahalakshmi, and Mahasaraswati, the three forms Vaishya of the Goddess mentioned in the In the traditional Hindu social theory of Devimahatmya, the earliest and most the four major social groups (varnas), authoritative source for the mythology the vaishyas were the third group—less of the Goddess. The presence of all three influential than the brahmins and goddesses is believed to make this site kshatriyas, but with greater status than extremely powerful, and according to the shudras. In this model of society, popular belief, Vaishno Devi grants the vaishyas’ social function was eco- whatever request her devotees (bhakta) nomic activity, to provide the material make. According to some accounts, basis for social life. This image is those whose wishes are granted are reflected in the creation story known as highly advised to make a second trip, the Purusha Sukta, in which the both to thank the Goddess and to bear vaishyas are described as being created witness to her grace. The number of vis- from the Primeval Man’s (purusha’s) itors to the site has increased dramati- thighs—a standard euphemism for the cally in the recent past, perhaps genitals, and thus the most direct con- reflecting anxieties about modern nection with fruition and procreation. Indian life. In fact, the jatis (endogamous social There are several stories connected subgroups, often determined by hered- with Vaishno Devi’s charter myth. The itary occupation) considered to be 733 Vaitarani

vaishyas did all sorts of economic activ- Vajreshvari Devi ity, from farming to animal husbandry (“Goddess of the Thunderbolt”) to all sorts of trades and services. Presiding deity of the Vajreshvari temple in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, and the Vaitarani only one of the nine Shiwalik goddesses whose temple is in an urban center. In Hindu mythology, a river flowing Kangra has a long tradition as a center of through the underworld over which Goddess worship and may have been a souls must cross on the way to their site for practitioners of tantra, a secret, audience with the god Yama, the god of ritually based religious practice. The the dead. For righteous people the charter myth identifies Vajreshvari Devi crossing is fairly easy, and they are widely as one of the Shakti Pithas, a network of believed to get over by holding the tail sites sacred to the Goddess, which of a cow. For wicked people, on the spreads throughout the subcontinent. other hand, the Vaitarani is a river of Each Shakti Pitha marks the site where a pus, blood, spit, and other polluting body part of the dismembered goddess substances, in which various ferocious Sati fell to earth, taking form there as a beasts lie in wait. different goddess; in the case of Vajreshvari Devi the body part was Sati’s Vajapeya breast—certainly a highly charged part Along with the Rajasuya, one of the of the female body, thus making it a two most famous of the Vedic sacrifices. more attractive place for tantric practi- The Vajapeya sacrifice was essentially tioners. Another indication of her possi- intended to provide an established ble connection comes from her name, in king with continuing strength and which the image of the thunderbolt car- vitality, magically rejuvenating him ries associations with Buddhist tantric after a long reign and in the face of practice. For further information see advancing age. In ancient times the Kathleen Erndl, Victory to the Mother, rite was elaborate and entailed the 1993. See also pitha. sacrifice of animals; when it is performed in modern times it is performed in one day, and the animal Vajroli Mudra Yogic practice attributed to Nathpanthi sacrifice is symbolic. ascetics, as part of their effort to attain physical immortality through the prac- tice of hatha yoga. The dominant Name for the thunderbolt, conceived metaphor used in describing the as one of the divine weapons. It has process of gaining immortality in this two symmetrical sides, sometimes manner is the union of sun and moon, pointed, with a handle in the middle. in which the sun stands for the The vajra is an enormously important processes of change and destruction, symbol in Buddhism, particularly the and the moon for stability and immor- tantric forms (i.e., secret, ritually based tality. In some cases this union was religious practices) found in Tibet, but described in very abstract terms, as a it appears very seldom in Hindu process in the subtle body, at other iconography. It is attested to be an times in the most concrete possible attribute of certain forms of the gods fashion, for which the best example is Ganesh and Vishnu, but on the whole it vajroli mudra. This is urethral suction is not as important as some of the other or the “fountain-pen technique,” in symbols. See also tantra. which a man, having ejaculated into his female partner, draws his semen, now refined through contact with the woman’s uterine blood, back into his 734 Valmiki

body, along with a certain amount of companions during his daily activi- his partner’s blood. Despite some com- ties—waking, eating, taking the cows mentators’ discomfort and denials to graze, coming home, etc.—and thus (characteristic of most references to gain the opportunity to take part in the sexual activity as part of Hindu spiritu- divine play (lila). This emphasis on al practice), vajroli mudra is consistent- visualization and participation was ly named as one of the Nathpanthi fostered through the development of practices. For further information see vast liturgical resources, which were George W. Briggs, Gorakhnath and the composed by eight poets (the ash- Kanphata Yogis, 1982. tachap) who were associated with Vallabhacharya and Vitthalnath, his son and successor. For further informa- Vakataka Dynasty tion see R.K. Barz, The Bhakti Sect of (4th–6th c.) Central Indian dynasty Vallabhacarya, 1976. whose ancestral homeland was in the center of modern India. The Vakataka zenith came between the fourth and Vallabhite sixth centuries, during which their sway Popular name for the followers of extended through most of the Deccan Vallabhacharya. As the suffix clearly plateau. At the turn of the fifth century, shows, this term is one term formed by the Vakataka king Rudrasena II married non-Hindus that was used to describe a Prabhavati Gupta, creating a marriage particular Hindu group. In earlier times alliance with the northern Indian Gupta it was used by British government offi- dynasty that gave the two dynasties cials, but today it is used mainly by sway over much of India. Prabhavati scholars, usually foreigners. Vallabha’s Gupta ruled as regent following own followers would be far more likely Rudrasena’s untimely death, during to describe themselves as belonging to which the Vakataka kingdom was a vir- the Pushti Marg. tual part of the , but in the time after that the Vakatakas regained greater autonomy. Valli In the mythology of southern India, the god Skanda (in his southern Indian Vallabhacharya form as Murugan) becomes enamored (1479–1531) Philosopher, teacher, and of and marries Valli, a young girl from a founder of the religious community group of tribal hunters. The marriage known as the Pushti Marg. Vallabha- takes place despite his earlier marriage charya propounded a philosophical to the goddess Devasena, who has been position called Shuddadvaita (“pure given to him by Indra and the estab- non-dualism”), in which the Ultimate lished Hindu gods. Murugan’s marriage Reality was conceived as personalized, with Valli is a sign of his connection with in the form of Krishna, rather than the the land and probably reflects his earlier impersonal Brahman propounded by past as a tribal deity. The marriage is the Advaita Vedanta school. Since described as taking place at Tiruttani in Vallabhacharya had personalized his Tamil Nadu, but he is also described as conception of the Supreme Reality, the settling at Kataragama in Sri Lanka. supreme religious goal was conceived in terms of relationship with that divine person. This stress on devotion was Valmiki soon articulated in elaborately arranged In Hindu mythology, a sage who is forms of image worship in the Pushti regarded as the first poet, and who is tra- Marg’s temples. The devotees (bhakta) ditionally cited as the author of the would visualize themselves as Krishna’s Ramayana, the earlier of the two great Sanskrit epics. According to legend, 735 Valmiki Jayanti

composed. After this first verse composition, the god Brahma appears, and at Brahma’s encouragement Valmiki composes the Ramayana.

Valmiki Jayanti Festival celebrated on the full moon in the lunar month of Ashvin (September–October). This day is con- sidered to be the birthday of the poet Valmiki, who according to tradition is the author of the Ramayana, the earlier of the two Sanskrit epics.

Vamachara (“left-hand practice”) In the secret, ritu- ally based religious practice known as tantra, this term denotes a type of The god Vishnu’s Vamana avatar, a dwarf. tantric practice that makes ritual use of Vishnu takes this form to release the universe forbidden substances, such as the Five from the control of the demon Bali. Forbidden Things (panchamakara), or Valmiki is a bandit in his early life. One promotes behavior that the orthodox day, one of his victims asks him would consider scandalous or objec- whether his family will also share the tionable. When seen in a tantric context, sins he is committing, and when the use of such normally forbidden sub- Valmiki finds out that they will not, he stances is not mere license, but a power- has a change of heart. He sits down in a ful ritual tool. One of the most pervasive secluded place and begins to do japa tantric assumptions is the ultimate (recitation), but his heart is so black- unity of everything that exists. From a ened by his sins that the only words he tantric perspective, to affirm that the can say are “ mara” (“death, entire universe is one principle—often, death”). After a long time the syllables conceived as the activity of a particular become reversed, and by reciting deity—means that the adept must reject “Rama Rama” he expiates his former all concepts based on dualistic thinking. sins. This recitation is so long that a The “Five Forbidden Things” provide a colony of white ants (in Sanskrit, ritual means for breaking down duality named “valmika”) builds a hill over because in this ritual the adept breaks him, and when he emerges from this he societal norms forbidding consumption is given the name Valmiki. of intoxicants, nonvegetarian food, and After his emergence, Valmiki builds illicit sexuality, in a conscious effort to an ashram on the banks of the Tamasa sacralize what is normally forbidden. River and lives a quiet life. He gives shel- Within the tantric tradition itself there is ter to Sita after she has been exiled from a long-standing debate about the pro- Ayodhya by her husband, Rama, and priety of such acts, and whereas the also cares for her sons, Lava and Kusha. vamachara practice uses these elements One day when Valmiki is walking by the in their actual forms, in the dakshi- Tamasa River, he sees a hunter shoot a nachara (“right-hand”) practice, other pair of courting Krauncha birds, and in items are substituted for the forbidden his intense anger, his rebuke to the ones. This distinction between “right” hunter comes out in verse; according and “left” hand also reveals the perva- to legend, this is the first poem ever sive polarity between right and left in 736 Vana Dashanami

Indian culture, with the former being and material wealth, and asks only for deemed better. three paces worth of land to set up his own sacrificial altar. Bali is amused by the request and grants it flippantly Vamakhepa despite the warnings of Shukra, his reli- (1843–1911) Ascetic devotee (bhakta) of gious preceptor (guru), that he should the Goddess in her fierce and powerful not do this. form as Tara; his presence and supposed As soon as Bali pours water on miraculous powers are largely responsi- Vamana’s hand, marking that the gift has ble for the importance of Tarapith as an been given irrevocably, Vamana suddenly important regional sacred site (tirtha) in begins to grow. He grows so large that he West Bengal. From his earliest child- takes up all the space in the cosmos and hood, Vamakhepa was occupied with then begins to take his three steps. With thoughts of the Goddess, and from an his first step he traverses the earth, early age he took up residence in the with his second the heavens, and with cremation ground at Tarapith, where he his third step there is nowhere else to undertook the worship of Tara. Various go. Bali realizes that he has been stories describe his power to heal people defeated, and as a gesture of submis- of all sorts of ailments, as well as his sion indicates that Vishnu’s third step complete disregard for all accepted should fall on his head. Vishnu’s third standards—according to tradition, he step pushes Bali down into the nether- once urinated on the temple’s image of world, where he still remains as the Tara, to show his contempt for a deity ruler. As for many of the other avatars, made of iron, and was struck in punish- Bali’s fate gives an important lesson: ment by the Goddess. Vishnu’s purpose is not to destroy him, but to restore the cosmic balance that Vamana Avatar has been lost through one being gaining Fifth avatar of Vishnu, this one in the disproportionate or inappropriate power. form of a dwarf (“vamana”). As with all Through his submission to Vishnu, Bali of Vishnu’s avatars, the Vamana avatar remains a powerful being, but on a comes into being in a time of crisis and diminished scale. serves to restore the cosmic balance The motif of measuring out the uni- that has been thrown out of equilibri- verse in three steps is part of the oldest um. In this case the source of trouble stratum of Vishnu’s mythology. In one of stems from a demon (asura) named the few hymns to Vishnu in the Rg Veda Bali, who has grown so powerful that (1.154), the oldest Hindu religious text, he is able to rule the entire universe, he is described as a protective and doing as he wishes. As in many other benevolent deity, who with three steps cases, Vishnu is able to counter and defines the boundaries of the universe. conquer this disruptive force through This manifestation of Vishnu is named cunning and trickery, rather than simple Trivikrama (“[taking] three steps”); it overt power. seems likely that the motif from this The mythic tale describes how Bali is hymn was grafted onto the Vamana sponsoring a great sacrifice, to which all story as part of the process of assimila- the gods and sages have come. Vishnu tion into the pantheon. comes in the form of a dwarf, disguised as a mendicant brahmin. Bali gives Vana Dashanami many rich gifts to those attending, as One of the ten divisions of the part of the gift-giving (dana) associated Dashanami Sanyasis, renunciant with sacrifice, and he offers to give ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of Vamana anything that he asks for. Shiva. The Dashanamis were suppos- Vamana refuses the offer of riches, land, edly established by the ninth-century 737 Vanamalin

Varanasi ghats with pilgrims bathing in the Ganges. philosopher, Shankaracharya, in an Vanamalin effort to create a corps of learned men (“wearing a garland of forest flowers”) who could help revitalize Hindu life. Epithet of the god Krishna. See Krishna. Each of the divisions is designated by a different name—in this case, vana (“for- est”). Upon initiation, new members Vanaprastha are given this name as a surname to (“forest-dweller”) According to the their new ascetic names, thus allowing dharma literature, the vanaprastha was for immediate group identification. the third of the idealized stages of life Aside from their individual identities, (ashrama) for a twice-born man, that is, these ten “named” divisions are divid- a man born into the brahmin, ksha- ed into four larger organizational triya, or vaishya communities, who had groups. Each group has its headquar- undergone the adolescent religious ini- ters in one of the four monastic centers tiation known as the “second birth.” (maths) supposedly established by According to this idealized pattern, after Shankaracharya, as well as other par- engaging in religious learning as a celi- ticular religious associations. The Vana bate student (brahmacharin), the first Dashanamis belong to the Bhogawara stage; marrying and raising a family as a group, which is affiliated with the householder (grhastha), the second Govardhan Math in the city of Puri, on stage; a man should, in the third, gradu- the bay of Bengal. ally disengage himself from the world by giving up his attachments and with- drawing to a more secluded place. The renunciation in this third stage of life is 738 Varkari

less severe than the last stage, the conceived as the area between the Sanyasi—the texts are very clear that he Varana and the Asi rivers—the traditional should remain with his wife and that he boundaries of the city of Benares—but should continue to perform the pre- Varanasi’s boundaries do not stretch scribed daily domestic sacrifices. inland as far as those of Kashi. Although in contemporary times it is fairly common for older people to live a more retired life, bequeathing the bulk Varkari of the family affairs to their children, few Religious community of devotees people live by the strict prescriptions for (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, in his man- the vanaprastha. The prescription for ifestation as Vithoba. Varkari worship this third stage of life is generally con- has centered on Vithoba’s temple at sidered to be a reaction to the growth of Pandharpur in the southern part of the asceticism in the centuries before the state of Maharashtra. The community’s turn of the common era, particularly the history begins with a series of extraordi- monastic asceticism of the Buddhists nary devotional (bhakti) poet-saints, and Jains, which they claimed was reli- dating from the twelfth to the seven- giously superior to the life of a house- teenth century: Jnaneshvar, Namdev, holder. The vanaprastha is a transitional Eknath, Tukaram, Chokamela, Gora, stage that paves the way for an ascetic Janabai, Bahina Bai, and many others. life, but it is set in one’s old age and thus One of the ways that these saints allows for the fulfilling of one’s duties to expressed their devotion was in pilgrim- family and society. age to Pandharpur, and this pilgrimage is still the major ritual act in the Varkari community. Twice a year Varkaris come Varada Hasta on pilgrimage to Pandharpur and time In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, a their travel so that all the pilgrims arrive particular hand gesture (hasta), in on the same day—the eleventh day which the left hand is held with the fin- (ekadashi) in the bright half of Ashadh gers pointing downward and the palm (June–July) in the summer, and the exposed to the viewer, with the fingers eleventh day in the bright half of either fully extended or slightly curled. Kartik (October–November) in the fall. The word varada means “boon-grant- Individual pilgrims travel in small ing,” and the gesture is meant to indi- groups called dindis, often made up of cate beneficence and generosity. people from the same neighborhood or locality. The dindis are organized into larger groups known as palkhis, each of Avatar which is associated with one of the The third avatar or incarnation of the Varkari poet-saints and is led by a god Vishnu, in the form of a boar. See palanquin (palkhi, an enclosed single- Boar avatar. person litter borne on the shoulders of bearers by means of poles) bearing the Varanasi sandals of that saint. Each palkhi Traditional name for the sacred city of departs from a place associated with its Benares. The name Varanasi may be particular saint—for example, the generally used to denote the whole city, palkhi of Jnaneshvar leaves from the but in a more specific context this refers town of Alandi in which he lived—and to one of the concentric sacred zones thus he and all the other saints are still surrounding the Vishvanath temple, the symbolically journeying to Pandharpur city’s ritual center. The smallest of these twice a year. During their journey pil- zones is called Avimukta, the second is grims sing the devotional songs com- Varanasi, and the largest is named posed by these poet-saints. In this way, Kashi. The sacred zone of Varanasi is the pilgrims are emulating the saints 739 Varna

Child celebrating . before them, both by treading in their known the Purusha Sukta. The Purusha physical footsteps and by singing their Sukta describes the creation of the world songs of devotion. Although the pil- and of society as stemming from the grimage concludes with the entry to sacrifice of the Primeval Man Pandharpur and the worship of (purusha), with the brahmins coming Vithoba, the most important part is the from his mouth, the kshatriyas from his journey itself. For more information shoulders, the vaishyas from his thighs see G. A. Deleury, The Cult of Vithoba, (a common euphemism for the geni- 1960; I. B. Karve, “On the Road,” in the tals), and the shudras from his feet. Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1, This four-fold scheme is conceptually 1962; and Digambar Balkrishna Mokashi, neat, but the real picture was far more Palkhi, 1987. complex. For one thing, none of these four varnas was as uniform as this scheme might lead one to suppose: Varna Each of the varnas had multiple occupa- (“color”) Theoretical system dividing tionally defined subcommunities Indian society into four major groups, known as jatis, which often competed each with a differing occupation and for status with one another, even though status: brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, they may have been members of the and shudra. The highest status was held same varna. The other discrepancy was by the brahmins, who were priests and that local circumstances had a great scholars, next came the kshatriyas, who effect on any particular community’s were kings and soldiers, then the social status. As one example, the vaishyas, whose purview was economic Vellala community in Tamil Nadu had a life, and finally the shudras, who were great deal of status and power, even supposed to serve the others. This pic- though they were technically shudras, ture is articulated as early as the Vedas, because they were a landholding com- the oldest Hindu religious texts, in par- munity. On the opposite end, it is not ticular by a hymn in the Rg Veda (10.90) uncommon for brahmins in northern 740 Vasant Panchami

India to earn their living by trading human beings and punishes them for or other businesses. This four-fold any transgressions. The best known varna plan does give the general status hymn to Varuna, Rg Veda 7.86, shows picture, but the specifics are much Varuna’s connection with justice, moral more detailed. order, and the waters. The hymn is the lament of a person who has committed some offense against Varuna and whose Varnashrama Dharma sin has become visible through being In the dharma literature, varnashrama afflicted with dropsy, in which the body dharma is the ordering of dharma or retains its fluids and swells. The speaker religious duty based on the hierarchical begs Varuna to reveal the forbidden act, social ordering of the four major social “committed under the influence of groups (varnas) and the four successive liquor, anger, or heedlessness,” so that stages of life (ashramas). According to Varuna may be propitiated and the suf- this theory, all people would be able to ferer healed. discern their social status and appropri- Despite his virtual eclipse early in the ate function based on their social class tradition, in the later tradition, Varuna and stage of life. The interrelationship retains his association as the god presid- between these two sets of categories is ing over the waters. He is also consid- often used to denote traditional Hindu ered to be one of the eight Guardians of society, in theory if not always in fact. the Directions, each of which is associ- The term survives in modern times, ated with one of eight points on the but because the doctrine of the compass. Varuna presides over the west- ashramas is now largely ignored, those ern direction. who uphold varnashrama dharma are primarily defending the hierarchical social divisions commonly known as the Vasant Panchami caste system. Festival falling on the fifth day (panchami) of the bright (waxing) half of the lunar month of Magh Varuna (January–February), celebrated as the In the Vedas, the oldest and most first day of spring (vasant). This day is authoritative religious texts, Varuna is considered sacred to the goddess a deity associated with the sky, with Saraswati, patron deity of the arts, waters, with justice, and with truth. music, and learning. In her honor, cele- Varuna belongs to the earliest layer of brants sing songs in melodic modes the Indo- deities; this is clearly (ragas) associated with spring. Given shown by comparisons with the Saraswati’s connection with learning, Avesta, an ancient Iranian sacred text this is also traditionally reckoned as the that shows many parallels with the day on which young children should Vedas, and with even older epigraphic begin their studies. sources. As portrayed in the Vedas, how- Vasant Panchami is also associated ever, Varuna’s influence has clearly with Kama, the god of love, since the declined—there are far fewer hymns coming of spring brings the reappear- addressed to him than to deities such as ance of flowering plants, with their Indra, Agni, and Soma, and he seems to scents and colors. This is supposedly have played a far less important role the day that Kama attempts to instill than these other deities in Vedic religion. erotic desire in the god Shiva’s heart, In the Vedas, Varuna is portrayed as first by bringing spring to Mount the guardian of rta, the cosmic order Kailas, where Shiva is meditating, and through which the world proceeds. As then shooting Shiva with one of his the deity associated with the high heaven, flower arrows. Shiva awakens from his he also watches over the deeds of meditation, becomes angry at Kama, 741 Vashitvam

and reduces him to ashes with a burst force, but his minions are defeated by of flame from his third eye. Despite the magic powers generated by being destroyed, in the end Kama is Vasishtha’s tapas (ascetic practices). successful—after being awakened, Vishvamitra finally admits defeat and Shiva becomes aware of Parvati’s begins to do ascetic practices to gen- ascetic practice and eventually becomes erate power of his own. Two of their her husband. most celebrated clashes are over King Trishanku and his son, Harishchandra; in each case the real issue is the mutual Vashitvam antipathy of these two sages. See also (“control”) One of the eight superhuman marriage prohibitions. powers (siddhi) traditionally believed to be conferred by high spiritual attain- ment. This particular power gives one Vastra the ability to control others, while (“clothing”) The seventh of the sixteen remaining free from outside control. traditional upacharas (“offerings”) given to a deity as part of worship, on the model of treating the deity as an Vasishtha honored guest. In this offering, the deity In Hindu mythology, one of the Seven is offered clothing, either through sym- Sages whose names mark exogamous bolic presentation or through physically clan “lineages” (gotra; in exogamous dressing the image. The underlying groups members must marry outside motive here, as for all the upacharas, is the group); the others are Gautama, to show one’s love for the deity and min- , Kashyapa, Bhrgu, Atri, and ister to the deity’s needs. Vishvamitra. All brahmins are believed to be descended from these seven sages, with each family taking the name of its Vastradhari progenitor as its gotra name. In modern (“wearing the clothes”) Name for a times, these gotra divisions are still newly initiated Sanyasi ascetic, one who important, since marriage within the has put on the ascetic robes, but still has gotra is forbidden. After her marriage, to undergo a period of training as a dis- the new bride adopts her husband’s ciple to his guru. gotra as part of her new identity. In the Ramayana, the earlier of the two great Hindu epics, Vasishtha is a very powerful sage who is the guru to The god Krishna’s father. His most the kings of the , including important role in Krishna’s mythology King Dasharatha and his son, Rama. comes on the night of Krishna’s birth, Vasishtha is also famous for his long- when Vasudeva is able to spirit standing feud with the sage the infant Krishna out of prison, his Vishvamitra, which causes numerous birthplace, to the home of his foster confrontations. The feud’s genesis is parents, Nanda and Yashoda. Vasudeva ultimately rooted in the difference in returns that night, bearing Yashoda’s status between kshatriyas and brah- newborn girl, who is really the mins. Vishvamitra is a king who stops goddess Bhadrakali in disguise. The with a host of retainers at the forest next morning Kamsa kills the child ashram of the brahmin Vasishtha. Upon by dashing it against a stone, but asking for food, Vishvamitra is amazed from the body arises the goddess, who at the ability of Vasishtha’s cow, the taunts Kamsa that the person who will , to provide food for every- slay him has escaped. one. Vishvamitra first tries to buy the Kamadhenu, then tries to take it by

742 Vatsyayana

Vasudeva growing emotional intensity, from the (2)(“son of Vasudeva”) Epithet of the god peaceful (shanta) sense that comes Krishna, a patronymic formed from the from realizing one’s complete identity name of his father, Vasudeva, by length- with Brahman or Supreme Reality, to ening the initial vowel. See Krishna. conceiving of God as one’s master, friend, child, or lover. In the Vatsalya mode of devotion, devotees consider Vasuki themselves as God’s parents, lavishing In Hindu mythology, a famous Naga love and care on the deity as a cow cares (mythical serpent). Vasuki’s most famous for her calf. This is an emotionally mythic role comes in the story in which intense mode of relationship, but with- the gods and demons churn the Ocean out the erotic element present in the of Milk to obtain the nectar of immortal- fifth mode, madhurya bhava. ity (amrta). In the form of his Tortoise avatar, the god Vishnu serves as the churning-base, Mount Mandara serves Vatsyayana as the churning-stick, and Vasuki, with According to tradition, the author of the his enormous length, as the churning- Kama Sutra. This text is usually associ- rope. With the gods on one side and the ated with an exhaustive catalog of sexu- demons on the other, they pull Vasuki al positions and pleasures, which it back and forth until the sea of milk gives certainly contains, but in fact, the text up its treasures. goes far beyond this. Vatsyayana was interested in exploring desire in all its manifestations, and the text begins with Vata a consideration of the four aims of life (“air”) Along with pitta (“bile”) and (purushartha): worldly goods (artha), kapha (“phlegm”), one of the three desire (kama), religious duty (dharma), humors (tridosha) in ayurveda, the tra- and liberation of the soul (moksha). ditional system of Indian medicine. Vatsyayana argued that because desire Every person has all three of these was one of the established ends of humors, but usually one is predomi- human life, its pursuit was thus a good nant, and this marks a person in certain thing, as long as this pursuit did not ways, particularly with regard to health, interfere with the other ends. digestion, and metabolism. Vata is asso- Having established the legitimacy of ciated with the element of air, which is desire, Vatsyayana then talks about how quick, light, and dry. People whose pre- to foster it. The Kama Sutra’s second dominant humor is vata are said to have book contains the text’s best-known quick minds, light bodies, and tend to material, the discussion and categoriza- always be doing something. At the same tion of various types of sexual union. It time, they lack substantiality and can begins by characterizing various types run down easily if not careful. of sexual endowment, both male and female, then proceeds to describe differ- ent sorts of embracing, kissing, scratch- Vatsalya (“calf-like”) Bhava ing, and biting as symbols of passion, The fourth of the five modes of devotion sexual positions, and oral sex. This is to God that were most prominently followed by chapters on gaining a wife, articulated by Rupa Goswami, a devotee attracting other men’s wives (which (bhakta) of the god Krishna and a fol- the text discourages, except in cases lower of the Bengali saint Chaitanya. where one’s passion is “too strong”), Rupa used differing types of human courtesans, and general remarks relationships as models for differing on attraction. The text is thus a manual conceptions of the link between deity for all phases of erotic life, in which and devotee. These five models showed sex can be refined into a vehicle for 743 Vatsyayana

aesthetic experience, as well as pure Veda carnal pleasure. (“knowledge”) The oldest and most authoritative group of Hindu sacred Vatsyayana texts, also designated by the term shruti (“heard”). According to tradition, these (2) (4th c.) Writer and commentator in texts were not composed by human the Nyaya school, one of the six beings, but are based in the primordial schools of traditional Hindu philoso- vibrations of the cosmos itself. The phy, which since early in the common ancient sages, whose faculties of per- era has been combined with another of ception had been honed through ardu- the six schools, the Vaisheshikas. ous religious practice, were able to Vatsyayana is best known for his “hear” and understand these vibrations, commentary on Gautama’s Nyaya and transmitted them to others in a lin- Sutras, themselves the foundational eage of learning. On one level, the term text for the Nyaya school. veda is part of the names of four individ- ual texts—the Rg Veda, Sama Veda, Vayu Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda, each of In Hindu mythology, the deity who is which has a differing focus and content. wind personified. Vayu is a minor deity The term veda is also a collective term who is one of the eight Guardians of the for the material in these texts or their Directions; his direction is the north- associated appendices: the Vedic hymns west. Aside from being the external (samhitas), the Brahmanas, the winds, Vayu is also believed to be pre- Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. sent inside the body, in the five “vital Although these four groups of texts are winds” (prana) through which all phys- all considered part of the Vedas, they iological processes are believed to occur. have very different forms and character- Although Vayu is a minor deity, two of istics. The samhitas are hymns of praise his sons are extremely significant. His addressed to particular deities, and are son, Bhima, is one of the five Pandava found mainly in the Rg Veda and the brothers who are the protagonists in the Sama Veda. In contrast, the Brahmanas Mahabharata, the later of the two great are detailed ritual manuals, giving the Sanskrit epics. Bhima is famous for his instructions for performing complex size and strength, and also for his earthy sacrificial rites; the Aranyakas and the appetites, both of which reflect the Upanishads are speculative ponderings wind’s raw, uncontrollable nature. Vayu’s on the nature of the cosmos. The Vedas other famous son is the monkey-god, were considered so sacred that for 3,000 Hanuman. Even though mythically years they were not written down, but Hanuman is most famous for his devo- transmitted orally, a mode of transmis- tion and service to the god Rama, in sion that still persists today. The Vedas’ practical terms he is one of the most power comes not from their literal popular and widely worshiped deities in meaning, but from their very sound, northern India. This popularity may which is the identical sound heard by stem from his intermediate status; the sages long ago. To safeguard this tra- because Hanuman is also a servant, he dition, Hindus developed an elaborate is less remote and majestic than Rama system of mnemonics to ensure that the and, therefore, accessible to human texts would not be altered or corrupted, petitions. Another important factor is thus preserving their efficacy. that this accessibility is coupled with power and the ability to protect those who call on him. (“[subsidiary] member of the Veda”) General name for six classes of works considered auxiliary to the Vedas 744

because they were intended to facilitate namely the god Vishnu. The two other its use. These six were guides to proper major schools are the Vishishthadvaita articulation and pronunciation (shik- vedanta (“qualified nondualism”) pro- sha), metrical forms (chandas), pounded by Ramanuja and the Dvaita Sanskrit grammar (vyakarana), etymo- Vedanta (“dualist”) propounded by logical explanations of archaic words Madhva. The major differences between (nirukta), determining astrologically these two schools stem from assump- appropriate times for sacrifice tions about connections between God, (jyotisha), and ritual and ceremonial human souls, and the world. Ramanuja guides (kalpa). tends to see these in a continuum, with the world and human souls sharing in the divine nature, whereas Madhva Vedanta stresses the great gulf between God and The latest of the six schools in traditional all other things. Another minor school is Hindu philosophy. The name Vedanta the dvaitadvaita vedanta (“dualism and literally means “the end of the Vedas,” nondualism”) of Nimbarka, which and reflects their contention that they strives to find some middle ground were revealing the ultimate meaning of between Advaita Vedanta’s monism, and these sacred texts. Vedanta proponents Dvaita Vedanta’s dualism. Nimbarka gave particular attention to the stressed that the world and souls were Upanishads, which were also the latest dependent on God, in whom they exist, stratum of Vedic texts, and thus their and with whom they had a subtle con- “end” in a different sense. These texts nection. Even from their names, it is have served as authoritative sources for obvious that there are significant differ- several major schools, with widely dif- ences between these positions. fering philosophical positions. The best known and most important of these is the Advaita Vedanta school, propounded Vedanta Deshika by the philosopher Shankaracharya (13th c.) Writer and commentator in the and his followers. The Advaita school Vishishthadvaita Vedanta philosophi- upholds a philosophical position known cal school. Vedanta Deshika was a fol- as monism, which is the belief in a single lower of Ramanuja and interpreted impersonal Ultimate Reality that they Ramanuja as teaching that there were call Brahman. For Advaita proponents, two sorts of liberation: a lower one in reality is thus “nondual” (advaita)—that which one was subject to no outside is, all things are nothing but the forces, and a higher one in which one’s formless, unqualified Brahman, despite entire being was focused on the Lord, the appearance of difference and whom Ramanuja identified as the god diversity. For the Advaitins, this assump- Vishnu. The human being is considered tion of diversity is a fundamental both identical to and different from the misunderstanding of the ultimate Lord, which means the perfect identity nature of things and a manifestation of is never possible; God’s transcendence avidya. Although often translated as leads to the exaltation of devotion “ignorance,” avidya is better understood (bhakti) and the stress on submission to as the lack of genuine understanding, God’s grace. which causes human beings to be trapped in karmic bondage, reincarna- tion (samsara), and suffering. Vedanta Society Whereas the Advaita school conceives The oldest Hindu missionary organiza- of this Ultimate Reality in abstract imper- tion in America, established in 1897 by sonal terms, the other Vedanta schools Swami Vivekananda. The society stresses are theistic—that is, they conceive the the philosophical teachings of Vedanta, Ultimate Reality as a personal God, which it understands as referring solely 745 Vedanta Sutras

to the Advaita Vedanta school, strict brahmin practice; even people Vivekananda’s major emphasis. The who are nonvegetarian themselves will society’s tone has been nontheistic, commonly think of a vegetarian diet as nonritual, and rationalist; its con- “purer.” Strict vegetarians eat no flesh or stituency has been drawn from liberals eggs, but milk and milk products are and intellectuals, such as the writer always eaten and are considered pure Aldous Huxley. and health-giving, probably because they come from the cow. Those people who keep the strictest diets will also Vedanta Sutras often refrain from onions and garlic, Text ascribed to the sage in which are considered to excite the pas- the third to fifth century B.C.E. Along sions. This religious commitment to with the Upanishads and the Bhagavad vegetarianism by a certain part of the Gita, the Vedanta Sutras is one of the population, and the general status given three traditional sources for the Vedanta to “pure” vegetarian food, are both school, one of the six schools of responsible for the great variety of vege- traditional Hindu philosophy. The text tarian cooking found in Indian culture. itself is a collection of 555 brief apho- Despite the higher status given to a veg- risms (sutras), which are so terse that etarian diet, most modern Hindus are they presuppose a commentary. The not vegetarian—a recent poll of urban sutras focus particularly on the ideas Hindus found that only about 25 per- about Brahman, hence their other cent were pure vegetarian, although the common name, the Brahma Sutra. In number may be higher in villages, which content, the first section describes the tend to be more traditional. nature of Absolute Reality, the second responds to objections and criticizes other positions, the third details Vellala the means to acquire knowledge, and The landlord community throughout the fourth describes the benefits of much of traditional Tamil Nadu. such knowledge. Although technically the Vellalas were of shudra status, their control over the land gave them considerable influence Vedarambha (“beginning of Veda and prestige in the region. The Vellala [study]”) Samskara community was the source for many of Traditionally, the twelfth of the life- the Alvars, a group of twelve poet-saints cycle ceremonies (samskaras). In this whose stress on passionate devotion ceremony, a newly initiated brah- (bhakti) to the god Vishnu transformed macharin—a young man who had and revitalized Hindu religious life. Most entered the celibate student phase of of the Alvars’ influence undoubtedly life—would commence to study the stemmed from the strength of their reli- Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts. gious devotion, but this was undoubtedly This rite is not mentioned in the earliest reinforced by Vellala status as a land- texts in the dharma literature, perhaps holding community. under the assumption that Veda study would commence at an appropriate time, after learning had commenced Velur with the earlier vidyarambha samskara. Village in the Aurangabad district of the state of Maharashtra, a few miles from the cave temples at Ellora. Velur is Vegetarianism famous as the site for the temple to the A dietary practice that carries extremely god Shiva in his form as Ghrneshvar, high status among Hindu people, prob- the “Lord of Compassion.” Shiva is pre- ably because of its associations with sent at this temple in the form of a linga,

746 Veshara

the pillar-shaped image that is his India. People come to Tirupati from all symbolic form, and the Ghrneshvar over the country, largely because of the linga is one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a popular belief that any wish made in the network of sites deemed especially deity’s presence will invariably be granted. sacred to Shiva, and at which Shiva is Aside from significant monetary uniquely present. offerings, it is also very common for pil- grims to have their heads shaved, as a sign of their visit and to make an offer- Vena ing of the hair, as well. In the time since In Hindu mythology, a wicked king independence the temple’s wealth has who prohibits all religious rites and gift- been administered by a trust, which has giving except those dedicated to him. He been particularly attentive in fostering is finally killed by a group of outraged publishing, educational institutions, sages, who through their magic powers and in helping to build Hindu temples transform blades of sacred kusha grass outside India. into spears. After Vena has been killed, the problem of the royal succession arises. The sages first churn from his thigh a Venu small, malformed, dark-skinned man (“bamboo”) A bamboo flute, which is named Nishada, who is believed to be an important instrument in Indian the ancestor of the tribal people known classical music. In Hindu iconography, as the Nishadas. Nishada takes upon it is the characteristic instrument of himself all Vena’s manifold sins, thus the god Krishna, who used its sweet purging them from Vena. After Vena has sounds to summon his devotees been cleansed, the sages churn his right (bhakta) to him, to spend their hand, from which emerges a radiant and nights dancing on the shores of the shining boy, who is King Prthu. Yamuna River.

Venkateshvara Venus (“the Lord of Venkata [Hill]”) Presiding In Hindu astrology (jyotisha), a planet deity of the Venkateshvara temple near associated with love and pleasure. It is the town of Tirupati in the state of considered a strong planet, with pro- Andhra Pradesh; the temple is north nounced benevolent qualities, although and east of Madras. Venkateshvara is a like all the other planets, its powers will local deity who has been assimilated vary according to context. Venus pre- into the larger pantheon as a form of the sides over Friday, and its positive quali- god Vishnu. The temple is in the ties make this an auspicious day. Tirumalai hills, a cluster of seven hills believed to represent the seven cobra hoods of Shesha, the mythic serpent Veshara who serves as Vishnu’s couch. One of the three developed styles in Venkateshvara’s image is unusual, in medieval Hindu temple architecture, that his forehead is covered with a plate. the others being the Nagara and the The two branches of the Shrivaishnava Dravida. The Veshara style is primarily community, the Tengalais and the found in western India and the Deccan Vadagalais, each wear distinctive sec- and was the least significant and wide- tarian markings, and this plate conceals spread of the three styles. Whereas the these markings on the image and thus Nagara style was characterized by verti- allows both communities to claim him cal uplift achieved by a temple’s towers as their own. (shikharas), and the Dravida style by Venkateshvara is also famous for lower temples covering enormous tracts having the single richest temple in of ground, the Veshara style’s most iden- tifiable feature is a barrel roof above the 747

that he remain righteous in times of danger, and this quality marks his life. When Ravana holds a council of war preceding the battle with Rama’s army, Vibhishana is the only one to vote against battle and instead advises Ravana to return Rama’s kidnapped wife, Sita, and to beg Rama’s pardon. For these words, Ravana expells his brother from the city, and Vibhishana goes over to Rama’s army, where he fights valiantly throughout the war. After the death of Ravana, Rama crowns Vibhishana the king of Lanka, as a reward for his fidelity and his virtue. Vibhishana is a perfect example of the fact that demons (in this case the type of demons known as rak- shasas) are not inherently evil in Indian mythology. They are powerful beings who may clash with gods and A pilgrim in Benares wears vibhuti markings, men, but they have many virtues as which consist of three horizontal lines and identify him as a devotee of the god Shiva. well. In the Ramcharitmanas, the ver- nacular retelling of the Ramayana sanctuary, which has its roots in the written by the poet-saint Tulsidas rock-cut caves (chaityas) first sculpted (1532–1623?), Vibhishana is portrayed by the Buddhists. This sort of roof is as a great devotee (bhakta) of Rama, in midway between the Nagara towers and keeping with the emphasis of Tulsidas the Dravida horizontal tiers, just as the on the primacy of devotion over all Deccan was the intermediate region other forms of religious life. between the two. Vibhuti Vetala (“power”) Name for the sacred ash with In Hindu mythology, one of the classes which devotees (bhakta) of the god of malevolent spirits that can be sub- Shiva mark their bodies, usually with sumed under the general rubric of three horizontal lines (tripundra). demons. are usually described as According to one interpretation, the eating human flesh and are sometimes three lines represent the three prongs of said to haunt battlefields to get their fill. Shiva’s trident, according to another, they symbolize Shiva’s third eye. Ash is Vibhishana associated with Shiva in several different In the Ramayana, the earlier of the contexts. On one hand, he is said to two great Indian epics, Vibhishana is smear his body with ashes from the cre- the youngest brother of Ravana, the mation ground, which indicates his lack demon king of Lanka. In their youth of concern for all conventional distinc- Vibhishana, Ravana, and their third tions between purity and impurity brother, Kumbhakarna, have per- (ashaucha); the ash could also symbol- formed harsh physical asceticism ize Shiva’s destruction of Kama, the god (tapas) to gain boons from the gods. of love, who is burned to ash by Shiva’s Whereas his brothers have chosen third eye. In earlier times vibhuti was boons designed to advance their mili- made from wood ash that had been sifted tary ability and glory, Vibhishana asks through cloth until it was as fine as 748 Vidyadhara

talcum powder. This is still done today, Ambalika are the wives of King particularly by ascetics who usually use Vichitravirya, who has died without the ash from a dhuni or smoldering heirs. In a desperate attempt to save ascetic fire, which is believed to give the the lineage, Vichitravirya’s mother, ash a sacred quality; in modern times Satyavati, summons her son, Vyasa, to vibhuti has become available in stores sleep with his brother’s two wives. that sell religious supplies. Ambika and Ambalika both sponta- neously recoil from Vyasa, and each of their sons is born with a defect: Vichitravirya Ambalika turns pale, causing her son In Hindu mythology, the son of Pandu to be born with an unnaturally Satyavati and king Shantanu. Vichi- pale complexion; Ambika covers her travirya dies after his marriage to eyes,causing her son Dhrtarashtra to be Ambika and Ambalika, but before he born blind. Ambika is so repulsed by has fathered any children. In her desper- Vyasa’s appearance that when she is told ation to perpetuate King Shantanu’s lin- to sleep with him again, she sends her eage, Satyavati calls on her eldest son, serving maid instead. In contrast to the Vyasa, to sleep with the two wives. From two sisters, Ambika’s maid gives herself this union Vyasa sires Pandu and willingly to Vyasa, and as a reward deliv- Dhrtarashtra, whose descendants form ers a handsome son named Vidura. the major warring factions in the According to one legend, Vidura is a Mahabharata, the later of the two great partial avatar of Dharma, the god who Sanskrit epics. is righteousness personified. Vidura always shows his righteousness in his Vicious Circle dealings with the Pandavas and the In Indian logic, one of the fallacies to be Kauravas, the epic’s two warring fac- avoided in constructing an argument. A tions. As the Kauravas become more and vicious circle occurs when a series of more wicked, this inclines him more things stand in a cause-and-effect rela- toward the Pandavas, for whom he tionship to one another, with any one of serves as a trusted and faithful adviser. It them standing as both cause and effect. is Vidura who realizes the danger in the For example, when “a” causes “b,” and House of Lac—a house built entirely of “b” causes “c,” (somewhere down the highly flammable materials—and line) “x” causes “a.” This is seen as an makes arrangements for the Pandavas extended case of self-residence—saying to escape from it. During the Maha- that “a” is both cause and effect—and is bharata war, he remains neutral, but equally objectionable. after the war is over he again serves as an adviser to King Yudhishthira, the eldest of the Pandavas, and to Vidhi Yudhishthira’s brothers. Philosophical concept that is found in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, the two great Sanskrit epics. As portrayed Vidyadhara there, vidhi is an impersonal force con- (“wisdom-bearer”) Class of semidivine trolling and constraining both the gods beings. The Vidyadharas are generally and human beings; this notion corre- believed to live in the Himalayas sponds best to the idea of fate. and are thus often associated with the god Shiva, whose home is also said to be there. Vidyadharas are generally Vidura benevolent toward human beings and In Hindu mythology, the son of the sage are often (as their name suggests) Vyasa and the serving maid of Queen associated with bringing wisdom to Ambika. Ambika and her sister those they favor. 749 Vidyapati

Ruins of Vijayanagar, capital of the Vijayanagar dynasty. Vidyapati child begins formal education, usually (ca. 1400) Brahmin court poet in the by starting to learn the alphabet. Hindu kingdom of in northern Although people in modern India may Bihar. Although Vidyapati wrote works not perform this rite according to its in Sanskrit, he is best known for his love prescribed form (which includes mak- poetry, which was written in the vernac- ing offerings to a sacrificial fire and giv- ular Maithali language. In this poetry he ing gifts to brahmins), families in which drew on the literary traditions of education is taken seriously usually Sanskrit love poetry, but his favorite have a ritualized commencement of subjects for this poetry were the divine study, often when the child is as young lovers Radha and Krishna. Although as three. later Vaishnavas considered Vidyapati’s love poetry as devotional works, Vighneshvar Vidyapati’s own religious writings defin- (“Lord of Obstacles”) Epithet of the god itively describe Shiva as the Supreme Ganesh, reflecting the belief that he Being, clearly showing that he was a wields control over all obstacles, and Shaiva. For further information see thus can make things easy or hard on a Edward C. Dimock Jr. and Denise person. See Ganesh. Levertov (trans.), In Praise of Krishna, 1981; and R. S. McGregor, The Love Songs of Vidyapati, 1987. Vihara An early architectural form, in which a central courtyard was surrounded by a Vidyarambha (“beginning of series of small rooms. This was originally study”) Samskara a Buddhist architectural form, intended Traditionally, the tenth of the life-cycle to create a living space for the monks— ceremonies (samskaras), in which the individual cells in the small rooms and a 750 Vijnaneshvara

common area in the large center space. of grain should be given to a brahmin. The design was adapted into the earliest As for results, faithfully observing this forms of the Hindu temples, such as festival is said to bring victory (vijaya) those at . over poverty and unhappiness.

Vijaya Vijayanagar Dynasty In Hindu mythology, one of the gate- (“City of Victory”) The last of the great keepers of Vaikuntha, who with his southern Indian Hindu kingdoms, brother Jaya, is cursed by the sage which took its name from its capital city, Sanaka to be born three times as an near modern Hampi in Karnataka. The asura (demon), and to be killed each kingdom was founded in 1336 by time by Vishnu. In their first birth , a regional governor in the Jaya and Vijaya incarnate as Hiran- Tughluq dynasty who broke away to yaksha and Hiranyakashipu, who are carve out a kingdom in the central killed by the Boar avatar and the Deccan plateau. The kingdom went Man-Lion avatar, respectively. In through several periods of expansion their second they are born as Ravana and decay. In the early fifteenth century and Kumbhakarna, who are killed by it controlled most of southern India, but Rama. In their final birth they take then passed through a period of decline form as Shishupala and Dantavaktra, and loss of territory; this was followed by who are killed by Krishna. After this renewal in the early sixteenth century, they return to their duties as Vishnu’s during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya, gatekeepers. and finally ended after the battle of Talikota in 1565, in which the ruling prince Rama Raja was decisively defeated Vijaya Dashami by a coalition of the sultans from the (“victory tenth”) Another name for the northern part of the Deccan. The city of festival of Dussehra, which falls on the Vijayanagar was abandoned almost tenth day of the lunar month. The festi- immediately, and although it has suf- val has two mythic charters, one with fered the ravages of time, it still contains the god Rama and one with the stunning examples of late medieval Goddess, and both these myths point to and architecture. this as the day on which the deity wins a definitive victory. See Dussehra. Vijnaneshvara (12th c.) Author of the Mitakshara, a Vijaya Ekadashi voluminous commentary on the Ya j- Religious observance falling on the navalkya Smrti, itself an example of the eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark dharma literature, or texts on religious (waning) half of the lunar month of duty. This particular commentary Phalgun (February–March). As for all played a pivotal role in the British the eleventh-day observances, this is administration of India. The British were dedicated to the worship of Vishnu. largely content to have their Indian sub- Most Hindu festivals have certain pre- jects governed by traditional religious scribed rites, which usually involve fast- laws, but to do so, they needed an ing (upavasa) and worship and often accepted standard. For large sections of promise specific benefits for faithful British India, the Mitakshara was given performance. Those performing this the status of traditional law and was vow should fill an earthen pot with the used as a legal code. The only major part seven kinds of grain, set an image of of India in which Hindus were not sub- Vishnu on the pot, and for twenty-four ject to this was in Bengal, where the legal hours, remain engaged in chanting the authority was the Dayabhaga. One of names of Vishnu. On the twelfth the pot 751 Vikramaditya

the major differences between the two Kalidasa’s version the estranged lovers are was in matters of inheritance. The finally happily reunited. This change may Mitakshara stresses inheritance by have been prompted solely from the survivorship, in which only living males desire for a happy ending, which is one of can inherit property, whereas the the most characteristic features of Dayabhaga stresses inheritance by suc- Sanskrit drama. cession, in which a dead man’s heirs can inherit in his name. Village Deities According to popular Hindu tradition, Vikramaditya the universe has 330 million gods. The (“Sun of Prowess”) Title taken by King richness of this mythic imagination can Chandra Gupta II (r. 376–415) as a symbol be seen in the composition of the Hindu of his royal mastery. This monarch is tradi- pantheon, in which hundreds of major tionally identified as the Vikramaditya and minor deities have been given form, who established the Vikram era, but identity, and mythic history. Yet aside because the Vikram era was established a from these deities, who have been given little less than sixty years before the com- an identifiable form, there are also a mon era, this claim is clearly untenable. host of village deities found throughout India. In most cases, the village deity is exactly that—the deity who protects, Vikram Era watches over, and acts as a divine over- One of the most common dating systems, seer for a particular village or locale. particularly in northern India. It is general- One of their most common functions is ly believed that the Vikram era takes its to protect the village from disease, either name from King Vikramaditya of Ujjain, of people or livestock, and to provide who is supposed to have ruled over much remedies when disease strikes. They are of India. The Vikram era date is fifty-six or also the guardians of the village, defend- fifty-seven years later than that of the com- ing it from ghosts and unseen powers, mon era; the discrepancy stems from the as well as protecting the villagers from differing first days of the year in the two danger and misfortune. systems. In the common era the year The authority of these deities is gener- begins on January 1, but in the Vikram era ally quite limited—in most cases, it does the year begins with the sun’s transition not extend beyond the village itself. In into Aries, considered in India as occurring most cases, village deities have no well- on April 14. Hence, to convert a Vikram era defined mythic history, form, or person- date to a common era date, one subtracts ality. At times they will have a temple fifty-six years for dates between January 1 dedicated to them, but in other cases the and April 14, and fifty-seven years for dates village deity is believed to be associated between April 15 and December 31. with a particular tree or is represented by a post in the village square. Village deities Vikramorvashiya are usually nonvegetarian, demanding (“Urvashi won by valor”) Drama written animal sacrifices and offerings of by the poet Kalidasa, generally consid- blood in exchange for their services. ered the greatest classical Sanskrit poet. Relationships with these deities are highly The Vikramorvashiya is a musical play in pragmatic—the villagers make offerings, five acts, whose mythic theme is the liai- and the deities protect, but beyond son of King Pururavas and the celestial these offerings there is usually little nymph Urvashi, a story mentioned both organized worship. If these deities have in Rg Veda 1.95 and in the Shatapatha any organized priesthood, it is almost Brahmana. In both these earlier sources always non-brahmin because the impu- the story ends unhappily, with the separa- rity (ashaucha) generated by animal sac- tion of Urvashi and Pururavas, but in rifices would be unacceptable to 752 Vina

brahmins. These priesthoods are inter- mediaries between the deity and the vil- lagers, usually communicating with the deities through dreams or possession. In this way the deities’ wishes become known, and problems or concerns can find their solution. In some cases, local deities have gained greater stature and have been assimilated into the pantheon. For female deities, this process is fairly simple, since they can be brought into the pantheon by claiming that their temples are one of the Shakti Pithas, a network of sites sacred to the Goddess that spreads throughout the sub- continent. Each Shakti Pitha marks the site where a body part of the dismembered goddess Sati fell to earth, taking form there as a different goddess; all these individual goddesses are thus seen as manifestations of a single great Goddess. Male deities are more commonly assimilated into the pan- theon as manifestations of the god Vishnu, and three prominent examples of the for- mer are Jagannath, Vithoba, and Venkateshvara. Village deities are less commonly said to be forms of the god Shiva, but this has happened with , an important regional deity in The vina is a classical Indian musical instrument. the state of Maharashtra. See also pitha. reality, with its counterpart being illumi- nation (prakasha). These two terms are particularly important for the creation (“vehicle”) A word with different specific of the world, which is said to happen meanings in different contexts, a com- when the pure and radiant conscious- mon feature in the Sanskrit language. It ness (prakasha) of the ultimate can refer to the vehicles used by a Brahman becomes self-conscious deity—either in a mythic sense, because through the reflection (vimarsha) of this each of the deities has an animal con- original consciousness. From one single sidered to be his or her vehicle, or in a lit- consciousness, the absolute then eral sense as the cart used to carry them evolves into a binary divinity—the god in procession, or to the human being Shiva and his consort Shakti—whose who “carries” them through becoming continued interaction combines to possessed. In the context of architec- create the world. This dyad of prakasha- ture, the word vimana is used to refer to vimarsha is particularly important in the that part of the temple that “carries” the Trika school of Kashmiri Shaivism. For deity, that is, the sanctuary as a whole. further information see Jaideva Singh, Pratyabhijnanahrdayam, 1982. Vimarsha (“reflection”) In Hindu tantra, a secret, Vina ritually based religious practice, vimar- Multistringed musical instrument sha is one of the bipolar opposites that with a long hollow body and a sound- are used to characterize the nature of all ing box at the bottom; the top has a 753 Vinata

large hollow gourd projecting from using as his intermediary the monkey- the back, which further amplifies the god Hanuman. The letter’s general sound. The vina is one of the classical theme is a plea for deliverance from musical instruments, particularly in the evils of the current degenerate age southern India, where its mastery is (kali yuga). The first sixty-odd verses still held in high regard. In Indian are a series of invocations paying iconography, the vina is most strongly homage to various deities, showing associated with the goddess Sara- the ecumenical quality that more gen- swati, in keeping with her identity as erally marks Tulsidas’s devotion. The the patron deity of the arts, culture, remainder of the poem is directed to and learning. Rama and stresses other themes that run throughout Tulsidas’s poetry. One theme is the corrupted nature of the Vinata present cosmic age, the kali yuga, In Hindu mythology, the daughter of which makes devotion the only effec- the divine sage Daksha, and the sister tive means to salvation. Another per- of Kadru. Vinata gives birth to a line of vasive theme is the power of God’s eagles—of whom the most famous is name and its incomparable ability to Garuda—whereas Kadru gives birth to rescue the devotee (bhakta). Finally, a line of serpents. The proverbial there are warnings to the hearers not antipathy between these two kinds of to waste the opportunity of a human animals is described as stemming birth. Much of the poetry has an inti- from conflict between these two sis- mate personal quality, and it seems to ters. One day the sisters get into an reflect both the poet’s despair at his argument about the tail color of a cer- own frailty and his eventual hope for tain celestial horse, with Vinata argu- salvation. From this general tone, the ing that it is white, and Kadru Vinaya Patrika is generally assumed asserting that it is black. The disagree- to have been written in the later part ment becomes more intense, until of the poet’s life, although it cannot be they finally agree that the person who precisely dated. is wrong will become a slave to the other. To ensure her victory, Kadru persuades a number of her children to Vindhya Mountains hang from the back of the horse, which Mountain range running from east to from a distance makes the tail appear west in central India. Despite their to be black. When Vinata sees the modest height, they have traditionally black snakes, she accepts her defeat, served as the cultural dividing line and for many years has to serve Kadru between northern and southern India. under extremely harsh conditions. She The Vindhyas themselves were seen as is finally rescued by her son, Garuda, an uncivilized and potentially danger- who when he discovers what has hap- ous place, inhabited by ghosts, pened, embarks on a program of demons, and tribal peoples; these killing snakes that has never abated. dangers were exemplified by the untamed nature of its presiding god- dess, . Vinaya Patrika (“letter of petition”) One of the later poetic works by the poet-saint Vindhyavasini Tulsidas (1532–1623?), in the form of a (“dweller in the Vindhyas”) Powerful series of 280 short poems written in form of the great Goddess. The the Braj Bhasha dialect. The entire Vindhyas are a mountain range in work is presented as a letter of petition central India that are difficult to to Tulsidas’s chosen deity, Rama, reach, inhabited by tribal peoples,

754 Viparitakhyati

and seen as a place at the margins of lakes are places with neither fire nor civilized society. As the goddess who smoke, and thus shows that these dwells in that place, Vindhyavasini is conditions are not universally present equally marginal, often seen as a (fire is found in mountains, but not in fierce and dangerous deity who lakes). By convention, an inference demands blood sacrifices from her also had to have a positive example, devotees (bhakta). The mythology of the sapaksha, to show that similar Vindhyavasini is associated with vari- things happened in similar cases (i.e., ous places in the Vindhyas, but for that there were other cases in which centuries, her primary temple has there was both fire and smoke). been in the village of Vindhyachal near the city of Mirzapur in the state of Uttar Pradesh, although she is Viparitakhyati worshiped in other places in northern (“contrary discrimination”) Theory of India. One of her charter myths iden- error propounded by the Mimamsa tifies her as the goddess (in infant philosopher Kumarila, who lived in the form) exchanged for the infant god seventh century C.E. All the theories of Krishna and killed by Krishna’s error aim to explain why people make wicked uncle, Kamsa. After taunting errors in judgment, such as the stock Kamsa that the child he seeks has example of mistaking the silvery flash of already escaped, she flies off and seashell for a piece of silver. takes up residence in the Vindhyas. Like Prabhakara and the Naiya- Since other accounts identify this yikas, Kumarila believes that the sim- goddess as Bhadrakali, this points to ple judgments “that object is silvery” the fluidity of the Hindu pantheon, in and “silver is silvery” are both true which the renditions differ in the var- and indisputable. Kumarila also ious accounts, according to the pur- agrees with the Naiyayika that the pose of the writers. For further error comes from a discrimination information see David R. Kinsley, that is contrary to reality. His differ- Hindu Goddesses, 1986; and Cynthia ence with the Naiyayikas comes with Humes, “The Goddess of the the latter’s postulation of the inher- Vindhyas in Banaras,” in Cynthia ence-relationship as connecting sub- Humes and Bradley R. Hertel, Living jects and predicates (“silver color” Banaras, 1993. and “silver”). Kumarila’s theory is identity-and-difference (bhedabhada) in which all things are what they are Vipaksha and are not what they are not. Thus In Indian philosophy, one of the parts the perception (pratyaksha) of the in the accepted form of an inference shell on the beach would involve its (anumana). The accepted form of an similarities and differences from sil- inference has three parts: an assertion veriness, combined with silver’s simi- (pratijna), a reason (hetu), and exam- larities and differences from ples (drshtanta); each of these three silveriness. One can combine the sim- have their own constituent parts. The ilarities and get a false judgment, or vipaksha is part of the third term, the the differences and come up with a examples, and is a negative example true one. As in the Naiyayika theory of given to show that the claim made in error, the root cause for combining the initial assertion is one that reflects the similarities rather than the differ- the action of particular causes. For ences comes from karmic dispositions example, in the inference, “there is stemming from avidya, specifically fire on the mountain because there is the greed for silver that prompts us to smoke on the mountain,” the vipak- look for such items of value. For fur- sha could be “unlike a lake” since ther information see Bijayananda Kar, 755 Vira

The Theories of Error in Indian Philosophy, ground. One matted lock takes form as 1978; and Karl H. Potter (ed.), Presup- Virabhadra, and the second takes form positions of India’s Philosophies, 1972. as Bhadrakali, a powerful and terrifying form of the Goddess. Just as Virabhadra represents Shiva’s destructive aspect, Vira Bhadrakali represents the ferocious and (“hero”) In the context of tantra, a dangerous side of the Goddess, in con- secret, ritually based religious practice, trast with the gentle and loyal Sati. At the vira is one of the modes of ritual Shiva’s orders, the two demolish expression. The tantric “hero” is said to Daksha’s sacrifice, scattering the guests be one who not only partakes of the Five and destroying the sacred fires, until Forbidden Things (panchamakara)— Daksha finally repents and worships wine, fish, meat, parched grain, and sex- Shiva as the supreme deity. Although ual intercourse—in their elemental Virabhadra’s actions in this story are forms, but also uses this inversion of destructive, he is and remains Shiva’s normal moral rules as a way to affirm servant, carrying out his divine master’s the ultimate unity of all things in the commands, a mandate that ultimately universe. Aspirants adopting a heroic upholds the created order. mode will often worship a powerful but dangerous deity, in which the ultimate affirmation of this unity is to affirm one’s Viragal identity with that deity. If one can do (“Hero-stone”) Stone erected in memory this successfully, it is believed to confer of a warrior, often the village headman, various powers, but if one fails it is said who perished in battle while defending to lead to illness, insanity, or death. This the village cattle from pillage. Such is not a path without hazards, but stones can be found all over the Deccan through it the heroes quickly attain their region, and Deleury speculates that the desired goals. origins of the Maharashtrian god Vithoba lay in such a deified hero, who was later assimilated into the pantheon Virabhadra as a form of Vishnu. In Hindu mythology, a powerful being who is created by the god Shiva to hum- ble the demigod Daksha and to destroy Viraha Daksha’s sacrifice. Daksha gives his (“separation”) Well-established poetic daughter, Sati, to marry Shiva, but later genre in classical Sanskrit poetry and in he feels that Shiva has not shown him much of vernacular devotional (bhakti) proper respect. To humble Shiva, poetry. The genre focuses on describing Daksha plans a great sacrifice and the pain resulting from the separation of invites all the gods except Shiva. When lover and beloved, whether the separat- Sati asks her father why he has done so, ed lovers are two human beings or devo- Daksha responds with a stream of tee (bhakta) and deity. Such separation abuse, excoriating Shiva as worthless is believed to bring on specific physical and despicable. Humiliated by these symptoms, which the poets describe in public insults, Sati commits suicide—in detail—lack of appetite, insomnia, some versions, by leaping into the sacri- inability to attend to daily life, or to ficial fire, and in others by withdrawing think about anyone but the beloved. The into a yogic trance and giving up her life. sort of love felt in such separation is In the most common version of believed to engender an even more Virabhadra’s creation, Shiva is so intense love for the beloved than love in enraged when he learns of Sati’s death union because the latter is sweetened by that he tears out two matted locks (jata) the presence of the beloved, whereas the from his head and dashes them to the former has to stand by itself.

756 Visarjana

Viramamunivar knee. In manuals this pos- Pseudonym of Father Constanzio Beschi ture is described quite differently, as a (1680–1747), an Italian Jesuit who lived sitting posture with the legs folded back in Tamil Nadu for thirty-six years. Like outside the body, with the feet pressed many of the other early Jesuits, Beschi against the thighs and buttocks. learned the local language and adopted the local way of life. As part of his mis- Virashaiva sionary work, he translated parts of the (“Heroic Shaivas”) Another name for Old and New Testament into literary the Lingayat religious community, Tamil, and his facility with the language stemming from the Lingayat insistence and its poetic conventions make this that the god Shiva was the only real god. work a significant milestone in later See Lingayat. Tamil literature. Viramitrodaya In the Mahabharata, the later of the One of the latest and the largest of the two great Hindu epics, Virata is the king nibandhas (“collections”), compiled in who shelters the five Pandava brothers, the early seventeenth century by the the epic’s protagonists, during the year scholar Mitra Mishra. The nibandhas they spend incognito, following their were compendia of Hindu lore, in twelve years of exile in the forest. This which the compilers culled references year is critical because according to the on a particular theme from the Vedas, agreement that the Pandavas have dharma literature, puranas, and other made with their adversary, Duryodhana, authoritative religious texts, and then if they are discovered during this year compiled these excerpts into a single the cycle of exile and living incognito volume. The Viramitrodaya is a massive will begin again. Due to Virata’s care compendium of Hindu lore, each of and foresight the Pandavas are not whose twenty-two sections is devoted to discovered, even though Duryodhana a particular aspect of Hindu life, such as has sent legions of spies to find them. daily practice, worship, gift-giving During the Mahabharata war he con- (dana), vows, pilgrimage, penances tinues to support the Pandavas and is (prayashchitta), purification, death eventually killed by the archery rites (antyeshthi samskara), law, and so master Drona. forth, finally ending with liberation (moksha). Aside from citing the relevant scriptural passages, Mitra Mishra also Visarjana provides extensive learned commen- (“dismissing”) The sixteenth and last of tary, and his work became an important the traditional upacharas (“offerings”) source for later legal interpretation, par- given to a deity as part of worship, on ticularly in eastern India. the model of treating the deity as an honored guest. In this offering, the devotee (bhakta) gives the deity leave to Virasana go, as the concluding rite in worship. One of the sitting postures (asana) Although the word dismissal sounds described in commentaries to the Yoga presumptuous in any interaction with a Sutras; this is also one of the sitting pos- deity, this term really refers to the words tures in which deities are portrayed in of parting that one would say to any Hindu iconography. As described in the departing guest. The underlying motive commentaries to the Yoga Sutras, in this here, as for all the upacharas, is to show position one foot rests on the ground, one’s love for the deity and minister to under the opposite thigh, while the the deity’s needs. other foot rests on top of the opposite 757 Vishakhadatta

Vishakhadatta impersonal Ultimate Reality, which they (6th c.) Sanskrit dramatist whose call Brahman. For Advaita proponents, only surviving work is the play reality is “nondual” (advaita)—that is, Mudrarakshasa (“Rakshasa’s Ring”). all things are nothing but the formless The play is of some historical interest, Brahman, despite the appearance of dif- for its major theme is the rise of ference and diversity in the perceivable Chandragupta Maurya (r. 321–297 world. For the Advaitins, this assump- B.C.E.), founder of the Maurya dynasty, tion of diversity is a fundamental misun- although the play ascribes his success to derstanding of the ultimate nature of the machinations of his cunning brah- things and a manifestation of avidya. min minister, . The play Although often translated as “igno- paints the king as a weak figure, with the rance,” avidya is better understood as minister as the real power behind the the lack of genuine understanding, throne, although in fairness to the which ultimately causes human beings historical king this portrayal seems to be trapped in karmic bondage, rein- inaccurate. The drama’s plot is highly carnation (samsara), and suffering. complex, as with many Sanskrit plays, Since for the Advaitins the real problem but its climax comes when the principal is this mistaken understanding, this characters are dramatically rescued means that realization (jnana) was the from execution at the last moment. best spiritual path to gain final libera- The play has been translated into tion (moksha). English by Michael Coulson, and According to Ramanuja’s formula- published in an anthology titled Three tion, the material world and selves have Sanskrit Plays, 1981. real and independent existence, although their existence is ultimately rooted in God, whom he identifies as Vishishthadvaita (“Qualified Non- Vishnu. The world comes from God in a Dualism”) Vedanta process of evolution adapted from the One of the branches of Vedanta, the Samkhya model, but since matter is philosophical school purporting to unconscious, it is both similar to and reveal the ultimate meaning and pur- different from God. In the same way, pose (anta) of the Vedas, the oldest and human beings share similarity to God in most authoritative Hindu religious having God as their source, and differ- texts. Vishishthadvaita’s greatest figure ence from him in being subject to igno- is the eleventh-century philosopher, rance and suffering. For Ramanuja and Ramanuja, who was central to its for- his followers, God is not identical to mation, although he was building on Selves or the world, all of which are per- earlier work. Ramanuja was convinced ceived as having real and independent that Brahman or Supreme Reality was a existence. This doctrine of identity and personal deity, rather than an imper- difference makes the perceivable world sonal abstract principle, and he was real, in a sense that the Advaita propo- also convinced that devotion (bhakti) nents would never admit. This same was the most important form of reli- contention of simultaneous identity and gious practice. Vishishthadvaita difference distinguishes Ramanuja’s Vedanta, his philosophical position, position from that of a later thinker, stressed both of these convictions and Madhva, whose Dvaita Vedanta stressed thus opposed the position of the the great gulf between God and all other Advaita Vedanta school, founded by things. Given this difference in capaci- the philosopher Shankaracharya. ties between deity and devotee (bhakta), The Advaita school upholds a Ramanuja and his followers have philosophical position known as stressed bhakti as the most efficacious monism, which is the belief in a single means to salvation. Even after liberation the souls retain enough of a distinction 758 Vishnu

Vishnu as depicted in a granite carving, Hampi. from God to make devotion possible; independent agent, who is associated liberation is seen not as loss of identity, with marvelous deeds for the good of but as eternal communion with God. the cosmos, such as taking three steps to For further information see John measure out the universe. Vishnu is also Braisted Carman, The Theology of associated with the sun, both in his abil- Ramanuja, 1974; and Sarvepalli ity to move through the heavens, and to Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore fall on (and thus “observe”) all things. (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian In the divine triad of Brahma- Philosophy, 1957. Vishnu-Shiva, Vishnu is identified as the sustainer or maintainer of the cosmos. One manifestation of this can be seen in Vishnu a common creation myth, which begins (“all-pervasive”) Along with Shiva and with Vishnu lying on the back of his ser- the Goddess, one of the three most pent couch, Shesha, in the primordial important deities in the Hindu pan- ocean at the time of cosmic dissolution theon. All three of these are notable for (pralaya). A lotus sprouts from Vishnu’s being almost unmentioned in the navel, which opens to reveal Brahma, Vedas, the earliest Hindu religious texts, the creator, who begins the work of cre- and the ascendancy of these three and ation. Vishnu presides over the creation, the gradual eclipse of the Vedic gods and when the time for dissolution comes points clearly to a definitive shift in again, the entire process reverses, and Hindu religious life. Of the three, Vishnu the universe is drawn back into Vishnu, has the most significant presence in the who is thus seen as the source of all. Vedas. Many of the hymns in which he is The other way that Vishnu sustains mentioned describe him as a helper to the cosmos is through the action of his the storm-god Indra, the primary Vedic avatars or incarnations, who come into god, and one of Vishnu’s epithets here is the world to restore balance to a uni- Upendra (“junior Indra”). Yet he also verse dangerously out of equilibrium, appears in some of the late hymns as an 759 Vishnuchittar

usually because of a demon grown dis- preeminent power in the universe, from proportionately strong. There are ten which all the other gods gain their generally reckoned avatars. The first power, and both are seen as gracious four are in nonhuman forms: the Fish and loving to their devotees (bhakta). avatar, Tortoise avatar, Boar avatar, and Man-Lion avatar. The other six are in human form, often as sages or heroes: Vishnuchittar Vamana avatar, Parashuram avatar, An epithet of the Alvar poet-saint Rama avatar, Krishna avatar, Buddha Periyalvar. The Alvars were a group avatar, and Kalki avatar; the last has yet of twelve poet-saints who lived in south- to come. In each of these cases, Vishnu ern India between the seventh and tenth takes form to avert some sort of disaster centuries. All the Alvars were devotees and to maintain the integrity of the cos- (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and mos. The doctrine of the avatars provided their stress on passionate devotion a mechanism to assimilate existing (bhakti) to a personal god, conveyed deities into the larger pantheon and to through hymns sung in the Tamil give them recognizable status of their language, transformed Hindu religious own. Although most of the avatars are life. See Periyalvar. no longer objects of worship (the Boar and Man-Lion avatars each had a sub- Vishnu Purana stantial following early in the common One of the eighteen traditional puranas, era), in much of northern India the wor- which were an important genre of smrti ship of Rama and Krishna has largely texts, and the repository of much of tra- eclipsed that of Vishnu himself, who ditional Indian mythology. The smrtis or has largely faded into the background. “remembered” texts were a class of liter- In southern India, Vishnu is still ature that although deemed important, an important object of worship, particu- were considered less authoritative than larly in the Shrivaishnava community. the shrutis or “heard” texts. In brief, the Aside from the doctrine of the avatars, shrutis denoted the Vedas, the oldest important local deities have also been and most authoritative Hindu religious assimilated into the pantheon as forms texts, whereas the smrtis included the of Vishnu; the most significant Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the examples are Jagannath, Venkateshvara, dharma literature, the Bhagavad Gita, and Vithoba. and the puranas. The puranas are com- In medieval Hinduism sectarian pendia of all types of sacred lore, from rivalry developed between Vaishnavas mythic tales to ritual instruction to exal- and Shaivas, with each claiming that tation of various sacred sites (tirthas) their chosen deity (Vishnu and Shiva, and actions. Most of the puranas are respectively) was supreme. Although highly sectarian, and as this one’s name Vaishnavas see Vishnu as the supreme clearly shows, it is focused on the wor- power in the universe, his mythic char- ship of Vishnu. It gives an exhaustive acter and activity differ sharply from account of Vishnu’s mythic deeds— Shiva’s. Whereas Shiva is associated with many of which have become the com- ascetic life and practices (tapas), and mon mythic currency for many thus with the religious power generated traditional Hindus—as well as instruc- by such practices, Vishnu’s headdress is tions for how, where, and when Vishnu a crown, and his persona is that of an all- is to be worshiped. ruling king. Whereas Shiva destroys his mythic adversaries using raw power, from which all subtlety is absent, Vishnu Vishnuswami more often triumphs through cunning, (“[He whose] Lord is Vishnu”) cleverness, and trickery. Each deity’s According to tradition, the founder of adherents affirm their divinity as the the Rudra Sampraday of the Vaishnava 760 Vishva Hindu Parishad

ascetics. (The Rudra Sampraday is one The six chakras are traditionally enu- of the four branches, “sampraday,” of merated from the bottom up, and the the Bairagi Naga ascetics, who are devo- vishuddha chakra is the fifth. It is visual- tees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu; vaish- ized as a sixteen-petaled lotus, located nava refers to devotees of Vishnu.) in the region of the throat. The petals Vishnuswami was an ascetic, whom each contain a seed syllable formed some sources name as the guru of both from a letter of the Sanskrit alphabet, in Jnaneshvar and Namdev. As his name this case all sixteen of the Sanskrit vow- clearly shows, Vishnuswami was a els, the essential connecting elements Vaishnava, although other than this lit- for any meaningful speech. On a sym- tle is known about him. His ascetic line bolic level, the vishuddha chakra is asso- and its position as one of the four ciated with the human capacity for Vaishnava ascetic sampradays have speech and respiration. It is also identi- been appropriated by the followers of fied as the bodily seat for the subtle ele- Vallabhacharya, whose Shuddadvaita, ment of space (akasha), through which or “Pure Monism,” stresses the worship hearing is believed to take place. For fur- of Krishna, with Radha as his consort. ther information see Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe), Shakti and Shakta, 1978; and Philip S. Rawson, The Art of Vishuddha Chakra Tantra, 1973. In many schools of yoga, and in the secret, ritually based religious practice known as tantra, the vishuddha chakra Vishva Hindu Parishad is one of the six psychic centers (“World Hindu Organization,” hereafter (chakras) believed to exist in the sub- VHP) Modern Hindu religious organiza- tle body. The subtle body is an alter- tion affiliated with the Rashtriya nate physiological system, believed to Svayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a conserva- exist on a different plane than gross tive Hindu organization whose express matter, but with certain correspon- purpose is to provide the leadership dences to the material body. It is visu- cadre for a revitalized Hindu India. The alized as a set of six psychic centers, VHP was formed in 1964, when RSS leader which are visualized as multipetaled Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar met in lotus flowers running roughly along Bombay with a group of Hindu religious the course of the spine, connected by leaders. Their immediate concern was three vertical channels. Each of these the upcoming visit of Pope Paul VI to chakras has important symbolic asso- India, which they interpreted as a con- ciations—with differing human capac- cealed attempt to convert Hindus to ities, with different subtle elements Christianity, and resolved to oppose by (tanmatras), and with different seed forming an organization dedicated to syllables (bijaksharas) formed from the propagation of Hinduism. For the the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, next fifteen years, the VHP focused its thus encompassing all sacred sound. attention on countering Christian mis- Above and below these centers are the sionary efforts in northeastern India, bodily abodes of Shiva (awareness) with little fanfare and little impact on and Shakti (power), the two divine the public consciousness. principles through which the entire A watershed in the VHP’s public image universe has come into being. The came in 1982, following the conversion underlying assumption behind this of some untouchables to Islam in the concept of the subtle body is thus the Tamil Nadu village of Minakshipuram. homology of macrocosm and micro- The VHP used this much-publicized cosm, an essential Hindu idea since event as evidence that Hindu identity the time of the mystical texts known as was endangered and countered it by the Upanishads. launching a series of innovative public 761 Vishvakarma

actions, first in Tamil Nadu, but later K. Andersen and Shridhar D. Damle, The extending throughout the entire nation. Brotherhood in Saffron, 1987; James The VHP’s renewed activity corresponded Warner Björkman, Fundamentalism, with a more activist bent in its parent Revivalists, and Violence in South Asia, organization, the RSS, as well as the deci- 1988; Tapan Basu et al., Khaki Shorts and sion by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Saffron Flags, 1993; Lise McKean, Divine a political organization that is also an RSS Enterprise, 1996; and Christophe Jaffrelot, affiliate, to assume a more militantly The Hindu Nationalist Movement in Hindu identity. Many of the VHP’s India, 1996. national campaigns coincided with national or state elections, and many of these centered on the campaign to build Vishvakarma a temple to the god Rama in the city of (“doing all things”) A minor deity whose Ayodhya, at the site claimed to be mythic roles include being the architect Rama’s birthplace. The site on which of the gods; creator of innumerable they proposed to build the temple was handicrafts, ornaments, and weapons; occupied by a Muslim mosque, the the finest sculptor; and the inventor of Babri Masjid, which the VHP claimed the aerial chariots used by the gods. He had been built only after tearing down is the patron and paradigm for all the the original Rama temple. This temple skilled crafts in which materials are campaign thus carried powerful images shaped and formed, and in particular he of past oppression, as well as the is said to have fixed the canons for carv- assertiveness of a renascent Hindu iden- ing images of the gods. According to one tity. The VHP’s activism has enormously story, Vishvakarma’s daughter, Sanjna, boosted the BJP’s political fortunes, and is married to Surya, the sun, but helped make it the dominant political because of the sun’s radiance cannot party through much of northern India. bear to be with him. Vishvakarma takes The VHP’s activism has generated the sun to his workshop and trims off sharply contrasting emotions through- enough of his effulgence so that Sanjna out India. Proponents point to its long can bear his brightness. He then shapes record of social service and its role in the cut-off pieces of the sun into the helping strengthen and define a mod- god Vishnu’s discus (Sudarshana), the ern Hindu identity. Detractors point to god Shiva’s trident (trishul), various its disregard for the niceties of law, other divine weapons, and the Pushpak which was epitomized by the destruc- Viman, the most famous of the tion of the Babri Masjid in December aerial chariots. 1992, its often vitriolic anti-Muslim Vishvakarma is sometimes identified rhetoric, and its ultimate control by the with Tvashtr, the workman of the gods RSS, despite its separate institutional in the Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious identity. Other critics have censured texts. Yet it seems that these are two dif- the VHP for attempting to declare cer- ferent deities, homologized to each tain “required” Hindu rites as antitheti- other through their common function. cal to the Hindu tradition and for Tvashtr’s name means “builder of car- attempting to define and control the riages,” and this seems to have been his nature of “Hinduism.” Other critics primary function, although he is also question the organization’s claim to noted for crafting the weapons of the speak for all Hindus, noting that its real gods, especially the mace with which power lies in the hands of brahmins and the storm-god Indra slays the serpent other privileged classes; these critics see Vrtra. Still, his name seems to indi- the VHP as an organization designed to cate that his major function is in conceal its true purpose, the mainte- building carriages, which is believed nance of upper-class influence and priv- to be highly significant in a Vedic con- ilege. For further information see Walter text, since many Vedic hymns mention 762 Vishvanath

the use of military chariots. Vishvakarma, on the other hand, has much more wide-ranging skills, and this would seem to indicate that the two are not the same deity.

Vishvamitra In Hindu mythology, one of the Seven Sages whose names mark exogamous clan “lineages” (gotra; in exogamous clans, members marry outside their own clan); the others are Gautama, Bharadvaja, Kashyapa, Bhrgu, Atri, and Vasishtha. All brahmins are believed to be descended from these seven sages, with each family taking the name of its progenitor as its gotra name. In modern times, these gotra divisions are still important because marriage within the gotra is forbidden. After her marriage, the new bride adopts her hus- band’s gotra as part of her new identity. Vishvamitra is most famous for his long-standing feud with the sage Vishvanath Temple Vasishtha, which causes numerous con- Vishvanath temple in Benares. Shiva is frontations. The feud begins as a result present at Vishvanath in the form of a of the difference in status between ksha- linga, the pillar-shaped image that is his triyas and brahmins. Vishvamitra is a symbolic form; the Vishvanath linga is king, who once stops with a host of one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a network retainers at the forest ashram of the of sites deemed especially sacred to brahmin Vasishtha. Upon asking for Shiva, and at which Shiva is uniquely food, Vishvamitra is amazed at the present. Benares, or Varanasi, is one of ability of Vasishtha’s cow, the Kama- the most sacred cities in India; it is dhenu, to provide food for everyone. considered particularly sacred to Shiva, Vishvamitra first tries to buy the and of all the Shiva temples there, Kamadhenu, then tries to take it by Vishvanath is the most important. The force, but his minions are defeated by original temple was destroyed by the the magic powers generated by Moghul emperor Aurangzeb, who built Vasishtha’s tapas (ascetic practices). a mosque on the site, and the only Vishvamitra finally admits defeat and remaining part of the original temple is begins to do ascetic practices to gener- the Gyan Vapi (“well of knowledge”), ate power of his own. Two of their most into which the original Shiva linga was celebrated clashes are over King reportedly cast (to save it from desecra- Trishanku and his son, Harishchandra; tion by Aurangzeb’s soldiers). The pre- in each case the real issue is the mutual sent temple was built in 1776 by the antipathy of these two sages. See also Maratha queen Bai Holkar, on a marriage prohibitions. site adjoining the original temple. It was later roofed with gold by Maharaja Vishvanath Ranjit Singh of Lahore, and thus one of its nicknames is the “Golden Temple.” Form of the god Shiva, in his manifesta- Even in preceding centuries the his- tion as the “Lord of the Universe” at the tory and proximity of the Vishvanath 763 Vishva Nirmala Dharam

Dancer displaying the vismaya hasta. temple and Aurangzeb’s mosque made Vishvedevas for delicate relations between the Hindu This name can either be construed as and Muslim communities, and like referring to all the gods, based on the many northern Indian cities Benares has term’s literal meaning (“all the gods”), or seen its share of bloodshed between it can refer to a group of deities reck- these two communities. In recent times oned as the sons of Vishva, the daugh- the destruction of the original Vishvanath ter of the divine sage Daksha. The temple has been taken up as a political number of sons differs according to dif- issue by the Vishva Hindu Parishad ferent texts and is reckoned at either ten (VHP), a Hindu activist organization or thirteen. The Vishvedevas are espe- calling for the “return” of this and other cially worshiped at the memorial rites northern Indian sites by force if neces- for the dead known as shraddhas, sary. The VHP’s presence and activity have although the Manu Smrti, one of the significantly escalated tensions between authoritative texts in the dharma litera- Hindus and Muslims as a whole. Given ture, prescribes offerings to them every the political gains that these confronta- day. These prescribed daily offerings are tional strategies have brought, it seems said to have been their reward for hav- likely that they will continue in the future ing performed particularly harsh asceti- and that the Vishvanath temple will be a cism (tapas). site connected with conflict. Vismaya (“surprise”) Hasta Vishva Nirmala Dharam In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, a Religious organization founded by the particular hand gesture (hasta), in modern Hindu teacher Nirmala Devi which the forearm and the fingers are (b. 1923), to propagate her teachings pointing upward, with the back of the throughout the world. hand turned toward the viewer. This 764 Vitthala

particular hasta is meant to convey locality. The dindis are organized into any sort of surprise, including wonder larger groups known as palkhis, each of and astonishment. which is associated with one of the Varkari poet-saints, and which is led by a palanquin (palkhi) bearing the san- Vital Winds dals of that saint. Each palkhi departs General term to designate the five inter- from a place associated with its particu- nal winds collectively known as prana, lar saint—for example, the palkhi of through which all human physiological Jnaneshvar leaves from the town of processes are believed to occur. Alandi in which he lived, and thus he and all the other saints are still symboli- Vithoba cally journeying to Pandharpur twice a Presiding deity of the temple with the year. Each of these palkhis travels a pre- same name in the city of Pandharpur in scribed route, and pilgrims time their the state of Maharashtra; other epithets departure and their travel to arrive in for Vithoba include Vitthala and Pandharpur on the same day—the Pandurang. Vithoba was originally a eleventh day (ekadashi) in the bright local deity—according to some theories, half of Ashadh (June–July) in the sum- a deified hero—who has been assimilated mer, and the eleventh day in the bright into the larger Hindu pantheon as a half of Kartik (October–November) in form of the god Vishnu. According to the fall. Pilgrims compare their journey the temple’s charter myth, Vishnu to that of a small stream merging with comes to Pandharpur drawn by the filial other streams, gradually forming a devotion of a young boy named mighty river converging on Pandharpur. Pundalika. When Vishnu arrives During their journey pilgrims sing Pundalika is massaging his father’s feet, the devotional songs composed by and when Vishnu asks for the hospitality these poet-saints, among them due to any guest, Pundalika stops only Jnaneshvar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, long enough to throw a brick over his Chokamela, Gora, Janabai, and Bahina shoulder, to give the god a place to stand Bai. In this way, the pilgrims are emulat- out of the mud. Impressed that ing the saints before them, both by Pundalika’s devotion to his parents treading in their physical footsteps and supersedes even his devotion to God, by singing their songs of devotion. Vishnu becomes rooted to that spot and Although the pilgrimage ends with the has remained there ever since; Vithoba’s entry to Pandharpur and the worship of image shows him with his hands on his Vithoba, the most important part is the hips (still waiting, perhaps, for journey itself. For more information on Pundalika). Aside from this story, Vithoba and the Varkari sect, see G. A. Vithoba has surprisingly little mythic Deleury, The Cult Of Vithoba, 1960; I. B. history, although he has become an Karve, “On the Road,” Journal of Asian important regional deity. Studies, Vol. 22 No. 1, 1962; and Vithoba is most famous for the activ- Digambar Balkrishna. Mokashi, Palkhi: ities of his devotees (bhakta), the An Indian Pilgrimage, 1987. Varkari Panth religious community, who make pilgrimages to Pandharpur Vitthala twice a year. Pandharpur sits in the Common epithet of Vithoba, the presid- Bhima River valley on the edge of the ing deity of a famous temple at Maharashtra-Karnataka border, and Pandharpur in the state of Maharashtra. pilgrims come from all directions. The name Vitthala is a more literary Individual pilgrims travel in small form, and according to Deleury, the old- groups called dindis, often made up of est attested name for the Pandharpur people from the same neighborhood or deity. See Vithoba. 765 Vitthalnath

Vitthalnath Vivarana Advaita (r. 1566–1585) Second guru of the One of the later schools of Advaita Pushti Marg (a religious community), Vedanta, a philosophical school, the great- which was founded by his father, est figure in which was Shankaracharya. Vallabhacharya. Vitthalnath continued The Advaita school upholds a philosophi- the consolidation of the Pushti Marg, in cal position known as monism, which is particular the organization of its rites, the belief in a single impersonal Ultimate and in fostering the composition of Reality, which they call Brahman. For songs and poetry to accompany them. Advaita proponents, reality is “nondual” According to tradition, the eight poets (advaita)—that is, all things are nothing known as the ashtachap were all active but the formless Brahman, despite the during his tenure, although four of them appearance of difference and diversity in are more closely associated with his the perceivable world. For the Advaitins, father. The four poets associated with this assumption of diversity is a funda- Vitthalnath were clearly members of the mental misunderstanding of the ultimate Pushti Marg, for among their poetry can nature of things and a manifestation be found hymns praising him and his of avidya. Although often translated as leadership. He was succeeded by his son “ignorance,” avidya is better understood Gokulnath, under whose direction the as the lack of genuine understanding, lives of these and other saints were final- which ultimately causes human beings ly written down, with each being given a to be trapped in karmic bondage, Vallabhite emphasis. reincarnation (samsara), and suffering. Because the real problem for the Advaitins is this mistaken understanding, Vivaha (“uplift”) Samskara this means that realization (jnana) Traditionally, the fifteenth of the life- was the best spiritual path to gain final cycle ceremonies (samskaras), in which liberation (moksha). a man and woman became husband The Vivarana Advaita school is based and wife. Except for those rare individu- on the thought of Padmapada (9th c.), als who remained lifelong celibates one of Shankaracharya’s disciples, (naisthika brahmacharin), marriage but takes its name from a commentary was an essential element in the life written by the thirteenth-century of every man (and woman), since the Prakashatman. The latter is traditionally children procreated through marriage a disciple of Padmapada’s, but this seems allowed him to retire one of the three problematic. As with the Bhamati debts, this one to the ancestral spirits school, the Vivarana school took defini- (pitr). One mark of the importance given tive stands on several points on which to marriage can be seen in the literal Shankaracharya had remained silent. translation of the word vivaha—it One of these was on the locus of igno- signifies that by which a man is rance, which the Vivarana school “uplifted” and made complete. Given describes as being located in Brahman. the stress on family in Indian society, In explaining how this can be, since it marriage has also been a gravely seems to compromise the integrity of important matter, and for many Brahman, the Vivarana Advaitins invoke Indians, it remains the most important the theory of reflectionism to explain the day of their life. The dharma apparent difference between Brahman literature underlines the importance of and the Self, although, in fact, the Selves marriage by cataloging eight different are identical with Brahman. Their posi- forms. See also marriage, eight tion seems based more than anything on classical forms. an uncompromising affirmation of Brahman as the sole “reality,” in which anything that exists must belong to it.

766 Vivekananda, Swami

Vivartavada the perceivable world as an actual trans- A philosophical model used to explain formation of this single reality. This posi- the relationship between the Ultimate tion is espoused by proponents of the Reality or Realities and the perceivable Samkhya, Vishishthadvaita Vedanta, and world; this model describes the world as Bhedabhada philosophical schools, who an illusory transformation of this reality. like the Advaitins are also proponents of The vivartavada model is unique to the satkaryavada. Each of these three schools Advaita Vedanta philosophical school. believes that the world as perceived is real, The Advaitins are proponents of a that it has some single ultimate source causal model called satkaryavada, behind it, and that this first principle which assumes that effects already exist undergoes a real transformation by which in their causes, and that when these the world comes into being. This parina- effects appear, they represent transfor- ma relationship allows these schools to mations (parinama) of those causes. The explain the phenomenal world but in a classic example is the transformation of way that compromises the transcendence milk to curds, butter, and clarified but- of these first principles by making them ter. According to asatkarya’s proponents, part of the world. Philosophically, their each of these effects was already present difficulties come in describing how the in the cause and emerges from it through transcendent can become mundane, and a natural transformation of that cause. then become transcendent again. The Advaita school upholds a philo- sophical position known as monism, Vivasvan which is the belief that a single Ultimate (“shining forth”) Epithet of the god Reality lies behind all things and that all Surya, the Sun. See Surya. things are merely differing forms of that reality. Advaita proponents exemplify this belief in their claim that reality is nondual Vivekananda, Swami (advaita)—that is, that all things are “actu- (b. Narendranath Datta 1863–1902) Best- ally” nothing but the formless, unqualified known disciple of the Bengali mystic Brahman, despite the appearance of dif- Ramakrishna and also the first Hindu ference and diversity in the world. The missionary to the West. Narendranath had Advaitins’ belief that an effect already received a good education and had origi- exists in its cause comes from the princi- nally intended to be a lawyer; on meeting ple that all things in the universe ultimate- Ramakrishna he was initially skeptical and ly depend on Brahman as a first cause. At questioning but in the course of a year the same time the Advaitins are unwilling became transformed. After Ramakrishna’s to admit that Brahman ever undergoes death he spent several years roaming actual change because this would nullify through India, gradually coming to the its eternal and unchanging nature. For this conclusion that religious life had to reason, they speak of an illusory transfor- address India’s material needs as well as its mation (vivartavada). For the Advaitins, spiritual ones. Vivekananda is most Brahman never really changes, because it famous for his address to the First World is eternal and thus unchanging; the Parliament of Religions in Chicago in apparent changes are only illusory, based 1893, in which Hinduism—in its rational, on human ignorance through changing Vedantic form—was first seriously patterns of superimposition (adhyasa). In received by his Western hearers. For the this way the Advaitins can maintain the next four years, he lectured in America transcendence of Brahman and at the and in England and returned to India to same time account for the (apparent) widespread acclaim. He devoted the rest changes in the phenomenal world. of his short life to fostering the This position is contested by propo- Ramakrishna Mission, a religious organi- nents of another model, which describes zation intended to promote social uplift as

767 Vraj

well as religious education. For further weekly vrats are theoretically voluntary, information see Christopher Isherwood, they have become an expected element Ramakrishna and His Disciples, 1965; in women’s religious life, through which Swami Vivekananda, The Complete Works women by their sacrifices can safeguard of Swami Vivekananda, 1970; and George their family’s welfare. For further con- M. Williams, “Swami Vivekananda,” and sideration of women’s rites, see Mary “The Ramakrishna Movement: A Study in McGee, “Desired Fruits: Motive And Religious Change,” both in Robert D. Baird Intention in the Votive Rites of Hindu (ed.), Religion in Modern India, 1998. Women,” in Julia Leslie, ed., Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women, 1991; and Doranne Jacobson and Susan S. Wadley, Vraj Women in India, 1992. Variant form of the region known as Braj. This is the land in which the god Krishna is believed to have lived, Vratya located in the southwestern part of the In the Atharva Veda, one of the earliest state of Uttar Pradesh just south of Hindu religious texts, the vratyas were a Delhi, the national capital. See Braj. particular class of vagrant ascetics who were priests of a non-Vedic fertility cult. Not much is known about them because Vrat there are no other sources, but they were Term denoting a religious vow, usually clearly outside the Vedic cult and thus thought to be derived from the verb looked down upon. In later times, the meaning “to choose.” As religious obser- word is used to designate a person who vances, vrats are an important part of has lost caste through nonobservance of modern Hindu life. They may refer to one of the necessary samskaras (life- religious practices performed once a cycle ceremonies). year with particular festivals, such as the vrat performed on Shivaratri, or to more regular religious observances, such as those connected to the monthly Variant form of Brindavan, the village in lunar calendar (e.g., the ekadashi rites) southeastern part of the state of Uttar or those performed on the day of the Pradesh in which the god Krishna is week associated with a particular patron believed to have lived from infancy to deity. The specific prescriptions for adolescence. See Brindavan. these vrats vary widely, but there are several common features. They usually involve modification of diet—some- Vrtra times through fasting (upavasa), and (“obstruction”) The name of the demon other times by eating or avoiding cer- killed by the storm-god Indra in one of the tain types of food. Another constant fea- hymns from the Rg Veda (1.32), the oldest ture is worship of the presiding deity. Hindu religious text. In this hymn Vrtra is Part of this worship usually involves described as a serpent obstructing the free reading or hearing the vrat’s charter flow of waters, hence his name. The action myth, which tells how the vrat was in this hymn is one of Indra’s defining established, how one should perform it, deeds, in which he destroys the serpent, and what sort of benefits it brings. Vrats cuts it into pieces, and releases the waters connected with festivals are performed to run free. Some interpreters inclined to by all sorts of people, but weekly vrats read the Vedas as historical record have (such as the Santoshi Ma Vrat) are most seen in this hymn the breaching of the often performed by married women to dams constructed by the Indus Valley civ- promote the health, safety, and prosper- ilization by the incoming Aryans, but ity of their families. Although such there is little proof that such an incident ever happened. 768 Vyas

Vyakarana (“analysis”) One of the six Vedangas. These were the auxiliary branches of knowledge connected with the Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts, and all the Vedangas were associated with the use of the Vedas. In its essence, vyakarana is the study of Sanskrit gram- mar, which was obviously essential to understanding the Vedic texts (which were written in Sanskrit). Vyakarana’s role as the gatekeeper to the Sanskrit language made grammar the queen of the traditional learned sciences, and in many contexts it is what is meant by the term (“knowledge”). Aside from vyakarana, the other Vedangas are shiksha (correct pronun- ciation), chandas (Sanskrit prosody), A vyas, or stage director, at a performance kalpa (ritual instructions), nirukta of the Ram Lila, Bombay. (etymology), and jyotisha (auspicious times for sacrifices). Vyapti (“pervasion”) In classical Indian philos- ophy, vyapti is the key condition deter- Vyakhyana (“teaching”) Mudra mining the validity of an inference In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, a (anumana). The accepted form of an particular symbolic hand gesture inference has three terms: An assertion (mudra), in which the tips of the thumb (pratijna) containing the thing to be and index finger are touching, with the proved, a reason (hetu) containing rest of the fingers extended, and the evidence to support the assertion, and palm facing the viewer. This is the hand supporting examples (drshtanta). In gesture used to signify explanation or the stock example “there is fire on exposition; for this reason, it is also the mountain, because there is smoke known as the sandarshana (“exposit- on the mountain,” the assertion is ing”) mudra. Since the teaching gesture that there is fire, and the reason is that indicates a person of higher spiritual there is smoke—with the underlying attainment, it is also known as the chin assumption that smoke invariably (“consciousness”) mudra. accompanies fire. In a valid inference, the reason accounts for every case of the thing to be proven; vyapti, or perva- Vyana sion, is the term for this invariable In traditional Indian physiology, one of association between cause and effect. the five bodily “winds” considered to be For further information see Karl H. responsible for basic bodily functions, Potter (ed.), Presuppositions of India’s the others being prana, apana, udana, Philosophies, 1972. and samana. Unlike all the others, which are given specific locations in the body, the vyana wind is believed to per- Vyas vade throughout the body, to keep In the traditional Ram Lila (name given things moving and mixed together. to any public dramatic presentation of the Ramayana, the earlier of the two great Hindu epics), vyas is the name

769 Vyasa

given to the stage directors. The warring factions whose enmity drives Ramnagar Ram Lila is the longest, most the Mahabharata. Thus Vyasa is not only elaborate, and arguably the oldest of the author of the Mahabharata, but also these dramas. In the Ramnagar Ram the source of the two families whose Lila, one vyas is responsible for the struggle is described in it. svarups, the brahmin boys who are playing the parts of the divinities, and who are considered manifestations of the deities when they are “in character.” The other vyas is responsible for the rest of the cast. Between them they shift the action between chorus and cast, give the actors minute directions for their acting, and prompt them when they forget their lines. As such, they are visi- ble agents themselves and an important part of the Ram Lila.

Vyasa In Hindu mythology, a sage who is tradi- tionally considered to be the author of the Mahabharata, the later of the two great Sanskrit epics. Vyasa is the son of the sage Parashara as a result of his dal- liance with the ferrywoman Satyavati. Later in life Satyavati marries King Shantanu but only after extracting the promise that their children will rule, instead of Shantanu’s eldest son, Bhishma. Satyavati’s first son dies in childhood, and the second dies after his marriage but before having any chil- dren. In her desperation to preserve Shantanu’s line, Satyavati calls on Vyasa to sleep with her younger son’s wives, Ambika and Ambalika. According to tradition Vyasa is very ugly, and both of the women involuntarily react when Vyasa appears in her bed. Ambalika turns pale, causing her son, Pandu, to be born with an unnaturally pale complex- ion, and Ambika covers her eyes, caus- ing her son, Dhrtarashtra, to be born blind. Vyasa also has sexual relations with Ambika’s maidservant, who gives herself to him willingly, and from her is born Vidura. The descendants of Pandu and Dhrtarashtra are the Pandavas and Kauravas, respectively, who are the two

770 White Yajur Veda

these bodies are seen as benevolent, they are also seen as relatively weak in their influence.

West Bengal W Modern Indian state. It was formed after Indian independence in 1947, after the partition of the state of Bengal into West Bengal and West Pakistan, the latter now Water known as . Most of the state One of the five elements in traditional lies in the lowland of the Ganges River Indian cosmology, the others being delta, although in the north, Darjeeling earth, fire, wind, and akasha. In some extends into the Himalayas. West philosophical schools, each of the ele- Bengal’s capital, Calcutta, was the ments is paired with one of the senses; administrative center of British India here water is associated with taste. until the beginning of the twentieth cen- Within the body, water is also associated tury. It was also a hotbed of anti-British with certain bodily functions, especially resistance and has remained one reproduction (involving the mixing of of India’s great artistic and intellectual fluids) and the elimination of fluid centers. West Bengal has a number wastes. of important religious sites: , in the heart of Calcutta, and Dakshi- neshwar, Tarakeshvar, Tarapith, and Wednesday Navadvip. For general information (Budhvar) The fourth day of the week, about West Bengal and all the regions of the presiding planet of which is India, an accessible reference is Mercury (Budh). Although not inauspi- Christine Nivin et al., India, 8th ed., cious, the day has few strong associa- Lonely Planet, 1998. tions and is not linked to the worship of any major deity. The planet Mercury is seen as an auspicious but weak planet, West Indies based on its small size and its quick A cluster of Caribbean islands with a sig- rotation around the sun. nificant Hindu diaspora population. As in many other cases, they were originally brought to the West Indies as indentured Week, Structure of agricultural laborers, particularly on The Hindu week has seven days, just the sugar plantations, but have now like the European calendar. Each of the lived there so long that they have days has a presiding planet, is associat- become a part of the local community. ed with one or more presiding deities, On some of the islands, particularly and (in keeping with the general Indian Trinidad, Hindus have constructed attitude toward time) is deemed more temples and established sacred or less auspicious. The most unlucky sites (tirthas) there, as a way of con- days are Tuesday and Saturday, associ- necting their religious lives to their ated respectively with the planets Mars local environment. and Saturn. Monday (the moon), Thursday (Jupiter), and Friday (Venus) are usually regarded as auspicious days White Yajur Veda since these are judged to be benevolent Along with the Black Yajur Veda, this is and powerful planets. Sunday (the sun) one of the two major forms of the Yajur and Wednesday (Mercury) have no Veda, one of the oldest Hindu religious strong associations, because although texts. The major difference between these two forms comes from the 771 Widows

Women carry water from the lake in a wedding procession in the town of Udaipur. differing placement of explanatory all the symbols of a married woman— notes on the Vedic mantras and their sig- rubbing the red vermilion from the part nificance. The “White” Yajur Veda gathers in her hair, breaking her glass bangles, these notes into an appendix known as a and in southern India, cutting the Brahmana—namely, the Shatapatha thread on her mangal sutra. For the rest Brahmana, which gives its name to of her life, she was forbidden to wear the second major stratum of Vedic texts. jewelry, colored clothing, or other bodily In contrast, the four recensions of the adornments, was supposed to keep her Black Yajur Veda include these notes in the hair cropped short, and was supposed text itself. to devote herself to religious acts for the benefit of her dead husband. Because she had been widowed, she was also Widows considered an unlucky and inauspicious Given the traditional assumption that a person, banned from any and all auspi- Hindu woman’s central role is as a wife cious events, living out her life doing the and mother, becoming a widow is drudge work in the household. In cer- deemed the worst fate that can befall a tain parts of India, it was common prac- woman and is seen as the karmic tice to burn a widow on her husband’s fruition of some ghastly former deed. funeral pyre, a rite known as sati, Because the underlying assumption of although there were many other regions the marriage ceremony is that the in which this practice was unheard of. bride’s identity becomes assimilated to In real life, there was considerable the groom’s, a woman without a variation on this grim picture. The most husband was seen as having lost her significant factors were a woman’s age at identity. Furthermore, because she had the time she was widowed, whether she already taken on her dead husband’s had children, and the social status of her identity, remarriage was not an option husband’s family. A woman widowed in for her. Immediately after her husband’s old age would likely continue as matri- death a woman was supposed to remove arch of the family, a young widow with 772 Woodroffe, Sir John

sons would retain family status through counteraction is to perform various her children, while even a child widow rites of protection, which will safeguard in a wealthy family could have a fairly the person from being affected. Those comfortable life, although subject to afflicted by witchcraft may exhibit this numerous restrictions. Where one or as an unusually persistent illness or as another of these factors was lacking, strange behavior; for these people, then a widow’s position would be much stronger remedies are needed. As Sudhir more precarious, and there is no doubt Kakar masterfully shows, the language that in earlier times many widows led of possession and exorcism can be very difficult lives. Even in modern interpreted as an “idiom” (using tradi- times a woman whose husband dies at a tional Indian cultural categories) for young age is often considered to be what modern psychiatrists might call inauspicious, and thus a source of bad the diagnosis and treatment of mental fortune. Ameliorating the condition of illness. For further information see widows was one of the major goals of Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics, and nineteenth-century Hindu reformers, Doctors, 1991; and David F. Pocock, “The and it has become more common for Evil Eye,” in T. N. Madan (ed.), Religion widows to remarry, although some of in India, 1991. the most traditionally minded people do not accept this. Women In the dharma literature, women from Wind all social groups were considered at the One of the five elements in traditional same ritual level as shudras—they could Indian cosmology, the others being not undergo a second birth, were forbid- earth, fire, water, and akasha. In some den to hear the Vedas, were forbidden to philosophical schools, each of the ele- perform certain religious rites, and in ments is paired with one of the five senses; many places could not own property or here wind is associated with touch. The resources, except by extension through various “vital winds” (prana) inside the their husbands. At the same time, body are also associated with a number women played (and play) an immensely of bodily functions, including respira- important part in Hindu religious life, as tion and circulation. daughters, mothers, wives, and patrons. According to the traditional dharma lit- erature women had their own special Witchcraft role to play, based on their status as The existence of witchcraft is generally women. See also stridharma. accepted in many segments of contem- porary Hindu culture, even by many “modern” urban Hindus. The root forces Woodroffe, Sir John behind witchcraft are malevolence, (1865–1936) Calcutta High Court Justice envy, and greed, through which some who also, under the pseudonym of people try to harm others or to ruin Arthur Avalon, translated and published what they have gained. Witches may works on tantra, a secret, ritually based work through spells, through the evil eye religious practice. Woodroffe was one of (nazar), or through pronouncing curses the earliest European exponents of on others. Pregnant women and young tantra as a coherent religious path and children are thought to be particularly served as an apologist for the seemingly susceptible to their powers, and these “impure” or “immoral” ritual acts parties are also deemed particularly described in the texts. In his expositions likely to be cursed, because the envy of the tantras, Woodroffe was trying to over their good fortune is said to excite convince a dual audience, both of whom a witch’s passion. The appropriate were horrified at the licentiousness

773 World Parliament of Religions

described in the tantric texts, which involving offerings and objects involve violating deeply embedded usually falls under the rubric of the word taboos on nonvegetarian food, con- Puja (“homage”). sumption of alcohol, and illicit sexuality. On the one hand, Woodroffe was addressing the British, who were the Worship of Tools political masters of the time, and on the A rite traditionally performed on the fes- other, educated Indians, many of whom tival of Dussehra by members of certain would have preferred to dismiss the artisan groups. This festival has two dif- tantras as an aberration. His publica- ferent charter myths, both of which tions and lectures were instrumental in mark the triumph of good over evil. It is helping make tantrism respectable, celebrated as the day that the god Rama although more careful scholarly work slew the demon Ravana, and is also has been done since that time. associated with the triumph of the Goddess over a demon named Mahi- shasura. For the artisans, such wor- World Parliament of Religions ship ritually marks the importance of Meeting in Chicago in 1893 to which their tools as a means to earn their representatives from major world reli- livelihood, and such propitiation is gions were invited, including Asian reli- also believed to guarantee success for gions. It marks a watershed in the the following year. Euro-American conception of non- Christian religions, in which they were no longer seen as simple idolatry but Worship of Weapons taken seriously as genuine religious In earlier times, a common rite among paths. It is also notable that many main- the warrior classes on the festival of line Christian churches were not repre- Dussehra (usually occurring within sented there, and that the main October and November). This festival Christian presence came from histori- has two different charter myths, both of cally black churches. One of the which mark the triumph of good over Parliament’s highlights was the address evil. It is celebrated as the day that the by Swami Vivekananda, in which god Rama slew the demon Ravana, and Hinduism—in its rational, Vedantic is also associated with the triumph of form—was first seriously received by his the Goddess over a demon named Western hearers. Vivekananda’s pres- Mahishasura. Given the martial tone of ence was charismatic enough that he both charter myths, it is easy to see how spent the next four years living in it would be associated with soldiers and America and in 1897 founded the fighting, and thus this was considered a Vedanta Society. day to worship one’s weapons, as a sym- bol of the deity. According to popular belief, any endeavor begun on this festi- Worship val day will invariably succeed, and for Two separate words can be used to this reason, Dussehra has been a describe Hindu worship, with two favored day to begin military cam- groups of assumptions that come with paigns. Since Dussehra comes after the it. The first and most common act of end of the monsoon rains, in which any worship is called darshan (“seeing”), in travel is nearly impossible, this is a which devotees (bhakta) view the image favorable time from a strategic perspec- of the deity, and believe that the deity tive as well. is also looking at them. Darshan is thus an interaction between deity and devotee, an exchange of glances that carries understanding. Worship

774 Smrti

and ritual technicians, who knew how to perform complex sacrificial rites, but they were dependent for their livelihood on the patronage of their sponsors.

Y Yajna (“sacrifice”) A fire sacrifice, which was the primary religious act in the earliest stra- tum of Indian religion. This cult of sacri- fice is elaborated in the greatest detail in In Hindu mythology, the tribe from which the Brahmana literature, in which sacri- the god Krishna is said to have come and fice is portrayed as the means by which over which he ruled after he gained his the universe came into being. The perfor- kingdom in the city of Dwaraka. In Indian mance of sacrifice needed highly trained history, the Yadava dynasty controlled the priestly technicians (rtvij), who were dif- Deccan region in modern Maharashtra ferently responsible for chanting parts of between the thirteenth and fourteenth the Rg, Sama, and Yajur Vedas, as well as centuries. In northern Indian society, this building and maintaining the sacred fire is the name of a particular jati, an endog- that was the heart of the sacrificial action. amous social subgroup that was orga- This cult of sacrifice was essentially based nized (and whose social status was on burning things in this sacred fire, con- determined) by the group’s hereditary ceived as the god Agni, so that Agni could occupation. In past generations the convey the offerings to the other deities. had fairly low status, but they These rites were so elaborate and expen- have recently gained much greater politi- sive that they eventually fell into disuse; by cal power—Mulayam Singh Yadav has the turn of the common era, there was twice been elected chief minister of Uttar also considerable ambivalence about the Pradesh and has also served as India’s animal sacrifices that were originally an minister of Defense; Laloo Prasad Yadav important part of many of these sacrifices. has been the chief minister of Bihar These ancient rites are rarely performed (either directly or by proxy through his today, but in the present context the word wife) throughout the 1990s. yajna can be used for any rite involving the sacred fire, particularly one carried out by a brahmin for a patron. Yadunandana (“joy of the Yadus”) Epithet of the god Krishna. The Yadus were reckoned as Yajnavalkya Krishna’s clan, and thus he was their joy. In the Upanishads, the speculative texts See Krishna. that form the latest textual stratum in the Veda, Yajnavalkya is named as a sage associated with the court of King Yajamana Janaka, who was able to show that he (“patron of the sacrifice”) In the cult of had greater wisdom than the others. He sacrifice found in the Vedas, the oldest is also ascribed as the author of the Hindu religious texts, the yajamana was Yajnavalkya Smrti, one of the texts that the person who commissioned the sac- comprise the dharma literature, based rifice and paid for its performance, and on the pattern of mythic ascription who thus stood to gain its anticipated found in these texts. benefits. This term draws a crucial dis- tinction between priest and patron and points to the relationship between Yajnavalkya Smrti them—the former were learned men One of the smrtis or “remembered” texts, a class of literature deemed important but 775 Yajnopavit

less authoritative than the other textual Yaksha category, the shrutis or “heard” texts. This (feminine yakshi) A class of minor smrti is ascribed to the sage Yajnavalkya deities who are essentially nature spirits and is an example of one of the Dharma and are often narrowly associated with Shastras, which were manuals prescribing particular places. are reckoned rules for correct human behavior and ideal as the attendants of the deity Kubera, social life. Unlike the Dharma Sutras, who is regarded as the guardian of the which are ascribed to recognizable indi- northern direction and the lord of viduals, the Dharma Shastras are usually wealth. The yakshas are generally ascribed to mythic sages, as a strategy to regarded as beneficent toward human reinforce the authority of these texts. The beings, and because of their associa- extant text is about a thousand verses, tions with the generative power of divided into sections on religious custom nature and with Kubera’s wealth, they (achara), the administration of justice are often regarded as bestowing wealth (vyavahara), and expiation (praya- and fertility. Yakshas have a long history shchitta). Estimates on its date of compo- of appearances in Indian sectarian liter- sition range from the first to the sixth ature, where they are either portrayed as century, but it is clearly later than the guardian spirits or as examples of Manu Smrti because some parts of the depravity. Although it is fairly old, the middle section are far more developed. only extensive monograph on yakshas is The Yajnavalkya Smrti was the subject of , Yaksas, 1971. numerous commentaries, one of which, the Mitakshara, was given the status of a legal code for the greater part of India dur- Yama ing the British empire. God of death and Death personified. Yama is one of the eight Guardians of the Directions, associated with the southern Yajnopavit direction, and for this reason, the south is Another name for the sacred thread. See considered an inauspicious direction. sacred thread. Yama first appears in the Vedas, the oldest Hindu religious texts, where he is Yajur Veda described as the first mortal. By virtue of being the first person to suffer death, he Traditionally, the third of the four Vedas. was seen as presiding over the World of the As with the Rg Veda and the Sama Veda, Fathers, where the virtuous dead feasted the Yajur Veda was associated with sacri- and enjoyed themselves (much as they ficial rituals, and the text itself consists had on earth). As the tradition developed, mainly of the mantras to be uttered conceptions of Yama shifted in turn, until while the sacrifice was being carried he was considered the judge of the dead, out. The Yajur Veda exists in five major ruling mainly over the regions of punish- recensions, of which four are “black” ment, primarily hells, in which people suf- and one is “white.” Their differences fered until they were reborn. Yama is often stem from the placement of explanatory portrayed holding a noose, with which he notes on the mantras and their signifi- draws out the person’s spirit at the time of cance: The recensions of the Black Yajur death and leads it bound to judgment. Veda contain these notes in the text Modern poster images of Yama show him itself, whereas the White Yajur Veda seated on a throne as king of the dead, gathers these notes into an appendix majestic and dark in color; to his left sits known as a Brahmana—namely, the the scribe , who keeps a ledger Shatapatha Brahmana—and this book recording the actions of human Brahmana literature becomes the next beings. Yama’s role as the judge of the dead major stratum of Vedic texts. makes him greatly feared in everyday Hindu life. Ideally, this fear can have a pos- 776 Yamuna River

Low fog hovers over the Yamuna River with the Taj Mahal in the distance. itive outcome—reinforcing people’s incli- of the Alvars, a group of poet-saints who nation to abstain from evil—and one of the lived in southern India between the sev- names for Yama is Dharmaraja, the “Lord enth and the tenth centuries. All the Alvars of Righteous Action.” Hindu mythology were devotees of Vishnu, and they also has tales of people who somehow expressed this devotion in passionate manage to outsmart Yama, of whom the hymns sung in the Tamil language; among best known is Savitri, who manages to gain southern Indian Vaishnavas (devotees of back the life of her husband, Satyavan. Vishnu), these hymns are so holy that they are referred to as the “Tamil Veda.” Ramanuja, on the other hand, was a Yama philosopher who organized and system- (2) In the ashtanga (“eight-part”) yoga first atized this devotional outpouring into a codified by Patanjali (1st c. C.E.?), yama coherent philosophical position and thus (“restraint”) is the first and most basic of is considered the founder of the the eight constituent elements of yoga Shrivaishnava religious community. practice. Patanjali lists these as five: It is generally believed that Yamuna- abstaining from harm to other living charya was Nathamuni’s grandson, and things (), abstaining from theft, thus he was heir to the religious tradi- truthfulness, celibacy (brahmacharya), tion his grandfather had helped create. and abstaining from avarice. These can all There is much more doubt about the be characterized as “restraints” because claim that he was Ramanuja’s religious their intent is negative—they do not call preceptor (guru) because it seems more for positive actions as much as they entail likely that Yamuna’s influence on refraining from certain thoughts or actions Ramanuja was transmitted by Yamuna’s deemed especially injurious. disciples. Still, what is indisputable is that these three are the three main fig- Yamunacharya ures in the development of the Shri- (10th c.) According to tradition, a devotee vaishnava tradition, and thus that (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, who is Yamunacharya occupies a pivotal spot. claimed to be the grandson of Nathamuni, and the teacher of Ramanuja. Nathamuni Yamuna River was the compiler of the Nalayira Northern Indian river rising at Yamu- Divyaprabandham, the collected hymns notri in the Himalayas, and flowing 777 Yamunotri

west and south of the Ganges River, Yantra which the Yamuna finally joins at (“instrument”) In astrology (jyotisha), Allahabad in the state of Uttar and in tantra, a secret, ritually based Pradesh. The Yamuna is traditionally religious practice, the word yantra considered one of the seven sacred most commonly refers to a symbolic rivers of India, along with the Ganges, diagram, often believed to confer Godavari, Saraswati, Narmada, magic or spiritual power on those Indus, and Cauvery. The Yamuna who know how to use it. In some cases flows through the Braj region south of such yantras are considered to be an Delhi, which is traditionally associat- aniconic form of a deity, as is the case ed as the homeland of Krishna, and of the most famous yantra, the his devotees (bhakta) revere it even Shriyantra or Shrichakra, which is more than the Ganges. For his devo- used in ritual for the worship of the tees, places throughout the Braj goddess . The most lit- region carry strong associations eral meaning of the word is “device for with the life of Krishna, but the most restraining,” and in an astrological important sites are at Mathura setting the yantras of the various and Brindavan. planets are used in rituals to change their effects, usually to restrain or Yamunotri diminish the power of planets judged to be malefic or inauspicious. Sacred site (tirtha) in the Himalayas at the headwaters of the Yamuna River. Ritually speaking, Yamunotri is Yashoda considered to be the source of the In Hindu mythology, the god Yamuna, although the actual source Krishna’s foster mother, who receives lies farther upstream, at the foot of the him on the night he is born, and cares Bandarpunch Mountain. Its high alti- for him until he is old enough to tude also means that it is only accessi- return to Mathura to claim his throne. ble between late April and October, Yashoda is a paradigm for selfless after which it is closed for the winter devotion, who loves Krishna as if he is months—a pattern echoed at her own biological child. Her mythic Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath, example of loving, motherly care has the other three major Himalayan pil- provided the model for vatsalya grim sites. One ritual center in bhava, one of the five modes of devo- Yamunotri is the river itself, in which tion most prominently articulated by pilgrims bathe (snana), braving the Rupa Goswami, a devotee (bhakta) of frigid waters. There are also several the god Krishna and a follower of the temples—the oldest built by one of Bengali saint Chaitanya. In the vat- the kings of Nepal—but the temples at salya mode of devotion, devotees con- Yamunotri are quite modest com- sider themselves as God’s parents, pared with those at Gangotri, and the lavishing love and care on the deity as only large one was built in the 1980s. a cow cares for her calf. Aside from the holy river and its tem- ples, Yamunotri is also noted for sev- eral hot springs from which water Yaska emerges almost boiling; some of these (5th c. B.C.E.?) Traditionally cited as hot springs have been channeled into the author of the Nirukta, a text giv- a tank, and many pilgrims take advan- ing etymological explanations for tage of the hot baths. archaic words in the Veda. Almost a quarter of the words in the Veda appear only once. Even by Yaska’s

778 Yatra

A yantra is a symbolic diagram often believed to confer magic or spiritual power on those who know how to use it. time, the meanings for many of these ascetic, as someone who had gained words had become either uncertain or control over himself. At the time of the completely lost, as the spoken lan- Vedas there seems to be some ambiva- guage had changed. Although at times lence for the yatis, since the storm-god it is clear that Yaska himself is guess- Indra is said to have fought with them, ing—as when modern linguists but in later times the word takes on an can make comparisons to the Iranian unequivocally positive connotation. Avesta, a related sacred text—his work was immeasurably helpful to later readers. Yatra (“journey”) Although in its literal mean- ing the word yatra can refer to any sort Yathakhyati of travel, in modern Hindi its semantic (“discrimination [of things] as they are”) field is considerably narrower and con- Another name for the theory of error notes travel with some serious purpose, known as satkhyati. See satkhyati. rather than a stroll around the block or a sightseeing trip. The word yatra’s most important connotation is travel Yati for religious purposes, particularly pil- (from Sanskrit yam, “to restrain”) From grimage to the sacred sites (tirthas). A the time of the Vedas, the earliest Hindu yatra is thus a journey, but a particular religious texts, the word yati has been type of journey. one of the terms used to designate an

779 Yatri

Yatri Shravan (July–August), Bhadrapada In an ascetic context, the word yatri (August–September), Ashvin (September– denotes a novitiate Bairagi, a renun- October), Kartik (October–November), ciant ascetic community comprising Margashirsha (November–December), devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu. As Paush (December–January), Magh (January– an everyday word it means a person per- February), and Phalgun (February– forming a yatra (“journey”; more specif- March). In northern India, the calendar ically, a trip with the significance of a usually begins in the first day of the religious pilgrimage). bright half of Chaitra, meaning that the last days of the year are those in the dark half of this same month. Since these lunar months are based on In Hindu mythology, the son of King the phases of the moon (ending with the Nahusha and a king in the . full moon in northern India and the new moon in southern India), the festivals determined by this lunar calendar fall at Year, Structure of different times each year with respect to The Hindu ritual year is determined the solar calendar. This is because the according to both a solar calendar and a twelve lunar months are completed in lunar calendar. Aside from the Gregorian about 354 solar days, and thus, each lunar calendar and the common era, there are year begins eleven days earlier than the two indigenous Hindu calculations of 1 last. About every 2 ⁄2 years this discrepancy the solar year, both of which have twelve is corrected by the addition of an extra solar months. In northern India these lunar month, known as the intercalary months correspond to the twelve signs month, through which the solar and lunar of the zodiac, and the months change as calendars are kept in general correspon- the sun moves through them. As in the dence. The intercalary month is added to Western zodiac, the year begins when any lunar month in which the sun does the sun enters Aries, although according not enter a new sign of the zodiac and can to Indian astrology this transition takes thus fall in any month of the year. In this place around April 14, rather than way, although the solar calendar is less March 21, as figured in Euro-American important in everyday life, it helps main- astrology. In southern India there is an tain the general correspondence between identical solar calendar, whose names the lunar calendar and the seasonal festi- are drawn from the names of certain vals associated with that calendar. nakshatras or lunar asterisms. Aside At least in northern India, the three from the solar months, the solar year is major seasons (hot, monsoon, and cool) also divided into halves based on the have important links with the festival movement of the sun: the Uttarayana calendar. In general, the most ritually for the period when the sun is moving active time is the cool season between north, and the Dakshinayana in the October and February; in many places time the sun is moving south. The sun this is also the time following the begins its northward journey, consid- harvest, when many people have more ered the more auspicious time, on time and money to spend on religious Makara Sankranti, reckoned as falling observances. The hot season has many on January 14; it begins its southward rites associated with heat, whereas the journey six months later on Karka rainy season, as a time of peril, is often Sankranti on July 14. connected with rites of protection. Far more important for religious purposes is the lunar calendar, which has twelve lunar months: Chaitra Yellamma (March–April), Baisakh (April–May), Presiding goddess of the shrine on Jyeshth (May–June), Ashadh (June–July), Yellama hill, in the town of Saundatti in 780 Yoga

the Belgaum district of the state of consideration of the system, in Karnataka. Yellama’s temple is infa- this case at the Jagannath temple in mous for being a traditional center for Puri, see Frederique Apffel Marglin, the dedication of devadasis (“[female] Wives of the God-King, 1985. servant of the Lord”), a class of women kept in temples as singers and dancers in the service of the temple’s presiding Yoga deity and to whom they were usually The literal meaning of the word yoga is considered to be “married.” In Yellama’s “the act of joining,” and it is cognate temple, however, both boys and girls can with the English word “yoke.” Just as the be dedicated. Although for the past two latter word can serve as either a verb or centuries the devadasi tradition has car- a noun—either the act of yoking, or the ried associations with common prosti- thing to which animals are yoked—in tution, in earlier times it was far more the same way the word yoga can refer common for a devadasi to live with a both to the act or process of spiritual single man for her entire life, although development and also to a specific set of she could not marry him because she teachings fostering this development. was considered dedicated to the deity. Both these meanings can be conveyed At times this dedication is done by the word “discipline,” and this is one because of a demand by the goddess of the preferred translations. herself, revealed through possession; in There are many specific teachings other cases the parents do this, hoping styling themselves as . The oldest to gain some concrete benefit, particu- one is laid out in the Yoga Sutras attrib- larly healing from disease. Yellamma is uted to the sage Patanjali; this system is associated with fire and also with caus- known as ashtanga (“eight-limbed”) ing (and potentially curing) skin dis- yoga, because of its eight constituent eases, which can be seen as symbolic parts. Other well-known yogas are the “burning.” three “paths” described by the god According to the traditional model, Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, an devadasis held a definite social position important religious text: the yogas of and had special legal rights—they were action (karma), wisdom (jnana), and entitled to family inheritance and to devotion (bhakti). Another well-known perform religious rites, which other yoga is kundalini yoga, the practice of women were not. These special rights which is entirely internal, in the alter- have disappeared with the outlawing of nate physiological system known as the the devadasi system, done, in part, by subtle body. Kundalini yoga stresses the British, and definitively in post- awakening the kundalini, the latent Independence India. Although such spiritual power that exists in every per- dedications still take place, in many son, and through this gaining spiritual cases they are little more than a cover for benefits. These make up the main cate- procurement, with the girls being gories of teachings, but the members of shipped to brothels in Bombay, Pune, many particular religious communities and other central Indian cities. In most will describe their religious practice cases the girls come from extremely as yoga: Thus there is the surat-shabd- poor families, and the dedication to yoga of the Radha Soamis, the Raja Yellamma is a way to avoid paying for a Yoga of the Brahma Kumaris, or the wedding, a major expense in contempo- Siddha Yoga of the SYDA Foundation. rary Indian society. The dedications take In such cases the word is used to place on the full moon in the lunar identify a particular religious group’s month of Magh (January–February), characteristic teaching, which usually and are reportedly widespread, but includes elements from the classical because of secrecy, the laws prohibit- articulations of yoga. ing this are rarely enforced. For further 781 Yoga Mudra

Yoga Mudra which she withdraws her yogic sleep In Indian dance, sculpture, and ritual, a from Vishnu; he then regains con- particular symbolic hand gesture sciousness and rescues Brahma by (mudra), in which the right hand is killing the demons. placed flat on the left, with both palms pointing up, and the joined hands are Yoga Sutras laid on the crossed legs. In a sculptural (“aphorisms on yoga”) A set of brief say- image, this mudra indicates that the fig- ings traditionally ascribed to the sage ure is adept in yoga. Patanjali, which are the foundational texts for the Yoga school, one of the six Yogananda, Paramahamsa schools of traditional Hindu philoso- (b. Mukunda Lal Ghosh 1893–1952) phy. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras are usually Modern Hindu teacher and founder of read with a commentary ascribed to the the Self-Realization Fellowship. Yoga- sage Vyasa, and this commentary has nanda was one of the earliest Hindu become accepted as an integral part of missionaries to come to America. He the text. The text of the Yoga Sutras is came to Boston in 1920, to address the divided into four parts, with each part International Congress of Religious devoted to a particular theme: The first Liberals in Boston and never returned part focuses on concentration (samadhi), to India. He eventually settled outside the second part on the mechanics of Los Angeles, where he established a spiritual development (sadhana), the center and lived for the rest of his life. In third part treats various attainments his early years in America he was con- (vibhuti), including magic powers (sid- sidered something of a curiosity, and ), and the last part describes the state there are photos of him taken with of yogic isolation (kaivalya), which the President Calvin Coolidge. Yogananda’s text describes as liberation. The text pre- teachings were largely based in the ash- supposes the cosmology taught by the tanga yoga of the classical Yoga Sutras, Samkhya school, another of the six but he also stressed the doctrine of kriya schools, and the Yoga school is often (“active”) yoga, which is claimed to considered the “practical” articulation accelerate spiritual attainment. Most of of Samkhya theory. Yogananda’s disciples and both his suc- cessors were Americans, and the Self- Yogi Realization Fellowship is essentially an Literally meaning “one possessing American organization with historical yoga,” in practice the word refers only to roots in India. For further information a yogic adept—someone who “possesses” see ’s Auto- yoga in the sense of having mastered biography of a Yogi, 1997. it—rather than to anyone simply prac- ticing yoga. True yogis are widely Yoganidra believed to have superhuman powers (“sleep of yoga”) Epithet of the Goddess (siddhi) as a by-product of their long in the first episode of the Devi- spiritual development, which they can mahatmya, the earliest and most author- and will exercise for the benefit of their itative text for the mythology of the disciples—for physical healing of dis- Goddess. In this episode, the Goddess eases, for psychological help, or for giv- has lulled Vishnu into a stupor through ing guidance on both spiritual and her power of illusion, making him mundane matters. The yogi is seen as a oblivious to Brahma’s cries for help spiritually realized person, and their when he is menaced by the demons authority stems completely from this Madhu and Kaitabha. Brahma is saved attribution, which paradoxically is not when he praises the Goddess, after subject to any sort of external verification. 782 Yogmaya

Consequently, there are significant dif- importance in the Sikh community. The ferences of opinion on whether or not most significant difference, however, is any particular person is a yogi. the religious authority that Yogi Bhajan holds over his followers, which is very different from the decentralized, essen- Yogi Bhajan tially democratic form of the traditional (b. Harbhajan Singh Puri, 1927) Modern Sikh community. Hindu missionary and founder of the 3HO/Sikh Dharma Brotherhood. He first came to the United States in 1969, Ekadashi leaving behind his position as a customs Religious observance falling on the official at the Delhi airport. His initial eleventh day (ekadashi) of the dark teachings were the traditional disci- (waning) half of the lunar month of plines of hatha yoga and kundalini Ashadh (June–July). As for all the yoga, with his followers organized into a eleventh-day observances, this is group known as the “Happy, Healthy, dedicated to the worship of Vishnu, Holy Organization” (3HO). Hatha yoga is particularly in his form as Narayana. a system of religious discipline (yoga) Most Hindu festivals have certain based on a series of bodily postures prescribed rites, which usually involve known as asanas; this practice is widely fasting (upavasa) and worship and believed to provide various physical often promise specific benefits for benefits, including increased bodily faithful performance. On this day the flexibility and the ability to heal chronic prescribed action is to give gifts to ailments. Kundalini yoga is a religious poor brahmins; faithfully observing this discipline, the primary focus of which is festival washes away the sin of cutting awakening the kundalini, the latent down a pipal tree (ashvattha) and also spiritual force that exists in every person brings one birth in heaven. in the subtle body. The kundalini is awakened through a combination of yoga practice and ritual action and is Yogmaya believed to bring further spiritual capac- Powerful form of the Goddess, particu- ities and ultimately final liberation larly noted for her power to bewitch and (moksha) of the soul. bewilder people—in other words, her These two disciplines remain an ability to wield maya, the power of illu- important part of Yogi Bhajan’s teach- sion. In some modern sources Yogmaya ings, for he claims to be a master of is named as the deity who takes the tantra, a secret, ritually based religious form of the infant girl exchanged for the practice, but in the 1970s his teaching infant god Krishna and is later killed widened to include traditional Sikh by Krishna’s wicked uncle, Kamsa. teachings and symbols. The most According to these sources, it is under prominent of these symbols are the “five her spell the previous night that all the Ks” that all Sikhs are supposed to wear, inhabitants of Kamsa’s palace fall asleep, so called because each of them begins and Krishna’s father, Vasudeva, is able to with the letter k: uncut hair (kesh), a spirit the infant away. Later in Krishna’s comb (kangha), a bangle on the right career, Yogmaya is believed to facilitate wrist (kara), shorts (kacch), and a cere- his clandestine meetings with the monial sword (kirpan). Many of Yogi women of Braj—when Krishna plays his Bhajan’s followers keep the Sikh symbols flute, the women come to him, but all far more strictly than most people born the others fall into the spell cast by as Sikhs, but the movement has two Yogmaya and are unaware of their important divergences with the tradi- absence. Because of her ability to wield tional Sikh community. One of these is maya, Yogmaya is a powerful deity; she its emphasis on tantra, which has little is worshiped on the fourth day of the fall 783

Navaratri, the festival of the “nine sions, Yudhishthira wagers himself and nights” that are sacred to the Goddess in his brothers. After losing this bet, he her varying forms. wagers and loses the Pandava brothers’ common wife, Draupadi. This loss leads to Draupadi’s humiliation, in Yoni which she is paraded through the Although in modern Hindi this has assembly hall by Duryodhana and his become a vulgar word for female brother, Duhshasana, her clothes genitalia, its most literal meaning is stained with her menstrual blood. This “womb,” both in a literal sense as the event sharpens the already strong enmi- place of gestation and in a metaphorical ties between the two groups. Shocked at sense as any place of origin, source, or such treatment, Duryodhana’s father, generative power. King Dhrtarashtra, gives the Pandavas back their freedom, but because of the Yudhishthira loss in the game of dice, the Pandavas (“firm in battle”) In the Mahabharata, agree to go into exile for twelve years the later of the two great Hindu epics, and live incognito for the thirteenth, Yudhishthira is the eldest of the with the condition that if they are Pandava brothers who are the epic’s discovered in the thirteenth year the protagonists. Yudhishthira is magically cycle will begin anew. born when his mother, Kunti, uses a Yudhishthira and his brothers peace- powerful mantra to have a son by fully pass their twelve years in exile. Dharma, the god of righteousness. During the thirteenth year, they live in the Yudhishthira is in all ways his father’s court of King Virata, where they remain son; he is described in the epic as the undiscovered, despite frantic searching manifestation of Dharma on earth. He by Duryodhana’s spies. When the thir- is proverbial for his strict adherence to teen years have passed, Yudhishthira and the truth, is courteous to all, and is his brothers return to claim their part of committed to righteousness. His only the kingdom. Yudhishthira hopes for personal flaw is a love of gambling, a some sort of peaceful settlement and love matched only by his complete lack sends a message to Duryodhana saying of gaming skill, and this flaw has major that they will be satisfied with a mere five repercussions. villages, one for each brother. When Because of his virtues, Yudhishthira Duryodhana responds that they will not is selected as heir to the throne by his get as much land as could fit under the uncle, Dhrtarashtra. This choice raises point of a needle, Yudhishthira realizes the jealousy of Dhrtarashtra’s son, that they will not get their rights without Duryodhana. He first tries to kill the a battle. He reluctantly mobilizes his Pandavas by building the flammable brothers for war. He fights valiantly in house of lac. The house is burned, but the great war and is crowned the king the Pandavas are able to escape after their victory. unharmed. Some time later, Duryodhana After ruling for many years, decides to win Yudhishthira’s rights to Yudhishthira sets out with his brothers the kingship in a game of dice. Here and their wife, Draupadi, for the Yudhishthira’s love for gambling gets the Himalayas, followed by a small dog. As better of his judgment, for he is playing they climb the mountains Draupadi and against Duryodhana’s maternal uncle, his brothers die one by one, but the dog Shakuni, who is very skilled. As Yud- remains with Yudhishthira. At the top of hishthira begins to lose, he keeps betting the Himalayas Yudhishthira finds the bigger and bigger stakes, in an effort to god Indra, the king of heaven, waiting win back what he has lost. After losing for him in a golden chariot. Indra tells their kingdom and all their posses- Yudhishthira that he will take him to heaven but that Yudhishthira will have 784 Yuga

to leave the dog behind. Yudhishthira flatly refuses to abandon his faithful companion, even if it means that he will not go to heaven. The dog then reveals himself to be the god Dharma in dis- guise. The lesson in this story is that throughout his life Yudhishthira never allows himself to stray far from right- eousness; even at the end he refuses to forsake it.

Yuga A name denoting a unit of cosmic time, with two possible meanings. According to traditional belief, time has neither beginning nor end, but alternates between cycles of creation and activity, followed by cessation and quietude. Each of these cycles lasts for 4.32 billion years, with the active phase known as the Day of Brahma, and the quiet phase the Night of Brahma. In cosmic time, the Day of Brahma is divided into one thousand mahayugas (“great cosmic ages”), each of which lasts for 4.32 million years, and this is one possible meaning of the word yuga. The more common use is to refer to a mahayuga’s four constituent yugas, named the Krta Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga.

785 Zodiac

are judged to be the winter and the sum- mer solstices but occur in the second weeks of January and July. Given a differ- ence of about three weeks, it is not sur- prising that there are significant Z differences in the astrological calcula- tions between these two systems.

Zodiac The signs of the zodiac in Indian astrol- ogy (jyotisha) are virtually identical with that of Western astrology, and it is gener- ally accepted that the Greek zodiac was brought to India in the first to third cen- turies via the Greek kingdoms in mod- ern Afghanistan. There are slight differences in the nomenclature; the Indian zodiac has Dhanus (“bow”) in place of Sagittarius, Makara (a sea mon- ster sometimes identified as a crocodile) for Capricorn, and Kumbha (“[water] pot”) for Aquarius. As with Western astrology, each of the twelve signs has certain characteristics, with which peo- ple born in these signs are imbued. The two systems differ sharply in how they figure the annual starting point, although both begin with the sign of Aries. The zodiac used in Western astrology begins on the vernal equinox, on which the sign of Aries is the begin- ning. By Indian accounts the starting point of the zodiac comes when the sun intersects the midpoint of a group of stars named . It is thus based on the position of the sun with regard to the fixed stars, whereas the Western zodiac is based on the position of the sun with regard to the earth—that is, when it intersects the equator, and is thus independent of the fixed stars. These differing methods have produced a discrepancy between the two systems, which are now more than three weeks apart—in the Western zodiac Aries begins on March 21, whereas in the Indian zodiac it does not begin until about April 14. This discrepancy can also be seen in the account of Makara Sankranti and Karka Sankranti, which

786 A Note on Transliteration

I have transliterated Hindi and Sanskrit terms into English to match their original pronunciation as closely as possible. In most cases, the translitera- tion is a straightforward substitution of Hindi or Sanskrit letters with their counterparts in English. However, discrepancies in the languages create some difficulties in transliteration. In this book, Hindi and Sanskrit words are made plural by adding the English s to the end. This is done to conform the transliterated words to English grammar, even though this is not standard in Hindi or Sanskrit. For some terms there exist both Sanskritic and Hindi forms, each with dif- ferent pronunciations. I have transliterated these words from Hindi or Sanskrit depending on the most appropriate context; Sanskritic forms seem fitting when one is discussing Sanskrit texts, but not when reporting a remark by a Hindi speaker. Transliteration also becomes complicated for words where there is a Hindi or Sanskrit letter that does not directly correspond to a letter in English. For example, single characters in the Hindi alphabet represent sounds that require consonant combinations in English, such as “ch” and “sh.” I have used these letter combinations to substitute for the Hindi letters whenever possi- ble. In other cases, transliterating Hindi and Sanskrit pronunciation is not as straightforward. The following list contains Hindi and Sanskrit terms from this book that do not follow standard English pronunciation. They are written here with diacritical marks to indicate the proper pronunciation.

787 Pronunciation Guide

Vowels a as in but 0 as in father ai as in bite au as in trout e as in pay i as in kit 7 as in feet o as in coat u as in put 6 as in boot

Consonants c as in check $ as in lip (with the “l” sound rolled) # This is the Tamil “l.” To make this sound place the tip of the tongue back in the palate and hold it there while making an “l” sound. + This indicates that the previous vowel is nazalized (pronounced through the nose) 2 as in sing or sink & as pronounced in Spanish (eg. mañana) 8 as in rip (with the “r” sound rolled) { This sound is found in Tamil, but not Sanskrit. The “r” sound is pronounced with a trill. 4 as in shirt

As for !/!h, @/@h, 3, and 5, these are pronounced by placing the tip of the tongue at the top of the palate and flexing it forward.

788 Abha2g Anek0ntav0da Bais0kh Bh7ma Abh0va A2giras Bais0kh7 Bhogama3@apa Abh7ra A3im0 Bai!hak Bhogaw0ra *caman7ya A&jali hasta Bak0sur Bholan0th *c0ra A&jan0 B0labhadra Bhramarg7t Adhikam0sa Annak6! B0laj7 Bhramar7 Adhik0ra An8ta Balar0ma Bh8gu Adhv0ryum Anta=pura B03a Bhudev7 Adhy0sa Antar0la B03a Li2ga Bhuja2gavalaya *digranth Antary0ga Bani0 Bh6riw0ra *ditya Anum0na Banj0ra Bhu4u3@i *div0si Anyath0khy0ti Barahm0sa Bh6t Advaita Ved0nta Ap0na B0r0t Bh6ta *gama Ap6rva Bar6th0n7 Bh6tali2gas Aghor7 *ra3yaka Ek0da47 Bh6tayaj&a Agrah0ra *rati Begamp6ra Bidh07 Samaroh Ahaly0 *rdha Kumbha Bhadrak0l7 B7jak Brahm0smi Mel0 Bh0drapada Brahm0 Aha+k0r *rdhama3@apa Bhadr0sana Brahmahaty0 Ahi+sa Arth0patti Bhagav0n Brahm0 Muh6rta Ah7r Arundhat7 Bh0gavata Br0hma3a Air0vata *rya Sam0j Bh0gavata Pur03a Brahm03@a Aiteraya *50@h Bhag7rath Brahm0 Br0hma3a Asama&jasa Bhag7rath7 Samprad0y Aj0mila *sana Bh05ya Brahmas6tra *j7vika Asatk0ryav0da Bhairava Jayant7 Bh05ya *j&0 Cakra A5!0dh0y7 Bhairav7 Brahma S6tras *k04a Atik0ya Bhaiy0 D6j Brahmayaj&a Akha3@ P0!h At7ta Bhaktam0l Brahm7 Akhy0ti *tman Bhaktil7l0m8ta Brahmo Sam0j Akr6ra Atr7 Bhaktim0rga B8hannala Ak5aya T8t7y0 Avadh7 Bhaktirasabodhin7 B8haspati Ala+k0ra Avadh6ta Bh0mat7 Advaita Buddha Avat0r *l7@h0sana *v0hana Bha3@0ra Buddha P6r3im0 *#v0r *v0hana Akh0ra Bha3ita Ca3@a *malaka Avat0r Bh0radvaja Ca3@7 Amb0lika Avidy0 Bh0rata Ca3@ik0 Am8ta Ayam0tma Brahman Bh0ratan0!yam C0rv0ka *nanda *yurveda Bh0rat M0t0 C0y0gr0h7 *nanda Akh0ra B0ba Bharatmil0p Cinnam0sta *nandama!h Bah7 Bhasm0sur Cittir07 *nandaw0ra Bahiry0ga Bh0va Cu@0karana Ana2ga Bah6daka Bhav0n7 Sa+sk0ra Anas6y0 Bair0gi Bhed0bhada D0bistan-I-Mazahib 789 D0dhupanth7 N0ga Durg0 G8hya S6tras J0ti D0dupanth Durv0sas Gujj0r J0tra Dak5i3a Dvait0dvaita Guler Jh02k7 Dak5i30c0ra Ved0nta Gu3a J7va Dak5i30yana Dvaita Ved0nta Guru P6r3im0 J7vacchr0ddha ^amaru Dv0para Yuga Gy0n V0pi J7v0nmukta Damayant7 Dv0rap0la Haladh0ra J7v0nmukti D0na Dv7pas H0l0hala J&0na D0nava Dwara Bair0gis Hanum0n J&0nakarma- Da3@a Ek0da47 Hanum0n C0l7sa samucch0ya Da3@a Hasta Ekmukh7 Hanum0n Jayant7 J&0nam0rga Da3@an7ti Ekoddi5!ha Hart0lika Teej J&0na Mudr0 Da3@0sana Four Dh0ms Hariva+4a J&0nendriya Da3@avat 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806 Index A Abbott, Justin E., 79, 98, 99, 220, Aditya, 10, 538 257, 312, 322, 409, 410, 459, Adivasi communities, 10–11, 396, 614, 712 484, 572 Abhang, 1 Daita, 164–165 Abhava, 1, 55, 521, 537. See also Gond, 255 Philosophy Santal, 597 Abhaya Hasta, 1. See also Dance Adoption, 11, 81, 386, 661. See Abhijnanashakuntala, 1–2, 211, also Women 336, 436, 621 Adriel, Jean, 435 , 2–3, 138 Adultery, 11–12, 229, 406, 507 Abhinavagupta, writer, 3, 376, Advaita Vedanta, 12–13, 42, 124, 524, 708 132, 213, 214, 223, 242, 321, Abhinaya, 3, 171 388, 389, 395, 396, 417, 433, Abhira. See Ahir 474, 486, 502, 519, 524, 578, , ritual bathing, 3 607, 610, 622, 636, 644, 673, Abortion, 3. See also Women 721, 746, 767. See also feticide, 227–228 Vedanta Achala Ekadashi, 4, 218, 227 Bhamati branch, 49, 100–101 Achamana, 4, 658 schools, 7–8, 320 Achamaniya, 4, 720 Vivarana school, 486 Achara, 4–5, 499 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara Acharya, 5 and His Pupils (Potter), 8, 13, Achintyabhedabheda, 5, 242 320, 487, 624, 673 , 5 Advani, Lal Krishna, 13, 104 Act of truth, 5–6, 168, 457, 711. See Aerial cars, 13 also Truth Aesthetics. See Rasa Actors, Pilgrims, Kings and Gods Agama, 13 (Kapur), 389, 562, 651 Agastya, sage, 13–14, 231, 296, , 6 392, 455 Adhikamasa. See Intercalary , 14 Month Agni, 14–15, 16, 44, 53, 195, 236, Adhikara, 3, 6, 116, 266, 398, 411, 262, 366, 572, 601, 628, 654, 414, 446, 492 741. See also Fire Adhiratha, 6–7, 352, 400 Agni Akhara, 15–16, 24 Adhishthana, architecture, 7, 353 , 16 Adhvaryum, 7, 122, 576, 718 Agnikula, 16, 549 Adhyasa, 7–8, 12, 133, 623 Agnipradakshinam, 9, 15, 16, Adi, 8, 685 428, 601 Adigranth, 8–9, 23, 116, 328, 459, Agnipravesha, 16 511, 553, 569 Agnishtoma, 16–17 Adishesha. See Shesha Agrahara, 17 , 9–10 Ahalya, 17, 245

Primary references appear in boldface type. 807 Aham Brahmasmi, 17, 113, 408 Alandi, 27, 321, 739 Ahamkar, 17–18, 129, 224, 408, Alberuni, 26, 28 415, 588 Alberuni’s India (Biruni), 28 Ahimsa, 18, 41, 63 The Alchemical Body (White), 28, Ahir, 19 437, 565, 669 Aihole, 19, 51, 751 Alchemy, 28, 153, 564, 668 Aims of Life, 19, 189, 222, 223, 262, Dhatuvada, 192–193 288, 340, 342, 443, 536, 545. mercury, 28, 153, 193, 246, See also Life 324, 436, 436–437, 486, 564, Aippasi, 19, 685 669, 771 , 19. See also Elephant “Alchemy” (White), 193 Aiteraya Brahmana, 20, 123, 626 Alidhasana, 28 Aiyanar, 20 Allahabad, 25, 29, 52, 141, 188, Aiyappa, 20, 20–21, 364, 410, 239, 265, 339, 379, 433, 474, 443, 616 526, 591, 594, 603, 710 Aja Ekadashi, 21, 93, 218, 227 Magh Mela, 398–399 , 21 Nasik Mela, 463–464 Ajatashatru, 21, 21–22, 117 , 29, 391, 402 Ajita Keshakambalin, 22, 430. See Allchin, F. Raymond, 302, 713 also Philosophers Alston, A.J., 440, 673 Ajivika school, philosophy, 22, 226, Alvars, 29–30, 37, 115, 135, 185, 200, 258, 478, 639 260, 377, 431, 457, 459, 466, Ajna Chakra, 22, 137. See 470, 490, 508, 515, 586, 644, also Chakras 685, 695, 698, 702, 703, 704, Akasha, 22–23, 217, 220 705, 728, 746. See also Poets Akbar, 23, 25, 29, 70, 163, 273, 396, Amalaka, 30 422, 442 Amalaki Ekadashi, 30, 219, 227, 509 Akhand Path, 23 Amarkantak, 30, 463 Akhara, 23–24, 26, 35, 69, 97, 140, 474 Amarnath, 30–31 Akhyati, 24, 223, 378, 516 Amarnath cave, 356 Akkadevi, 24 Amaru, 31–32 Akrura, 24 Amaruka, 32 Akshakumara, 24, 418 Amarushatakam, 31 Akshamala, 24–25 Amarushatakam, 32 Akshar Purushottam Samstha, 25, Amavasya, 394, 659. See also Moon 521, 626 Amba, 32, 111, 628, 664 Akshaya Trtiya, 25, 227, 501 Ambakeshvar, 32 Akshaya Vata, 25–26, 29 Ambalika, 32, 33, 111, 194, 210, Alakananda River, 26, 77, 95, 184, 496, 610, 749 242, 323, 340, 353, 416, 510, , 32–33 576, 577 Ambedkar, Dr. Bhim Rao, 33, Alakhiya Akhara, 26–27 236, 407 Alambhusha, 27 Ambika, 32, 33, 111, 139, 194, 449, Alamkaras, 27, 363 496, 610, 749 808 Ammonite, 33–34, 78, 447, 622. See Angkor Wat, 675 also Shalagram Ani, 40, 232, 592, 643, 685 Amritanandamayi, 34 Aniconic image, 40, 237, 778. See Amrta, 34, 188, 210, 269, 380, 443, also Iconic image 473, 583, 645, 652 Shiva, 30 An Autobiography (Gandhi), Anima, 40, 650 139, 236 Animal sacrifice, 7, 16–17, 18, 41, Anahata Chakra, 34, 137. See 66, 118, 128, 335, 337, 350, also Chakras 365, 513, 548, 572, 579, 733, Analogy, 35 752. See also Sacrifice Ananda, 35, 578, 593 ashvamedha, 41, 66, 288 Ananda Akhara, 24, 35, 474 horse, 581 Ananda Marga Yoga Society, 35 Animal skins, 58. See also Anandamath, 35 Cow; Leather Anandamath, 144, 599 Animals, 40–41, 62, 86, 115, 124, , 36, 347 301, 456, 505, 508, 589, 754 Anandapala, King, 36, 319 bull, 129, 460, 506 Anandawara group, 36, 74, 113, Dadhikra, 163 174, 248, 325, 503, 582, 643 deer, 180–181, 263, 425 Ananga, 36 dog, 96, 201–202, 497 Anant Chaturdashi, 37, 93, 227, 613 eating, 43 Ananta, 36 images, 40, 73, 119 Anantadas, 36–37, 100, 528 lion, 73, 391, 410 Anasuya, 37, 209, 726 mythical, 367 Anatomy of a Confrontation owl, 485, 603 (Gopal), 74, 77 peacock, 413, 508 Ancestral spirits, 37, 46, 492, 512, rat, 183, 354, 567 599, 766 tiger, 301, 391, 697 Andal, poet, 29, 37–38, 451, 698 Aniruddha, 41, 493 Andersen, Walter K., 105, 182, 255, Anirvachaniyakhyati, 42, 223 279, 314, 517, 566, 619, 762 Anjali hasta, 42, 458. See also Dance , 38 Anjana, 42, 271 Andhra brahmins, 38, 407, 491. See Ankusha, 42, 236, 498 also Brahmins Annakut, 42, 227, 261, 355 Andhra Pradesh, 38–39, 83, 115, , 147 238, 250, 263, 350, 376, 528, Annaprashana samskara, 541, 565, 644, 702 43–44, 591 Anekantavada, 39, 59, 133, 607. See Anrta, 44, 206, 576 also Philosophy Anshavatar, 30, 44, 72. See Anga, 39, 65, 211 also Avatars Angada, 36, 39–40 Anshuman, 44, 58, 95, 198, 238, 350 Angiras, 40, 70, 370, 426, 530 Antahpura, 44 Angkor, 196 Antal and Her Path of Love temples, 40 (Dehejia), 38 809 Antarala, architecture, 44, 405, 453 Antarala, 44, 405, 453 Antariksha, 44 Ardhamandapa, 52, 418, 453 Antaryaga, 44, 79, 689 Bhogamandapa, 111, 390, , 45 454, 464 Antyeshthi, 585 caves, 134 Antyeshthi samskara, 37, 46–47, Chaitya, 19, 136–137 68, 116, 154, 441, 591, 599 corbelling, 154 Anulepana, 46, 720 Dampati, 169 Anuloma, 46 deul, 183, 390, 454, 629 Anumana, 1, 46–47, 55, 207, 280, Dravida, 51, 147, 204–205, 241, 430, 480, 489, 508, 521, 524, 340, 345, 379, 452, 507, 643, 685 537, 581, 599, 721. See also Garbhagrha, 44, 241, 331, 453, 549 Inference; Philosophy Gopuram, 256 Anushtubh, poetry, 47, 437 Jagamohan, 183, 308, 369, 390, Anyathakhyati, 47–48, 223 454, 464, 501, 629, 671 Apabhramsha, 48 Kalyanamandapam, 340 Apaddharma, 48, 424 Kirtimukha, 368 Apana, 48, 521, 585. See also Winds Nagara, 30, 44, 51, 52, 90, 140, Apastamba, sage, 48, 88, 192, 154, 241, 332, 346, 365, 390, 339, 640 404–405, 417–418, 452–454, Appar, poet, 48–49, 185, 409, 420, 501, 725 470, 587, 670, 702, 728 natamandira, 390, 454, 464, 484 Appaya Dikshita, 49 Orissa, 51, 146, 154, 453, 629 Appleby, R. Scott, 58, 517, 566 Pradakshina, 331, 453, 517–518 Aprashasta marriage, 49, 69, 127, Shikhara, 19, 90, 183, 453, 507, 629 233, 488. See also Marriage Shilpa shastra, 128, 626, Apsara, 49, 296, 436, 536, 558, 630–631 621, 689 Urushringa, 453, 725 Apurva, 49, 537 Veshara, 51, 452, 747–748 Aranya, 173 Ardha, 653 Aranya Dashanami, 49–50, 112. Ardha Kumbha Mela, 52, 81, 379. See also Dashanami Sanyasis See also Kumbha Mela Aranyaka literature, 50, 126, 645 Ardhamandapa, architecture, 52, Aranyakas, 60, 123, 587. See 418, 453 also Vedas Ardhanarishvara, 52, 220, 265, 635 Arati, 15, 51, 720 Arghya, 53, 720 Aravalli Hills, 51, 547, 578 Arjuna, 32, 53–54, 93, 106, 111, The Archaeology of Early Historic 206, 210, 219, 234, 236, 318, South Asia (Allchin), 302 366, 382, 400, 495, 501. See Archana, 51 also Pandava brothers Archer, W. G., 129, 370, 439, 488, 548 family, 2, 138, 204 Architecture, 51–52, 78, 182, 612 identities, 127 adhishthana, 7, 353 Arranged marriage, 54, 148, 185, Aihole, 19 291, 393. See also Marriage 810 Arsha marriage, 54–55. See communities, 475 also Marriage godmen, 253 Art. See also Bronzes; Dance Gorakhnathi, 257 Indus Valley, 298 gosain, 257–258 The Art and Architecture of India Jain, 48 (Rowland), 366 Janakpur, 313 Artha, 19, 55, 106, 222, 340, 443, jogi, 322 536, 545, 626. See also kapalin, 349–350 Philosophy Kutichaka, 79, 383 Arthapatti, 55, 521, 537. See also mahant, 405 Philosophy Muslim, 35 , 55–56, 139, 142, 360 Paramahamsa, 79, 172, 173, 403, The Art of Tantra (Rawson), 22, 34, 498–499 137, 420, 449, 583, 667, 676, parivrajaka, 502 677, 761 pilgrimages, 30–31, 85 , 56 sadhu, 60, 580 Arya Dharm (Jones), 58 Ash, sacred ash, 578 Aryabhatta, 56 Ashadh, 61, 305, 537, 612 Aryan, 56–57, 532 festivals, 218, 227, 230, 267, 567 Indigenous Aryan theory, 57, Ashaucha, 4, 41, 42, 46, 48, 62–63, 294–295, 300 71, 118, 153, 160, 161, 335, language, 48 388, 569, 658. See also Purity Arya Samaj, 57–58, 179, 384, 639, 646 sutakashaucha, 62, 78, 118, 458, “The Arya Samaj in British India” 570, 676 (Jones), 58 Ashirvad, 63, 585, 603 Asamanjasa, 58, 365 Ashoka, King, 63, 117, 125, 152, Asanas, 28, 58–59, 65, 172, 278, 505, 304, 340, 366, 433, 484, 510, 650, 695, 720. See also Yoga 527, 575, 591, 663 Asat, 59 Ashoka Tree, 63 Asatkaryavada, 39, 59, 133, 480, Ashram, 64, 581 606, 731. See also Philosophy Ashrama Dashanami, 64, 104, 166, Ascetic initiation, 585. See also 172, 173, 603 Initiation Ashtachap, poets, 64, 151, 372, Asceticism, 59, 60–61, 63, 328, 461, 378, 460, 502, 540, 672 478, 539, 551, 622, 629, 664, Ashtadhyayi, 64–65, 102, 140, 671, 689, 723–724 401–402, 497, 506 Ascetics, 6, 22, 55, 59–60, 66, 69, Ashtalakshmi, 65 76, 79, 101, 143, 144, 310, 354, Ashtanga yoga, 65, 189, 196, 478, 449, 633 525, 592. See also Yoga apsara, 49 , 66 ashram, 64 Ashutosh, 66 begging, 88–89 Ashvalayana, 66 burial, 129 Ashvamedha, 41, 66, 288, 536 Christian, 45 Ashvattha, 511 811 Ashvattha fig, 66. See also Trees 446, 448, 492, 583, 667, 676, Ashvatthama, 67, 194, 629 677, 689, 761 Ashvin, 67, 512, 612 Avani, 72, 685 festivals, 67, 212, 218, 227, 295, Avatar (Adriel), 435 455, 468, 498, 736 Avatars, 72–73, 82, 308, 493, 542, Ashvins, 67, 397, 456, 495, 582 584, 635, 731. See also Assam, 41, 67, 252, 341, 473, 620 Krishna Asthi-sanchayana, 46, 68, 161 Avidya, 8, 12, 47, 73, 100, 107, 109, Asthi-visarjana, 46, 68, 161, 273, 600 389, 417, 486, 607, 623 Astrology. See Jyotisha; Zodiac Avimukta, 73–74, 90 Asura marriage, 49, 68–69. See Avvaiyar, 74 also Marriage Ayamatma Brahman, 36, 74, 408 Asuras, 181. See also Demons Ayana, 74 Atala akhara, 24, 69, 140 Ayodhya, 71, 74, 103, 460, 562, 616, Atharva Veda, 36, 69, 399, 511, 768 654, 680 Atikaya, 69 Babri Masjid, 74, 76–77 Atita, 69 temples, 13, 560 Atman, 4, 12, 17, 69–70, 73, Ayodhya (Bakker), 74 93, 122, 124, 499, 536, Ayudhapurusha, 75 553, 584, 649, 654, Ayurveda, 75, 142, 350, 513, 675, 691, 722 708, 743 At Play with Krishna (Hawley), 24, Dhanvantari, 188 127, 389 Tridosha, 513, 708 Atranji Khera, 70 Atri, sage, 37, 40, 70, 102, 112, 245, B 357, 370, 426, 530, 574 Baba, 76, 474 Aughar, 70 Babar’s Mosque. See Babri Masjid Aurangzeb, 70, 91, 268, 373, 405, Babb, Lawrence, 46, 80, 118, 121, 425, 442, 466, 636, 641 153, 161, 285, 429, 544, 575, Auspiciousness, 71, 74, 117, 122, 605, 672 128, 230, 393, 692. See also Babineau, Edmour J., 552 Inauspiciousness Babri Masjid, 74, 76–77, 373, inauspiciousness and, 89, 146, 560, 762 161, 169, 294, 393, 471, 482 Badarayana, 77, 124, 746. See also Autobiography of Swami Dayanand Philosophers Saraswati (Yadav), 179 Badrinath, 25, 26, 77–78, 216, 229, Autobiography of a Yogi 242, 323, 363, 458, 461, 570, 624 (Paramahamsa), 782 Bahi, 78–79 Avadhi language, 71, 202, 558 Bahina Bai, 79 Avadhuta, 71, 447 Bahina Bai (Abbott), 79 Avahana, 71, 720 “Bahina Bai: Wife and Saint” Avahana akhara, 24, 71–72 (Feldhaus), 79 Avalon, Arthur, 22, 34, 45, 72, 166, Bahiryaga, 79, 689 381, 411, 414, 420, 423, 432, Bahudaka, 79, 498 812 Bahula Chauth, 79–80, 93, 227 Barahmasa, 86 Baiga, 80 Barahmasa in Indian Literature Baijnath, 80–81 (Vaudeville), 86 Bairagi Naga, 24, 59, 81, 197, 232, Barat, 87 452, 571, 577, 592, 732. See Barnett, Lionel D., 387 also Naga Barsana, 87, 544 Digambara Naga, 40, 197, Baruthani Ekadashi, 81, 87, 218, 227 232, 476 Barz, R. K., 540, 646, 735 dwaras, 215 Basavanna, poet, 87–88, 185, 314, groups, 40, 123–134 390, 402 Nirmohi Anis, 476 Basham, Arthur Llewellyn, 22, 94, Nirvani Ani, 476 119, 226 Shri Sampraday group, 145, Basohli, 88, 439, 488. See 643–644 also Painting Baird, Robert D., 58, 126, 179, 283, Basu, Tapan et al., 182, 255, 279, 307, 516, 544, 553, 576, 637, 566, 762 682, 768 Bath, Mohenjo-Daro, 88, 298–299 Baisakh, 81, 87, 128, 613, 729 Baudhayana, sage, 48, 88, 192, festivals, 25, 81, 230, 380, 443, 339, 640 462, 501, 632, 651 Bayly, C. A., 86, 444, 696 Baisakhi, festival, 81, 227 Beal, Samuel, 290 Baithak, 81–82 Begampura, 88 Bajrang Dal, 82 Begging, 36, 88–89, 121, 349, 726, 729 Baka, 82 Begram, 89 Bakasur, 82, 110 Bel, 90 Bakker, Hans, 74 Belagave, 90 Baksheesh, 82 Bells, 246 Balabhadra, 82–83, 164, 308, 534, Belur, 90, 269, 289, 353 567, 665 , 90 Balaji, 51, 83, 435 Benares, 16, 21, 36, 70, 90–91, 96, Balakrishna, 83, 149 102, 197, 202, 240, 462, 562, 616 Balarama, 24, 83–84, 176, 184, 193, Kabirpanth, 329 249, 575 Kashi, 356 epithets, 82, 269, 595 Manikarnika , 91, 161, Bali, 39, 84, 84–85, 85, 196, 368, 419–420 551, 557, 711 names of, 73 Bana, dramatist, 85, 276, 349, 540 Varanasi, 90, 739 Bana linga, 85. See also Linga Benares Hindu University, 91, 414 Banaras (Eck), 699 Bengal Vaishnavism and Sri Bana, poet, 85 Chaitanya (Chakravarti), 136 Bania, 85–86 Bengali, 91, 184 Banjara, 86 Betel, 91–92 Banking, 86 Bhadrakali, 92, 165, 315, 347, 370, moneylending, 85, 86 606, 742 813 Bhadrapada, 46, 93, 131, 503, 544, doha, 202, 437 583, 612, 692 Nanddas, 64, 460 festivals, 21, 37, 79–80, 218, 227, Bhaktililamrta, 98, 409 237–238, 314, 483, 502, 574 Bhaktililamrta, 99 Bhadrasana, 93 Bhaktimarga, 93, 100, 321, 352 Bhagabhadra, 93 Bhaktirasabodhini, 100, 528 Bhagavad Gita, 47, 54, 67, 93–94, The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhacharya 143, 234, 321, 322, 370, 486, (Barz), 540, 646, 735 516, 532, 623, 637, 656, 695, 698 Bhamati Advaita, 49, 100–101 The Bhagavad-Gita (Miller), 94 Bhamati school, 487 , 94 Bhandara, 101 Bhagavata, 94, 493, 731 Bhandarkar Oriental Research Bhagavata Purana, 33, 94–95, 112, Institute, 101, 101 143, 219, 276, 370, 460, 516, Bhandarkar, R. G., 101 533, 646, 665, 673, 718, 731 Bhang, 101–102, 207, 279, 287, Bhagirath, 44, 95, 198, 238, 310, 694. See also Drugs 350, 365 Bhanita, 102 Bhagirath, King, 239 Bharadvaja, 70, 102, 112, 206, Bhagirathi, 95–96 245, 357 Bhagirathi River, 26, 184, 240, , 105 242, 243 Bharata, 102, 103, 151, 174, 329, Bhairava, 96, 108, 119, 121, 201, 460, 467, 555, 621 221, 252, 323, 349, 413, 719 Bharatanatyam, dance, 103–104, Bhairava akhara, 96 126, 146, 147, 170, 420, 443, Bhairava Jayanti, 96, 227 466, 484 Bhairavaprakasha, 96–97 Bharati Dashanami, 64, 104, 113, Bhairavi, 97, 409, 563 173, 603 Bhaiya Duj, 97, 549 Bharati, Swami Agehananda, 45, Bhajan, 97 116, 166, 381, 411, 414, 423, Bhakta, 4, 5, 9, 13, 24, 51, 70, 432, 446, 492, 524, 593, 667, 97–98, 522, 523, 529, 540, 676, 689 542, 566, 584, 616 Bharatiya Janata Party, 13, 76, Bhaktamal, 98, 100, 409, 451, 104–105, 159, 283, 314, 561, 460, 463 566, 611, 633, 653, 762 Bhaktavijaya, 98 Bharatmilap, 105–106 Bhaktavijaya, 99, 409 Bharavi, 106, 403 Bhakti, 29, 31, 32, 87, 98–99, 402, Bhartrhari, poet, 106, 261, 363, 451, 540, 644 662, 719 Bhakti poetry, 9, 64, 86, 98, 100, Bhartrprapancha, 106–107, 109. 102, 137, 164, 180, 231, 249, See also Philosophers 372, 409, 437, 460, 467, 470, Bharud, 107, 220 562–563. See also Poetry Bhashya, 107, 109. See also bharud, 107 Philosophers chaupai, 146, 437 Bhaskara, 106, 107–108 814 Bhasmasur, 108 Bhutayajna, 115, 492 Bhattacharya, Ram Shankar, 224, Bhuts, 80, 83 332, 520, 536, 589 Bidhai Samaroh, 115 Bhattacharyya, Sibajiban, 470, 480 Bihar, 11, 21, 39, 115–116, 117, Bhava, 108, 170 138, 141, 146, 196, 239, 489, Bhavabhuti, poet, 108, 139, 333, 506, 546, 597, 654 349, 413 sites, 182, 245, 347 Bhavani, 108 Bijak, 116, 329 Bhavas, 108, 564 The Bijak of Kabir (Hess/Singh), Bhave, Vinobha, 108–109 116, 329, 593, 720 Bhedabhada school, 106, 109, 321, Bijakshara, 22, 34, 116–117, 137, 378, 501, 516, 607 448, 480, 583, 613, 677 Bhil, 109 Bilva tree, 90, 117 Bhima, 82, 109–110, 204, 208, 210, Bimbisara, King, 21, 117 231, 247, 382, 400, 495 Bindu, 117, 587, 641 Bhima River, 110, 374, 407, 495 Bindusara, 63, 117 Bhimashankar, 110, 325, 407 Birla, Ghanshyamdas, 117, 386 Bhishma, 32, 110–111, 400, 610, Birlas family, 117, 430 628, 629 Birth, 3, 4, 62, 78, 117–118, 326, Bhishma Ashtami, 111, 227, 398 458, 531, 590 Bhogamandapa, architecture, 111, Björkman, James W., 762 390, 454, 464 Black Yajur Veda, 48, 88, 118, 339 Bhogawara group, 36, 50, 111–112, Blessing, 62. See also Ashirvad 113, 174, 248, 325, 519, 643 Blood, 28, 34, 41, 66, 117–118, Bhoja, King, 112 118–119, 135, 149, 153, 204, Bholanath, 112, 635 208, 333, 341, 521, 530, 752 Bhramargit, 112 menstruation, 436 Bhramari, 112, 468 Boar avatar, 119, 217, 318, 717. See Bhrgu, sage, 70, 102, 112–113, 120, also Avatars; Vishnu 245, 357, 574, 581 The Book of Ayurveda (Morrison), 75 Bhubaneshvar, 113, 238, 369, 390, Bose, Subhash Chandra, politician, 454, 484, 501 119, 144, 236 Bhudevi. See Earth Brahma, 25, 37, 96, 119–120, 121, 157, Bhudevi, Vishnu and, 38 163, 186, 209, 254, 297, 325, 349, Bhujangavalaya, 113 462, 486, 519, 550, 568, 574 Bhuriwara group, 17, 36, 104, 111, Day of Brahma, 180, 214, 338, 113, 174, 248, 325, 603, 643. 375, 409, 423, 520, 707 See also Dashanami epithets, 679 Bhushundi, 113–114, 559 family, 40, 70, 112–113, 121, 347, Bhut, 114, 492, 515 370, 426, 530, 531 Bhuta, 115 Vishnu and, 408 Bhutalingas, 115, 332, 345, 704. See Brahmacharin, 120, 135, 166, 249, also Linga 262, 364, 456, 585, 591, 598, Bhutam, poet, 29, 115, 509, 515 658, 721 815 Brahmacharya, 120 Karnata brahmins, 353, 407, 491 Brahmahatya, 120–121, 229, 406, 507 lineage, 112–113, 259, 526 Brahma Kumaris, 121 Mahapatra, 406 Brahma marriage, 69, 121–122, Maharashtri brahmins, 150, 127, 203. See also Marriage 182–183, 407, 491 Brahma Muhurta, 122, 447, 726 Nambudiri, 78 Brahman, 8, 12, 15–16, 17, 21, 36, Nambudiri brahmins, 205, 458, 42, 66, 70, 74, 74, 77, 93, 483, 570, 623 100, 112, 121, 122–123, 213, origin, 536 389, 417, 441, 486, 499, 502, Pancha Dravida brahmins, 183, 519, 520, 524, 553, 576, 578, 490–491 582, 593, 644, 645, 682, 718 Pancha Gauda brahmins, 410, Brahmana, 14–15, 118, 123, 587. 491, 601 See also Vedas Saraswat brahmins, 27, 131, Brahmana ideal, 60 242, 410, 491 Brahmana literature, 7, 20, 41, 50, Smarta brahmins, 494 122, 126, 536, 626, 629, 639, 718 social classes, 174, 601 Brahmanda. See Cosmic egg “twice-born,” 215, 245, 259, 262, Brahmarandhra, 123, 283 303, 513, 578, 591, 594, 598, Brahma sampraday, 61, 123–124, 647, 663, 715 145, 215, 644, 732 Utkala brahmins, 242, 410, 491, Brahmasutra Bhasya, 124, 623 601, 725 Brahma Sutras, 77, 124, 124 Vaishya brahmins, 115, 120, Brahmayajna, 124, 492 121, 124, 174, 186, 197, 215, Brahmi, 125 536, 733–734 Brahmi script, 366, 527 Brahmo Samaj, 57, 125–126, 179, Brahmins, 70, 105, 115, 120, 124, 523, 552, 575, 614 125, 131, 186, 197, 258, 405, “The Brahmo Samaj” (Lavan), 126 445, 509, 566, 571, 596 Braj, 112, 126, 259, 371, 466, 554, Andhra brahmins, 38, 407, 491 718, 768 Chitpavan brahmins, 131, Krishna’s home, 24, 82, 315 150–151, 369, 407, 509 villages, 87 communities, 38, 242, 264, 345, Braj Bhasha form. See also 353, 369, 458, 490–491 Hindi; Poetry Deshastha brahmins, poetry, 71, 126, 202, 282, 555, 182–183, 407 641, 673, 754 Dikshitar, 198 Braj (Entwistle), 126, 699 Dravida brahmins, 205, 407, Brent, Peter Ludwig, 253 458, 491 Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, 21, 50, Gauda brahmins, 242, 410, 491, 601 126, 141, 226, 253, 315, 722 Gotra brahmins, 70, 102, 112, Brhadeshvar, 126–127, 546 221, 244, 259, 429, 526 Brhadeshvar temple, 103, 152, Kanaujia brahmins, 131, 242, 170, 687 410, 491, 503, 601 Brhannala, 53, 127 816 Brhaspati, sage, 127, 696 festival, 226–227 Brideprice, 127, 428. See intercalary month, 304–305, also Marriage 394, 412–413, 536, 685 The Bridge to the Three Holy Cities lunar, 61, 67, 74, 227, 304 (Salomon), 711 lunar month, 393–394, 445, 471, Briggs, George Weston, 257, 284, 489, 491, 612, 628, 647 341, 432, 467, 478, 735 solar, 167, 411, 425 Brindavan, 95, 127, 136, 150, 193, Tamil, 8, 355, 425, 685 242, 250, 258, 307, 315, 372, week, 771 373, 450, 566, 678, 768 year, 619, 780 Bronzes, 128–129, 152, 214, 251, Callewaert, Winand, 37, 164, 459, 494 464. See also Metalwork Campantar, poet, 131 lost wax casting, 392 Carman, John B., 555, 645, 759 Brooks, Douglas Renfrew, 45, Caste, 29, 33, 78, 116, 131–132, 314, 116–117, 166, 381, 411, 414, 553, 563, 566, 571–572, 589 423, 432, 446, 492, 524, 583, aspects of, 11, 69, 82 587, 593, 641, 645, 667, 676, 689 inter-caste marriage, 87 The Brotherhood in Saffron thief caste, 695 (Andersen/Damle), 105, 182, Castration, 132, 280 255, 279, 314, 517, 566, 619, 762 Causal chain, 132–133, 480, 481 Brough, J., 659 Causal model, 133, 480, 501, 731, Brown, W. Norman, 6 767. See also Philosophy Buddha, Vishnu and, 73 Cauvery River, 133–134, 152, 240, Buddha Avatar, 128 250, 687, 701 Buddha Purnima, 81, 128, 227, 230 Shrirangam, 38, 205, 451, 554, Buddhi, 128–129, 224, 408, 588 564, 643 Buddhism, 33, 59, 350, 571, 639 Caves, artificial, 134 Bali, 85 Cekkilar, poet, 134–135, 470, Rasayana school, 193 508, 703 schools, 28 Celibacy, 21, 27, 49, 60, 120, 121, temples, 136–137 135, 272, 296, 436, 456, 617, Bull, 129, 274, 460, 506. See also 646, 689, 725, 777 Animals Chaitanya, poet, 5, 61, 123, Bumiller, Elizabeth, 302 135–136, 140, 145, 173, Bundi, 129, 369. See also Painting 242, 258, 306, 361, 373, Burghart, Richard, 313 395, 434, 441, 450, 468, Burial, 129. See also Cremation 516, 534 Busti, 129 Chaitanya-Charitramrta, 136, 361, 373, 449 C Chaitra, 136, 324, 562, 612 Calendar, 130–131. See also Year festivals, 218, 227, 272, 341, dakshinayana, 74, 130, 156, 167, 468, 498 351, 411, 727 Chaitya, 19, 136–137 ekadashi, 218–219 , 137 817 Chakras, 75, 137, 231, 257, 278, Charaka, 142 381, 452, 467, 486, 489, 511, , 75, 142. See 582, 624, 635, 666, 675, 680, also Ayurveda 703. See also Tantra; Yoga Charaka Samhita, 142–143 ajna, 22, 137, 666 Charanadas, 143, 647 anahata, 34, 137, 666 Charanadasi, 143, 647 ida nadi, 293, 452 Charanamrta, 34, 143 manipura, 137, 420, 666 Charas, 143, 148, 207, 279, 305, 581 muladhara, 137, 381, 448–449, Charity. See Dana 666 school, 143 pingala nadi, 452, 511, 667, 675 Chataka, 144, 162 shrichakra, 117, 587 Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra, 35, sushumna, 381, 452, 667, 675 91, 144, 599 svadhishthana, 137, 666, 677 Chatti, 144–145 Vishnu’s chakra, 622, 624, 667 Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad, vishuddha, 137, 666, 761 143, 675 Chakravarti, Janardana, 136 Chatuh-Sampradayi Nagas, 81, Chakravyuha, 138 145, 164, 215. See also Nagas Chakravyuha battle formation, 2 Chaturbhujdas, poet, 64, 145 Chalukya Dynasty, 19, 24, 138, Chaturmas, 187, 219 289, 306, 377, 409, 462, 490, Chaturmas Vrat, 61, 145–146, 227 507, 530, 565, 659 Chau dance, 103, 146, 170 Chamar group, 88, 138, 720 Chaupai, poetry, 116, 146, 202, Champaran, 138–139 272, 437 Chamunda, 139, 449, 638 Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta, 146, Chanakya, 139, 142, 446 254, 275, 672 Chandas, 139, 187, 339, 403, 449, Chauri, 146 476, 629, 769 Chayagrahi, 146–147 Chandella Dynasty, 140, 188, 266, Chera Dynasty, 147, 643 346, 365, 396 Chidambaram, 115, 147, 170, 198, , 140 464, 685 Chandidas, poet, 140 Childhood rites, 44, 147–148, 591. Chandika, 140, 468 See also Samskaras Chandiprakasha, 140–141 Chidvilasananda, Swami, 147, Chandogya Upanishad, 141, 226, 447, 681 253, 525, 609, 649, 691, 717, 722 Child marriage, 16, 57, 148, 179. Chandra Gupta I, 141, 591 See also Marriage Chandra Gupta II, 141, 265, 719, 752 Child widows, 148 Chandra, Pramod, 221 Chillum, 148–149 Chandramati, 142, 275 safai, 148, 581 Chandrayana, 142, 271, 723 Chin Mudra, 149 “The Changed Mother” (Egnor), 632 Chinmayanand, Swami, 149 Chapters in Indian Civilization Chinmoy, Shri, 149 (Elder), 61, 639 Chinnamasta, 149, 150, 409 818 Chintapurni, 149–150, 638 Corpse, 129, 154, 165, 535. See also Chir Ghat, 127, 150 Cremation Chitpavan brahmins, 131, characteristics, 4, 62, 160, 424 150–151, 369, 407, 509 Coryat, Thomas, 155 Chitrakut, 102, 151 Cosmic Egg, 155, 156 Chitswami, poet, 64, 151 Cosmic time, 155–156, 214, 337, 338, Chittirai, 151, 685 338, 375, 423, 707. See also Time Chittirai festival, 136, 151, 227, 438 , 424 Chokamela, poet, 151–152, 407, Cosmology, 14, 22, 44, 156–157, 459, 596, 732 217, 220, 254, 415, 437. See “Chokamela and Eknath” (Zelliot), also Earth; Elements 152, 220 symbolic, 115 Chola Dynasty, 104, 127, 135, Coulson, Michael, 2, 413, 446, 758 147, 152, 379, 392, 464, Courtright, Paul, 241 496, 509, 546, 548, 549, Cow, 129, 157, 193, 271, 311, 341, 643, 685, 687 360, 364, 414, 447, 500, 601, Christianity, 45 645, 731, 746 Chudakarana, 147, 269 Godana, 250 Chudakarana samskara, 118, 152, goshalas, 157, 258 225, 449, 591 Kamadhenu, 188 Chunar sandstone, 152, 197, leather and, 388 510, 575 sacred, 41, 79, 158, 314, 491 Churail, 152–153 slaughter, 158–159, 159, 282, Churails, 114 355, 563 Cinnabar, 153, 193 Cow dung, 62, 158, 291 Classical Hindu Mythology , 157, (Dimmitt/van Buitenen), 158–159 155, 157, 533, 552 Cow slaughter, 158–159, 159, 282, Clothey, Fred, 450, 490, 680, 355, 563 701, 703 Coward, Harold, 261 Coburn, Thomas B., 187 “Cow’s mouth,” 412 Collyrium, 153 Craven, Roy, 369, 671 Commensality, 48, 111, 153, 217 Creation, 156, 389, 423, 493 The Complete Illustrated Guide to Creation Hymn, 159–160, 573 Ayurveda (Warrier), 75 Cremation, 46, 62, 68, 91, 108, 123, The Complete Works of 155, 160–161, 600. See also Swami Vivekananda Burial; Death (Vivekananda), 768 ghats, 202 Conch shell, 153–154 Manikarnika Ghat, 91, 161 Consecration, 154, 522, 546, 548 Cremation ground, 161, 275, 333, Coomaraswamy, Ananda, 154, 776 348, 419, 748 Corbelling, 154 Cuckoo, 161–162, 369 Coromandel Coast, 141, 154, The Cult of Jagannath (Tripathi), 265, 591 534, 665 819 The Cult of the Sun God (Mitra), 674 Dampati, 169 The Cult of Vithoba (Deleury), 152, Dana, 89, 169, 218, 399, 526, 609 220, 257, 312, 322, 459, 496, , 169 712, 740, 765 Dance, 87, 91, 95, 126, 128, 132, Culture of a Sacred Town 168, 169–171, 220, 463, 508, (Jindel), 642 529, 534, 593 Cunningham, Sir Alexander, Abhaya Hasta, 1 162, 429 Abhinaya, 3 Cuntarar, poet, 162 Anjali Hasta, 42 Curses, 1, 14, 17, 19, 37, 42, 63, Bharatanatyam school, 126, 147 102, 103, 113, 120, 162, 166, Chau, 103, 146 168, 174, 210, 231, 297, 328, chin mudra, 149 398, 400, 457, 496 Danda hasta, 171 “Cynics and Pasupatas” (Ingalls), 505 hasta, 231 gesture and, 246 D jnana mudra, 321 Dabistan-I-Mazahib, 163 karanas, 147 Dabistan-I-Mazahib (Fani), 226 Kataka hasta, 277, 357, 651 The Dabistan (Shea/Troyer), 163 Kathak, 358–359 , sage, 27, 163 Kathakali, 103, 146, 170, 359 Dadhikra, 163 Katyavalambita hasta, 359 Dadu, poet, 163–164, 328, 494, 596 lasya, 388 Dadupanth, 116, 163, 164, 328, ras lila, 255 459, 494, 569 Suchi hasta, 667 Dadupanthi Naga, 164. See also Naga tandava, 466 Daita community, 164–165, 309 Tarjini hasta, 690 Daiva marriage, 165. See also Varada hasta, 739 Marriage Vismaya hasta, 764–765 Daksha, 92, 165–166, 169, 329, Danda, 171, 546 538, 575, 605, 635, 660, 754 Danda Hasta, dance, 171 Daksha Mahadev temple, 347, 606 , 171 Dakshina, 53, 165, 166, 169, 585, 658 Dandaniti, 171 Dakshinachara, 166, 411, 414, 432, Dandasana, 172, 370 446, 524, 573, 736 Dandavat pranam, 172, 458 Dakshinayana, 74, 130, 156, 167, Dandi, 173, 499 351, 411, 727 Dandi Sanyasis, 78, 172, 458, 570. Dakshineshwar, 167–168 See also Dashanami Sanyasis Dakshineshwar temple, 90, 552 Daniel, E. Valentine, 21, 617 Dalit, 168 Dan Lila, 172 Damaru, music, 168 Dantavaktra, 172–173 Damayanti, 6, 168–169, 456–457, 680 The Dark Lord (Shinn), 307 Damle, Shridhar D., 105, 182, 255, Darshan, 173, 372, 510, 529, 562, 279, 314, 517, 566, 619, 762 678, 774 Damodara, 169 Dasa Bhava, 173, 442 820 Dasgupta, Shashibhushan B., 28, Daughters, 80, 165, 166, 168, 190, 193, 257, 437, 582, 669 177–178, 302, 614, 661, 664. Dashamukha, 173 See also Women Dashanami, 173-174 in families, 225 Dashanami Sanyasis, 14, 24, 59, as gift, 347–348 61, 74, 78, 104, 120, 173–174, for sale, 203 216, 232, 258, 458, 499, 519, Day. See also Calendar; Year 534, 570, 623, 625, 691. See structure of, 178 also Naga Dayabhaga, 178–179, 303, 319, Dandi Sanyasis, 172 440, 664, 751 Divine Life Society, 199 Dayanand Saraswati, Swami, 57, Giri Dashanamis, 247–248 158, 179, 646 Kamakotipith, 341–342 Day of Brahma, 180, 338, 409, 423 Madhusudana Saraswati, 396 De Sushil, Kumar, 5, 136, 243, Parvata Dashanamis, 503 258, 259 Sagara Dashanami, 581–582 Death, liberation and, 91 Shringeri Math, 104, 113, 229, Deathbed rites, 180 260, 325, 341, 354, 431, 534, Death rites, See Antyeshti 603, 642, 643 Samskara subgroups, 15–16, 17, 26–27, 35, Debts, 14, 427 36, 49–50, 64, 171, 325, 452, 534 three debts, 695 Anandawara, 36, 113 Deccan, 24, 51, 117, 138, 180, 366, Bharati, 64, 104 407, 442, 530, 565 Bhogawara, 111–112, 113 Deccan College, 101 Bhuriwara, 113 Deer, 180–181, 263, 425. See Kitawara, 113, 368–369 also Animals Saraswati, 64, 603 Dehejia, Vidya, 38 Tirtha, 64, 699 Dehu, 181 Tota Puri, 706–707 Deities, 181. See also Village deities Vana Dashanami, 737–738 Deleury, G. A., 152, 220, 257, 312, Dashanami Sanyasi akhara, 30 322, 459, 496, 712, 740, 765 Dasharatha, King, 74, 103, Demons, 14, 20, 34, 38, 63, 73, 82, 174–175, 308, 329, 360, 369, 108, 139, 139–140, 146–147, 384, 545, 555, 574, 627 163, 169, 171, 172, 178, 181, Dashavatar, 175 186, 211, 217, 228, 269, 284, Dashavatara Stotra, 175–176, 249, 328, 333, 365, 395, 449, 545, 308, 542 557, 573, 583, 619, 647, 689, Dass, Nirmal, 329 711, 748. See also Rakshasa Dasya, 67 Bali, 84 Dasyus, 56, 176 Dhenuka, 193 Dattatreya, 37, 176, 209, 249, 323, forms, 112 405, 726 Kaitabha, 186, 252, 331 Datura, 176–177, 207, 305. See paishacha marriage, 49, 427, 488 also Drugs Deogarh, 182 821 Deogarh temple, 184 Dharana, 65, 189, 196, 592. See Deoghar, 182, 640, 728 also Yoga Deoras, Balasaheb, 182, 255 Dharma, 7, 19, 54, 55, 68, 106, Deshastha brahmins, 182–183, 407 189–190, 222, 340, 438, 443, Deshnok, 183, 354, 567 495, 536, 545, 626, 628 “Desired Fruits” (McGee), 768 family, 461 Deul, architecture, 183, 390, 454, 629 Dharma literature, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 93, Devadasis, 104, 171, 183–184, 120, 131, 142, 165, 166, 171, 529, 560 186, 189, 190, 203, 229, 233, Devaki, 83, 92, 184, 315, 344, 370, 262, 267, 386, 441, 462, 472, 575, 595 499, 507, 532, 546, 578, 580, , 125, 184, 282 592, 631, 637, 638, 656, 657, Devapratishtha, 154, 184, 304 676, 728, 741 Devaprayag, 26, 95, 184 Dharmaputra, 190–191 Devar, 184–185 Dharmaraja, 191, 777 Devara Dasimayya, 185 Dharma’s Daughters (Mitter), Devaram, 49, 185, 470 630, 654 Devas, 10, 68, 163, 168, 169, 183 Dharmashastra, 191 Devasena, 185–186, 735 Dharma Shastras, 43, 49, 54, 61, Devayajna, 186, 492 68, 121, 124, 147, 189, 190, Devdhayani Ekadashi, 61 191, 192, 360, 423, 461 Devi (Hawley/Wulff), 403 Manu Smrti, 190, 423, 461 Devi Mahatmya (Coburn), 187 Dharma Sutras, 88, 189, 190, 191, Devimahatmya, 33, 139, 186–187, 191–192, 423, 640 188, 208, 212, 251, 331, 333, Dharna, 192 395, 403, 405, 408, 410, 426, Dhatuvada, 192–193, 565 449, 460, 469, 477, 502, 550, Dhatuvada school, 28 648, 733 Dhavamony, M., 619 Devotee. See Bhakta Dhenuka, 193 Devotion. See also Bhakta Dhobi, 193–194 modes of devotion, 259, Dhrshtadyumna, 67, 194, 206, 207 395–396, 441–442, 584, Dhrtarashtra, King, 32, 33, 625, 743 194–195, 204, 206, 208, The Devotional Poems of Mirabai 210, 233, 297, 352, 360, (Alston), 440 367, 399, 496, 594, 610, Devotthayan Ekadashi, 145, 187, 621, 625 218–219, 227, 355, 714 Dhruva, 195, 514 Devshayani Ekadashi, 145, 187, Dhuni, 195–196, 749 218, 227 Dhupa, 196, 720 Dhanga, 188 Dhushmeshvar, 196 Dhangar, 188 Dhvani, 196 Dhanus, 85, 188–189, 786 Dhyana, 65, 189, 196, 592. See Dhanvantari, 188, 706 also Yoga Dharamshala, 188–189 Dhyanashloka, 196 822 Diaspora populations, 196–197, Dowry death, 203, 203–204. See 228, 433, 445, 771. See also also Women South Africa Draupadi, 53, 82, 110, 194, 204, 207, Didarganj Yakshi, 146, 197 208, 211, 318, 400, 514, 621 Digambara, 40, 197, 232, 476 Dravida brahmins, 205, 407, 458, 491 Diksha, 3, 116, 197, 303, 688. See Dravida style, architecture, 51, 147, also Initiation 204–205, 507, 685 Dikshanama, 197 Dravidian language, 67, 176, 205, Dikshitar, 147, 198 301, 347, 353, 364, 684. See Dilip, 44, 95, 198, 238, 350 also Tamil language Dimmitt, Cornelia, 155, 157, 533, 552 Dreams, 79, 114, 205–206, 309, Dimock, Edward C., Jr., 140, 582, 750 360, 419, 715 Dindi, 198, 739 Drona, 53, 67, 194, 206, 207, 210, Di Nobili, Roberto, 198 219, 353, 400 Dipa, 198, 200, 720 Dropsy, 207, 576, 741 Directions, 198–199 Drshtanta, 47, 207, 280, 489, Guardians of the Directions, 524, 581, 599, 755. See 262–263, 296, 367, 376, 741, also Philosophy 744, 776 Drugs, 193, 207, 305, 349. See also The Divine Consort Intoxicants (Hawley/Wulff), 259, 654 Drupada, King, 53, 194, 204, 206, Divine Enterprise (McKean), 566, 207–208, 210, 629 611, 762 Duhshasana, 110, 194, 208, 211, The Divine Hierarchy (Babb), 46, 80, 400, 621 118, 153, 161, 285, 429, 575 Dumont, Louis, 20, 535 Divine Life Society, 199, 636 Durga, 61, 96, 131, 140, 186, 188, “The Divine Life Society 208, 212, 252, 365, 386, 391, Movement” (Miller), 637 433, 469, 486, 563, 620, 665, Divine Light Mission, 266 697. See also Goddess Divine powers, 199–200, 209, 272, epithets, 140, 467–468 284, 290, 368, 395, 667. See nine Durgas, 468 also Superhuman powers temples, 19 Divorce, 200. See also Marriage; Durgasaptashati, 208–209 Women Durvasas, 6, 19, 33, 37, 102, Divya Prabandham, 200 209–210, 211, 302, 382, 397, Diwali, 25, 42, 200–201, 227, 232, 456, 495, 496, 582, 635 243, 355, 385, 471, 613 Duryodhana, 53, 110, 111, 194, Dog, 96, 201–202, 497. See 204, 206, 208, 210–211, 289, also Animals 353, 374, 400, 535, 594, 621 Doha, poetry, 116, 202, 437 Dushana, 171, 211, 366, 649 Dom, 202 Dushyanta, King, 1, 102, 210, 211, Dorasamudra, 202 234, 621 Dowry, 54, 122, 127, 203. See Dussehra, 67, 212–213, 227, 279, also Marriage 281, 469, 562, 613, 751, 774 823 Dvadashakshara mantra, 213 Eknath, poet, 99, 107, 219–220, Dvaitadvaita Vedanta, 213, 213, 488, 596, 732 745. See also Vedanta Ekoddishta, 46, 220 Dvaita Vedanta, 213–214, 396, 447, Ekoddishta shraddha, 46, 220, 503 477, 686. See also Vedanta Elder, Joseph, 61, 639 Dvapara yuga, 156, 214, 338, 409 Elements, 14–15, 18, 115, 217, 220, Dvarapala, 214–215 480, 523, 607, 662, 704. See Dvija, 215 also Cosmology Dvipas, 157, 215, 311, 513, 601 akasha, 22 Dwara, 215 kalahasti, 332 Dwaraka, 64, 216, 229, 264, 267, 341, tanmatras, 18, 22, 34, 137, 220, 440, 454, 577, 609, 616, 624 224, 381, 415, 583, 588, 666, , 216, 217 687–688 Elements of Hindu Iconography E (Rao), 447 Early History of the Vaishnava Elements, subtle, 220, 224. See Faith and Movement in Tanmatras Bengal, from the Sanskrit and Elephant, 14, 87, 220, 231, 274, Bengali Sources (De), 5, 136, 290, 296, 385, 498, 635. See 258, 259 also Animals; Ganesh Earth, 15, 37, 53, 56, 84, 115, 151, Airavata, 19, 210, 220 167, 176, 200, 217, 220, 532, Elephanta Caves (Chandra), 221 628, 662. See also Elements; Elephanta temple, 51, 134, 137, Moon; Planets 220–221, 407 cosmology, 22, 44, 119, 168 Eliade, Mircea, 193 creation of, 156, 532 Ellora, temples, 51, 119, 134, 137, deities on, 72, 73, 90 220–221, 221, 247, 331, 407, destruction, 214 449, 565, 746 destruction of, 338 Embree, Ainslee, 28 epithets, 529 Encyclopedia of Religion (Eliade), 193 Eating, 101, 108, 131, 142, 153, 192, Endogamous groups, 221, 245, 201, 217, 324, 399, 535. See 264, 350, 363, 381, 391, also Purification; 407, 413, 424, 429, 455, Vegetarianism 470, 493, 549, 601, 660, meat, 157, 159, 434 692, 694, 695, 720. See utensils, 355 also Jatis Eck, Diana, 699 Entwistle, A. W., 126, 699, 724 Eclipse, 56, 217–218, 294, 383, 527, Erndl, Kathleen, 139, 149, 325, 455, 545, 574. See also Moon; Sun 638, 733 Egnor, Margaret Thrice, 632 Erotic love, 31, 32, 249, 542, 671, Eighteen minor works, 218 674, 741, 743 Ekadashi, 4, 218–219 , 40, 169, 440 , 53, 206, 219 Eroticism, 108, 221–222 Ekmukhi Rudraksha, 219, 576 Erotic texts, 222–223 824 Error, theory of, 24, 42, 47, 223, agnihotra, 16 378, 477, 515, 755–756 agnipradakshinam, 9, 15, 16 Eschmann, Anncharlott, 534, 665 agnipravesha, 16 . See Dharma dhuni, 195–196 Evil eye. See Nazar ordeal, 483, 551 “The Evil Eye” (Pocock), 294, 471, sacred, 7, 9, 36, 492, 579 575, 773 sacrifice, 57, 206 Evolution, 223–224, 554, 579, 588 Shakti, 28, 193 Expiation. See Prayashchitta Fires of Love––Water of Peace (Siegel), 32 F Fischer, Louis, 139, 236 Fables. See Panchatantra Fish avatar, 228–229, 424. See also Fairservis, Walter Ashlin, 88, 300 Avatars; Vishnu Falk, Nancy, 118 Five Forbidden Things. See Fallacies, 225. See also Philosophy Panchamakara infinite regress, 302–303 Float Festival, 227, 229, 398 self-residence, 225, 303, 570, 613 Fluid Signs (Daniel), 21, 617 tarka, 690–691 “A Folk Deity of Tamil Nad” vicious circle, 749 (Dumont), 20 Fallacies of inference. See Four dhams, 78, 216, 229, 534, Hetvabhasa 560, 570 Family. See also Daughters; Sons Four great crimes, 96, 121, 229, devar, 184–185 267, 406, 507, 664, 668, 671. Family custom, 225 See also Intoxicants Family deity. See Kuladevata Four states of consciousness, Family relationships, 225–226 229–230 planets, 513 Frawley, David, 302 Fani, Muhsin, philosopher, 163, Friday, 230, 598, 747, 771 226. See also Philosophers Friedlander, Peter G., 37 Faqir, 226, 396 Fruitful Journeys (Gold), 46, 69, Thomas Coryat, 155 114, 153, 161, 527 Fasting. See Upavasa Fuller, C. J., 530 Fatalism, 214, 226, 258, 607. See Full moon, See Moon also Philosophy Fundamentalism (Björkman), 762 Fathers, World of the, 226 Fundamentalisms Observed “The Feast of Love” (Marriot), 287 (Marty/Appleby), 58, 517, 566 Feldhaus, Anne, 79, 406 Festival calendar, 226–227. See G also Calendar Gada, 75, 137, 231, 486, 500, 624 Feticide, 227–228. See also Abortion Gadge Maharaj, teacher, 231 Fiji, 196, 228 Gahadavala Dynasty, 231, 489 Fire, 23, 35, 48, 115, 217, 220, 228, Gait, E. A., 291 325, 662, 718. See also Agni; Gaja hasta, dance, 231 Elements Gajendramoksha, 231–232, 297 825 Galta, 232 433, 510, 577, 594, 711 Gambling, 201, 204, 208, 232, Gangotri, 25, 78, 95, 240–241, 242, 386, 400 243, 363 Gana, 165, 233 Ganika, 241 Ganapati, 233 Ganpatya, 236, 241 Gandaki River, 138, 233, 622, 729 Garbhadhana, 527, 591 , 194, 210, 233, 360 Garbhadhana Samskara, 241 , 14, 231, 233, 290, 297, Garbhagrha, architecture, 44, 241, 328, 621 331, 453, 549 Gandharva marriage, 1, 49, 102, Garhmukteshvar, 241 233–234. See also Marriage Garhwal, 241–242, 273, 340, 353, Gandhi (Fischer), 139, 236 397, 439, 459, 488, 494, 576, 577 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 18, 33, 54, Garibdas, 242, 243 94, 108, 117, 119, 139, 192, Garibdasi community, 242, 243 226, 234–236, 253, 255, 263, Garuda, 114, 243, 329, 357, 462, 754 279, 283, 387, 578, 609, 611, Gauda brahmins, 242, 410, 491, 601 615, 639, 662 , 242. See also Gandhi, Rajiv, 76 Philosophers Gandhi Jayanti, 130, 236 Gaudiya Vaishnava school, “Gandhi and Women” (Kakar), 236 242–243, 421, 441, 474, 516, , 236 563, 582, 732. See also Ganesa (Courtright), 241 Chaitanya Ganesh, 42, 61, 69, 131, 220, 233, philosophy, 5, 123, 135, 136, 236–237, 241, 394, 413, 500, 140, 145, 258, 306, 315 505, 515, 567, 597, 640, 655, Gaumukh, 240, 243 656, 734, 750. See also Gauna, 243 Elephant Gaura, 243 Ganesh Chaturthi, 93, 227, Gaurava, 244, 470 237–238, 583, 613, 698 Gauri, 244 Ganga, 238, 239, 240 Gaurikund, 244 Ganga Dashahara, 227, 238, 613 Gauri-Shankar, 244, 576 Ganga Dynasty, 238, 369, 484, 671 Gautama, 17, 70, 102, 112, 132, Gangaikondacholapuran, 152, 239, 192, 244–245, 296, 357, 480, 548, 687 525, 609. See also Ganga Sagar, 239 Philosophers Ganges River, 6, 21, 29, 68, 90, 117, Gautama Buddha, 549 134, 188, 228, 238, 239, Gaya, 116, 135, 245, 571, 605 239–240, 250, 379, 398, 433, Gayasura, 245 534, 610 Gayatri Mantra, 16, 245, 423, 477, epithets, 310 611, 674, 722 mythical, 25, 44, 95–96, 198, Gayawal, 245–246 262, 350, 462, 581, 635, 669 Gemstones, 246, 412, 486, 514 sites, 385 Gesture, 593. See also Dance tributaries, 26, 77, 242, 337, 416, abhinaya, 3 826 in dance, 246, 465, 485 Karni Mata, 354 , 246 , 409 Ghat, 137, 180, 246, 287 manifestations, 409, 411, 415, 641 Ghatika, 178, 246–247 Mariyammai, 426 Ghatotkacha, 110, 247, 729 Maya Devi, 433–434 Ghora, 247, 610 Minakshi, 151, 438 Ghose, Aurobindo, 70–71, 91, mountains, 459–460 144, 640 of night, 472–473, 568 Ghosts, 115, 152–153, 206, 247, 574, objects, 500, 625 589, 752 Santoshi Ma, 230, 365, 598 “Ghosts, Greed, and Sin” (Parry), 402 Saraswati, 172, 173, 252, 379, Ghrneshvar, 196, 247, 325, 407, 746 408, 540 Ghurye, G. S., 61, 120, 124 Shakti Pithas, 67, 252, 283, 290, Giri, 173 324, 336, 341, 415–416 Giri Dashanamis, 247–248 Shitala, 415, 632 Giridhara, 248–249 Shiwalik goddesses, 252, 281, Girnar, 249 324, 346 Gitagovinda, 84, 128, 175, Tarapith, 690 249–250, 308, 363, 370, 484, Vajreshvari Devi, 346 542, 732 Venus, 230 Goa, 250, 636 Vindhyavasini, 754, 755–756 Gobind Deo Mandir, 127, 250 worship, 34, 36, 41, 67, 85, 301, Godana, 250 345, 539, 550, 610, 620, 676 Godavari River, 39, 134, 240, Godman, 253, 583 250–251, 407, 463, 488, 708 Godmen of India (Brent), 253 Godbole, Narhar R., 98, 257, 312, Gods on Earth (van der Veer), 61, 322, 409, 459, 614 74, 564, 644 Goddess, 42, 85, 95, 131, 137, 139, Gods, World of, 253, 319 149, 251–253, 290, 385, 405, Godse, Nathuram, 234, 253, 255, 449, 455, 512, 515, 645. See 283, 611 also Kali; Women Gokarna, 254 animal vehicle, 391 Gokhale, Gopal Krishna, 150, 254, avatars, 475–476 564, 697 birth of, 410 Gokulnath, 146, 254, 275, 540 Devimahatmya, 186–187 Gold, Anne Grodzins, 46, 114, 153, earth as, 217 161, 527, 699 epithets, 33, 92, 620, 626, 782 Gold, Daniel, 58, 517, 566 festivals, 227, 468, 562 Golden Embryo, 156, 254, 518 forms, 112, 212, 247, 299, 331, “Golden Handprints and Redpainted 346, 395, 408, 467, 638, 648, Feet” (Jacobsen), 118 656, 697, 734, 783 Goldman, Robert, 162, 558 Jada, 308 Golwalkar, Madhav Sadashiv, 182, Kamakhya, 41, 67, 252, 290, 254–255, 761 337, 341 Gond, 255 827 Gopal, Sarvepalli, 74, 77 Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair Gopala, 255 (Seely/Nathan), 563 Gopichand, 255–256 Graham, Bruce Desmond, 314 Gopis, 95, 112, 127, 135, 150, 172, Grammarians, 261, 662. See also 255, 371, 567, 661, 718 Philosophy Gopurams, 51, 126, 147, 204, 256, Grand Bassin, 262, 433 379, 643 Grhastha, 261–262, 663 Gora, poet, 256–257 Grhastha, 598 Gorakhnath, sage, 61, 256, 257, Grhya Sutras, 48, 66, 88, 102, 191, 321, 322, 347, 432, 438, 466, 192, 262, 640 478, 719, 735 Grierson, George A., 256, 387 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Gross, Rita M., 118 Yogis (Briggs), 257, 284, 341, Gross, Robert Lewis, 61 432, 467, 478, 735 Guardians of the Directions, 14, Gorakhnathi, 257 262–263, 296, 367, 376, 741, Gorakhshatakam, 257 744, 776 Gosain, 257–258, 466 Gudimallam linga, 263, 390, 509. Gosala Maskariputra, 22, 258 See also Linga Goshala, 157, 258. See also Cow Guha, King, 263 Goswami, Jiva, 5, 136, 258, 373. See Gujarat, 16, 138, 234, 263–264, also Philosophers 393, 407, 528, 547, 660, 680 Goswami, Rupa, 136, 173, 242, sites, 216, 249, 298, 377, 463 258–259, 373, 378, 395, 441, temples, 166, 660 584, 625, 743 Gujarati brahmins, 25, 184, 263, Goswami, Sanatana, 136, 242, 258, 264, 407, 490–491 259, 373 Gujjar, 264 Goswami, Satsvarupdas Dasa, 516 Guler, 264–265, 439, 488 Goswami, Shrivatsa, 259 Gunas, 224, 265, 520, 546, 587, Gotra, 70, 102, 112, 221, 244, 259, 684. See also Rajas; 429, 526 Sattva; Tamas Gotra brahmins, 70, 102, 112, 221, Gupta Dynasty, 141, 182, 265, 276, 244, 259, 429, 526 377, 591, 735 Govardhan Math, 50, 112, 229, Gupta, Kumara I, 377 260, 325, 430, 534, 643 Gupta, Murari, 136, 361, 449–450 Govardhan mountain, 259 Gupta, Samudra, 141, 265, 591 Govardhan Puja, 42, 227, Guptakashi, 265–266, 719 260, 355 Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty, 266, Govinda, 260. See also Krishna 345, 489 Govindswami, poet, 64, 260 Guru, 11, 28, 53, 60, 120, 143, Grace, 49, 98, 143, 199, 214, 149, 193, 219, 229, 266, 324, 236, 241, 260–261, 307, 340, 488, 647 389, 451, 454, 456, 478, Shri , 8 501, 523, 540, 635, “Guru brother,” 36–37 646, 672 , 166, 227, 267 828 Gurutalpaga, 267, 406, 507 Harishchandra, King, 142, , 267 275–276, 742 Gyan Vapi, 267–268, Harivamsh, 276, 545 battle of, 268 Harivamsha, 276, 370, 533, 731 Harsha, King, 85, 138, 276, 290, H 329, 345, 403, 530, 540 Hair, 56, 84, 152, 204, 269, 292, Harshacharita, 85 307, 512, 640, 645, 650, 696, Harshacharita, 276–277 772. See also Shaving Hartalika Teej, 277 jata, 316 Haryana, 242, 277, 338, 383, 528, jatamakuta, 316 531, 603, 694 shaving, 449 Hashish. See Charas Hala, 269 Hasta, dance, 246, 277, 446 Haladhara, 269 , 277–278, 400 Halahala, 269, 473, 706 Hatha yoga, 28, 60, 278, 436, 467, Halebid, 90, 269–270, 289, 353 475, 668–669, 695, 734. See Hampi, 270, 274, 353, 684 also Yoga Hamsa, 79, 119, 270–271 Hawley, John S., 24, 127, 172, 236, A Handbook of Virasaivism 259, 329, 337, 372, 389, 403, (Nandimath), 391 440, 463, 569, 605, 654, 672, Hansen, Bent Smidt, 21 673, 674, 713 Hanuman, 24, 42, 82, 83, Heavens, 10, 16, 42, 44, 83, 157, 146, 271–272, 309, 388, 218, 278, 325, 437, 589, 729 435, 547, 557, 635, 654, Hedgewar, Dr. K.B., 255, 278–279, 671, 744 454, 565, 611 epithets, 595 Hein, Norvin, 562 , 272 Hell, 128, 157, 279, 461, 589 , 136, 227, Hemp, 279–280 272–273 The Hermit and the Love-Thief Hara, 273 (Miller), 106, 626 Harappa, 273, 298, 301, 335, 393, Hero-Stones, 280 443, 633 Hertel, Bradley R., 172, 755 Hare Krishnas, 273 Hess, Linda, 116, 329, 593, 720 , 273 Hetu, 47, 207, 280, 489, 581, 721, Hari Krishna. See ISKCON 755. See also Philosophy , poet, 273 Hetvabhasa, 280 Haridasas, 533 Hijras, 132, 280–281, 288 Haridwar, 36, 52, 69, 81, 102, 155, Hill, Douglas P., 713 184, 239, 273–274, 324, 347, Himachal Pradesh, 88, 139, 149, 379, 414, 463, 474, 475, 616, 639 281, 324, 455, 532, 638, 734 Nasik Mela, 463–464 Himalaya, 281, 436, 503 Harihara, 274–275, 751 Himalayas, 81, 95, 144, 157, 184, 240, Harijan, 168, 275 242, 265, 281–282, 297, 336–337, Hariray, 146, 254, 275 340, 363, 400, 494, 700 829 Hindi, 48, 116, 126, 282, 450, History and Doctrines of the 531–532, 580, 610, 638. See Ajivikas (Basham), 22, 226 also Sanskrit; Tamil language “The History of Janakpur” Braj Bhasha, 71, 126, 202, 282, 641 (Burghart), 313 dialects, 71 Hitopadesha, 285 doha form, 1 Hitopadesha, 493 The Hindi Biography of Dadu Holi, 101, 207, 227, 285–287, 482, 613 Dayal (Callewaert), 164 Holidays, 130 The Hindi Padavali of Namdev , 285, 287 (Callewaert/Lath), 459 Holkar, Ahalya Bai, 287–288, 763 Hindu Goddesses (Kinsley), 139, The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama 149, 217, 325, 335, 386, 403, (Hill), 713 408, 409, 473, 476, 505, 542, Homa, 52, 186, 288, 526 603, 621, 654, 720, 755 Homo Hierarchicus (Dumont), 535 Hindu Mahasabha, 158, 282–283, Homosexuality, 288 314, 611 Hookswinging, 288 Hindu Nationalism and Indian Hooper, John S.M., 377, 431, 459, Politics (Graham), 314 508, 702, 703, 704, 705 The Hindu Nationalist Movement Horse, 581. See also Animals in India (Jaffrelot), 74, 105, Hotr, 7, 122, 288, 536, 576, 718 182, 279, 283, 373, 561, 566, House of Clay, 289 611, 762 House of Lac, 289, 535, 749 Hindu Samskaras (Pandey), 46, 148, Hoysala Dynasty, 90, 202, 269, 289, 161, 428, 579, 591, 639, 722 353, 643 “Hindu Temple Priests” (Fuller), 530 Hoysaleshvar temple, 202, 269, “Hindu Transactions” (Marriot), 132, 289–290 153, 535 Hrshikesha, 290 Hindutva, 57, 104, 283, 300, 439, Hsuan Tsang, 25, 273, 276, 290, 562, 565–566, 571, 611, 633 505, 540 “Hindu Values of Life” (Mathur), 190 Huhu, 14, 231, 290, 297 , 283–284 Human sacrifice, 41, 108, 139, , 284 290–291. See also Sacrifice Hiranyakashipu, King, 173, 181, Hume, Robert Ernest, 723 284, 287, 318, 421, 462, 518 Humes, Cynthia Ann, 172, 755 Hiranyakeshin, sage, 48, 88, 284, Humors, bodily. See Tridosha 339, 640 Hundi, 291 , 119, 284, 318 Hygeine, 291 A History of Assam (Gait), 291 Hymns of the Alvars (Hooper), A History of the Dasanami Naga 377, 431, 459, 508, 702, 703, Sanyasis (Sarkar), 61, 292, 452 704, 705 History of Dharmasastra (Kane), Hymns to the Dancing Siva 46, 101, 148, 161, 190, (Yocum), 420, 704 191, 337, 428, 526, 579, 591, Hymns for the Drowning 639, 722 (Ramanujan), 431, 459, 704 830 Hypergamous marriage, 46, 291 , King, 14, 231, 290, Hypogamous marriage, 291–292 296–297, 309 Indrajit, 40, 297, 435, 557 I Indrani, 297, 617 IAVRI–Bulletin, 724 , 297, 400 Iconic image, 293. See also , 134, 250, 297–298 Aniconic image Indus Valley art, 298 Ida nadi chakra, 293, 452, 667, 675. Indus Valley civilizations, 57, 60, See also Chakras 70, 117, 176, 251, 263, 295, An Idealist View of Life 298–300, 393, 429, 603, 633, (Radhakrishnan), 544 725, 768 Ikshvaku Dynasty, 32–33, 174, 545 Harappa, 273, 298 Ikshvaku, King, 293, 393, 659 Kalibangan, 335 Ilangovadigal, poet, 293, 630 Mohenjo-Daro, 88, 298, 443 Impalement, 293–294, 470, 571, 587 Indus Valley religion, 300–301 Impurity. See Ashaucha Indus Valley seals, 60, 301–302 Inauspiciousness, 89, 146, 161, Infanticide, 83–84, 302 169, 294, 305, 402, 406, 424, Inference. See Anumana 456, 486, 492, 574, 712. See Infinite regress, 225, 302–303 also Auspiciousness Ingalls, Daniel H., 27, 505 Independence Day, 294 Inherence, 47, 303, 378, 469, 480, India (Nivin et al.), 39, 116, 250, 264, 515, 731 281, 312, 354, 357, 396, 407, Inheritance, 11, 79, 177, 303, 319, 484, 532, 547, 686, 727, 771 360, 431, 440, 470, 661, 664, Indian Art (Craven), 369, 671 752 Indian Painting (Archer), 129, 370, Initiation, 3, 50, 59, 64, 70, 115, 439, 488, 548 116, 120, 124, 186, 241, 303, Indian Painting in Bundi and 578, 580 Kotah (Archer), 129, 370 dikshanama, 197 Indian Philosophical Analysis Inscriptions, 63, 85, 90, 93, 125, (Potter/Bhattacharyya), 470, 162, 301, 304, 332, 366, 510, 481, 731 560, 727. See also Pillar Indian Sadhus (Ghurye), 61, 120, 124 edicts; Rock edicts Indian Society and the Making of the Installation, 304 British Empire (Bayly), 698 Intentional language, 304, 593 Indigenous Aryan theory, 57, Intercalary month, 304–305, 394, 294–295, 300 412–413, 536, 685. See also Indira Ekadashi, 67, 218, 227, 295 Calendar Indra, 10, 17, 19, 27, 33, 44, 49, 53, 83, The Interior Landscape 163, 176, 183, 185, 210, 220, 236, (Ramanujan), 594 245, 248, 259, 262, 271, Interpreting Early India 295–296, 328, 366, 371, 430, (Tharpar), 302 436, 455, 497, 572, 581, 617, 620, Intoxicants, 4, 21, 45, 87, 108, 149, 628, 641, 689, 715, 725, 741, 759 305, 307, 391, 398, 411, 413, 831 414, 432, 446, 736. See also Jajman, 311 Drugs; Surapana Jallianwala Bagh, 311, 532 bhang, 101–102, 287, 305, 694 Jamadagni, 311, 500, 571 charas, 143, 148, 207, 279, 305, Jambhavan, 311 581, 659 Jambudvipa, 215, 311–312 chillum, 148–149 Jambukeshvar, 312, 701 datura, 176–177 linga, 115 liquor, 229, 305, 391, 406, 507, Jammu, 88, 281, 312, 356, 429, 439, 530, 563, 573, 688, 719, 741 488, 638 prohibition, 528 Janabai, poet, 312 soma, 16, 295, 393, 572, 659, 741 Janaka, King, 312, 313, 440, 555, , 123, 305–306, 647, 653, 654 627, 722 Janaki Navami, 227, 313, 509 Isherwood, Christopher, 552, 768 Janakpur, 313 Ishitvam, 306, 650 Janamjeya, King, 313, 329, 683 Ishtadevata, 306, 688 Janardana, 314 , 12, 306 Jana Sangh, 13, 104, 159, 314 Ishvarakrishna, 132, 242, 306, 350, Janeu, 314 587. See also Philosophy Jangama, 87, 314, 391 Ishvara Puri, 135, 306 Janmashtami, 93, 227, 314–315, 613 ISKCON, 306–307, 405, 434, 516 Japa, 315, 526, 736 Jaratkarava Artabhaga, 315 J , sage, 37, 315–316 Jabali, 308 Jat, 316 Jacobsen, Doranne, 118, 768 Jata, 316 Jada, 308 Jatakarma, 147 Jaffrelot, Christophe, 74, 77, 105, 182, Jatakarma samskara, 316, 591 279, 283, 373, 561, 566, 611, 762 Jatamakuta, 316 Jagadisha, 308 Jatayu, 317 Jagamohan, architecture, 183, 308, Jatis, 4, 19, 48, 54, 131, 150, 153, 369, 390, 454, 464, 501, 629, 671 177, 182, 188, 194, 221, 264, Jagannath, 164, 308–309, 323, 533, 316, 317, 363, 381, 391, 407, 567, 665, 693, 753 413, 424, 455, 493, 549, 660, Jagannath temple, 82, 84, 111, 170, 692, 694, 695, 720, 733. See 175, 238, 249, 454, 529, 537 also Endogamous groups Jageshvar, 309 banjara, 86 Jahnavi, 310 doms, 202 , 310 Jatra, 317 Jaimini, 310, 438, 537, 616. See Jauhar, 318 also Philosophers Jaya, 65, 318, 398, 568, 632 Jaini, Padmanabh S., 61, 639 Jaya Ekadashi, 219, 227, Jains, 639 318–319, 398 Hindus and, 41, 293, 571 Jayadeva, poet, 9, 82, 84, 128, 175, Rishabha, 573 249, 308, 318, 363, 484, 542 832 , King, 318 Jwalamukhi, 155, 324, Jayakar, Pupul, 374 638, 679 Jayapala, King, 319 Jyeshth, 325, 612 Jayaprasad, K., 566 festivals, 4, 218, 227, 238, Jayarashi, 319. See also Philosophy 475, 612 Jayasimha, King II, 24 Jyotirlingas, 32, 39, 91, 110, 116, Jejuri, 319, 366 196, 247, 309, 325–326, 356, Jhanki, 319 363, 402, 407, 413, 454, 463, Jimutavahana, scholar, 178, 319 483, 560, 640, 660, 712. See Jindel, Rajendra, 642 also Linga Jiva, 258, 320 Jyotir Math, 36, 78, 229, 248, 260, Jivacchraddha, 320 323, 325, 430, 570, 643 , 320 Jyotisha, 140, 326–327, 411, 436, Jivanmukti, 320 476, 492, 628, 629 Jnana, 320–321 Jnanakarmasamucchaya, 107, K 109, 321 , 328 Jnanamarga, 93, 100, 321, 352 Kabir, poet, 9, 36, 91, 98, 116, 164, Jnana Mudra, 321 202, 242, 328–329, 467, 494, Jnanasambandhar, 321 553, 569, 596, 719 Jnanendriyas, 18, 224, 321, 415, 588 Kabir (Vaudeville), 329 Jnaneshvar, poet, 27, 98, 257, Kabir Legends and Ananta-Das’s 321–322, 447, 459, 478, 732 Kabir Parachai (Lorenzen), Jnaneshvari, 322, 478 37, 329 Jogi, 14, 322, 466 Kabirpanth, 116, 328, 329 Joking relationships, 322 Kadambari, 85, 329 Jones, Kenneth W., 58, 283 Kadru, 243, 329, 683 Jones, Sir William, 322–323 Kaikeyi, 103, 174, 329–330, 422, Joshimath, 36, 78, 229, 248, 323, 555, 574 325, 340, 341, 570 Kailas, 330–331, 413, 437, 503, Journal of the American Academy of 692, 741 Religion, 79, 337, 594, 680, 703 Kailasanatha temple, 134, 221, Journal of the Asiatic Society of 331, 565 Bengal (Grierson), 256 Kaitabha, 186, 252, 331, 395, 408 Juergensmeyer, Mark, 236, 329, Kaivalya, 65, 331–332, 588 440, 545, 569, 672, 673, Kajari Teej, 332. See also Teej 674, 713 Kakar, Sudhir, 80, 83, 114, Juggernaut, 323, 567 153, 236, 272, 435, Juna Akhara, 24, 26, 72, 96, 476, 483, 515, 527, 544, 323–324, 474 672, 773 Jupiter, 29, 34, 52, 81, 127, 246, Kala, 332 266, 267, 324, 380, 464, 486, Kalahasti, linga, 115, 332 651, 771 Kalamukhas, 14, 61, 90, Jutha, 324 332, 387 833 , 30, 332–333 Kamalakanta, poet, 342 Kalhana, poet, 333, 548 Kamandalu, 342, 714 Kali, 96, 139, 187, 244, 246, 252, Kamavasayitvam, 343, 650 290, 333–335, 338, 365, 403, Kamba Ramayana, 343 409, 449, 465, 477, 550, 620, Kamban, poet, 343, 343, 558 648, 687, 696, 706 Kamika Ekadashi, 218, 227, devotees, 342, 562 343–344, 640 epithets, 140 Kamsa, 344, 364, 540, 575, 619, temples, 167–168, 336, 552 711, 718, 742 Kali Gandaki River, 34 Kamsa, King, 24, 92, 184 Kali yuga, 156, 214, 337, 338, 361, Krishna and, 82, 83, 315, 370 409, 479 Kamya, 638 Kalibangan, 335 Kamya karma, 344, 455, 477, 604 Kalidasa, poet, 1, 141, 211, 265, Kanada, 344, 523. See also 335–336, 363, 377, 403, 413, Philosophers 435, 436, 445, 545, 615, 621, 752 Kanauj, 344–345, 345, 348, 410, Kalighat, 336 491, 540 Kalika Devi, 336, 338, 638 Kanaujia brahmins, 131, 242, 345, Kalimath, 336–337 410, 491, 503, 601 Kali’s Child (Kripal), 552 Kanchipuram, 345–346, 399, 490, Kalivarjya, 337, 479, 660, 668 496, 507, 616, 685 , 337, 371 linga, 104, 115, 345–346 Kalka, 336, 338 Kandariya Mahadev, 346, 365 Kalki avatar, 73, 338 Kandarpa, 346 Kalpa, 140, 155, 180, 338, 339, 476, Kane, Pandurang Vaman, 46, 520, 629. See also Yuga 101, 148, 161, 190, 191, Kalpa Sutra, 48, 88, 191, 192, 262, 337, 428, 526, 579, 591, 339, 640 639, 722 Kalpataru, 339, 386, 472 Kangra, 346, 439, 488, 734 Kalpavas, 339–340, 399 Kanha, 346 Kalpeshvar, 340, 364, 494, 577 Kanhaiya, 346 Kalyanamandapam, 340 Kankhal, 347 Kama, 19, 55, 106, 189, 222, Kannada, 347 340–341, 443, 503, 518, 536, Kannada language, 29, 87, 205, 545, 568, 626, 635, 656, 741 390, 402 epithets, 36, 346 Kanphata, 347, 466 Kama Sutra, 92, 222, 288, 340, Kanvar, 347, 640 342–343, 528, 743 , 169, 177, 203, 347–348, Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, 529 428. See also Marriage Kamada Ekadashi, 136, 218, 227, 341 Kanyakubja, 131, 266, 276, 319, Kamadhenu, 341, 360 344, 348, 540 Kamakhya, 41, 67, 252, 290, 337, Kanyakumari, 348, 685, 700 341, 345, 473, 679 Kapala, 108, 348–349 Kamakotipith, 341–342, 345, 624 Kapalamochana, 96, 121, 349 834 Kapalikas, 14, 61, 108, 332, 349, Karni Mata, 183, 354, 567 373, 387, 413, 516 Karni Mata temple, 547 The Kapalikas and the Karpatri Maharaj, Swami, Kalamukhas (Lorenzen), 354–355, 563, 716 349, 387 Kartigai, 355, 685 Kapalin, 349–350 Kartik, 355, 613 Kapferer, Bruce, 132, 153 festivals, 97, 187, 200–201, 219, Kapha, 75, 142, 350, 513, 675, 743 227, 243, 260, 272, 355, 459, Kapila, sage, 44, 95, 198, 238, 239, 461, 471, 483, 558, 714 350, 581 Kartik Purnima, 227, 230, 241, 249, Kapilavatsu, 350 355, 483, 539, 613 Kapu, 350 Karttikeya, 355, 374 Kapur, Anaradha, 389, 562, 651 Karva Chauth, 227, 355, 355–356, 613 Kar, Bijayananda, 24, 42, 47, 223, Karve, I. B., 496, 740, 765 607, 755–756 Kashi, King, 32, 33, 90, 111, 356, Karana, 147, 351 491, 628, 664 Karandamakuta, 351 Kashmir, 88, 281, 312, 333, Karka Sankranti, 74, 167, 351, 411, 356–357, 387, 496, 548 595, 727, 786. See also Planets sites, 30–31, 312, 429, 638 Karma, 49, 55, 132, 181, 190, 315, Kashyapa, 70, 102, 245, 357, 511 326, 351–352, 498, 526, 532, family, 9–10, 27, 112, 169, 243 537, 574, 588, 589, 637 Kataka hasta, 277, 357, 651 animals and, 40–41 Kataragama, 288, 357–358, 361, workings of, 5, 8, 10, 12, 515, 663 296, 508 Kataragama (Wirz), 288, 358 Karma and Rebirth in Classical “The Kataragama Pilgrimage” Indian Traditions (Pfaffenberger), 288, 358 (O’Flaherty), 352, 589 Katha, 358, 445, 559, 562 “Karma, Guilt, and Buried Kathak, dance, 103, 146, 170, Memories” (Goldman), 162 358–359, 420, 484 Karmamarga, 93, 100, 190, 321, Kathakali, dance, 103, 146, 170, 352, 676 359, 420, 443, 484 Karmendriyas, 18, 224, 352, 415, 588 Katha Upanishad, 123, 359, 451, Karna, 6, 53, 210, 247, 352, 500 584, 722 Karnaprayag, 26, 353, 510 Katyavalambita Hasta, dance, Karnata brahmins, 353, 407, 491 359–360 Karnataka, 29, 87, 110, 133, 138, Katyayana Smrti, 360 269, 332, 353–354, 366, 412, Kauravas, 53, 67, 93, 109, 110, 127, 473, 507, 565, 642, 718 206, 207, 208, 210, 233, 247, Aihole, 19 318, 360, 374, 400 sites, 90, 202, 254, 270, 289, Kausalya, 174, 330, 360, 574 643, 684 Kaustubha, 188, 360, 645, 706 Karnavedha, 147 Kautilya, 55, 139, 142, 360 Karnavedha Samskara, 354, 591 Kavadi, 358, 360–361 835 Kaveri River. See Cauvery River Kiritamakuta, 351, 367 Kavi, 361 , 135, 367–368, 372, 399 Kavikarnapura, 136, 361 Kirtimukha, 368 Kavitavali, 361, 361, 713 Kishkindha, 40, 84, 368, 557, 668 Kavitavali (Allchin), 713 Kitawara group, 36, 64, 111, 113, Kavitt, 361 174, 216, 248, 325, 368–369, Kavya, 362–363 534, 643 Kayasth, 363 Kjaerholm, Lars, 21 Kedarnath, 25, 78, 242, 244, 309, Knipe, David M., 46, 601 325, 340, 363–364, 416, 494, Koil, 369 506, 577, 711 Kokila, 369 , 364, 722 Kolenda, Pauline, 63, 535 Kerala, 20, 147, 157, 364, 377, 412, Konarak, 369 443, 470, 473 temples, 222, 238, 440, 454, sites, 34, 616 484, 671 Keshanta Samskara, 364 Konkanastha, 369 Keshava, 364 Korravai, 369 , 364–365, 371 Koshala, 369 Keshimanthana, 365 Kota, 369–370, 548. See also Keshini, 58, 365, 581 Painting Ketu, 218, 246, 327, 365, 486, 545, 583 Kramrisch, Stella, 635 Khadga, 75, 365 Kratu, sage, 40, 70, 370, 426, Khajuraho, 140, 365–366, 725 530, 574 temples, 7, 51, 222, 346, 369, 396, Kraunchadvipa, 215, 370 404–405, 440, 453, 629, 671 Kraunchanishadana, 370 Khaki Shorts and Saffron Flags Kripal, Jeffrey, 552 (Basu), 182, 255, 279, 566, 762 Kripalani, Krishna, 682 Khandava forest, 53, 236, 366 Krishna, 92, 95, 145, 204, 208, Khandoba, 319, 366, 753 370–372, 395, 451, 508, Khara, 171, 211, 366, 649 537, 539, 542, 563, 632, 665, Kharoshthi, 125, 366 673, 747 Khatvanga, 366–367 avatars, 83, 173, 193, 249, 308, Khetaka, 367 361, 559 Khokar, Mohan, 104, 146, 171, 359, Balakrishna, 83 377, 421, 443, 485 childhood, 24, 124, 126, 250, , 110, 367 261, 276, 296, 337, 364, 373, Kimpurusha, 367 431, 540, 619, 667, 775 Kindama, sage, 194, 367, 496 depictions, 129, 164, 170, 213, Kinnara, 367 248, 249, 259, 264, 376, Kinsley, David R., 139, 149, 193, 439, 441, 449, 508, 534, 641, 217, 325, 335, 372, 386, 389, 645, 677 403, 408, 409, 473, 476, 505, devotees, 25, 64, 140, 146, 172, 542, 563, 603, 621, 654, 720, 306, 372, 421, 439–440, 463, 725, 755 502, 516, 566, 582, 584, 672 836 epithets, 169, 255, 314, 346, 364, Kubera, 13, 169, 262, 367, 376, 418, 395, 422, 442–443, 449, 511, 435, 539, 568, 776 650, 738, 775 Kubja, 376 family, 41, 82, 83–84, 175, 184, Kuchela, 376 344, 400, 459, 518, 544, 545, Kuchipudi, dance, 103, 146, 170, 575, 609, 717, 742 376–377, 420, 484 sites, 81, 87, 126, 127, 260 Kulachara, 152, 225, 377, 429 Vishnu and, 38, 73, 267, Kuladevata, 377 370, 389 Kulashekhara, 29, 377 worship, 5, 54, 94, 112, 151, 216, Kulke, Hermann, 534, 665 219, 242, 314, 318, 405, Kulu, 213, 377 445, 516, 554, 558, 567, 592, Kumara, 377 646, 726 Kumarapala, 377 Krishna (Singer), 372 Kumarasambhava, 336, Krishna Consciousness, 273 377–378, 403 Krishnadas, 372–373 Kumarila, philosopher, 223, Krishnadas Kaviraj, 64, 136, 373 378–379, 438, 515, 755 Krishna Deva Raya, 373, 751 Kumbhadas, 64, 145, 378 Krishna Janam Bhumi, 373, Kumbhakarna, 173, 318, 378–379, 557 431, 442 Kumbhakonam, 379, 680, 685 Krishna lilas, 678 Kumbha Mela, 15, 27, 29, 40, 69, Krishnamishra, 373–374, 516 81, 120, 124, 145, 164, 197, Krishnamurti: A Biography 232, 282, 324, 379–381, 399, (Jayakar), 374 435–436, 452, 463, 474, 476, Krishnamurti, Jiddu, 374 553, 641. See also Magh Mela Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes Ardha Kumbha Mela, 52, (Singer), 287 81, 379 Krishna Paksha, 130, 374, 489 Sinhastha Mela, 651–653 Krishna River, 39, 110, 374, 714 Ujjain Kumbha Mela, 644, “Krishna’s Cosmic Victories” 651–653 (Hawley), 337 Kumhar, 381 Krishna: The Butter Thief (Hawley), Kunbi, 381, 424 172, 372, 672, 674 Kundalini, 257, 278, 293, 381, 447, Krittikas, 374, 655 448, 476, 511, 583, 620, 667, Krpacharya, 374 675, 681. See also Tantra; Yoga Krta yuga, 156, 214, 229, 338, Kundalini Yoga, 381–382, 645, 689, 375, 409 695. See also Yoga Kshanika Linga, 375 Kunti, 6, 53, 109, 204, 210, 302, Kshatriya brahmins, 21, 53, 352, 382, 397, 400, 456, 495, 115, 120, 121, 124, 131, 496, 582 174, 186, 190, 197, 215, Avatar, 382 341, 375–376, 500, 525, Kurmasana, 382–383 536, 549, 694 Kurukshetra, 277, 383, 694 Kshemaraja, 376 Kusha, 383, 388, 558 837 Kushadvipa, 215, 383 animal skins, 58 Kusha grass, 320, 388 Left-hand tantra, 389. See Kutichaka, 79, 383, 498 also Tantra Leslie, Julia, 768 L Levertov, Denise, 140, 750 Laghava, 244, 384 Levirate, 389 Laghima, 384, 650 Life Lajpat Rai, Lala, 384 Aims of Life, 19, 189, 222, 223, , 270 262, 288, 340, 342, 443, 536, 545 Lakshman Jhula, 385, 573 Divine Life Society, 199 Lakshmana, 69, 76, 85, 102, 151, 171, Stages of Life, 120, 172, 174, 189, 174, 211, 317, 328, 365, 192, 262, 423, 551, 585, 593, 384–385, 418, 425, 463, 493, 598, 639, 647, 658, 663–664, 551, 555, 568, 616, 649, 653, 669 676, 721, 738 Lakshmi, 25, 37, 124, 188, 200, 232, The Life of Eknath (Abbott), 99, 252, 360, 385–386, 412, 462, 220, 410 485, 486, 502, 542, 640, 645, The Life of a Text (Lutgendorf), 696, 713 358, 564 eight forms of, 65, 295 The Life of Tukaram (Abbott), 99, Lakshmi-Narayan temple, 410, 712 386–387 The Life and Works of Raidas Lakshmibai, 386 (Callewaert/Friedlander), 37 Lakshmidhara, poet, 339, 386, 472 Light of Truth (Prasad), 58, 179 , 387 Lila, 21, 95, 193, 315, 389, 410, 540, Lal Ded, 387 542, 584. See also Ras lila Lalitaditya, King, 387 Limitationism, 100, 389. See also Lalla Vakyani, 387 Philosophy Lallavakyani, 387 Linga, 32, 40, 113, 117, 220, 309, Lalleshvari, 387 314, 345, 363, 390, 391, 413, Lanka, 13, 39, 63, 173, 181, 188, 387– 454, 473, 506, 511, 560, 606, 388, 425, 550, 557, 568, 649 635, 637, 660, 690, 712 Lankalakshmi, 388 bana linga, 85 Larson, Gerald, 224, 332, 520, bhutalingas, 115, 147, 332, 536, 589 345, 704 Lasya, dance, 388, 687 depictions, 30, 135, 402, 413 Lath, Mukund, 459 gudimallam linga, 263, 390, 509 Lava, 388, 558 , 32, 39, 91, 110, 116, Lavan, Spencer, 126 196, 247, 309, 325, 356, 363, The Laws of Manu 402, 407, 413, 454, 463, 483, (O’Flaherty/Smith), 424 560, 640, 660, 712, 45432 Leap philosophy, 388, 408, 673. See kshanika linga, 375 also Philosophy mukhalinga, 447 Leather, 388, 563, 569, 570, 705. phallic emblem, 509–510 See also Cow Lingaraja Temple, 113, 390, 454 838 Lingayat community, 29, 87, 99, McLeod, W. H., 597 185, 314, 353, 354, 390–391, Madan, T. N., 20, 63, 190, 294, 471, 402, 571, 757 530, 534, 535, 567, 575, 605, 773 Lion, 63, 391, 410. See also Animals Madhava, 395, 447, 477–478, 499, Man-Lion avatar, 421–422 604, 686. See also Liquor, 229, 305, 391. See also Philosophers Intoxicants Madhima, 395, 650 Living Banaras (Hertel/Humes), Madhu, 186, 252, 395, 408 172, 755 Madhurya, 378 Lochtefeld, James G., 452 Madhurya Bhava, 395–396, 442 , 391–392 Madhusudana Saraswati, 396 Lohari, 392 Madhva, 123, 145, 213, 396. See Lokacharya, Pillai, 392, 694 also Philosophers Lokayata, 392 Madhya Pradesh, 11, 16, 93, 109, , 14, 392 182, 255, 396, 718–719 Lorenzen, David, 37, 329, 349, sites, 30, 85, 346, 365–366, 414, 387, 452 418–419, 463 Lost wax casting, 392. See Madmaheshvar, 340, 364, also Bronzes 396–397, 494, 577 Lota, 392–393 Madri, 67, 210, 397, 400, 456, 495, Lothal, 263, 335, 393 496, 582 Lotus, 186, 393, 408 Madurai, 198, 293, 397–398, Lotus position. See Padmasana 438, 470, 496, 571, 587, 630, Love of God According to Saiva 685, 701 Siddhanta (Dhavamony), 619 festivals, 151, 229 Love of God and Social Duty Madya, 166, 398, 492 (Babineau), 552 Magh, 398, 613, 741 Love marriage, 54, 393. See also festivals, 29, 111, 219, 227, 229, Marriage 318–319, 339–340, 398, The Love Song of the Dark Lord 432–433, 569–570, 583, 627 (Miller), 176, 250, 318, 372, 542 Magha, poet, 398, 403, 632 The Love Songs of Vidyapati Magh Mela, 29, 227, 339, (McGregor), 750 398, 398–399. See also Lunar Line, 293, 393, 501, 532, Kumbha Mela 549, 659 Magic, 96, 209, 238, 253, 399, 432, Lunar month, 393–394, 445, 471, 433, 461, 518, 527, 557, 574, 489, 491, 612, 628, 647. See 605, 622, 650, 688, 742, 747 also Calendar black, 35, 152 Lutgendorf, Philip, 358, 564 sorcery, 80 Mahabalipuram, 399, 409, 462, M 490, 547, 685 McGee, Mary, 768 Mahabharata, 2, 6, 10, 32, 33, 37, McGregor, R.S., 460, 718, 750 53, 65, 66, 67, 73, 82, 93, 101, McKean, Lise, 566, 611, 762 106, 109, 110, 127, 138, 168, 839 172, 190, 194, 204, 206, 207, Mahasaraswati, 252, 403, 408, 210, 211, 216, 219, 231, 232, 468, 733 233, 236, 237, 247, 276, 277, Mahat, 18, 129, 224, 408, 588 289, 296, 297, 318, 338, 339, Mahavakya, 17, 112, 113, 248, 408, 352, 366, 367, 370, 374, 382, 519, 649, 691, 717 386, 399–401, 456, 495, 496, Mahavidyas, 149, 409 500, 501, 506, 514, 532, 535, Mahayuga, 156, 214, 285, 338, 555, 582, 621, 625, 628, 632, 409, 707 637, 645, 656, 664, 694, 729 Mahendravarman, King, 48, 138, Mahabhashya, 401–402, 497, 506 409, 462, 490, 530 Mahabrahman, 402 Mahesh, 409. See also Shiva Mahadeva. See Shiva Maheshvar, 221, 409 Mahadevan, T. M. P., 553 Mahipati, 98, 99, 409–410 Mahadeviyakka, poet, 391, 402 Mahishasura, 186, 212, 252, 403, Mahakaleshvar, 306, 325, 402–403 410, 477, 648 Mahakali, 252, 333, 403, 408, 733 Mahishi, 20, 410, 443 Mahakavyas, 403, 632 Mahishmati, 410 Mahalakshmi, 403, 403, 408, 468, Mahmud of Ghazni, King, 28, 36, 502, 733 319, 345, 410, 660 Mahamana Madan Mohan Maithila brahmins, 410–411, Malviya (Parmanand), 414 491, 601 Mahamandaleshvar, 403–404 Maithuna, 166, 411, 492 Mahamandapa, 404–405, 418 Makara Sankranti, 74, 167, 239, Mahamantra, 306, 405 351, 392, 398, 411, 514, 595, Mahamaya, 405 613, 726, 786. See also Planets Mahanirvani Akhara, 24, 69, 70, 96, , 411 268, 405, 474, 675 Mala, 411–412 Mahant, 405, 680 Malabar coast, 364, 396, 412 Mahanubhav, 405–406, 732 Malamasa, 305, 412–413, 537 Mahapataka, 96, 406 Malatimadhava, 108, 139, 333 Mahapatra, 406 Malatimadhava, 413 Mahar, 151, 407 Mali, 413 Maharaj Ji, Guru, 266 Mallikarjuna, 39, 413, 644. See Maharashtra, 32, 76, 79, 107, 110, also Shiva 134, 137, 150, 151, 168, 237, Mallinatha, poet, 414 250, 263, 366, 374, 405, 407, Malviya, Madan Mohan, 91, 414 565, 633, 636 Malwa, 93, 112, 141, 414, 439, temples, 220–221 548, 719 villages, 27, 33, 181, 188, Mamsa, 166, 414, 492 256–257, 298, 319, 495, 746 Manas, 414–415, 588 Maharashtri brahmins, 182–183, , 415 407, 491 Manasarovar, 331, 415–416 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Manava Dharma Shastra, 416 407–408, 707 Mandakini, 106 840 Mandakini River, 26, 242, 337, 363, Maranashaucha, 62, 165, 269, 416, 576, 577, 719 424, 628 , 416 Maratha, 424, 407 Mandaleshvar, 403, 416–417 Maratha Dynasty, 150, 287, 425, Mandana Mishra, 417 509, 636 Mandapa, architecture, 19, 52, Margali, 425, 685 417–418, 453 Margashirsha, 425, 612 Mandara, 418, 628 festivals, 96, 219, 227, 444, 725 Mandir, 418 Marglin, Frederique Apffel, 71, Mandodari, 24, 69, 297, 418, 569 171, 529, 534, 781 Mandu, 418–419, 548 Maricha, 425–426, 557 Mandukya Upanishad, 206, 229, Marichi, sage, 40, 70, 370, 426, 242, 261, 419, 482, 714, 722 530, 574 Mangal sutra, 419, 772 Marijuana. See also Intoxicants Mangalam, 419 bhang, 101–102, 287 Manikarnika Ghat, 91, 161, charas, 143 419–420 Mariyammai, 426 Manik Chandra, song of, 661 Markandeya, sage, 25, 114, 426, 445 Manikkavachakar, poet, 420, 618 Markandeya Purana, 155, 186, 252, Manimegalai, 104, 420, 608, 684 426–427, 533 Manipura chakra, 137, 420, 666. Marriage. See also Women See also Chakras across caste, 87 Manipuri, dance, 103, 146, adultery and, 11–12 420–421, 484 agnipradakshinam marriage, Man lila, 421 15, 16 Man-Lion avatar, 421–422, aprashasta marriage, 49, 69, 461–462, 518. See also Vishnu 127, 233, 488 Manmatha, 422 arranged marriage, 54, 148, 185, Mansa Devi, 422, 638 291, 393 Manthara, 175, 330, 422, 555 Arsha marriage, 54–55, 427, 523 Mantra, 9, 53, 66, 67, 80, 118, 190, asura marriage, 49, 68–69, 197, 210, 245, 408, 422–423, 121, 427 522, 587, 629, 688 auspicious marriage, 71, 492 dvadashakshara mantra, 213 Brahma marriage, 69, 121–122, japa, 315 127, 203, 427, 523 mahamantra, 306, 405 brideprice, 127 mulamantra, 449 child marriage, 16, 57, 148, 179 prayer beads, 24, 412 Daiva marriage, 165, 427, 523 Mantraraja, 423 dowry and, 54, 122, 127 Mantrashastra, 423 eight classical forms, 427 Manu, 48, 191, 228, 322, 423, 424 gandharva marriage, 1, 49, 102, Manu Smrti, 190, 423–424, 434, 233–234, 427 461, 664 hypergamous marriage, 46, 291 Manvantara, 424, 532 hypogamous marriage, 291–292 841 love marriage, 54, 393 Matter, primeval, 432 mangal sutra, 419 Mauni, 432 nudity in, 479–480 Mauni Amavasya, 227, 398, paishacha marriage, 49, 432–433 427, 488 Mauritius, 261, 433 polyandry, 204, 514 Maurya, Chandragupta, 55, 63, polygamy, 514 139, 141–142, 360, 433, 434, prajapatya marriage, 427, 446, 758 519, 523 family, 117 prashasta marriage, 55, 523 Maurya Dynasty, 55, 63, 93, 116, rakshasa marriage, 49, 427, 550 125, 139, 141, 197, 366, 433, Marriage celebration, 115 446, 527, 758 Marriage ceremony, 56, 427–428, May You Be the Mother of a 714, 772 Hundred Sons (Bumiller), 302 barat, 87 Maya, 12, 199, 433, 443, 461, 505, 618 Saptapadi, 601 Maya Devi, 433–434 Marriage customs, panigrahana, Mayapur, 434, 468 428, 497 Mayashiva, 434 Marriage prohibitions, 102, 429 Meat, 157, 159, 434. See also Eating Marriot, McKim, 132, 153, 287, 535 Medhatithi, 434 Mars, 246, 429, 486, 712, 771 Medicine. See Ayurveda Marshall, Sir John, 429 Megasthenes, 142, 434–435 Martand, 429–430 Meghaduta, 336, 403, 435, 445 temple, 357 Meghanada, 40, 435 Marty, Martin, 58, 517, 566 Meher Baba, 435 Marut, 430 Mehndipur, 51, 435 Marwari, 78, 430 deities, 83 Masi, 430, 685 Mela, 435–436 Materialist, 22, 143, 319, 373, Mélanges D’Indianisme à la 395, 430, 464, 516, 521, 525, Mémoire de Louis Renou 604, 617 (Brown), 6 Maths, 50, 64, 113, 345, 430–431, 643 Mena, 436, 503, 720 Mathur, K. S., 190 Menaka, 1, 49, 436, 621 Mathura, 24, 92, 112, 126, 127, 172, Menstruation, 436 184, 344, 370, 410, 431, 442, Merchants, 85–86 616, 718 Mercury, 28, 153, 193, 246, 324, 436, Mathurakavi, 29, 431, 459 436–437, 486, 564, 669, 771 Matrilinear succession, 303, 431, Meru, 436 470. See also Women Metalwork. See also Bronzes Matsya, 166, 431–432, 492 lost wax casting, 128 Matsya avatar, 432 Meter, poetry, 5, 47, 140, 146, 437 Matsyagandhi, 432 Mewar, 437, 548. See also Painting Matsyendranath, guru, 257, 432, Miller, Barbara Stoller, 94, 106, 438, 719 176, 250, 318, 372, 542, 626 842 Miller, David, 637 “Monastic Structure of Banarsi Mimamsa school, 223, 378, 456, Dandi Sadhus” (Sawyer), 172 477, 611 Monday, 444, 445, 471, 518, 640, 658 Mimamsa Sutras, 310, 438, Moneylending, 85, 86, 444, 599 537, 616 Monsoon, 93, 145, 161, 187, 219, Minakshi, 151, 438 319, 372, 444–445, 454, 508, Minakshi temple, 151, 205, 229, 613, 692 294, 397, 470, 702 Month Minanath, 438 intercalary, 304–305, 394, Miniature painting. See Painting 412–413, 536, 685 Minor, Robert N., 544 lunar, 393–394 Minorities, 105, 283, 439 Moon, 27, 137, 166, 226, 246, 327, Mirabai, poet, 249, 439–440 380, 445, 486, 536, 583, 635 The Miracle Plays of Mathura Amavasya, 394, 659 (Hein), 562 Buddha Purnima, 81, 128 Mishra, Mandana, 13, 100 Chandrayana rite, 142 Mishra, Vachaspati, 13, 100 eclipse, 56, 217–218 Mishra, Vibhuti Bhushan, 674 family, 575 Mitakshara, 303, 319, 429, 440, 664 full moon, 230, 445, 459, 539 Mithila, 410, 440 lunar calendar, 61, 67, 74, 227, Mithuna, 40, 169, 440 304, 492 Mitra, 13 lunar day, 705 Mitra Mishra, poet, 440–441, 472 lunar month, 393–394, 445, 456, Mitra, Sarat Chandra, 674 471, 489, 491, 612, 628, 647 Mitter, Sarah, 630, 654 new moon, 324, 445, 471, 503 , 441 Somavati Amavasya, 444 Mnemonics, 441 sun and, 28, 193 Modes of devotion. See Devotion Moore, Charles A., 8, 13, 49, 65–66, Moghul Dynasty, 70, 277, 287, 442 214, 224, 332, 481, 487, 520, Akbar, 23, 442 536, 538, 555, 589, 624, 655, Mohan, 442–443 731, 759 Mohenjo-Daro, 88, 298, 335, “Morality Beyond Morality” 393, 443 (Hawley), 463 Mohini, 20, 410, 443 Morari Bapu, 445 Mohini Attam, dance, 359, 443 Morinis, E. Alan, 434, 468, 690, 699 Mohini Ekadashi, 81, 218, 227, 443 Morrison, Judith, 75 Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna, Mount Girnar, 120, 176 496, 740, 765 Mount Govardhan, 248, 296, 371 Moksha, 5, 19, 55, 59, 60, 73, 91, Mount Kailas, 38, 134, 330–331, 93, 98, 106, 123, 132, 133, 415, 437, 503, 635 189, 222, 340, 352, 441, Mount Mandara, 705, 743 443–444, 510, 536, 545, 582, , 14, 157, 215, 626, 667 311–312, 330–331, 412, 437 Mokshada Ekadashi, 219, 227, 444 Mount Shrishaila, 413 843 Mountain Goddess (Sax), 460 N Mountains, Nanda Devi, 459–460 Nabhadas, poet, 36, 98, 100, 409, Mrcchakatika, 455, 528, 647 451, 460, 511 Mrtyunjaya, 309, 445 Nacciyar Tirumoli, 38, 451, 698 Mudra, 166, 170, 246, 277, Nachiketas, 359, 451–452 445–446, 446, 492. See Nadi, 452 also Dance Naga, 15–16, 61, 71, 81, 96, 173, Mudrarakshasa, 446, 758 274, 323, 452, 454, 499, 506, Mueller, F. Max, 446–447 554, 571, 592. See also Bairagi Muhurta, 122, 178, 447 Naga; Dashanami Sanyasis Mukhalinga, 447 Chatuh-Sampradayi group, 81 Muktananda, Swami, 147, Chatuh-Sampradayi Nagas, 145 447, 681 Dadupanthi Naga, 164 Muktibai, 321, 447 Dashanami Sanyasis and, Muktinath, 447, 471 15–16, 40, 59, 61, 69, 71, 96, Muktiyoga, 214, 447–448, 478, 687 140, 403, 452 Muladhara chakra, 137, 381, Gyan Vapi battle, 268 448–449, 666. See also Mahanirvani akhara, 24, 69, 70, Chakras 96, 268, 405 Mulamantra, 449, 617 Mandaleshvar, 416–417 Muller-Ortega, Paul E., 708 Niranjani Akhara, 24, 35, 324, 474 Munda, 139, 187, 403, 449 Shaiva Nagas, 618 Mundan, 449 subgroups, 15, 24, 26, 35, 69 Muni, 60, 449 Surasa, 671 Murali, 371, 449 Naga anis, 197 Murals, 126, 294, 449. See Nagara style also Painting architecture, 30, 44, 51, 52, 90, Murari, 449 140, 154, 417, 452–454 Murti, 450 Khajuraho style, 417 Murugan, 185, 357, 360, 450, 489, Natamandira style, 390, 454, 515, 648, 656, 665, 680, 685, 464 701, 703, 735 Nageshvar, 325, 454 Musala, 450 Nag Panchami, 227, 454, Music 613, 640 raga, 9, 103, 439, 545 Nagpur, 425, 454 tala, 9, 103, 683 Nahusha, King, 14, 297, 454–455 vina, 753 Nai, 455 “Myth and Fascination in Naimisha, 455, 676 the Aiyappu Cult” Naimittika, 638 (Kjaerholm), 21 Naimittika karma, 344, 455, 477, The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of 604, 691, 699 India (Frawley), 302 Naina Devi, 455, 638 The Naiskarmya Siddhi of Sri Suresvara (Alston), 673 844 Naisthika, 135, 456 Narasimhavarman II, 462 Naivedya, 456, 482, 720 Narayana, 21, 367, 423, 462, 542, Naiyayika school, 47, 223, 456 605, 705, 711. See also Vishnu Nakshatra, 130, 151, 327, 456, 458, Narayana Bhatta, scholar, 491, 492, 660, 685 462–463, 710 Nakula, 67, 210, 397, 400, 456, Narmada River, 30, 134, 142, 186, 495, 582 250, 270, 396, 410, 463, 482 Nala, King, 6, 168–169, 456–457, 680 Narsi Mehta, poet, 98, 463 Naladiyar, 218, 457, 701 Narsingh Jayanti, 227 Nalayira Divyaprabandham, 457, Nasik, 52, 250, 251, 379, 463 459, 466, 704, 777 Nasik district, 32 Nalayira Prabandham, 29, 200 Nasik Mela, 463–464 Namakarana samskara, 147, Nastika, 464, 604 457–458, 591 Natal horoscope, 246, 288, 294, Namarupa, 458 324, 326, 436, 464, 513, 574, Namaskara, 458, 720 669. See Zodiac Nambudiri brahmins, 205, 458, Natamandira, architecture, 390, 570, 623 454, 464, 484 Namdev, poet, 9, 36, 98, 164, 312, Nataraja, 103, 128, 147, 168, 220, 459, 494, 596, 708, 732 464–465, 635 Nammalvar, poet, 29, 99, 431, temple, 198 459, 704 Nath, 70, 466 Nammalvar (Raghavan), 459 Nathamuni, poet, 29, 99, 457, 466 Nanak, Guru, 355, 459 Nathan, Leonard, 563 Nanak Jayanti, 459 Nathdwara, 466, 540, 641, 646 Nanda, 84, 315, 344, 371, 459, 742 Nathpanthi, 14, 59, 61, 255, Nanda Devi, 459–460 257, 278, 322, 328, 347, 432, Nanda Dynasty, 142 466, 466–467, 553, 672, Nanda, Serena, 132, 281 719, 734 Nanddas, 64, 460 Nationalist Movement in India Nanddas (McGregor), 718 (Jaffrelot), 77 Nandi, 129, 460, 640 Natya, dance, 171, 467, 479 Nandigrama, 103, 460–461 Natya shastra, 626 Nandimath, Sivalingayya Natyashastra, 103, 467, 626 Channabasavayya, 391 Navadurga, 140, 208, 467–468, 469 Nara-Narayana, 461 Navadvip, 135, 434, 468 Narada, 191, 461, 577 Navaratri, 67, 112, 136, 140, 208, Narada smrti, 461 212, 227, 336, 455, 467, Narak Chaturdashi, 227, 355, 461 468–469, 550, 562, 613, 620 Narasimha avatar. See Man-Lion Navyanyaya school, 469–470, avatar 586, 731 Narasimha Jayanti, 81, 462 Nayachandra Suri, 470 Narasimhavarman, 399, 530 Nayak, Tirumalai, 398 Narasimhavarman I, 462, 490 Nayak Dynasty, 398, 470, 701 845 Nayanars, poets, 29, 48, 134, 185, Nirvani Ani, 476 200, 260, 293, 390, 420, 470, Nirvikalpaka, 477, 611. See also 490, 508, 553, 571, 586, 618, Philosophy 670, 685, 702, 728 Nishkramana Samskara, 147, Nayars, 431, 470 477, 591 Nazar, 118, 470–471, 477, Nishumbha, 187, 252, 477, 648 574, 773 Niti Shastra, 477 Neither Man Nor Woman (Nanda), Nitya, 638 132, 281 Nitya karma, 12, 344, 455, 477, 604 Nepal, 115, 139, 196, 313, 350, 447, Nityasamsarins, 214, 477–478, 687 471, 506, 622, 654, 727 Nivedita, Sister, 478 rivers, 34 Nivin, Christine, et al., 39, 71, temples, 506 116, 250, 264, 281, 312, 354, Net of Magic (Siegel), 399 357, 396, 407, 484, 532, 547, A New Face of Hinduism 686, 727 (Williams), 25, 681 Nivrttinath, 321, 478 A New History of the Marathas Niyama, 65, 478 (Sardesai), 288 Niyati, 22, 226, 478 New Moon. See Moon Niyoga, 478–479 Nibandhas, 386, 441, 462, Nrtya, dance, 171, 467, 479 471–472, 728, 757 Nryajana, 479, 492 Nigantha Nataputta, 472 Nudity, 479–480 Night, Goddess of, 472–473, 568 Nyasa, 480 Nilachal Hill, 341, 473 Nyaya school, 344, 477, 480–481, Nilakanth, 473 515, 528, 611, 721, 744 Nilgiri Hills, 11, 473 Nyaya Sutras, 132, 480, 481 Nimbarka, 61, 145, 213, 473, 542, Nyaya-Vaisheshika school, 59, 303, 592, 732. See also 586, 654, 721 Philosophers Nimbarki group, 145, 215, 473, O 592, 593, 668, 732 Obscenity, 285, 482 Nirakara, 474 Obscure Religious Cults Niranjani Akhara, 24, 35, 324, 474 (Dasgupta), 28, 190, 193, 257, Nirguna, 12, 122, 474, 582, 596, 437, 582, 669 605, 623. See also Devotion Ocean, churning of the, 482 Nirikari, 474 Offerings, 15, 66, 78, 117, 454, 482, Nirjala Ekadashi, 218, 227, 475 523, 529, 579. See also Nirmala, 475 Sacrifice Nirmala Devi, 475–476, 764 O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, 341, Nirmohi Ani, 476 352, 424, 589, 635 Nirmohis, 40, 197, 232 Om, 219, 230, 261, 482, 523, Nirriti, 251, 263, 476 583, 680 Nirukta, 140, 441, 476, 629 Omens, 419, 482 Nirvani, 40, 197, 232 Omkareshvar, 325, 463, 482–483 846 “On the Road” (Karve), 496, Paksha, 47, 489, 512, 524, 581 740, 765 Pakudha Kacchayana, 489. See Onam, 93, 227, 483 also Philosophers Oraon, 483 Pala Dynasty, 345, 489 Ordeal, trial by, 483–484, 654, 711 Palani, 450, 489–490 “Organized Hinduisms” (Gold), 58, Palanquin, 27, 181, 455, 489, 490, 517 496, 739 Organs of action. See Karmendriya Palkhi, 739 The Origins and Development of Palkhi (Mokashi), 496, 740, 765 Classical Hinduism Pallava Dynasty, 49, 104, 138, 152, (Basham), 94 399, 409, 462, 490, 496, 530, Orissa, 11, 63, 111, 113, 164, 238, 547, 685 369, 484, 533 Palm leaves, 490, 540, 676 Orissa style, architecture, 51, 146, toddy palm, 705 154, 453, 629 Pan. See Betel Orissi, dance, 103, 146, 249, 420, Pancha Dravida brahmins, 183, 464, 484–485 490–491 Osho, 485 Pancha Gauda brahmins, 410, Owl, 485, 603. See also Animals 491, 601 Panchagavya, 158, 491 P Panchagni, 689 Pacification of planets, See Planets Panchagni-tapa, 491 Padma, 137, 231, 486, 624. See also Panchak nakshatra, 456, 491 Philosophy Panchakroshi, 727 Padmapada, 13, 486–487, 519, 673. Panchakroshi Yatra, 356, 491 See also Philosophy Panchala, 206, 207, 491–492 Padmasana, 58, 487 Panchamahayajna, 115, 186, 479, Paduka, 487–488, 490 492, 513 Padya, 488, 720 Panchamakara, 45, 166, 222, 335, Pahari style, painting, 88, 264–265, 391, 398, 411, 414, 431, 446, 312, 439, 488 492, 524, 688, 736 Painting Panchang, 492–493, 705 Basohli, 88, 439, 488 Pancharatra, 94, 493, 644 Bundi, 369–370, 548 Panchatantra, 285, 477 Kota, 548 Panchatantra, 493 Mewar, 548 Panchavati, 171, 463, 493 miniature, 88, 154, 242, Panchayat, 493–494 264–265, 312, 346, 437, 439 Panchayatana puja, 494, 656 murals, 126, 294 Panchkedar, 340, 363, 397, 494, 577 Pahari style, 88, 264–265, 312, Panchvani, 164, 459, 494, 569 439, 488, 547 Panda, 31, 78–79, 245–246, 311, Rajasthani style, 129, 264, 437, 494–495 439, 488, 547–548 Pandava brothers, 53, 67, 73, 82, Paithan, 219, 462, 488–489 93, 109, 127, 168, 190, 194, 847 204, 206, 207, 210, 231, 232, Parashuram Jayanti, 81, 227, 501 247, 352, 360, 363, 399, 456, Parashurameshvar Temple, 501 495, 496, 501, 514, 535, 621 Parikshit, King, 162, 313, 501, 683 Arjuna, 32, 53–54, 93, 106, 111, Parinamavada, 107, 109, 132, 213, 206, 210, 219, 234, 236, 318, 501–502 366, 382, 400, 495, 501 Parivartini Ekadashi, 93, 218, Sahadeva, 67, 210, 397, 400, 456, 227, 502 495, 582, 621 Parivrajaka, 502 Pandey, Raj Bali, 46, 148, 161, 428, Parmanand, M. A., 414 579, 591, 639, 722 Parmananddas, 64, 502–503 Pandharpur, 79, 98, 107, 151, Parpola, Asko, 21 495–496 Parry, Jonathan, 402 festivals, 27 Parvana, 503, 638 temples, 99, 181, 198, 219, 231, Parvata Dashanamis, 173, 503. See 312, 321, 496 also Dashanami Sanyasis Pandrenthan, 356, 496 Parvati, 96, 108, 252, 281, 434, 436, Pandu, King, 32, 33, 194, 367, 397, 503–504, 640, 720 400, 456, 496, 582, 610, 625 demons and, 38, 340 Pandurang, 496 epithets, 244 Pandya Dynasty, 152, 293, 438, 490, Shiva and, 33, 38, 81, 496–497, 587, 603, 643, 685 237, 483 Pandyas, 147 Paryanka, 505 Panguni, 497, 685 Pasha, 505, 507, 618 Pani, 497, 601 Pashu, 505, 507, 618 Panigrahana, 428, 497 Pashupata, 14, 61, 387, 505 Panini, 64, 65, 102, 140, 497, Pashupati, 180, 505 506, 595 Pashupatinath, 363, 471, 506 Panth, 497–498 Patala, 84, 506 Pap, 498, 498, 532 Pataliputra, 63, 116, 141, 142, 265, Papamochani Ekadashi, 136, 218, 433, 434, 506 227, 498 Patanjali Papankusha Ekadashi, 67, 218, poet, 65, 401, 497, 506–507, 777 227, 498 yoga, 58, 189, 196, 478, 522, 525, Parakiya, 498 585, 592, 781 Paramahamsa, 79, 172, 173, 403, Yoga Sutras, 18, 65, 278, 370, 498–499 507, 650, 662 Paramatman, 499 Pati, 507, 618 Parampara, 499, 689 Patita, 507 Parashara, sage, 499, 610 Pattadakal, 507 Parashara Smrti, 499, 499 Pattuppattu, 507 Parashu, 500 Paush, 508, 612 Parashuram, 500 festivals, 219, 227, 541, 599 Parashuram avatar, 25, 73, 206, 237, Peacock, 413, 508. See also Animals 311, 341, 353, 500–501, 571 Penance, 508 848 Perception, 508. See also Sanjaya Belatthiputa, 594 Philosophy Shankaracharya, 13, 14, 32, 36, Periyalvar, poet, 29, 38, 508, 760 49, 61, 64, 72, 77, 78, 94, 100, Periya Puranam, 134, 470, 553, 104, 111, 113, 122, 124, 172, 508–509, 703 173, 205, 242, 247, 260, 323, Peshwa, 150, 509 325, 341, 379, 388, 430, 458, Pey, 29, 115, 509, 515 464, 486, 503, 519, 534, 560, Pfaffenberger, Bryan, 288, 358 570, 610, 622, 623–624, 625, Phalgun, 497, 509, 613. See 645, 652, 738 also Calendar Shri Aurobindo, 640 festivals, 30, 219, 227, 230, 273, Sureshvara, 13, 388, 408 285, 313, 637, 751 Vallabhacharya, 64, 81, 143, 145, Phallic emblem, 509–510. See 146, 151, 254, 260, 372, 460, also Linga 466, 503, 539, 577, 641, 645, Philosophers. See also Sages 665, 672, 732, 735, 766 Ajita Keshakambalin, 22, 430 Philosophy, 132, 510, 544. See also Badarayana, 77, 124, 746 Fallacies; Upanishads; Bhartrprapancha, 106–107, 109 Vedanta Bhashya, 107, 109 Abhava, 1, 55, 521, 537 Gaudapada, 242 Ajivika, 22, 478, 639 Gautama, 17, 70, 102, 112, 132, analogy, 35 192, 244–245, 296, 357, 480, Anekantavada, 39, 59, 133, 606 525, 609 Anumana, 1, 46–47, 55, 207, Ishvarakrishna, 132, 242, 306, 280, 430, 480, 489, 508, 521, 350, 587 524, 537, 581 Jaimini, 310, 438, 537, 616 Artha, 19, 55, 106, 222, 340, 443, Jayarashi, 319 536, 545, 626 , 5, 136, 258, 373 Arthapatti, 55, 521, 537 Kanada, 344, 523 asatkaryavada, 39, 59, 133, 480, Kumarila, 223, 378, 438, 606, 731 515, 755 causal chain, 132–133, 480, 481 Madhava, 395, 447, 477–478, causal model, 133, 480, 501, 499, 604, 686 731, 767 Madhva, 123, 145, 213, 396 Drshtanta, 47, 207, 280, 489, Muhsin Fani, 163, 226 524, 581, 599, 755 Nimbarka, 61, 145, 213, 473, Gaudiya Vaishnava school, 5, 542, 592, 732 123, 135, 136, 140, 145, 258, Padmapada, 13, 486–487, 306, 315 519, 673 grammarians, 261, 662 Pakudha Kacchayana, 489 Hetu, 47, 207, 280, 489, 581, Prabhakara, 24, 47, 438, 721, 755 515–516, 538 leap philosophy, 388, 408 Ramanuja, 94, 132, 145, 223, limitationism, 100, 389 423, 466, 522 , 22, 143, 319, 373, 849 395, 430, 464, 516, 521, 525, “Pilgrimage Centers in the Tamil 604, 617 Cultus of Muruktan” naiyayika, 47 (Clothey), 450, 490, 680, 703 Nirvikalpaka, 477, 611 Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition Padma, 137, 231, 486, 624 (Morinis), 434, 468, 690, 699 Prabhakara school, 59, 223, Pilgrimage to Sabari 477, 611 (Vaidyanathan), 21 Pramanas, 1, 13, 35, 46, 55, 430, Pillar edicts, 63, 125, 152, 366, 510, 480, 481, 508, 520–521, 525, 575, 591. See also Inscriptions 537, 617 Pinaka, 510, 626 Pratijna, 47, 280, 489, 524, 581, Pinda, 510, 638 599, 755 Pindadan, 510 Pratyaksha, 1, 8, 24, 47, 55, 223, Pindara River, 26, 242, 353, 510 430, 480, 521, 537 Pingala nadi, 452, 511, 667, 675. Progress philosophy, 528 See also Chakras Purva Mimamsa, 1, 24 Pipa, 9, 36, 511, 553 reciprocal dependence, 225, 570 Pipal, 511 reflectionism, 100, 487, 520, 570 Pippalada, sage, 511, 523 Sapaksha, 47, 207, 599, 755 Pisacas, 181 Satkaryavada, 39, 59, 133, 501 Pitambara, 511 Savikalpika, 611 Pitavasana, 511 self-revealing knowledge, 614 Pitha, 251, 509, 511–512 Shabda, 1, 55, 430, 480, 521, Pitr, 512 537, 617, 687 Pitrpaksha, 46, 67, 227, 295, 503, six schools, 65, 242, 331, 350, 512–513, 613, 638 469, 472, 654–655 Pitryajna, 492, 513 Svaprakasha, 678 Pitta, 75, 142, 350, 513, 675, 743 Svatahpramanya, 678–679 The Place of the Hidden Moon Tarka, 690–691 (Dimock), 582 Upadana, 720–721 Plakshadvipa, 215, 513 Upamana, 480, 521, 721, 721 Planets, 246, 324, 365, 429, 436, vicious circle, 225, 749 444, 445, 492, 513–514, 545, Vyapti, 47, 721, 769 608, 771. See also Zodiac The Philosophy of the pacification of, 486, 513 Grammarians (Coward/ Sankranti, 411, 595 Raja), 261 Play of Consciousness Pilgrim (Muktananda), 447 chatti, 144–145 Pocock, David E., 294, 471, 575, 773 dharamshala, 188–189 Poetry. See also Bhakti poetry dindis, 198 alamkara, 276 Pilgrimage, 510, 728. See also Tirthas anushtubh, 47, 437 ascetics, 30–31 barahmasa, 86 bahis, 78–79 Braj Bhasha form, 71, 126, 202, Gayawal, 245–246 282, 555, 641, 673, 754 850 chaupai, 116, 146, 202, 272, Dadu, 163–164, 328, 494, 596 437, 558 Eknath, 99, 107, 219–220, 488, dhvani, 196 596, 732 doha, 116, 202, 437, 558 Gora, 256–257 kavitt, 361 Govindswami, 64, 261 Kavya, 362–363 Haridasa, 273 love, 175 Ilangovadigal, 293, 630 meter, 5, 47, 140, 146, 437 Janabai, 312 savaiya, 361, 437, 558, 610 Jayadeva, 9, 82, 84, 128, 175, Shatakatrayam, 106, 626 249, 308, 318, 363, 484, 542 soratha, 662 Jnaneshvar, 27, 98, 257, Sursagar, 672, 673–674 321–322, 447, 459, 478, 732 Poets Kabir, 9, 36, 91, 98, 116, 164, Alvars, 29–30, 37, 115, 135, 185, 202, 242, 328–329, 467, 494, 200, 260, 377, 431, 457, 459, 553, 569, 596, 719 466, 470, 490, 508, 515, 586, Kalhana, 333, 548 644, 685, 695, 698, 702, 703, Kalidasa, 1, 141, 211, 265, 704, 705, 728, 746 335–336, 363, 377, 403, Amaru, 31–32 413, 435, 436, 445, 545, 615, Andal, 29, 37–38, 451, 698 621, 752 Appar, 48–49, 185, 409, 420, 470, Kamalakanta, 342 587, 670, 702, 728 Kamban, 343, 343, 558 Ashtachap, 64, 151, 372, 378, Lakshmidhara, 339, 386, 472 460, 502, 540, 672 Magha, 398, 403, 632 Bana, 85 Mahadeviyakka, 391, 402 Basavanna, 87–88, 185, 314, Mallinatha, 414 390, 402 Manikkavachakar, 420, 618 Bhartrhari, 106, 261, 363, Mirabai, 249, 439–440 662, 719 Mitra Mishra, 440–441, 472 Bhavabhuti, 108, 139, 333, Nabhadas, 36, 98, 100, 409, 451, 349, 413 460, 511 Bhutam, 29, 115, 509, 515 Namdev, 9, 36, 98, 164, 312, 459, Campantar, 131 494, 596, 708, 732 Cekkilar, 134–135, 470, 508, 703 Nammalvar, 29, 99, 431, 459, Chaitanya, 5, 61, 123, 135–136, 704 140, 145, 173, 242, 258, 306, Narsi Mehta, 98, 463 361, 373, 395, 434, 441, 450, Nathamuni, 29, 99, 457, 466 468, 516, 534 Nayanars, 29, 48, 134, 185, 200, Chandidas, 140 260, 293, 390, 420, 470, 490, Chaturbhujdas, 64, 145 508, 553, 571, 586, 618, 670, Chitswami, 64, 151 685, 702, 728 Chokamela, 151–152, 407, 459, Panini, 64, 65, 102, 140 596, 732 Patanjali, 18, 58, 65, 189, 196, Cuntarar, 162 278, 370, 401, 478, 497, 851 506–507, 507, 522, 525, 585, Prabhakara school, 24, 47, 59, 223, 592, 650, 662, 777, 781 438, 477, 515–516, 538, 611. Periyalvar, 29, 38, 508, 760 See also Philosophy Poygai, 29, 115, 509, 515 Prabhu, Allama, 87 Priyadas, 528 Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta, Purandaradas, 533 306, 516 Ramananda, 61, 145, 553 Prabhupada (Goswami), 516 Ramprasad, 91, 335, 562–563 Prabodhachandrodaya, 373, 516 Raskhan, 566–567 Pracharak, 516–517, 565, 619, 679 Sambandar, 48, 185, 293, 321, Pradakshina, architecture, 331, 420, 571, 586–587, 670 453, 517–518, 720 Sen, 9, 614 Pradhana, 518 Sundaramurtti, 49, 162, 185, Pradosh Vrat, 518 420, 470, 587, 670 Pradyumna, 493, 518 Tiruvalluvar, 701, 704 family, 41 Tondaradippodi, 29, 705 Prahars, 178 Tukaram, 79, 99, 181, 596 Prahlada, 181, 285, 287, 462, 518 Tulsidas, 23, 71, 91, 113, 146, In Praise of Krishna 202, 263, 272, 358, 361, 422, (Dimock/Levertov), 140, 750 445, 552, 554, 555, 591, 616, Prajapati, 156, 169, 254, 357, 641, 713, 732, 748, 754 518–519 Valmiki, 343, 422, 445, 545, 551, Prajapatya marriage, 427, 519. See 555, 726, 735–736 also Marriage Vidyapati, 411, 750 Prajnanam Brahman, 113, 408, 519 The Poison in the Gift (Raheja), Prakamyam, 519, 650 169, 294, 486, 575 Prakasha, 519, 579 Pole Star, 195, 514. See also Zodiac Prakashatman, 519–520, 766 “Politicized Hinduism” Prakrit, 2, 63, 520, 547 (Jones), 283 Apabhramsha, 48 Pollack, Sheldon, 558 Prakrti, 129, 132, 223, 306, 332, Pollution, 514. See also Ashaucha 415, 432, 502, 518, 520, 536, Polyandry, 204, 514. See also 579, 584, 587, 655 Pandava brothers evolution, 17–18, 265 Polygamy, 514. See also Marriage Pralaya, 25, 155, 186, 331, 426, Pongal, 227, 398, 514–515 520, 564 Possession(s), 80, 83, 114, 127, 231, Pramanas, 1, 13, 35, 46, 55, 430, 242, 243, 274, 285, 355, 360, 480, 481, 508, 520–521, 415, 515, 527, 656, 773 525, 537, 617, 679. See Potter, Karl H., 8, 13, 24, 39, 42, 47, also Philosophy 47–48, 59, 101, 133, 214, 223, Pramukh Swami, 25, 521, 626 280, 320, 470, 480, 487, 502, Prana, 34, 48, 75, 467, 521–522, 538, 570, 579, 607, 624, 673, 585. See also Winds 721, 731, 756, 769 Pranapratishtha, 154, 184, 522 Poygai, poet, 29, 115, 509, 515 Pranava, 522 852 Pranayama, 65, 522, 522, 526. See Priyadas, poet, 528 also Yoga Progress philosophy, 528. See also Prapatti, 522 Philosophy Prapti, 522, 650 Prohibition, 528 Prarthana Samaj, 522–523, 564 Prostitution, 171, 183, 528–529 Prasad, 111, 305, 391, 456, 523 Prthivi, 217, 251, 529 Prashasta marriage, 55, 523. See Prthu, King, 529 also Marriage Puja, 498, 529–530 Prashastapada, 523 Pujari, 530 Prashna Upanishad, 511, 523, 722 Pulaha, sage, 40, 70, 370, 426, Pratihara Dynasty, 319. See also 530, 574 Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty Pulakeshin II, King, 138, 409, 462, Pratijna, 47, 280, 489, 524, 581, 530–531 599, 755. See also Philosophy Pulastya, sage, 40, 70, 370, 426, Pratiloma, 524 530, 531, 574 Pratinidhi, 524 Pumsavana, 527, 591 Pratyabhijna, 524 Pumsavana Samskara, 531 Pratyabhijnanahrdayam (Singh), Pundit, 531 519, 525, 580, 753 Punjab, 81, 281, 392, 489, 531–532, Pratyahara, 65, 525, 526 547 Pratyaksha, 1, 8, 24, 47, 55, 223, Punya, 498, 532, 699 430, 480, 521, 525, 537, 617, Purana Kassapa, 533 646. See also Philosophy Puranas, 95, 120, 156, 276, 386, Pravahana Jaivali, 525 441, 472, 532–533, 637, 646, Pravara, 429, 525 656. See also Smrtis Prayaga, 526 Dattatreya, 37, 176 Prayashchitta, 11, 96, 121, 267, Purandaradas, poet, 533 279, 406, 424, 441, 499, Purattasi, 533, 685 507, 526 Puri, 50, 102, 136, 173, 216, 229, Prayoga, 526 341, 533–534, 567, 624 Pregnancy, 316, 526–527, 531, 650. temples, 82, 84, 308, 323 See also Women Puri Dashanami, 113, 534 Prenatal rites, 527 Purification, 57 Prenatal samskaras, 531, 650 achamana, 4 The Presence of Shiva Purity, 17, 21, 42, 48, 62, 71, 88, (Kramrisch), 635 131, 153, 534–535, 581, 646, Presuppositions of India’s 657. See also Impurity Philosophies (Potter), 24, 39, “Purity and Pollution” (Kolenda), 42, 47, 48, 59, 101, 133, 214, 63, 535 223, 280, 502, 538, 570, 579, Purochana, 535 607, 721, 756, 769 Purohit, 535–536 Pret, 4, 80, 83, 114, 515, 527, 599 Pururavas, King, 49, 536 Priest, adhvaryum, 7 Purusha, 132, 223, 306, 331, 502, Prinsep, James, 125, 527 520, 536, 579, 584, 587, 655 853 Purushartha, 189, 536 Raga, 9, 103, 439, 545, 692, 741. See Purusha Sukta, 125, 156, 375, 518, also Music 536, 573, 647, 733 Raghavan, A. Shrinivasa, 459, 704 Purushottama Mas, 305, 536–537 Raghavan, V., 552 Purva Mimamsa school, 1, 24, 47, Raghu, 545 49, 55, 59, 310, 434, 437, Raghuvamsha, 336, 403, 545, 622 463, 472, 515, 521, 528, Raheja, Gloria Goodwin, 169, 294, 537–538, 616 486, 575 Pushan, 10, 538 Rahu, 218, 246, 327, 365, 486, Pushkar, 51, 120, 539, 547 545–546 Pushkaradvipa, 215, 539 Raidas, 546 Pushpa, 539, 720 Rajabhisheka, 3, 546, 548 Pushpak Viman, 13, 376, 539, 595 Rajadharma, 546 Pushti Marg, 64, 81, 143, 145, 146, Rajagrha, 546 151, 254, 259, 260, 275, 372, Raja, K. Kunjunni, 261 378, 460, 466, 502, 539–540, Raja Raja, 126, 152, 546, 548, 566, 641, 646, 672, 732, 735 549, 687 Pushyabhuti Dynasty, 266, 345, 540 Rajas, 224, 265, 520, 546–547, 588. Pustaka, 540 See also Gunas Putana, 371, 540 Rajashekhara, 20, 547 Putrada Ekadashi, 218, 219, 227, Rajasimhavarman, 399, 547 508, 540–541, 640 Rajasthan, 16, 51, 78, 83, 121, 129, Puttaparthi, 541, 605 164, 183, 232, 249, 298, 318, 369, 430, 435, 466, 539, 540, R 547, 578, 641 Rabindranath Tagore (Kripalani), 682 Rajasthani miniature painting, 88, “Rabindranath Tagore” (Tuck), 682 414, 419, 437, 547–548. See Radha, 87, 124, 135, 140, 143, 145, also Painting 213, 249, 260, 463, 542, 545, Rajasuya, 546, 548, 734 582, 592, 665 Rajatarangini, 548 “Radha” (Goswami), 259 Rajatarangini (Kalhana), 333 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, 8, 13, Rajendra, 546, 687 49, 65, 214, 332, 481, 487, Rajendra I, 152, 239, 548 502, 520, 536, 538, 542–544, Rajneesh, Bhagwan Shri, 485, 554–555, 588, 624, 655, 548–549 731, 759 Rajput, 16, 375, 422, 470, 511, 549, Radhashtami, 93, 227, 544 559, 570 Radha Soami, 544–545, 671 Rajrajeshvar temple, 204, 449, 549 Radhasoami Reality Raksha Bandhan, 227, 230, (Juergensmeyer), 545, 672 549–550, 613, 640 Radha Soami Satsang, 605 Rakshasa, 181, 550, 557, 568. See Radhavallabh community, 276, also Demons 542, 677 Rakshasa marriage, 49, 427, 550. Radhavallabh Sampraday, 545 See also Marriage 854 Rakshasis, 109, 247, 550. See also 146, 151, 171, 173, 174, Demons 202, 211, 213, 263, 271, Raktabija, 187, 333, 403, 550 293, 297, 311, 317, 328, Raktadantika, 468, 550 329, 343, 361, 366, 368, Ram, 328 378–379, 387, 388, 399, Rama (Rama avatar), 7, 17, 69, 418, 422, 425, 440, 461, 74, 98, 151, 171, 211, 212, 463, 493, 514, 532, 545, 245, 271, 368, 379, 461, 550, 554, 555–558, 561, 550–552, 555, 568, 616, 563, 568, 574, 591, 616, 653, 668 622, 627, 637, 649, 651, avatars, 318 653, 656, 668, 678, 710, depictions, 13, 28, 39, 102, 188 713, 726, 735, 748 devotees, 451 The Ramayana Tradition in Asia family, 63, 84, 174, 181, 329, 388, (Raghavan), 552 418, 463, 493, 545 Rambha Ekadashi, 218, 227, Hanuman and, 24 355, 558 Vishnu and, 73, 389, 443 Ramcharitmanas, 23, 71, 113, 146, worship, 114, 563 202, 272, 358, 445, 552, 554, Ramakrishna, 90, 91, 125, 168, 290, 555, 558–559, 561, 591, 616, 335, 552, 614, 706, 767 713, 748 Ramakrishna and His Disciples Ramdev, 559 (Isherwood), 552, 768 Ramdevra, 559 Ramakrishna Mission, 90, 478, Rameshvar, 306, 325, 559–560 552–553, 768 Rameshvaram, 216, 229, 387, 559, “The Ramakrishna Movement” 560, 685 (Williams), 553 Ramgarh, 560 Ramana Maharishi, 553, 704 Ram Janam Bhumi temple, 74, 77, Ramana Maharishi 104, 373, 560–561, 562 (Mahadevan), 553 Ram Lila, 105, 213, 319, 559, Ramananda, poet, 9, 61, 145, 511, 561–562, 651, 678 553, 644 Ramnagar, 559, 562, 562, 651 Ramanandi group, 98, 215, 232, Ramnagar Ram Lila, 591, 651 313, 451, 474, 553–554, 563, Ram Navami, 136, 227, 469, 595, 644, 713 562, 613 Ramanuja, 6, 94, 132, 145, 223, Ramprasad, poet, 91, 335, 562–563 423, 466, 522, 553, 554, 607, Ram Rajya Parishad, 158, 355, 563 644, 694, 732. See also Ram Rasik Sampraday, 563–564, 566 Philosophers Ramsnehi, 564 Ramanujan, A.K., 29, 88, 185, 391, Ranade, Mahadev Govind, 150, 402, 431, 459, 594 254, 522, 564, 697 Ramavali, 555, 713 Rangachari, K., 644 Ramayana, 5, 10, 23, 24, 33, Ranganatha, 38, 451, 554, 564, 643, 39, 42, 54, 58, 63, 69, 71, 698, 705. See also Vishnu 74, 84, 102, 103, 105, 138, Rao, P. V. Narasimha, 76 855 Rao, T. A. Gopinatha, 447 Religion in Modern India (Baird), Rasa, 108, 170, 335, 363, 564, 566 58, 126, 179, 283, 307, 516, Rasayana, 564–565 544, 553, 575, 637, 682, 768 Rasayana school, 28, 193 Religious Beliefs and Practices Rashtrakuta Dynasty, 231, 266, (Mishra), 674 331, 345, 565 Religious duty. See Dharma Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh, 13, Religious Encounters with Death 104, 182, 254, 278, 283, 314, (Reynolds/Waugh), 46, 601 407, 439, 454, 516, 565–566, Religious law. See Dharma; 611, 619, 653, 679, 761 Dharma literature; Rasik, 554, 566 Dharmashastra Raskhan, poet, 566–567 Religious persecution, 293, 571, 604 Ras lila, 460, 463, 508, 567. See The Religious System of the also Lila Mahanubhav Sect Rat, 183, 354, 567 (Feldhaus), 406 Rath Yatra, 13, 61, 164, 227, 323, Renuka, 311, 571 534, 537, 567 Republic Day, 571 Rati, 568 Reservations, 571–572 Ratri, 568 Reynolds, Frank E., 46, 601 Ravana, 13, 24, 69, 171, 173, 181, Rg Veda, 10, 20, 69, 112, 156, 232, 188, 212, 290, 297, 317, 343, 245, 254, 288, 289, 295, 423, 387, 493, 539, 550, 557, 497, 518, 536, 572–573, 576, 568–569, 649, 653 586, 601, 682, 715, 737 family, 40, 63, 211, 366, 418 hymns, 159–160 Ravidas, poet, 9, 36, 86, 88, 91, 100, samhitas, 14–15 164, 494, 528, 553, 569, 570, Rhythm. See Tala 596, 614, 705 Right Hand Tantra, 573. See also Ravidas Jayanti, 227, 398, 569–570 Tantra Ravidasis, 569 The Rise in the Religious Rawal, 78, 458, 570 Significance of Rama Rawat, 570 (Whaling), 552 Rawson, Philip S., 22, 34, 137, 420, Rishabha, 573 449, 583, 667, 676, 677, 761 Rishi, 55, 573, 574 Reciprocal dependence, 225, 570. Agastya, 13–14 See also Philosophy Rishikesh, 199, 385, 407, 473, Reconversion, 570 573–574, 636 Redemptive Encounters (Babb), Rishi Panchami, 93, 227, 574 121, 544, 605, 672 Rishyashringa, sage, 174, 574 Reflectionism, 100, 487, 520, 570. Rite of passage, 574 See also Philosophy Rites of protection, 118, 146, 218, Reincarnation, 571 428, 429, 471, 477, 527, Religion in India (Madan), 20, 63, 574–575, 608, 613, 712, 780 190, 294, 471, 530, 534, 535, Rivers, 7 sacred rivers, 134, 250, 567, 575, 605, 773 298, 463, 603 856 Rock edicts, 63, 125, 366, 510, 575. agnishtoma, 16–17 See also Inscriptions bahiryaga, 79 Rohini, 83, 166, 184, 575, 595, 660 blood, 341 Roles and Rituals for Hindu Brahmayajna, 124 Women (Leslie), 768 cult, 535–536 The Roots of Ancient India fire, 57 (Fairservis), 88, 300 homa, 52, 186, 288, 526 The Round Dance of Krishna and human, 41, 108, 139, 290–291, Uddhav’s Message 335, 413 (McGregor), 460 internal, 305 Rowland, Benjamin, 366 pitryajna, 513 Roy, Ram Mohan, 125, 148, 575–576 tarpana, 228, 513, 691 The RSS and Hindu Nationalism Vedic origins, 16, 50, 60 (Jayaprasad), 566 Sacrificial rites, 722 Rta, 44, 289, 472, 576, 741 Sadachara, 579, 631 Rtvij, 536, 576 Sadasatkhyati, 223, 579. See also Rudra, 188, 301, 576, 577, 633, Theory of error 649, 722 Sadashiva, 579–580 Rudraksha, 25, 244, 412, 576 Sadhana, 580 Ekmukhi Rudraksha, 219 Sadharana dharma, 189, 580, 593 Rudranath, 340, 494, 576–577 Sadhu, 60, 580 Rudraprayag, 26, 416, 577 Sadhubela, 580–581 Rudra sampraday, 145, 577, The Sadhus of India (Gross), 61 732, 760 Sadhya, 47, 581, 721 Rukmini, 371, 518, 577 Safai, 148, 581 Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars Sagar Island, 239 (Bayly), 86, 444 Sagar, King, 44, 58, 95, 198, 238, Rupa, 136 296, 365, 581 Sagar, Ramanand, 554, 558 S Sagara, 173 Sabarmati Ashram, 263, 578 Sagara Dashanami, 581–582. See Sabarmati River, 578 also Dashanami Sanyasis Sacchidananda, 35, 578, 584, 593, Sages. See also Philosophers 604, 645, 706 Agastya, 13–14, 231, 296, Sachau, Edward, 28 392, 455 Sacred ash, 578 Apastamba, 48, 88, 192, 339, 640 Sacred sites, 578. See also Tirthas Atri, 37, 40, 70, 102, 112, 245, Sacred thread, 120, 187, 263, 357, 370, 426, 530, 574 314, 452, 578–579, 614, 720, Baudhayana, 48, 88, 192, 722, 776 339, 640 Sacrifice, 7, 15, 20, 29, 33, Bhrgu, 70, 102, 112–113, 120, 122, 165, 323, 523, 536, 245, 357, 574, 581 538, 579, 629. See also Brhaspati, 127, 696 Animal sacrifice Dadhichi, 27, 163 857 Gorakhnath, 61, 256, 257, 321, Sahasradalapadma, 381, 322, 347, 432, 438, 466, 478, 582–583, 667 719, 735 Sai Baba, 583, 631 Hiranyakeshin, 48, 88, 284, Sainhikeya, 218, 365, 545, 583, 706 339, 640 “Saint Gandhi” (Juergensmeyer), 236 Jaratkaru, 37, 315–316 Saints and Virtues (Hawley), 236, Kapila, 44, 95, 198, 238, 239, 463, 605 350, 581 Sakata Chauth, 227, 398, 583 Kindama, 194, 367, 496 Sakha bhava, 442, 584 Kratu, 40, 70, 370, 426, 530, 574 Sakhi, 584 Marichi, 40, 70, 370, 426, Sakshin, 106, 109, 584 530, 574 Sala, 225, 584 Markandeya, 25, 114, 426, 445 Salmaladvipa, 215, 585 Parashara, 499, 610 Salomon, Richard, 711 Pippalada, 511, 523 Sama Veda, 69, 369, 586, 718 Pulaha, 40, 70, 370, 426, Samadhi, 65, 129, 189, 196, 585, 530, 574 592. See also Yoga Pulastya, 40, 70, 370, 426, 530, Samadhi Shrine, 27, 36, 143, 347, 531, 574 585 Rishyashringa, 174, 574 Samana, 48, 522 Sanaka, 318, 592 Samasthana, 585 Sanakadi, 592 Samavartana Samskara, 585, Sanandana, 592, 592 591, 658 Sanatana, 189, 190, 592, Samavaya, 47, 303, 469, 515, 586 592, 593 Sambandar, poet, 48, 185, 293, Sanatkumara, 592, 593 321, 420, 571, 586–587, 670 Vamakhepa, 690, 737 Samharakrama, 587, 641, 645 Vasishtha, 56, 70, 102, 112, 142, Samhitas, 14–15, 123, 587, 645, 192, 245, 275, 308, 357, 499, 650, 675. See also Vedas 574, 742 Samkalpa, 188, 587, 604 Vatsyayana, 342, 481, 528, 529, Samkhya (Larson/Bhattacharya), 743–744 224, 332, 520, 536 Vishvamitra, 1, 49, 70, 102, 112, Samkhya school, 17–18, 65, 128, 142, 245, 275, 308, 357, 436, 132, 220, 223, 265, 306, 331, 621, 710, 763 408, 414–415, 432, 456, 501, Vyasa, 33, 67, 194, 210, 233, 237, 518, 528, 536, 547, 554, 584, 267, 360, 399, 496, 499, 610, 587–589, 607, 684, 721 676, 770 Samkhya-Yoga school, 654 Yajnavalkya, 191, 315, 775 Samkhyakarikas, 242, 306, Saguna, 12, 123, 582 350, 587 Sahadeva, 67, 210, 397, 400, 456, Sampraday, 497, 589 495, 582. See also Pandava Samsara, 1, 18, 22, 28, 73, 100, 106, brothers 109, 132, 247, 351, 389, 443, Sahajiya sect, 140, 582, 719 528, 589, 646 858 Samskaras, 147–148, 262, 590–591 Sanjaya, 194, 594 Annaprashana Samskara, Sanjaya Belatthiputa, 594. 43–44, 591 See also Philosophers Antyeshthi Samskara, 37, 45–46, Sanjna, 539, 595, 667 68, 116, 154, 441, 591 Sankalpa, 595 Chudakarana Samskara, 118, Sankarshana, 84, 493, 595 152, 225, 449, 591, 599 Sankat Mochan, 595 defined, 43, 46, 66 Sankranti, 411, 596 Jatakarma Samskara, 316, 591 Sanskrit, 595–596. See also Hindi; Karnavedha Samskara, 354, 591 Tamil language Keshanta Samskara, 364, 591 alphabet, 22, 34 Prenatal Samskara, 591, 650 characteristics, 5 Pumsavana Samskara, 531 poetry, 27, 47, 85 Samavartana Samskara, 586, Prakrit and, 48 591, 658 Sanskrit Poetry (Ingalls), 27 Simantonnayana Samskara, Sant, 116, 328, 498, 511, 553, 569, 650–651 596–597, 605, 708 Upanayana Samskara, 303, 578, Santal, 597 591, 721–722 Santoshi Ma, 230, 365, 597–598. Vedarambha Samskara, 591, 746 See also Goddess Vidyarambha Samskara, 591, Santoshi Ma Vrat, 598, 723 746, 750 The Sants (Schomer/McLeod), 597 Vivaha Samskara, 591, 766 Sanyasi, 61, 502, 598, 639, 663, Samvad, 591–592, 651 724. See also Dashanami Samyama, 196, 592 Sanyasi Rebellion, 35, 144, Sanaka, sage, 318, 592 598–599 Sanaka Sampraday, 145, 473, Sapaksha, 47, 207, 599, 755. See 592, 732 also Philosophy Sanakadi, sages, 592 Saphala Ekadashi, 219, 227, Sanandana, sage, 592, 592 508, 599 Sanatana, sage, 189, 190, 592, Sapinda, 599 592, 593 Sapindikarana, 37, 46, 68, Sanatana Dharma, 592–593 599–601 Sanatana Sampraday, 593 “Sapindikarana” (Knipe), 46, 601 Sanatkumara, sage, 592, 593 Saptapadi, 16, 428, 601. See also Sandarshana Mudra, 149, 593, 769 Marriage ceremony Sandhabhasha, 107, 593, 715, 719 Saptasindhu, 157, 215, 601 Sandhi, 578, 593, 629 Sarama, 497, 601 Sandhya, 594 Saraswat, 601 Sangam, 594 Saraswat brahmins, 27, 131, 242, Sangam Literature, 74, 450, 507, 410, 491 594. See also Tamil literature Saraswati, 172, 173, 252, 379, Sangama Dynasty. See Vijayanagar 408, 540, 602–603, 741. Dynasty See also Goddess 859 Saraswati, Dayanand Swami, 57, Satyagraha, 609, 662. See also 158, 179, 646 Gandhi, Mohandas Saraswati Dashanamis, 64, 104, Satyakama, 609 113, 603 Satyanarayan Vrat, 609 Saraswati River, 25, 29, 134, 250, Satyavan, 609, 612 298, 335, 603, 711 Satyavati, 32, 110, 194, 399, 432, Sardesai, Govind S., 288 496, 499, 597, 610, 749 Sarkar, Jadunath, 61, 292, 452 Saumya, 247, 610 Sarmanochegas, 603–604 Saundaryalahari, 610 Sarvadarshanasangraha, Savaiya, 361, 437, 611 395, 604 Savarkar, Vinayak D., 150, 236, 253, Sarvam idam khalu Brahman, 279, 283, 610–611 408, 604 Savikalpika, 611. See The Sarvangi of the Dadupanthi also Philosophy Rajab (Callewaert), 164, 494 Savitr, 611–612 The Sarvangi of Gopaldas Savitri, 612 (Callewaert), 494 Savitri Puja, 227, 612 Sarvasvara, 16, 604 Sawyer, Dana, 172 “Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Sax, William, 460 Hinduism” (Minor), 544 Sayana, scholar, 612 Sashanka, 571, 604 Schomer, Karine, 597 Sat, 59, 578, 593, 596, 604 Science and Society in Ancient India Satavahana Dynasty, 604–605, 651 (Chattopadhyaya), 143, 675 Satguru, 605, 672 Sculpture, 128, 331, 399, 489, 612 Sathya Sai Baba, 253, 541, 583, erotic, 346 605, 631 Seasons, 75, 340, 410, 439, 444, Sati, 16, 57, 67, 81, 92, 125, 165, 454, 463, 514, 545, 576, 179, 283, 303, 324, 336, 337, 612–613. See also Monsoon 473, 503, 575, 605–606, 620, The Secret of the Three Cities 690, 692, 772 (Brooks), 45, 117, 166, 381, Satkaryavada, 39, 59, 133, 501, 411, 414, 423, 432, 446, 492, 607–608, 767. See also 524, 583, 587, 593, 641, 645, Philosophy 667, 676, 689 Satkhyati, 223, 607. See also Seed syllable, 613. See also Theory of error Bijakshara Satsang, 99, 340, 358, 368, 440, Seely, Clinton, 563 544, 596, 607–608 Self-Residence, 225, 303, 570, 613, Sattan, 608 749. See also Fallacies Sattva, 224, 265, 520, 546, 588, 608. Self-Revealing Knowledge, 614. See See also Gunas also Philosophy Saturday, 608, 609, 771 Self-Validating Knowledge, 614 Saturn, 246, 338, 486, 608–609, 771 Semen, 13, 28, 48, 60, 135, 153, 193, Satya, 67 355, 374, 436, 505, 614, 655, Satyabhama, 609 669, 689, 724, 734 860 Sen, poet, 9, 614 Shakumbhari Devi, 468, 620–621, Sen, Keshub Chander, 125, 552, 614 626, 638 Sena Dynasty, 489, 614–615 Shakuni, 232, 400, 621 Setubandha, 615 Shakuntala, 1, 49, 102, 210, 211, Seva, 605, 615 234, 436, 621 Sevagram, 615–616 Shalagram, 33–34, 40, 51, 78, 295, Seven sacred cities, 273, 345, 356, 447, 622, 679, 713, 714. See 402–403, 420, 616, 719 also Ammonite; Shiva; Shabara, 616 Vishnu Shabarabhashya, 616 Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors Shabari, 616 (Kakar), 80, 83, 114, 153, 272, Shabari Malai, 20, 364, 410, 435, 476, 483, 515, 527, 544, 616–617, 628 672, 773 Shabda, 1, 55, 430, 480, 521, 537, Shambhu, 622 617, 687. See also Philosophy Shamvuka, 622 Shabdabrahman, 617 Shankara, 622–623 Shachi, 617 Shankaracharya, 13, 14, 32, 36, Shaddarshana, 617 49, 61, 64, 72, 77, 78, 94, Shaiva, 617–618 100, 104, 111, 113, 122, Shaiva Nagas, 618. See also Naga 124, 172, 173, 205, 242, Shaiva Sanyasis, 13, 14, 27, 61, 73, 247, 260, 323, 325, 341, 185, 293, 349, 412, 413, 466, 379, 388, 430, 458, 464, 590, 618 486, 503, 519, 534, 560, Shaiva Siddhanta, 185, 420, 570, 611, 622, 623–624, 450, 505, 507, 508, 618–619, 625, 645, 652, 738. See 680, 685 also Philosophers Shakadvipa, 215, 619. See also Dvipas Shankaracharyas, 407, 417, Shaka era, 130, 619 561, 624 Shakata, 619 Shankaradigvijaya, 32, 624 Shakhas, 182, 516, 565, Shankha, 137, 231, 486, 624–625 619, 679 Shanta, 584 Shakra, 620 Shanta bhava, 441, 625 Shakta, 620 Shantanu, King, 32, 110, 194, 360, Shakti, 34, 52, 75, 117, 153, 193, 399, 496, 610, 625 381, 467, 511, 518, 519, 576, Shantiniketan, 625, 682 580, 583, 620, 665 Sharada Math, 64, 216, 229, Shakti Pithas, 67, 252, 283, 290, 260, 264, 325, 368, 431, 324, 336, 341, 415–416, 422, 625–626, 643 455, 473, 512, 539, 606, 620, Sharma, Arvind, 179 690, 753 Sharva, 626 Shakti and Shakta (Avalon), 22, 34, Shastra, 467, 626 45, 166, 381, 411, 414, 420, Shastri Narayanswarupdas 423, 432, 446, 448, 492, 583, Swami, 626 676, 677, 689, 761 Shatakatrayam, poetry, 106, 626 861 Shatakshi, 626 depictions, 26, 28, 32, 34, 52, Shatapatha Brahmana, 20, 123, 81, 96, 102, 110, 128, 129, 626–627, 752, 772 135, 170, 180, 182, 188, Shatrughna, 174, 555, 627, 669 196, 207, 209, 219, 247, Shattila Ekadashi, 219, 227, 398, 325, 366, 375, 397, 439, 627 447, 454, 576, 728 Shaving, 118, 225, 269, 617, devotees, 13, 14, 15, 24, 26–27, 627–628, 640. See 29, 35, 36, 48, 59, 61, 64, also Hair 69, 70, 71, 78, 87, 90, 111, Shea, David, 163 140, 185, 192, 316, 332, Shesha, 36, 37, 83, 119, 155, 157, 387, 420, 432, 474, 499, 187, 454, 462, 502, 520, 564, 503, 579, 586 628, 643, 759 epithets, 66, 112, 115, 269, 273, Shibi, 628 306, 409, 445, 466, 473, 505, Shikhandi, 32, 111, 628–629, 664 622–623, 623, 626, 670 Shikhara, architecture, 19, 90, 183, family, 151, 237, 340, 378, 443, 453, 507, 629 450, 489, 503, 508, 633–635, Shiksha, 140, 476, 629 655, 692, 720 Shilappadigaram, 104, 293, 420, jyotirlingas, 32, 39, 91, 110, 116, 608, 630, 684 196, 247, 309, 325, 356, 363, Shilpa Shastra, 128, 626, 630–631 402, 407, 413, 454, 463 Shinn, Larry, 307 manifestations, 464–465, Shipra River, 631, 718 482, 559 Shirdi, 631 ornaments, 113, 263, 500, Shirdi Sai Baba, 583, 605, 509, 510, 578, 595, 648, 668, 631, 631. See also Sathya 679, 687 Sai Baba sacred sites, 30–31, 39, 73, Shishtachara, 579, 631 90–91, 116, 147, 330–331, 494 Shishupala, 398, 577, 632 Shakti and, 22, 333, 411 Shishupala-Vadha, 632 temples, 113, 161, 202, 220–221, Shishupalavadha, 398, 403 241, 254, 270, 289, 345, Shishya, 266, 632 356–357, 363–364, 410, 496, Shitala, 415, 632, 656 501, 506, 549, 660, 690, 695, Shitalashtami, 81, 227, 613, 632, 704, 705 632–633 vehicle, 129, 460 Shiv Sena, 159, 283, 407, 633 worship, 3, 37, 85, 95, 117, 233, Shiva, 13, 20, 33, 73, 106, 108, 244, 314, 346, 349, 374, 376, 119, 131, 153, 165, 349, 402, 407, 470, 509, 518, 524, 355, 381, 444, 505, 511, 579, 640, 644, 658, 659, 708, 518, 519, 576, 583, 746–747 633–635, 665, 680, 710. Shiva (O’Flaherty), 635 See also Linga Shiva Purana, 96, 244, 436, 533, aniconic images, 30 558, 637, 713 avatars, 366 Shivaga-Sindamani, 635–636, 684 862 Shivaji, 425, 633, 636 Shrishaila, 644 Shivananda, Swami, 149, 199, 385, Shrivaishnava school, 30, 200, 260, 636–637 392, 423, 457, 466, 493, 522, Shivaratri, 101, 110, 182, 207, 227, 553, 554, 644–645, 685, 693, 262, 272, 324, 413, 509, 613, 728, 732, 747, 777 637 Shrivatsa, 113, 645 Shiwalik goddesses, 252, 281, 324, Shrividya, 645 422, 455, 620, 637–638, 679. Shrividya school, 117, 587, 640. See See also Goddess also Tantra Shiwalik Hills, 88, 139, 149, 155, Shriyantra, 645 273, 488, 638 Shrutashravas, 645 deities, 422, 455 Shruti, 123, 461, 499, 532, 572, 637, sites, 264–265, 312, 336, 439 645, 656 Shraddhanand, Swami, 639 Shuddadvaita, 539, 645–646 Shraddhas, 30, 46, 80, 245, 503, Shuddhi, 57, 179, 646 510, 638–639, 661, 699 Shudraka, 445, 647 ekoddishta, 46, 220, 503, 638 Shudras, 15, 27, 33, 121, 131, 174, Shramana, 60, 639, 664 179, 396, 499, 536, 551, 591, Shrauta Sutras, 48, 88, 102, 191, 622, 647, 733, 740, 746. See 192, 639–640, 669 also Brahmins; Caste Shravan, 182, 444, 613, 628, 640 Shuka, 143, 647 festivals, 218, 227, 230, 343, 380, Shuka Sampraday, 647 454, 540, 549, 640, 713 Shukla Paksha, 130, 489, 647 pilgrimage, 30, 455 Shukra, 230, 647 Shravan Vrat, 227, 640, 640 Shula, 648 Shri, 640 Shulman, Dean David, 438 Shri Aurobindo, 640. See also Shumbha, 187, 252, 477, 648–649 Ghose, Aurobindo; Shurpanakha, 171, 211, 385, 418, Philosophers 425, 551, 557, 568, 649, 710 Shri Guru Granth Sahib, 8 Shvetaketu, 525, 649, 691, 717 Shri Sampraday group, 145, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 98, 643–644, 732 301, 576, 623, 626, 633, Shrichakra, 117, 587, 640–641, 645, 649–650 689, 778. See also Chakra Shyam, 650 Shrichandra, 641, 717 Si-yu-ki (Beal), 290 Shrikrishnavali, 641, 713 Siddha, 650 Shrinathji, 259, 466, 641–642 Siddha yoga, 147. See also Yoga Shringeri, 624, 642 Siddhapith, 650 Shringeri Math, 104, 113, 229, 260, Siddhasana, 650 325, 341, 354, 431, 534, 603, Siddhi, 40, 306, 343, 384, 395, 399, 642, 643 408, 522, 650, 688, 742 Shrirangam, 38, 205, 451, 554, 564, Siegel, Lee, 32, 399 643, 698, 701, 705 Sikh, 532 Shrirangapatnam, 134, 354, 643 scripture, 8–9 863 Simantonnayana, 527, 591 Solar Line, 58, 293, 393, 532, 545, Simantonnayana Samskara, 550, 581, 659 650–651 Soma, 16, 295, 393, 572, 659, 741 Simhakarna, 651 “Soma and Amonita Muscaria” Simuka, 651 (Brough), 659 Sin, Ajamila, 21 Soma (Wasson), 659 Singer, Milton, 287, 372 Somavati, 394 Singh, Gobind, 8–9 Somavati Amavasya, 444, 471, 659 Singh, Ishvari Prasad Narayan, Someshvara, 306 562, 651 Someshvara I, 659–660 Singh, Jaideva, 519, 525, 580, 753 Somnath, 444, 445, 660 Singh, Shukdev, 116, 329, 593, 720 Somnath temple, 166, 325, 410 Singh, Udit Narayan, 562, 651 Sonar, 660–661 Sinhastha Mela, 651–653 Song of Manik Chandra, 661 Sita, 39, 63, 76, 84, 102, 151, 171, Songs of Kabir from the Adigranth 271, 312, 313, 328, 388, 418, (Dass), 329 440, 463, 493, 555, 560, 563, Songs of the Saints of India 569, 616, 653–654 (Hawley/Juergensmeyer), Sitamarhi, 654 329, 440, 569, 673, 674, 713 Siva (O’Flaherty), 341 The Song of Manik Chandra, 255 Six schools, 65, 242, 331, 350, 469, Sons, 3, 10, 11, 14, 37, 58, 79, 577, 472, 654–655. See also 581, 661–662 Philosophy Sopashraya, 662 Skanda, 185, 288, 346, 355, 374, Soratha, poetry, 662 377, 379, 450, 474, 489, 505, Sorcery. See also Magic 508, 620, 648, 655–656, 665, baiga, 80 680, 703, 735 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy Smallpox, 656 (Radhakrishnan/Moore), Smara, 656 8, 13, 49, 65–66, 214, 224, Smarana, 656 332, 481, 487, 502, 520, Smarta, 656 536, 538, 555, 589, 624, Smarta brahmins, 494 655, 731, 759 Smith, Brian K., 424 South Africa, 578, 662. See also Smrti, 339, 360, 499, 637, 656, Diaspora populations 656–657. See also Puranas South Asian Religion and Society Manu Smrti, 190, 423–424 (Parpola/Hansen), 21 narada smrti, 461 Space, 115, 220, 662. See also Snana, 3, 6, 17, 27, 29, 30, 40, 62, Elements 81, 88, 127, 145, 150, 246, Speaking of Siva (Ramanujan), 29, 392, 411, 539, 573, 657–658, 88, 185, 391, 402 689, 720 “Special Time, Special Power” kapalamochana, 96, 121, 349 (Stanley), 366 Snataka, 658 Sphota, 662 Solah Somvar Vrat, 444, 658 “Sramanas” (Jaini), 61, 639 864 Sri Lanka, 152, 154, 196, 343, 357, eclipse, 217–218, 383, 527, 449, 515, 560, 662–663 545, 574 The Sri Vaisnava Brahmans family, 6, 67, 539 (Rangachari), 644 moon and, 28, 193 Stages of Life. See Life. Sundaramurtti, poet, 49, 162, 185, Stanley, John M., 366 420, 470, 587, 670 Steya, 229, 406, 507, 664 Sundareshvara, 670 Sthala Murti, 664, 726 Sunday, 518, 670 Sthunakarna, 629, 664 Sun temple, 238, 369, 454, 484, 671 Stories of Indian Saints (Abbott/ Suparna, 671 Godbole), 98, 257, 312, 322, Superhuman powers, 519, 671. See 409–410, 459, 614 also Divine powers Stotra, 569 Surapana, 229, 406, 507, 671. See Stridhan, 664 also Intoxicants Stridharma, 190, 664–665 Suras, 181 Subhadra, 2, 82, 164, 308, 534, 567, 665 Surasa, 671 Subodhini, 665 Surat-Shabd-Yoga, 544, 671–672. Subrahmanya, 665 See also Yoga Subtle body, 22, 28, 34, 137, 257, 278, Surdas, 64, 672–673 283, 293, 293, 381, 420, 448, Surdas (Hawley), 674, 682 452, 467, 475, 487, 489, 511, Sureshvara, 13, 388, 408, 673. See 582, 635, 665–667, 669, 675, also Philosophers 677, 679, 680, 681, 695, 734 Sursagar, poetry, 672, 673–674 Suchi Hasta, 667 Surya, 10, 61, 67, 293, 612, 656, Sudama, 376, 667 674, 767. See also Sun Sudarshana, 33, 137, 667–668 Suryaprakasha, 675 Sudarshana Sampraday, 668 Suryavarman, King II, 40, 675 Sugriva, 84, 271, 311, 551, 557, 668 Sushruta, 354, 675 Suicide, 252, 276, 319, 337, 347, Sushruta Samhita, 75, 142, 675. 538, 606, 668 See also Ayurveda mass, 318, 567 Sushumna, 381, 452, 667, 675. See religious, 16, 26, 30, 165, 188, also Chakras 323, 604, 659 Suta, 676 Sulfur, 28, 153, 193, 437, 668–669. Sutakashaucha, 62, 78, 118, 458, See also Elements 570, 676 Sulva Sutras, 640, 669 Sutra, 65, 490, 676 Sumantra, 669 Svadharma, 189, 546, 580, 589, Sumati, 58, 365, 581, 669 593, 676–677 Sumitra, 174, 384, 574, 627, 669 Svadhishthana chakra, 137, 677 Sun, 15, 37, 74, 83, 167, 226, 245, Svadhyaya, 677 380, 486, 511, 538, 583, 619, Svakiya, 498, 677 659, 669–670, 726, 771. See Svaprakasha, 678. See also also Surya Philosophy depiction, 30, 111, 246, 327, 611 Svarup, 372, 678 865 Svastika, 678 Sangam literature, 74, 450, 507, Svastikasana, 678 594, 684 Svatahpramanya, 678–679. See Tamil Literature (Zvelebil), 115, also Philosophy 377, 431, 459, 508, 515, 702, Svayambhu, 34, 119, 155, 336, 363, 703, 704, 705 447, 679 Tamil months, 685 Svayambhu images, 30, 51, 85, 450, Tamil Nadu, 38, 40, 103, 115, 133, 455, 679, 690 136, 147, 152, 170, 229, 239, 263, Svayamsevaks, 565, 619, 679–680 289, 348, 379, 397, 399, 473, 489, Svayamvara, 168, 456, 680 496, 546, 559, 565, 594, 633, “Swami ” 685–686, 687, 703, 746 (Sharma), 179 deities, 20, 450 Swami Malai, 450, 680 Tamil poetry, 420. See also Poetry Swaminarayan sect, 25, 120, 521, Tamil Temple Myths (Shulman), 438 626, 680–681 Tamil year, 729 The Sword and the Flute (Kinsley), Tamoyoga, 214, 478, 686–687 193, 335, 372, 389, 563 Tandava, dance, 687 SYDA (Siddha Yoga Dham Tanjore, 103, 126, 134, 152, 239, America), 681 379, 449, 548, 549, 680, 685, 687, 695 T Tanka, 687 Tad Ekam, 159–160, 682 Tanmatras, 18, 22, 34, 137, 220, Tagore, Radindranath, 125, 144, 224, 381, 415, 583, 588, 666, 625, 682 687–688 Tagore Jayanti, 682 Tantra, 3, 35, 52, 96, 107, 149, 197, Tahqiq ma li’l-Hind, 28 333, 342, 391, 398, 448, 480, Tai, 682–683, 685 492, 505, 518, 519, 524, 529, Takshaka, 313, 501, 683 582, 610, 635, 667, 677, Tala, 9, 103, 683 688–689, 695, 736, 773. See Talikota, 270, 373, 684, 751 also Chakras; Kundalini; Tamas, 224, 265, 520, 546, 588, Yantra; Yoga 684. See also Gunas antaryaga, 44 Tamil calendar, 8, 19, 40, 72, 151, asceticism and, 45 425, 430, 497, 533 bahiryaga, 79 Tamil months, 685 bijakshara, 116–117 Tamil year, 729 bindu, 117 Tamil epics, 684 dakshinachara, 166 Tamil language, 29, 37, 48, 115, dhyanashloka, 196 185, 205, 377, 431, 451, initiation, 6 457, 459, 470, 508, 515, kundalini, 257, 278 586, 644, 670, 684–685, left-hand tantra, 389 698, 704, 732. See also Maithuna, 166, 411 Dravidian language Mandala, 416 Tamil literature, 218, 457, 635–636 Matsya, 166, 431–432 866 Right Hand Tantra, 573 Thanjavur, 694 Sadashiva, 579–580 Tharpar, Romila, 302 Samharakrama, 587 The Theology of Ramanuja Sandhabhasha, 107, 593, 715 (Carman), 555, 645, 759 Shabdabrahman, 617 The Theories of Error in Indian Shrividya, 645 Philosophy (Kar), 24, 42, 47, Shrividya school, 117, 587, 640 223, 607, 755–756 subtle body, 22, 28, 34, 137, 257, Theory of error. See Error, 278, 283, 293, 293, 381, 420, theories of 448, 452, 467, 475, 487, 489, sadasatkhyati, 579 511, 582, 635, 665–667, 669, Satkhyati, 223, 607 675, 677, 679, 680, 681, 695, Thief castes, 695. See also Caste 734 Thirteen Principal Upanishads Trika Shaivism, 3, 376, 524, 579 (Hume), 723 Vimarsha, 519, 579, 753 Thiruvaiyaru, 685, 695 worship, 44 Thoreau, Henry David, 695 The Tantric Tradition (Bharati), 45, Three debts, See Debts 116, 166, 381, 411, 414, 423, 3HO/Sikh Dharma Brotherhood, 432, 446, 492, 524, 593, 667, 695–696, 783 676, 689 Three Sanskrit Plays (Coulson), 2, Tantrika, 688, 689 413, 446, 758 Tapas, 60, 135, 192, 461, 491, Thugs, 333, 696 526, 577, 629, 689, 742. See Thursday, 696–697 also Asceticism Tiger, 301, 391, 697. See Taraka, 340, 378, 503, 655, also Animals 689–690, 709. See also Tiger’s milk, 20 Demons Tika, 97, 549, 697 Tarakeshvar, 192, 690 Tilak, 697 Tarapith, 690 Tilak, Bal Gangadhar, 150, 237, Tarjini Hasta, dance, 690 254, 697–698 Tarka, 690–691. See also Time, 698. See also Cosmic time Philosophy Tirruppavai, 38, 451, 698 Tarpana, 228, 513, 691 Tirtha Dashanamis, 64, 104, Tat Tvam Asi, 408, 649, 691, 717 603, 699 Teej, 93, 692. See also Kajari Teej Tirtha Shraddha, 699 Telegu, 38, 39, 205, 347, 376, 473 Tirthas, 26, 51, 89, 105, 169, 172, Teli, 692 173, 261, 468, 532, 573, Temple cars, 693 578, 638, 656, 698–699. See Temple, R. C., 387 also Pilgrimage Tengalai school, 261, 644, Baijnath, 80–81 693–694, 728, 747 Benares, 90–91 Thakur, 694 bhutalingas, 115 Thandai, 101, 694 Kailas, 330–331 Thanesar, 277, 410, 694 Pushti Marg, 81 867 Rishikesh, 573–574 dvipas, 215 Tirthayatra, 526, 699–700 “wishing tree,” 339 Tiruchendur, 450, 700–701 Treta yuga, 25, 156, 214, 338, Tiruchirappalli, 134, 643, 685, 701 409, 707 Tirukkural, 218, 457, 701, 704 The Triadic Heart of Siva (Muller- Tirumalai Devasthanam, 702–703 Ortega), 708 Tirumalai Nayak, King, 229, 470, Tribhanga, dance, 707–708 701–702 Tridosha, 513, 708 Tirumalisai, 29, 702 Trika Shaivism, 3, 376, 524, 579, Tirumangai, 29, 695, 702 708, 753 Tirunavukkarashu, 702 Trilochan, 9, 36, 708 Tirupati, 702 Trimbak, 32, 708, 711 sites, 39, 83, 332 Trimurti, 119, 708 Tiruppan, 29, 703 Tripathi, Gaya Charan, 534, 665 Tirupparankunram, 703 Triphala, 709 Tiruttani, 450, 703 Tripundra, 709, 748 Tiruttontar Puranam, 703 Tripura, 709 Tiruvachakam, 420, 704 Tripurari, 28, 709–710 Tiruvalluvar, poet, 701, 704 Trishanku, 710, 742 Tiruvannamalai, 115, 553, 704 Trishiras, 710 Tiruvaymoli, 459, 704 Trishul, 75, 648, 710 Tiruvayur, 704–705 Tristhalisetu, 710–711 Tithi, 705 Triveni, 29, 603, 711 Toddy Palm, 705. See also Trivikrama, 711 Palm leaves Triyuginarayan, 196, 711 Tondaradippodi, poet, 29, 705 Trnavarta, 371, 711 Tool worship, 774 Troyer, Anthony, 163 Tortoise avatar, 218, 418, 705–706, Truth 743. See also Vishnu act of truth, 5–6, 168, 457, 711 Tota Puri, 706–707 power of truth, 483, 609, 711 Traditions of Indian Classical Tryambakeshvar, 32, 325, 407, 708, Dance (Khokar), 104, 146, 711–712 171, 359, 377, 421, 443, 485 Tuck, Donald R., 682 “Traditions of Non-Caste Tuesday, 608, 712, 771 Hinduism” (Lorenzen), 329 Tukaram, 712, 732 Transaction and Meaning poet, 79, 99, 181, 596 (Kapferer), 132, 153, 535 Tulsi, 25, 712–713, 714 Transcendental Meditation, Tulsi Saheb, 544 407–408, 707 Tulsi Vivah, 227, 355, 713–714 Trees Tulsidas. See also Hindi; Poetry Akshaya Vata, 25–26, 29 poet, 23, 71, 91, 113, 146, 202, Ashoka Tree, 63 263, 272, 358, 361, 422, 445, Ashvattha fig, 66 552, 554, 555, 591, 616, 641, bilva tree, 90, 117 713, 732, 748, 754 868 Tulsidas Jayanti, 227, 640, 713 Upanishads, 12, 17, 21, 22, 34, 69, Tumari, 714 71, 74, 77, 93, 122, 123, 124, Tungabhadra River, 374, 659, 714 448, 474, 519, 552, 553, 573, Tungnath, 340, 364, 494, 577, 714 575, 582, 587, 589, 645, 646, Turiya, 419, 714–715 691, 722–723. See also Vedas Tvashtr, 10, 715 Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Twice-born, 715. See Brahmin 21, 50, 126, 141, 226, 253, Twilight Language, 715 315, 722 Tyag, 716 Chandogya Upanishad, 141, Tyagis, 554 226, 253, 525, 609, 649, 691, 717, 722 U Isha Upanishad, 123, 305–306, Udana, 48, 522, 585, 717. See 627, 722 also Wind Katha Upanishad, 123, 359, 451, Udasi ascetics, 61, 475, 580, 641, 717 584, 722 Udayagiri, 119, 396, 717 Kena Upanishad, 364, 722 Uddalaka Aruni, 649, 717 Mahavakyas, 17, 112, 113, Uddhava, 112, 371, 460, 717–718 248, 408 Udgatr, 7, 122, 576, 718 Mandukya Upanishad, 206, 229, Udupi, 396, 718 242, 261, 419, 482, 714, 722 Ugrasena, 718 Prashna Upanishad, 511, Ujjain, 52, 266, 379, 380, 402, 414, 523, 722 488, 616, 718–719 Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 98, Kumbha Mela, 644 301, 576, 623, 626, 633, Nasik Mela, 463–464 649–650 Ukhimath, 397, 719 Upasaka, 723 Ulatbamsi, 719–720 Upasana, 723 Uma, 221, 563, 720 Upavasa, 4, 21, 30, 37, 87, 192, 498, Underworld, 84 526, 627, 689, 723 Unspoken Words (Falk/Gross), 118 Upendra, 723 Untouchables, 647, 710, 720. See also Upside-Down Language, 723 Adivasi communities; Caste Urdhvabahu, 723–724 Upacharas, 4, 46, 51, 53, 59, 71, Urdhvapundra, 709, 724 196, 198, 456, 482, 488, 517, Urdhvaretas, 724–725 539, 658, 720, 742 Urushringa, architecture, 453, 725 Upadana, 720–721. See also Urvashi, 49, 536, 725 Philosophy Ushas, 251, 472, 725 Upadhi, 280, 721 Utkala Brahmins, 242, 410, 491, Upadhyaya, Ganga Prasad, 58, 179 601, 725 Upamana, 480, 521, 721, 721. See Utkutikasana, 725–726 also Philosophy Utpanna Ekadashi, 219, 227, 726 Upanayana, 197, 215 Utsava Murti, 664, 726 Upanayana Samskara, 303, 578, Uttar Pradesh, 70, 71, 74, 112, 115, 591, 721–722 239, 491, 727 869 sites, 77, 80–81, 90, 102, 184, Vallabhacharya, 64, 81, 143, 145, 241–242, 265–266, 455, 638 146, 151, 254, 260, 372, 460, villages, 87, 127, 182, 265–266, 562 466, 503, 539, 577, 641, 645, Uttara Mimamsa, 726 665, 672, 732, 735, 766 Uttararamacharita, 726 Vallabhite, 735 Uttarayana, 74, 130, 156, 167, 411, Valli, 186, 358, 735 514, 726–727 Valmiki, poet, 343, 422, 445, 545, Uttarkashi, 96, 242, 727 551, 555, 726, 735–736 Valmiki Jayanti, 67, 227, 736 V Vamachara, 166, 414, 431, 446, Vachaspati Mishra, 728 492, 524, 573, 736–737 Vadagalai school, 261, 644, 693, Vamakhepa, sage, 690, 737 728, 747 Vamana, 711 Vagish, 728 Vamana avatar, 10, 87, 647, 737. Vaidyanath, 81, 116, 182, 347, 640, See also Vishnu 728–729 van Buitenen, J. A. B., 155, 157, 533, Vaidyanathan, Kunissery 552 Ramakrishnaier, 21 van der Veer, Peter, 61, 74, 554, Vaijayanti Shakti, 247, 729 564, 644, 699 Vaikasi, 685, 729 Vana, 173 Vaikuntha, 21, 241, 632, 729, 751 Vana Dashanami, 737–738 Vaishali, 21, 729 Vanamalin, 738 Vaisheshika school, 132, 456, 480, Vanaprastha, 262, 598, 663, 729–730 738–739 Vaisheshika Sutras, 344, 523 Varada Hasta, 739 Vaishnava community, 13, 30, 61, Varaha avatar, 739 64, 73, 94, 128, 143, 146, 213, Varanasi, 90, 739. See also Benares 215, 254, 308, 373, 420–421, Varkari Panth, 1, 27, 79, 98, 99, 107, 493, 509, 516, 537, 544, 151, 181, 198, 219, 231, 256, 731–733 312, 321, 407, 409, 447, 459, sects, 81, 405, 474 495, 596, 614, 732, 739–740 “Vaishnava Tilakas” (Entwistle), 724 Varna, 125, 131, 189, 375, 573, 720, Vaishno Devi, 312, 638, 733 740–741 Vaishya brahmins, 115, 120, 121, Varna dharma, 593 124, 174, 186, 197, 215, 536, Varnashrama Dharma, 741 733–734 Varuna, 10, 13, 207, 236, 262, 289, Vaishya varna, 85 572, 576, 741 Vaitarani, 734 Vasant Panchami, 227, 398, Vajapeya, 734 741–742 Vajra, 734 Vashitvam, 650, 742 Vajreshvari Devi, 346, 638, 734. See Vasishtha, sage, 56, 70, 102, 112, also Goddess 142, 192, 245, 275, 308, 357, Vajroli mudra, 467, 734–735 499, 574, 742 Vakataka Dynasty, 735 Vastra, 720, 742 870 Vastradhari, 742 Vedic Aryans and the Origins of Vasudeva, 83, 184, 315, 370, 742, Civilization (Frawley), 302 743, 783 Vegetarianism, 149, 163, 164, 198, Vasuki, 316, 452, 705, 743 199, 746. See also Eating Vata, 25, 75, 142, 350, 513, 675, 743 Vellala, 740, 746 Vatsalya bhava, 83, 442, 743 Velur, 247, 746–747 Vatsyayana, sage, 342, 481, 528, Vena, 747 529, 743–744 Venkateshvara, 83, 747, 753 Vaudeville, Charlotte, 86, 329 temples, 39, 702 Vayu, 42, 83, 109, 262, 271, 495, Venu, 747 744. See also Wind Venus, 230, 246, 251, 324, 486, Veda, 13, 17, 30, 74, 744 748, 771. See also Vedangas, 140, 325, 476, 629, Goddess; Planets 744–745, 769 Veshara style, architecture, 51, Kalpa, 339 747–748 Vedanta, 77, 124, 537, 544, 554, Vetala, 181, 748 588, 726, 745. See also Vibhishana, 181, 557, 748 Advaita Vedanta; Philosophy Vibhuti, 578, 709, 724, 748–749 Dvaitadvaita Vedanta, 213 Vichitravirya, King, 32, 33, 111, Dvaita Vedanta, 213–214 194, 496, 610, 625, 628, 749 Vedanta Deshika, 745 Vicious circle, 225, 749. See Vedanta school, 456 also Philosophy Vedanta Society, 745–746 Victory to the Mother (Erndl), 139, Vedanta Sutras, 77, 623, 746 149, 325, 455, 638, 733 Vedarambha samskara, 591, 746 Vidhi, 749 Vedas, 7, 7–8, 10, 12–13, 16, 18, Vidura, 289, 535, 749 36, 41, 44, 48, 49, 50, 56, 57, Vidyadhara, 749 60, 69, 77, 113, 191, 386, Vidyapati, poet, 411, 750 438, 441, 449, 464, 472, 515, Vidyarambha samskara, 591, 746, 750 518, 526, 532, 537, 538, 548, Vighneshvar, 750 576, 578, 582, 604, 612, 637, Vihara, 19, 750–751 646, 656, 657, 715, 722, 741. Vijaya, 65, 172, 318, 751 See also Rg Veda; Vijaya Dashami, 751 Upanishads Vijaya Ekadashi, 219, 227, 509, 751 Atharva Veda, 36, 69, 399, 511, 768 Vijayanagar Dynasty, 353, 373, 470, Black Yajur Veda, 48, 88, 497, 643, 684, 701, 751 118, 339 Vijnaneshvara, 440, 751–752 cosmology, 44 Vikram Era, 130, 719, 752 hymns, 159–160 Vikramaditya, King, 336, 403, 507, Sama Veda, 69, 369, 586, 718 719, 752 Samhita, 14–15, 123, 587 Vikramorvashiya, 336, 752 White Yajur Veda, 118, 771–772 Village deities, 20, 41, 80, 118, 206, Yajur Veda, 7, 69, 113, 123, 573, 515, 530, 752–753 626, 776 Vimana, 753 871 Vimarsha, 519, 579, 753 depictions, 34, 61, 81, 84, 102, Vina, 65, 461, 602, 753–754. See 145, 155, 156–157, 175, 231, also Music; Raga 232, 245, 351, 360, 367, 389, Vinata, 329, 683, 754 443, 461, 533 Vinaya Patrika, 272, 713, 754 deities and, 36, 39, 78, 119, 318 Vindhya Mountains, 11, 14, devotees, 13, 21, 25, 29, 30, 33, 30, 109, 180, 255, 396, 560, 59, 115, 197, 232, 241, 275, 565, 754 296–297, 316, 392, 431, 452, Vindhyavasini, 754, 755–756. 457, 459, 473, 493, 515, 518, See also Goddess 522, 533, 545, 564, 577, 582, Vipaksha, 47, 207, 755 584, 592, 644, 680, 698, 704, Viparitakhyati, 223, 379, 516, 722–725, 731–733, 777 755–756 epithets, 5, 273, 462, 671 Vira, 756 family, 38, 217, 395, 412 Virabhadra, 92, 165, 347, 606, 756 festivals, 4, 37, 541, 609, 714 Viragal, 280, 756 Krishna and, 38, 73, 267, 370 Viraha, 86, 756 objects, 154, 243, 365, 454, 486, Viramamunivar, 757 500, 595, 624–625, 628, 645, Viramitrodaya, 440, 472 667 Viramitrodaya, 757 religious texts, 13, 423 Virasana, 757. See also Yoga shalagram, 33–34, 40, 51, 78, Virashaiva, 757 295, 447, 622, 679 Virata, 110, 757 temples, 447, 643, 701 Visarjana, 720, 757 worship, 24, 25, 61, 81, 82, 87, Vishakhadatta, 446, 758 94, 218, 242, 267, 295, 318, Vishishthadvaita Vedanta school, 344, 345, 443, 444, 470, 475, 132, 223, 501, 554, 607, 644, 498, 502, 509, 552, 558, 600, 694, 721, 745, 758–759. See 627, 751 also Vedanta Vishnuchittar, 760 Vishnu, 14, 20, 37, 85, 108, 113, Vishnu Purana, 533 131, 209, 290, 325, 357, 502, Vishnu Purana, 760 537, 545, 563, 583, 632, 734, Vishnu’s chakra, 622, 624, 667 759–760 Vishnuswami, 577, 760–761 avatars, 10, 25, 30, 72–73, 73, Vishnuswami group, 61, 145, 215 82, 87, 119, 128, 175, 176, Vishuddha Chakra, 137, 666, 761. 181, 182, 184, 192, 206, 217, See also Chakras 218, 228, 228–229, 237, 249, Vishva Hindu Parishad, 11, 74, 76, 269, 273, 284, 290, 308, 311, 82, 149, 158, 159, 283, 373, 318, 323, 338, 341, 382, 560, 566, 646, 653, 761–762 421–422, 424, 432, 443, Vishvakarma, 137, 309, 539, 595, 461–462, 500, 501, 521, 667, 715, 762–763 550–552, 555, 562, 571, 653, Vishvamitra 705–706, 717, 737 sage, 49, 70, 102, 245, 275, 357, Brahma and, 408, 520 436, 621, 710, 763 872 family, 1, 112, 142, 308 Vyasa, sage, 33, 67, 194, 210, 233, Vishvanath, 70, 91, 265, 325, 237, 267, 360, 399, 496, 499, 763–764 610, 676, 770 Vishva Nirmala Dharam, 475, 764 Vishvanath temple, 73, 90, 267, W 268, 365, 373 Wadley, Susan S., 768 “The Vishva Hindu Parishad and Warrier, Gopi, 75 the Roots of Hindu “Warrior Ascetics in Indian Militancy” (Lochtefeld), 452 History” (Lorenzen), 452 Vishvedevas, 764 Wasson, R.G., 659 Vismaya Hasta, 764–765 Water, 3, 22, 53, 79, 115, 217, 220, Vital winds, 765. See also Wind 452, 640, 662, 677, 771. See Vithoba, 27, 79, 98, 110, 181, 407, also Elements 753, 765 abstinence, 475 devotees, 27 dropsy, 207 epithets, 496 offerings, 228 worship, 1, 99, 107, 151, 198, ordeal, 483 219, 231, 256, 312, 321, 409, purification, 4, 62, 347, 455 447, 459, 478, 488, 495, 596, Waugh, Earle H., 46, 601 614, 739 Weapon worship, 774 Vitthala, 765 Wednesday, 771 Vitthalnath, philosopher, 64, 145, Week, 771. See also Calendar 146, 151, 254, 260, 372, 460, West Bengal, 35, 39, 115, 135, 146, 503, 540, 766 239, 597, 625, 682, 690, 771 Vivaha Samskara, 591, 766 West Indies, 771 Vivarana Advaita, 766 Whaling, Frank, 552 Vivarana school, 486, 519 White, David Gordon, 28, 193, 437, Vivartavada, 133, 502, 588, 767 565, 669 Vivasvan, 767 White Yajur Veda, 118, 771–772 Vivekananda, Swami, 71, 90, 478, Widow, 160, 179, 303, 575, 552, 745, 767–768, 774 772–773. See also Vraj, 768 Sati; Women Vrat, 356, 658, 723, 768 inauspicious, 574 Vratya, 60, 768 levirate, 389 Vrindavan, 768 niyoga, 478–479 Vrtra, 768 remarriage, 57, 522, 564 Vyakarana, 476, 629, 769 Williams, George M., 553 Vyakhyana mudra, 140, 149, Williams, Raymond Brady, 25, 681 593, 769 Wind, 22, 34, 75, 142, 161, 217, 220, Vyana, 48, 522, 585, 769. See 467, 586, 662, 717, 773. See also Wind also Elements; Vayu Vyapti, 47, 721, 769. See Wind-god, 83 also Philosophy Wirz, Paul, 288, 358 Vyas, 769–770 Witchcraft, 118, 428, 527, 574, 773 873 Wives of the God-King (Marglin), Worship, 44, 305, 535, 657, 774. 71, 171, 529, 781 See also Snana Women, 86, 97, 99, 190, 287, 299, of tools, 774 518, 520, 607, 630, 650, 773. of weapons, 774 See also Daughters; Goddess; Wulff, Donna, 259, 403, 654 Marriage; Suicide abortion, 3, 227–228 Y adultery affecting, 11–12, 229, Yadav, K. C., 179 406, 507 Yadava, 775 assumptions about, 2, 17, 33, 386 Yadunandana, 775 bhakti, 79 Yajamana, 311, 775 celestial, 27, 150 Yajna, 115, 124, 186, 492, 586, 775 child widows, 148 Yajnavalkya, sage, 191, 315, 775 childhood rites, 591 Yajnavalkya Smrti, 440, 751, 775, 776 devadasis, 104, 171, 183–184 Yajnopavit, 776 divorce, 200 Yajur Veda, 7, 69, 113, 123, 573, 626, 776 dowry death, 203–204 Yaksas (Coomaraswamy), 776 equality for, 57, 74, 107, 121, Yaksha, 435, 629, 664, 776 178, 303, 342–343, 360, 478 Yakshi, 197 festivals, 277, 612, 696 Yama, 18, 65, 167, 191, 262, 332, as gift, 169, 177, 203 351, 354, 426, 445, 461, 612, joking relationships, 322 734, 776–777 menstruation, 436 Yamuna River, 25–26, 29, 95, 126, ordeal, 483 127, 134, 150, 188, 239, 250, palace quarters, 44, 127 269, 297, 337, 398, 567, 594, poet-saints, 37 631, 711, 718, 777–778 powers of, 6, 24, 67, 74, 597–598 Yamunacharya, 466, 777 pregnancy, 316, 526–527, Yamunotri, 25, 78, 242, 363, 778 531, 650 Yantra, 117, 640, 689, 778. See prostitution, 171, 183, 528–529 also Tantra quarters, 44 Yashoda, 84, 92, 169, 315, 344, 371, religious duty, 190, 664–665 459, 742, 778 restrictions upon, 4–5, 61, 218, Yaska, grammarian, 441, 476, 291, 410, 419, 427–428, 617 778–779 vows, 355–356 Yathakhyati, 779 Women in India Yati, 60, 779 (Jacobson/Wadley), 768 Yatra, 491, 779 The Wonder That Was India Yatri, 780 (Basham), 119 Yayati, 780 Woodroffe, Sir John, 773–774. See Year, 619, 780. See also Calendar also Avalon, Arthur calendar, 56, 130–131 The Word of Lalla (Temple), 387 intercalary month, 304–305, World of the Fathers, 776 394, 412–413, 536, 685 World Parliament of Religions, 767, 774 lunar, 61 874 lunar month, 393–394, 445, 471, Yoga mudra, 782 489, 491, 612–613, 628, 647 Yoga schools, 456 Yellamma, 780–781 Yoga Sutras, 18, 65, 93, 172, 278, Yocum, Glenn, 420, 594, 704 332, 370, 382, 505, 507, 650, Yoga, 22, 99, 123, 132, 149, 193, 256, 662, 677, 678, 725, 782 283, 328, 329, 522, 553, 588, 636, Yogananda, Paramahamsa, 782 667, 675, 677, 695, 781. See also Yoganidra, 186, 331, 395, 782 Chakras; Tantra Yogi, 782–783 Ananda Marga Yoga Society, 35 Yogi Bhajan, 695, 783 asanas, 58–59, 695 Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh, 407–408 ascetic, 70 Yogini Ekadashi, 61, 218, 227, 783 ashtanga yoga, 65, 189, 478, Yogmaya, 468, 783–784 525, 585, 592 Yoni, 784 dhyana, 196 Yudhishthira, 54, 110, 127, 190, Gorakhnath, 257 204, 208, 210, 211, 232, 374, hatha yoga, 28, 60, 278, 436, 382, 400, 495, 501, 621, 467, 475, 695, 734 784–785 kundalini yoga, 381–382 epithets, 190–191 Kurmasana, 382–383 Yuga, 155, 180, 214, 338, 785. See muktiyoga, 214, 447–448 also Kalpa padmasana, 58, 487 Sahasradalapadma, 381, Z 582–583 Zelliot, Eleanor, 152, 220 Samasthana, 585 Zodiac, 10, 52, 130, 151, 167, Samkhya-Yoga school, 654 325–327, 456, 458, 537, 660, siddha yoga, 147, 447 669, 685, 786 Surat-Shabd-Yoga, 544, 671–672 Sankranti, 411, 595 SYDA, 681 Zvelebil, Kamil, 115, 377, 431, tamoyogas, 214 459, 508, 509, 515, 702, 703, Utkutikasana, 725–726 704, 705 Virasana, 757

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About the Author

James G. Lochtefeld, Ph.D., holds a B.A. from Colgate University, an M.T.S. from the Harvard Divinity School, an M.A. in Asian languages and literature from the University of Washington, and an M.Phil. and Ph.D. from Columbia University. He is an associate profes- sor of religion at Carthage College in Wisconsin, where he has taught since 1992. Dr. Lochtefeld specializes in Hinduism and is particularly interested in contemporary Hindu religious life. He did fieldwork for his dissertation in the North Indian pilgrimage town of Haridwar under the guidance of the American Institute of Indian Studies and Delhi University. Aside from Hinduism, his areas of teaching have included the Buddhist tradition in India, China, and Japan; Islam; Chinese religion; and Sanskrit. Lochtefeld was three times named a President’s Fellow at Columbia University. In 1990, he received the Charlotte W. Newcombe Fellowship, the most prestigious award for dissertations in religion and ethics. In the summer of 1996, he returned to Haridwar to conduct fieldwork. He was awarded a Senior Research Fellowship by the American Institute of Indian Studies, through which he was able to study the Kumbha Mela, the world’s largest religious festival, during a sabbatical leave in Haridwar in the spring of 1998. 876