Computer-Mediated Communication Computer-Mediated Communication

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For more information on adopting this title for your course, please contact us at: [email protected] or 800-200-3908 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION

Approaches and Perspectives

John C. Sherblom University of Maine

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ISBN: 978-1-5165-3065-6 (pbk) / 978-1-5165-3066-3 (br) Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives 1

Section i Constraints 13

Chapter 2 Media Richness 15 Chapter 3 Media Naturalness 31 Chapter 4 Affordances and Domestication 47

Section ii Experience 63

Chapter 5 Presence and Social Presence 65

Chapter 6 Propinquity 81

Section Iii Language 95

Chapter 7 S ocial Information Processing Theory and Hyperpersonal Perspective 97 Chapter 8 Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects 113

Section iV Opportunities 125

Chapter 9 Identity and Virtual Identities 127 Chapter 10 Virtual Networks and Virtual Teams 141 Chapter 11 Virtual Communities 157

Section V Implications 171

Chapter 12 The Proteus Effect 173 Chapter 13 Actor Networks, Media Niches, and Social Implications 185

vv Contents

Preface xv Chapter 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives 1 Human Communication and Computer-Mediated Communication 2 Human Communication 2 Computer-Mediated Communication 2 Approaches to CMC 2 Constraints 2 Experience 3 Language 3 Opportunities 3 Implications 3 Perspectives on CMC 4 Constraints 4 Experience 4 Language 4 Opportunities 4 Implications 5 Relational Communication, Constraints, and CMC 6 Perspectives in Context 6 Illustration of Concepts 6 Analysis and Critique 6 Usefulness of Concepts 8 Looking Forward to Media Richness 8 Communication Ethics Challenge: What Are Communication Ethics? 8 Keywords and Phrases 9 Questions for Further Discussion 10 Further Reading 10

Section I Constraints 13

Chapter 2 Media Richness 15 Media Richness Theory 15 Four Communication Constraints of a Medium 16 Fit the Communication to the Medium 17 First, Language–Medium Fit 18 Second, Communication Task Efficiency–Medium Fit 19 Third, Communication Function–Medium Fit 20

vii Human Communication Agency and Constraints 21 Perspective in Context 22 Illustration of Concepts 22 Analysis and Critique 22 Usefulness of Concepts 26 Looking Forward to Media Naturalness 26 Communication Ethics Challenge: Choosing a Lean Medium: For Whose Benefit? 26 Keywords and Phrases 27 Questions for Further Discussion 28 Further Reading 28 Chapter 3 Media Naturalness 31 Media Naturalness Theory 31 Humans Naturally Optimized for Face-to-Face Communication 32 Five Characteristics of Human Communication Naturalness 33 Cognitive Effort, Communication Ambiguity, and Physiological Arousal 35 Increased Cognitive Effort 35 Cognitive Schemas and Communication Ambiguity 36 Decreased Physiological Arousal 36 The Speech Imperative, Cognitive Adaptation, and Schema Alignment 37 The Speech Imperative 37 Cognitive Adaptation and Schema Alignment 37 Naturalness of a CMC Medium 37 Perspective in Context 39 Illustration of Concepts 39 Analysis and Critique 40 Usefulness of Concepts 42 Looking Forward to Affordances 43 Communication Ethics Challenge: Whose Cognitive Effort is Required? 43 Keywords and Phrases 44 Questions for Further Discussion 45 Further Reading 45 Chapter 4 Affordances and Domestication 47 Affordances 47 Affordances in the Natural Environment 48 Affordances of CMC 49 Technological, Group, Social, and Communication Affordances 51 Technological Affordances 51 Group Affordances 52 Social Affordances 52 Communication Affordances 53 Implications 54 Domestication 55 Perspective in Context 55 Illustration of Concepts 55 Analysis and Critique 57 Usefulness of Concepts 57 Looking Forward to Presence and Social Presence 58

viii CONTENTS Communication Ethics Challenge: Facilitating Group Discussion Through Affordances? 58 Keywords and Phrases 59 Questions for Further Discussion 60 Further Reading 60

Section II Experience 63

Chapter 5 Presence and Social Presence 65 Presence and Social Presence 66 Presence: Mediated, Spatial, and Physical Telepresence 66 Social Presence: Personal Presence, Self-Presence, and Copresence 67 Social Presence and Social Copresence 67 Ambient and Connected Presence 68 Ambient Presence 68 Connected Presence 69 Visually Anonymous, Asynchronous, Text-Based Communication 71 Visual Anonymity 71 Asynchronous Communication 71 Text-Based Communication 72 Interpersonal Trust, Interactivity, Openness, and Satisfaction 73 Interpersonal Trust 73 Participant Interactivity 73 Conversational Openness 74 Communication Satisfaction 74 Perspective in Context 74 Illustration of Concepts 74 Analysis and Critique 75 Usefulness of Concepts 76 Looking Forward to Propinquity 77 Communication Ethics Challenge: The Ethics of Social Presence 77 Keywords and Phrases 78 Questions for Further Discussion 79 Further Reading 79 Chapter 6 Propinquity 81 The Theory of Electronic Propinquity 82 Propinquity 82 Physical Proximity and Electronic Propinquity 82 Electronic Propinquity and Social Presence 82 Seven Influences on Propinquity 82 Six Propositions of Electronic Propinquity 83 Electronic Propinquity or Media Richness? 83 Information, Rules, and Communicator Skill 84 Propinquity in Rich to Lean Medium 84 Additional Contributions of Electronic Propinquity Theory 84 Perception of Propinquity 84 Choice of Medium 85 Multiple, Interacting Influences on Propinquity 86

CONTENTS ix Propinquity as a Relational Perception 87 Propinquity Offers a Better Explanation Than Media Richness Theory 87 A Complex System of Relational Propinquity 88 Perspective in Context 89 Illustration of Concepts 89 Analysis and Critique 90 Usefulness of Concepts 91 Looking Forward to Social Information Processing Theory 91 Communication Ethics Challenge: Making Ethical Propinquity Choices 92 Keywords and Phrases 93 Questions for Further Discussion 93 Further Reading 94

Section III Language 95

Chapter 7 Social Information Processing Theory and Hyperpersonal Perspective 97 Cues Filtered Out and Social Information Processing 98 Social Cognition 98 Reduced Social Cues 98 Similar Social Cognitive Processes 98 Social Penetration and Interpersonal Uncertainty Reduction 99 Social Penetration 99 Interpersonal Uncertainty Reduction 100 Information Gathering Strategies 100 Social Information Processing Theory 101 Time and Impressions 102 Substituting Verbal for Nonverbal Cues 102 Additional Text-Based Language Cues 103 The Hyperpersonal Perspective 103 Communicating to Be Liked 104 Visually Anonymous, Text-Based, Asynchronous Presentation of Self 104 Reallocated Cognitive Resources and Reciprocal Processes 104 A Hyperpersonal Presentation of Self 105 Positively Skewed Presentations of Self 105 Hyperpersonal Relationships 106 Perspective in Context 107 Illustration of Concepts 107 Analysis and Critique 108 Usefulness of Concepts 108 Looking Forward to the Social Identity Model of Deindividuation 109 Communication Ethics Challenge: Is an Edited Self-Presentation Ethical? 109 Keywords and Phrases 110 Questions for Further Discussion 110 Further Reading 111

x CONTENTS Chapter 8 Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects 113 A Model of Social Identity 113 Defining Identity 114 Deindividuation 114 Deindividuation Effects 114 Depersonalization 115 Communication Accommodation 115 Deindividuation and Depersonalization in CMC 116 Deindividuation of Text-Based Language Cues 116 Depersonalization of Visual Anonymity 116 The Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects 117 Perspective in Context 118 Illustration of Concepts 118 Analysis and Critique 120 Usefulness of Concepts 120 Looking Forward to Identity and Virtual Identity 121 Communication Ethics Challenge: What Are the Ethics of Personal Identity Expression and Social Role Conformity? 121 Keywords and Phrases 122 Questions for Further Discussion 123 Further Reading 123

Section IV Opportunities 125

Chapter 9 Identity and Virtual Identities 127 Identity 127 Personal Identity 127 Actualized Dimensions of Identity 128 Cultural Environment 128 The Communication of Identity 129 Virtual Identity 131 Private and Public Self-Consciousness 131 Characteristics of a Virtual Environment 131 Implications for Identity Construction in a Virtual Environment 133 Identity in a Virtual Environment 133 Perspective in Context 135 Illustration of Concepts 135 Analysis and Critique 135 Usefulness of Concepts 136 Looking Forward to Virtual Networks and Groups 136 Communication Ethics Challenge: Expressing My Virtual Self or Catfishing? 137 Keywords and Phrases 137 Questions for Further Discussion 138 Further Reading 139

CONTENTS xi Chapter 10 Virtual Networks and Virtual Teams 141 Virtual Networks 141 Weak-Tie and Strong-Tie Networks 142 Weak-Tie, Bridging Networks 143 Strong-Tie, Bonding Networks 143 Social Capital 143 Online Social Support Groups 144 Virtual Teams 144 Flexibility, Trust, and Leadership in Virtual Teams 144 Team Learning, Dialogue, and Conflict 145 Social Presence, Trust, Interactivity, and Openness in Virtual Teams 145 Six Rules for Productive Virtual Team Communication 146 Interpersonal Trust and Team Productivity 148 Perspective in Context 148 Illustration of Concepts 148 Analysis and Critique 150 Usefulness of Concepts 151 Looking Forward to Virtual Communities 152 Communication Ethics Challenge: Social Loafing in a Virtual Group 153 Keywords and Phrases 154 Questions for Further Discussion 155 Further Reading 155 Chapter 11 Virtual Communities 157 Conceptualizing Community 157 Virtual Communities 158 A Social Communitarian Theory of Community 159 Four Social Communitarian Criteria of Community 159 Seven Important Characteristics of a Virtual Community 160 Virtual Community Through Personal Narrative and Storytelling 161 Text-Based Conversational Approaches 162 Relational Approaches 162 A Personal Narrative Perspective 162 Virtual Communities Transform Personal and Social Meaning 163 Implications of a Virtual Community: Networked Individualism 164 The Community Question 164 Five Influences of the Internet, Social Media, and CMC on Community 165 Community Effects 166 Influences on Community Networks 166 An Alternative, More Negative View 166 Perspective in Context 167 Illustration of Concepts 167 Analysis and Critique 167 Usefulness of Concepts 167 Looking Forward to the Proteus Effect 168 Communication Ethics Challenge: Lurking and Creeping in a Virtual Community 168 Keywords and Phrases 169 Questions for Further Discussion 170 Further Reading 170

xii CONTENTS Section V Implications 171

Chapter 12 The Proteus Effect 173 Virtual Identity, Cognitions, and Social Behavior 173 The Proteus Effect 174 Research Into the Proteus Effect 175 Attractive Avatars Choose Better Looking Dates 175 Taller Avatars Offer Less and Shorter Avatars Accept Less 175 Highly Sexualized Female Avatar Rape Myth Acceptance 176 Avatar Weight, Body Image, and Self-Criticism 176 Creativity, Priming, Compensation, Stereotypes, and the Proteus Effect 176 Creativity as a Proteus Effect 176 Proteus and Embodied Presence 178 Proteus or Priming? 178 Proteus or Behavioral Compensation? 179 Proteus and Gender Stereotypes 179 Implications 179 What Is the Effect? 180 Priming 180 Behavioral Conformity or Compensation 180 Socially Negotiated Identity and Behavior 180 Perspective in Context 181 Illustration of Concepts 181 Analysis and Critique 181 Usefulness of Concepts 182 Looking Forward to Actor Networks, Media Niches, and Social Implications 182 Communication Ethics Challenge: What are the Communication Ethics of Knowing About the Proteus Effect? 182 Keywords and Phrases 183 Questions for Further Discussion 183 Further Reading 183 Chapter 13 Actor Networks, Media Niches, and Social Implications 185 Perspectives 185 Constraints: Media Richness, Naturalness, and Affordances 186 Relational Connectivity of Presence, Social Presence, and Propinquity 186 Language of Social Information, Hyperpersonal, Deindividuation 186 Opportunity of Virtual Identities, Networks, Groups, and Communities 187 Implications of the Proteus Effect 187 Actor Network Theory 188 Actor Networks 188 The Place of Human Communicators in Actor Networks 188 Three Principles: Agnosticism, Generalized Symmetry, and Free Association 188 Six Propositions of Actor Network Theory 189 An ANT Perspective on Perspectives 189 Constraints as Actants 189 Connectivity as Actant: Presence, Social Presence, and Propinquity 190 Language as Actant 190 Virtual Environment as Actant 191

CONTENTS xiii Niche Theory 191 Communication Technology: An Evolving Relational Resource 191 Social Implications 192 Relational Communication 192 Social Inequality 193 Corporate Greed and Social Goals 193 Perspective in Context 194 Social Media Use Affects Relationship Intimacy 194 Communication Ethics Challenge: Social Media and Societal Implications 194 Keywords and Phrases 195 Questions for Further Discussion 196 Further Reading 197

Glossary 199 References 205 Index 211

xiv CONTENTS Preface

omputer-mediated communication (CMC) is one of the most exciting areas of study in the communication discipline today. Technology is rapidly changing the C way we communicate, allowing us to simultaneously be both more mobile and more connected. This connected mobility changes not only our communication ability but our relational expectations as well. My spouse never used to call me from the grocery store. Now she does, involving me in decision-making processes in real time, even when I am not physically present. I have had phone conversations with my brother while sitting on top of a mountain overlooking the ocean hundreds of miles away from where he is located. That has changed our conversations and our relationship. The advent of personal computers, the Internet, cell phone towers, and mobile phones has changed the way we communicate in our relationships and in our society. Numerous scholars study these new forms of relational communication involving mobile phones, text messages, computer videoconferencing, social media, and hybrid combinations of CMC and face-to-face conversations. In this book we review these multiple approaches and perspectives on relational computer-mediated communication.

Approaches

Computer-Mediated Communication: Approaches and Perspectives describes five major approaches to the study of CMC. These approaches look at the constraints, experience, language, opportunities, and implications of CMC. Each of the five sections in the book describes one of these approaches. The chapters within each section offer multiple exam- ples of perspectives from that approach.

Perspectives

In Section 1 the theories of media richness (Chapter 2), media naturalness (Chapter 3), affordances and domestication (Chapter 4) represent the perspectives on constraints. In Section 2 presence, social presence (Chapter 5), and propinquity (Chapter 6) develop the relational communication experience of CMC. In Section 3 social information processing theory, the hyperpersonal perspective (Chapter 7), and the social identity model of

xv deindividuation effects (Chapter 8) describe language use. In Section 4 virtual identities (Chapter 9), virtual networks and virtual teams (Chapter 10), and virtual communities (Chapter 11) explain some of the opportunities of participation. In Section 5 the Proteus effect (Chapter 12) describes the personal implications of CMC. Actor network theory and media niches (Chapter 13) develop the background for larger social concerns. Together these perspectives identify important CMC issues for interpersonal communication and for society at large.

Chapters

Each chapter provides a theoretical background, description, and discussion of the perspective. We follow that discussion with an illustration, analysis and critique, description of usefulness, and connection to the next perspective. A communication ethics question, list of keywords and phrases, discussion questions, and selected references follow.

Implications

Each section of the book provides a short transition that introduces the next approach and briefly describes the perspectives included within it. The final chapter of the book provides a review and analysis of the perspectives, describing these multiple influences on CMC. The book concludes with a discussion of the implications of CMC for relational and societal communication.

Manuscript Reviewers

Finally, the author would like to thank the reviewers of this book for their helpful comments, suggestions of perspectives that should be included, and careful review of the manuscript. Their reviews helped shape this book and the ideas within it, both challenging the perspectives included and providing insights that pushed the ideas further. A book is often shaped as much by reviewers’ comments as an author’s ideas and an editor’s feedback. We greatly appreciate the time, energy, and thoughtful contributions of the following reviewers to this book:

Scott W. Campbell, University of Michigan Amber Walker Jackson, Penn State University Diane Karol Nagy, University of Florida Erin K. Ruppel, University of Wisonsin–Milwaukee Zuoming Wang, University of North Texas Lesley A. Withers, Central Michigan University Jason S. Wrench, SUNY New Platz

xvi COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives

hether meeting face-to-face or online, people communicate to create a common understanding within their relationship. A big question for com- W munication scholars is how people construct this common meaning within the constraints of the social context, relationship, and medium. Some scholars focus on the influence of the contextual constraints. Others examine the relational experiences of communicators. Still others investigate the effects of language use and the influences of the communication process itself (Umphrey & Sherblom, 2017, 2018).

Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)

Constraints Experience Language Opportunities Implications

FIG. 1.1 Computer-Mediated Communication: Interacting Perspectives on constraints, experience, language, opportunities, and implications.

1 Human Communication and Computer-Mediated Communication

Human Communication Communication is a symbolic system of expression through which individuals create personal identities, connect with others, develop relationships, build social networks, and construct communities. People converse through a computer medium for the same reasons that they communicate face-to-face: to express themselves and to understand others. The study of computer-mediated communication examines the experiences of people communicating within a technological medium.

Computer-Mediated Communication

We definecomputer-mediated communication (CMC) as communication within a technological medium through which individuals construct social and relational meaning. We use the term CMC to broadly describe any technologically mediated relational communication. This includes the use of cell phones, social media, email, computer-confer- encing, or any other digital platform that is used for interpersonal human communication. Whether you text, tweet, Snapchat, or use FaceTime, we consider that to be computer-mediated communication. We limit our discussion, however, to interpersonal forms of communication. We do not include the use of mass media in our definition of CMC. Viewing movies, watching television, reading news feeds, or following other types of one-to-many forms of communication are not included in our discussion, even when that occurs on a cell phone or computer. For us, CMC describes an interpersonal process of communication that develops meaningful personal relationships through a technological medium.

Approaches to CMC

We examine multiple approaches to how communicators construct relational meaning within a CMC context. Some approaches focus on the constraints of CMC. Others describe a person’s experience. Still others examine the language use, opportunities, or implications of participation. We review these multiple approaches and describe the key principles, assumptions, and usefulness of each. Taken together, these approaches provide insights into how communication functions in CMC and the many influences upon it (Sherblom, 2010).

Constraints

An early approach to CMC research focuses on the constraints of the communication medium (Walther & Parks, 2002). These constraints are often identified in the asynchronous, visually anonymous, and text-based nature of CMC. These medium constraints are assumed to influence, shape, modify, and inhibit what and how people communicate.

2 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION The medium constraints of CMC are often compared to the communication characteristics found in a face-to-face conversation. That is, the asynchronous, visually anonymous, text-based expressions of CMC are contrasted with the synchronous, fully embodied, verbal and nonverbal communication of a face-to-face conversation. Perspectives that focus on the reduced nonverbal social cues available in CMC assume that the paucity of cues constrains our ability to communicate through that medium.

Experience

A second approach to CMC research shifts attention away from these constraints to investigate the communication experience of participants. This approach builds on the experience of presence within the medium, social presence with other people, and feelings of propinquity (that is, closeness) in the relationship. It assumes that people are active participants who construct their relationships through their communication experience, whatever the medium.

Language

A third approach looks at how people use language to build and define their relationships in a CMC medium. This approach focuses attention on the text-based, verbal language of CMC. This language carries social information which is used to develop interpersonal relationships and define group membership. This approach examines how participants use, manipulate, and interpret language in developing their personal and social relationships in CMC.

Opportunities

A fourth approach focuses not on the constraints, experience, or language, but on the opportunities of CMC. This approach examines the ways in which people engage in new types of personal expression, relationship development, and community participation in a virtual environment. Participants can create more varied personal identities and networks of relationships in a CMC environment than they can face-to-face. The characteristics of CMC are not constraints to be managed but opportunities for building these new identities, social networks, work teams, and communities.

Implications

A fifth and final approach examines some of the implications of participating in a CMC environment. This approach analyzes how the virtual identities and relationships that participants construct online affect their psychological states and relational behaviors offline. These effects extend beyond participation in the virtual world to the cognitions and behaviors of participants in the physical world. Participating on social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter can have potentially positive or negative effects. Thinking about these potential effects on personal identities, interpersonal relationships, work team interactions, and society at large presents an important concern for communicators.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives 3 Perspectives on CMC

Constraints

In the first section of the book, we discuss three perspectives that examine the constraints approach to CMC. Media richness theory sees the characteristics of the medium as constraints in the ability to express nonverbal emotional–relational communication (Daft & Lengel, 1986; Lengel & Daft, 1988). Media naturalness theory places the constraints not in the medium but in the mind and body of the communicator (Kock, 2004, 2005). The affordances perspective views these constraints as potential environmental opportunities that participants can use to strategically accomplish their communication goals (Baym, 2015a).

Experience

In the second section of the book, we discuss perspectives on the participant experience of presence, social presence, and propinquity. Presence means being immersed within a mediated environment (Lee, 2004). Social presence is a feeling of psychological proximity, closeness, connectedness, and intimacy with another person (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976). Propinquity describes a feeling of relational closeness (Korzenny, 1978). Each of these perspectives highlights an important quality of CMC that affects developing relationships. Focusing on the participant experience, rather than the constraints, provides insight into how people develop their relationships through CMC.

Language

In the third section, we discuss perspectives that focus on the verbal language used in the development of relationships. Social information processing theory, hyperpersonal perspective, and social identity model of deindividuation effects each focus on a different aspect of that text-based CMC language use. Social information processing theory (SIPT) describes how communicators strategically substitute verbal messages for the missing nonverbal cues, interpret the stylistic cues available in the text, and use the existing contextual information to reduce their interpersonal uncertainty and develop relationships in CMC (Tidwell & Walther, 2002). The hyperpersonal perspective describes how feelings of intimacy can develop quickly in a CMC relationship (Walther, 1996). The social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) describes the tendency of people to identify strongly with a group, particularly in CMC, and to show a bias against those who are different in language use from that group (Postmes, Spears, & Lea, 1998).

Opportunities

In the fourth section, we discuss perspectives that view communication within the virtual environment as an opportunity, rather than constraint. Perspectives on virtual identities, networks, groups, teams, and communities offer insights into the opportunities that participation in CMC can provide. Virtual identities allow more personal freedom

4 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION of expression (Koles & Nagy, 2012; Nagy & Koles, 2014). Virtual networks and teams provide access to informational and emotional support resources (Lin, 1999). Virtual communities offer opportunities to participate with others in ways that can prove transformational (Willson, 2006).

Implications

In the fifth section we discuss perspectives on the potential implications of CMC participation. Through a series of experimental studies, researchers have discovered a Proteus effect that describes how changes in virtual self-presentation affect a participant’s cognitions and behavior in the physical world (Yee & Bailenson, 2007). This research shows that virtual participation affects not only online relationships, but a person’s physical body image, thinking, and behavior as well. Beyond the Proteus effect, in the final chapter we also explore the potential implications of CMC participation for society. Knowing the relational and social implications of CMC participation is important for competent communication (Baym, 2015b).

TABLE 1.1 Influences on Communication That Are Different in CMC Collocation Communication Communication Visual Anonymity Media BandwidthMedia Natural LanguageNatural Communicator Skills Communicator Communication Rules Communication Expression Emotion of Nonverbal Cues / Facial Speech / Asynchronous Complexity Information of Expression Body Language / Text-based / Typing-Reading / Text-based Communication Medium Choice Medium Communication

Section Chapter Mutual Directionality / Feedback / 1 Constraints Media Richness X X X XX Media Naturalness XX X X Affordances XX X 2 Experience Social Presence X XX XX Propinquity X X XXXX X 3 Language SIP, Hyperpersonal X X XX SIDE X 4 Opportunities Virtual Identity XXX XX Virtual Group XXX X Virtual Community X XXX 5 Implications Proteus Effect X

Chapter 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives 5 Relational Communication, Constraints, and CMC

During my senior year in high school, one of my best friends drove his car into a tree on his way home from a party one night. He had been drinking and was driving too fast. When I went to his funeral the following week, I hugged his girlfriend, talked, and cried with her. When I entered the church, I saw his mother. I took her hand but had no words. The pain on her face left me speechless. I felt constrained in my communication ability. I did not know what to say or do. We can be speechless and inarticulate in our communication through any medium, especially when we lack interpersonal skill and relational competence. Communicating through a CMC medium can complicate this inarticulateness. In CMC, language use changes, virtual relationship opportunities arise, and participation has potentially different implications. Personal communication skill with the medium, relational history with the person, social context, and community norms all affect CMC. To be competent communicators we must understand the constraints, relational experience, appropriate language use, potential opportunities, and participation effects. In this book, we provide multiple approaches and perspectives to understanding these aspects of CMC.

Perspectives in Context

Illustration of Concepts

Cheryl is the regional vice president of a commercial and residential furniture product sales company. She supervises the work of two sales representatives, Darius and Alex, who spend most of their time on the road visiting retail furniture businesses. Cheryl, Darius, and Alex communicate daily through text messages, phone calls, email, and videoconferencing. Pam is the owner and manager of a home products store. She regularly uses CMC to communicate with a community of customers, suppliers, and her sales staff. Pam has two full-time employees in her home products store. These employees, Sean and Jasmine, split their time between working in the retail store, managing the growing volume of online sales, and traveling to professional job sites to take measurements, make recommends, provide competitive bids, and oversee the installation of residential and office furniture. They use text messages, phone calls, email, and videoconferencing to stay in touch. Pam, Sean, and Jasmine also communicate frequently with Cheryl, Darius, and Alex, from whom they purchase most of their furniture products. Figure 1.2 depicts their roles and relationships.

Analysis and Critique

Each approach and perspective is limited in its scope and application. No one approach or perspective fully describes the processes of CMC. Yet each provides some insight into an aspect of technologically mediated interpersonal communication. Section 1 examines the constraints approach, using the perspectives of media richness (Chapter 2), media naturalness (Chapter 3), affordances and domestication (Chapter 4).

6 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION FIG. 1.2 illustrations of roles and relationships.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives 7 Section 2 describes the communication experience of presence, social presence (Chapter 5), and propinquity (Chapter 6). Section 3 discusses language use in social information processing, hyperpersonal relationships (Chapter 7), and the social identity model of deindividuation effects (Chapter 8). Section 4 conceptualizes the opportunities available in virtual identities (Chapter 9), networks and teams (Chapter 10), and communities (Chapter 11). Section 5 examines the Proteus effect on individuals (Chapter 12) and potential social implications of CMC participation through actor network theory and media niches (Chapter 13). Together these perspectives provide a fuller understanding of how communication functions in CMC.

Usefulness of Concepts

The usefulness of understanding these multiple approaches and perspectives is twofold. First, they describe important considerations for developing CMC competence. Second, by raising the issues of constraints, experience, language, opportunities, and implications, these perspectives provide insights into the broader processes of human communication that shape the creation of meaning through any medium, including face-to-face conversation.

Looking Forward to Media Richness

In Chapter 2 we discuss media richness theory. Media richness describes the potential constraints of the CMC medium on human communication. For media richness theory, human agency exists in understanding the capacity of a medium to convey personal verbal and nonverbal communication and to make efficient and effective use of that capacity. The illustration provides an example. Cheryl chooses text messaging to efficiently deliver straightforward sales information to Darius and Alex. She uses weekly sales meet- ings to effectively discuss more complex issues face-to-face.

COMMUNICATION ETHICS CHALLENGE

What are Communication Ethics?

In each chapter we will explore a specific question of ethical communication. These questions are based on the assumption that the purpose of communication is to express an authentic personal agency, develop a close social presence with others, create relationships, and establish communities in an honest and open way. Our perspective is that ethical communication promotes personal authenticity, relational trust, honest dialogue, participative decision-making, and community building. Less ethical communication might, for example, try to disguise a personal agenda, deceive others, manipulate a relationship, or take unfair advantage of a group or community. We will explore a specific question of communication ethics in each chapter. Each question raises a practical issue. How do I communicate in an authentic, trustworthy, participatory, positive, community-building way?

8 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION 1. Do I have an ethical responsibility to communicate openly and non-strategically within the constraints of a medium, or can I ethically choose a medium and a communication style that will benefit me personally, perhaps disadvantaging the other person? 2. Do I have a communication responsibility to connect with other people, or can I ethically use CMC to preserve my privacy, to deceive, or to keep others at a distance? 3. Does engaging in a relationship with another person create any additional ethical communication responsibilities? What are these additional responsibilities? 4. What are my ethical communication responsibilities when engaging in a virtual identity, network, group, or community?

KEYWORDS AND PHRASES

Affordances perspective views constraints as potential environmental opportunities that participants can use to strategically accomplish their communication goals.

Communication is a symbolic system of expression through which individuals create personal identities, connect with others, develop relationships, build social networks, and construct communities.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is communication within a technological medium through which individuals construct social and relational meaning. We use the term CMC to broadly describe any technologically mediated communication.

Hyperpersonal perspective describes how feelings of intimacy can develop quickly in a CMC relationship.

Media naturalness theory places the constraints not in the medium, but in the mind and body of the communicator.

Media richness theory sees the characteristics of the medium as constraints in the ability to express nonverbal emotional–relational communication.

Presence means being immersed within a mediated environment.

Propinquity describes a feeling of relational closeness.

Proteus effect describes how changes in virtual self-presentation affect a participant’s cognitions and behavior in the physical world.

Social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) describes the tendency of people to identify strongly with a group, particularly in CMC, and to show a bias against those who are different in language use from that group.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Approaches and Perspectives 9 Social information processing theory (SIPT) describes how communicators strategically substitute verbal messages for the missing nonverbal cues, interpret the stylistic cues available in the text, and use the existing contextual information to reduce their interpersonal uncertainty and develop relationships in CMC.

Social presence is a feeling of psychological proximity, closeness, connectedness, and intimacy with another person.

Virtual communities offer opportunities to participate with others in ways that can prove transformational.

Virtual identities allow more personal freedom of expression.

Virtual networks and groups provide access to informational and emotional support resources.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

1. How do you use CMC in your everyday personal and professional relationships?

2. Which CMC technologies, apps, or platforms do you use the most?

3. On average, how much time do you spend using CMC in a day?

4. Is there a time of day when you use CMC the most: morning, afternoon, evening, nighttime?

5. Do you think you could find more effective and productive ways to communicate with friends, family, and professional people through CMC?

6. What do you think are the most important approaches of CMC to know about: the constraints, experience, language, opportunities, or implications of participation?

7. Ethical communication is based on the assumption that the purpose of communication is to express an authentic personal agency, promote honest dialogue, develop relationships, encourage participative decision making, and establish communities. Less ethical communication might be used to disguise a personal agenda, deceive others, manipulate a relationship, or take unfair advantage of a community. Do you think people are more likely to be unethical in CMC than in face-to-face communication? Why? Explain.