Agricultural Production and Malaria Resurgence in Central America and India Georganne Chapin* & Robert Wasserstromt

Nature Vol. 293 17 September 1981 181 Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India Georganne Chapin* & Robert Wasserstromt

AMONG the inhabitants of Asia, Latin which mosquitoes of the Anopheles for a short time on the inside walls of America and tropical Africa malaria subfamily transmit Plasmodium parasites human houses after biting their victims. By remains a major cause for alarm. Yet only a to human beings. After reproducing in spraying walls with DDT, WHO officials few years ago, health officials in a dozen astronomical numbers, these parasites reasoned they could reduce the vector developing countries (capitalizing on the transform their human hosts into a popUlation to manageable levels. Simul discoveries of British parasitologist Ronald reservoir of illness which may be spread to taneously, they proposed to treat everyone Ross half a century earlier) pointed uninfected individuals. affected by the disease with chloroquine or triumphantly at their efforts to eradicate In 1907, Dr William Gorgas, an other anti-Plasmodium drugs so as to entirely this mosquito-borne scourgel - 5 . American Army surgeon in the Panama destroy the reservoir of disease. If these Following World Health Organization Canal Zone, set out to break this cycle by conditions could be maintained for three or (WHO) guidelines, for example, Indian draining swamps, emptying, covering or four years, they calculated, malaria trans authorities instituted a programme of oiling pools of standing water and mission might be broken forever. More medical treatment and pesticide appli screening human habitations. Although he over, projects of this sort could be carried cation in 1952 which within a single decade was unable to eradicate the disease com out without altering political arrangements reduced the number of cases from over 100 pletely, within two years the death rate or patterns of land tenure. million to 50,000 (ref. 6). Ten years later, from malaria among canal company using the same methods, health workers in employees had fallen to 8.86 per thousand Complications Sri Lanka cut the annual incidence of - a decrease of 80 per cent. More or less Despite the simplicity of the plan, WHO malaria from three million cases to fewer simultaneously an Italian physician, Dr officials were aware that a worldwide than 25. Angelo Celli, noticed that in southern campaign to eradicate malaria would face By 1970, however, it had become clear Europe the disease tended to attack people nearly insurmountable obstacles. In many regions, control programmes were A few years ago the battle against malaria seemed to have been won. However virtually non-existent, and even those that now, despite vigorous anti-malaria campaigns, the disease has made a did exist suffered from a lack of funds, comeback. The resurgence of malaria in Central America and India seems to technical expertise and administrative have been paralleled by intensified agriculture in these countries and the efficiency. But there was another obstacle associated increased use of pesticides. which experts at WHO were more reluctant to engage: as early as 1953, they obtained that malaria eradication had run into who were either poor or landless, par conclusive evidence that Anopheles severe difficulties. Instead of dwindling to ticularly those who worked as seasonal mosquitoes, like many insect pests, sooner insignificance, the number of infected indi labourers on certain large farms. He or later became resistant to DDT and other viduals rose again to distressing pro reasoned that transmission depended to a pesticides. Within a few years, in fact, such portions. In India, which had served as a considerable degree on the flow of fresh resistance had been reported in Greece and showplace for WHO policies, five million human blood into malarious zones just as Italy (where insecticides were used both in people were soon infected; in Sri Lanka, the A nopheles population began its annual public health and in agriculture) as well as two million people became sick again explosion. Not only sanitary measures and in the Lebanon, Iran, Saudi Arabia and almost overnight; and in Central America medical treatment, then, but land reform Nigeria. In some cases a single application infection rates grew to previously unknown and other social programmes might playa was sufficient to reduce mortality (that is, in levels 7 . Moreover, unlike earlier out substantial part in conquering the disease. crease resistance) among mosquitoes by 80 breaks, this new plague was often carried By the end of the Second World War, percentl8. Accordingly, WHOmalariologists by mosquitoes which had become resistant however, it seemed that a technology had urged their local counterparts to conduct to pesticides like DDT and dieldrin and finally been devised that could eliminate "time-limited" spraying operations - to could not be controlled by conventional malaria in much of the non-Western world: complete the "attack" phase as quickly as means8-- 15 • The origins of this major chemical pesticides. Insecticides like DDT possible. ecological disaster must be sought as much and dieldrin were not only cheap and easy Thus, anti-malaria teams were directed in the unwitting actions of international to use, but they also remained active for to treat the interior walls of all human organizations as in hapless nature. several months after each applicationl ? For habitations and shelters within the target this reason, they appeared to be ideally zone on a regular schedule - a gargantuan A seeming success suited for the task of killing Anopheles task under the best of circumstances. It is worth noting that early programmes mosquitoes, which characteristically rested Meanwhile, by organizing an elaborate to contain parasitic diseases - primarily malaria and yellow fever - achieved Table 1 Prevalence of malaria in Central America, 1965-1977 remarkable success without recourse to sophisticated technologies 16 • Efforts to No. of cases (thousands) overcome malaria before the Second World War concentrated on the ways in Country 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Costa Rica 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 EI Salvador 34.2 68.6 83.0 35 .8 25.3 45.4 46.8 38.3 35.1 67.0 83.1 83.3 32.2 'Division of Sociomedical Sciences, School of Public Guatemala 14.3 22.0 21.2 11.0 10.6 10.9 8.3 9.3 1.0 1.0 9.6 Health, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA. Honduras 6.9 17.1 16.1 15.7 29.6 34.5 48.4 18.6 8.8 7.5 30.3 48.8 39.4 tDepartment of Anthropology, and Division ofSocio Nicaragua 8.3 15.6 7.1 16.0 28.5 23.3 9.6 4.2 12.2 24.7 26.2 11.6 medical Sciences, Columbia University. New York. New York 10027, USA. Source: WHO, World Health Statistics Annual, Geneva, 1966-/9.

0028-0836/ 81 / 380184·05.01.00 e 1981 Macmillan Journals Lid 182 Nature Vol. 293 17 September 1981 system of regional laboratories and clinics, public health officials were supposed to Table :z Land Ienure in India, 1970 administer chemotherapy and monitor the campaign's progress. In areas where these Size of holding No. of holdings lifo Of rural Area "10 Of total area tactics proved to be successful, where the (hectares) (thousands) properties (millions of number of active cases diminished to zero, hectares) attack gave way to consolidation. And if no <0.5 23,178 32.9 5.4 3.4 new illness occurred during the following three years, consolidation was in turn 0.5- 1.0 12,504 17.7 9.1 5.6 replaced by maintenance, the constant vigil 1.0- 1.9 13,432 against a recurrence of infection. This 19.1 19.3 11.9 strategy was adopted in 1954 by the Pan 2.0- 2.9 6,722 9.5 16.4 10.0 American Health Organization (P AHO) and subsequently by the entire inter 3.0-- 3.9 3,959 5.6 13.6 8.4 national community. 4.0- 4.9 2,684 3.8 11.9 7.4 Initially, at least, it seemed that WHO's campaign enjoyed almost unmitigated 5.0- 9.9 5,248 7.4 36.3 22.4 success. In India, after ten years of struggle 10.0-19.9 2,135 3.0 28.5 27 .6 against malaria (1961), only 50,000 cases of the disease were uncovered by government 20.0-29.9 401 0.6 9.3 5.8 inspectors and a number of regions had passed from attack to consolidation or 30.0-39.9 120 0.2 4.2 2.6 maintenance. Similar triumphs were 40.0-49.9 45 0.1 2.1 J.3 registered in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Paraguay, Venezuela, Mexico and Central >50 65 0.1 6.0 3.1 America. In ten other countries, Total 70,493 100.0 162.1 100.0 Plasmodium infection was completely overcome. Source: Ministry of Planning, Government of India, Statistical Abstract, India, 1977, New Delhi, 1978.

Malaria re-emerges had reached alarming proportions among even measures of this kind might serve at Within a short time, however, the cam Anopheles mosquitoes - just as WHO best only as temporary expedients: vectors paign began to falter. Between 1961 officials had originally feared27•28 • which became resistant to one compound and 1966, disease rates in India increased The case of El Salvador is illuminating. frequently enjoyed mysterious immunity threefold; by 1970, half a million people In 1958 a group of entomologists reported to other unrelated poisons, and in any case caught malaria each year - many in areas that the local vector, Anopheles it was only a matter of time before natural where health authorities had recently albimanus, had lost its susceptibility to all selection favoured those insects which scored impressive victories. Much the same major organochlorine compounds and was could withstand a broad spectrum of course of events took place in Sri Lanka, proliferating rapidly along the Pacific chemical agents34-36 • Faced with these which in 1968 experienced an epidemic that coast29•30 . Four years later, researchers in problems, in 1973 WHO officials left 1.5 million people stricken. On the southern Mexico encountered the same reluctantly transformed the Malaria other side of the world, in El Salvador, problem, which forced them to admit that Eradication Division into the Division of Nicaragua and Honduras (where anti the disease had not been eradicated in Malaria and other Parasitic Disease37.38 • malaria measures began in the late 1960s), several areas31 . In India, widespread the incidence of disease in 1975 was three tolerance to organochlorines was dis times greater than a decade earlier, before covered among two important vectors, Agricultural expansion the programme had started (Table 1). As a Anopheles culifacies and Anopheles Against this background, it is ironic result, eradication projects which had fluviatilis, particularly in regions which that commercial agriculture often reached consolidation frequently reverted had recently shifted to high-yielding forms expanded in precisely those regions to the attack phase - or even entered the of agricultural production32 • recently cleared of malaria. As the danger newly defined stage of "permanent In such places, effective control might be of illness subsided, many landowners, attack". Even so, it soon became clear that regained only by using insecticides which stimulated by the high prices of such there was a major resurgence of malaria in cost four, five or even ten times as much as commodities as cotton, rice and tobacco, India and Central America that existing common toxins - a burden which few reduced their production of other crops administrative and technological methods governments were willing to bear33. Yet and bought up more land39 . The result of could do little to prevent 19-24. The question this development was both to augment the which malariologists in these areas then number of poor and landless rural workers asked themselves was quite simply, "What § and to concentrate agricultural resources in II has gone wrong?" . progressively fewer hands40 • In 1960, for In fact, as early as 1962 a number of ! 170.0 example, the wealthiest five per cent of specialists had expressed their reservations India's non-urban population owned about the WHO campaign and its chances nearly one-third of its croplands; ten years of success. Among other things, they .j 150.0 later, making use of lavish credit facilities pointed out that as infection rates dropped '8 and development funds, they had actually during the attack phase, hard-pressed l:l.130.0 increased their holdings by ten per cent governments often diverted critical . ~ (Table 2)41 . resources from anti-malaria activities to 1 Naturally, such proprietors also claimed 1 1 other essential projects2S •26 • As a result, 100.0 1 I 1 a disproportionate share of the country's i 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 many infected people were not detected by agricultural income: between 1960 and DDT consumption surveillance systems, which themselves (millions of ki1ograrnmes) 1970, in fact, the richest 20 per cent of these broke down under poor management and people (like their counterparts in Pakistan supervision. Even more ominously, Fig.} Effect of DDT use on rice production in and Bangladesh) collected nearly half of however, resistance to DDT and dieldrin India. 1970-77 such earnings42. Similarly, in Central

© 1981 Nature Publishing Group Nature Vol. 293 17 September 1981 183 America, where cotton became king in the grown on relatively small plots of land or alone possess the means to purchase HYV 1960s, both land and credit remained where food grains - primarily rice - still seeds, fertilizers and pesticides67.69 • As Figs almost completely inaccessible to most predominate. In Tamil Nadu, for example, 2 and 3 suggest, such farmers have small growers. In El Salvador, one per cent most farmers (77.5 per cent) own less than responded to increased infestation by of the rural population owned half of the one hectare; few possess more than tw050 • applying heavy doses of DDT, BHC and country's land (including all properties Even so, these men (and their counterparts dieldrin - a procedure which is closely over 50 hectares) and received 30 per cent in Maharashtra and Gujarat) produce related to the recent explosion of malaria in of its income43 ,44. As in India, such nearly one-third of the country's cotton the region. Significantly, as these growers prosperity was achieved only at the expense and an impressive share of its rice51 .52 . By have switched from DDT to more sophisti of considerable inequity: one-third of the 1968, too, the incidence of malaria in this cated chemicals, traditional vectors have area's peasants possessed less than one region had decreased to insignificance - been replaced by rarer species which in turn hectare and one-quarter of them owned no indeed, in Tamil Nadu, the disease was show a diminished sensitivity to such land at all. Clearly, the expansion of poisons7o . Little wonder, therefore, that as commercial agriculture in these regions early as 1972 the Indian Journal of Public exacerbated such difficulties and created Health warned that "the most serious an entirely new kind of agroecosystem. threat to public health . . . is the uncontrolled use of pesticides for Increased pesticide use agronomic practice"71 . In these circumstances, it is not sur prising that the death rate from infectious Deadly link and parasitic diseases in Central America There seems to be a three-stage relation has remained extremely high and that the ship between the evolution of cotton agro incidence of malaria has generally in ecosystems and the spread of malaria. creased - despite an impressive During the first stage, eradication pro diminution in the late 1960s and early grammes are more or less effective and 1970s45 . The relationship between fibre often permit farmers to exploit previously production and the recrudescence of infected areas. An example is to be found in malaria has been clearly established in a eastern Paraguay, where landless peasants study by the United Nations Environmen from so-called overpopulated regions have tal Programme and the IHstituto Centro been encouraged to clear and colonize americano de Investigaci6n y Tecnologia "uninhabited" jungle in which malaria is Industrial (ICAITI}46. To combat cotton endemic72. The Paraguayan government pests and to raise yields, planters in 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 has made great efforts to eliminate the Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador DDT use Plasmodium parasite - as a stimulus to have not only expanded their acreage, but (millions of kilogrammes) both immigration and productivity. since 1970 they have also applied heavier Fig.2 Relationship between DDT use and Among its primary objectives, the concentrations of pesticides. Whereas a malaria incidence in India, 1969-77 production of cotton and tobacco (also a decade ago, fields were sprayed only eight largely confined to urban areas such as heavy user of pesticides) for export or nine times each season, they must now Madras53-56 • Within a few years, however, occupies a pre-eminent position. By 1978, be fumigated on as many as 50 occasions. public health officials throughout southern these two crops provided over 27 per cent Consequently, the amount of pesticide India reported that mosquitoes of both the of the country's foreign exchange. Having which enters the local ecosystem has Anopheles and Aedes subfamilies (the prepared vast expanses of virgin forest for expanded at an increasing rate. latter transmit yellow fever) had become commercial exploitation, however, In 1971, for example, farmers in El resistant to a wide variety of chemicals peasants in many areas have begun to Salvador sprayed 58.4 kilos on each hectare including DDT, BHC, malathion (an abandon their farms and to look for wage of cotton; three years later, applications organophosphate) and propoxur (a labour elsewhere. As their lands are had reached 70.0 kg per hectare. As a result, carbamate)57-61. consolidated into larger holdings, such DDT consumption in EI Salvador areas will inevitably be treated with increased threefold between 1970 and 1977 intensive applications of DDT or dieldrin. - from 555,200 kg to 1.6 million kg. Resistance to pesticides These lands will therefore probably come Similar circumstances prevailed in Indisputable evidence is not yet available to resemble many parts of Central America Nicaragua, where DDT imports rose from but it appears that resistance began to (stage two), in which the high price of 29,000 kg in 1974 to 521,600 kg in 1976. occur with the introduction of green cotton appears to justify augmented doses Naturally, the importation of pesticides revolution technology - particularly of of pesticides. Malaria transmission will be on this scale could be accomplished only as high-yielding varieties (HYV) of rice stimulated most markedly among migrant long as cotton revenues offset the rising cost (Fig. 1). According to entomologists at the workers and impoverished peasants. of toxins. Fearful that unstable prices and Vector Control Research Centre in Pondi Perhaps in anticipation, PAHO has soaring expenses might soon cut their cherry, "the major changes that have been already commissioned a study in Paraguay, earnings and anxious to maximize the taking place in the area are in the The Impact of Malaria on Economic returns on their investments, many growers tremendous increase of acreage under Development73 , according to which have attempted to achieve total control of cultivation, the near total replacement of seasonal increases in Plasmodium insect parasites - an obsession which has organic manure by chemical fertilizers and infection do not interfere with cotton or only enhanced their reliance on expensive the extensive use of insecticides for paddy tobacco cultivation - although they may chemicals. Correlating the use of DDT in and other crops' '62. It should be noted that wreak havoc on food production. Finally, El Salvador with renewed malaria trans the new strains of rice have been adopted in places like India, Pakistan and mission, it can be estimated that at current primarily by wealthy landowners and have Bangladesh (stage three), more and more rates each kilo of insecticide added to the proved to be especially susceptible to insect DDT must be sprayed simply to maintain a environment will generate 105 new cases of infestation63-66 • fixed yield (Fig. 4). In this case, pesticide malaria47-49. Recent studies in Tamil Nadu indicate addiction and a full-fledged epidemic of Ironically, Anopheles resistance in India that families which own two hectares or malaria have entered their most destructive has developed even in areas where cotton is more (7.2 per cent of the total number) phase.

© 1981 Nature Publishing Group 184 Nature Vol. 293 17 September 1981 So must countries such as India and EI interfere with malaria eradication Salvador cease to grow cotton and high programmes? A possible answer may yielding food grains? Can foreign currency perhaps be found in the activities of be obtained only at the expense of wide another international agency, the Food spread malnutrition and disease? It is and Agricultural Organization (FAO). !] 8. 0 .... instructive to examine how such crops are Like WHO, FAO was established to pro o produced in the United States. American vide technical advice and assistance to a jAmount ~ 6.0 farmers who started raising cotton with members of the United Nationli. In the case g ~ ofODT only small quantities of insecticides found of pesticides, which are manufactured and .: S 0 that insect pests reappeared in their fields distributed by a few multinational Q 4.0 .~ 10 almost as soon as the fumigators corporations, FAO's advice might have played ~ 1. departed74- 78 • Most often, they responded a critical role in reducing environmental E /'-.... ~ /Cotton g 2.0 g 5 --..../ ~ ~ production by applying stronger poisons with greater contamination. Both farmers and exten frequency until they were spraying every sion agents in developing nations must ~ 8 two or three days for five months79 • The normally rely on pesticide company side effects had by then become apparent: salesmen for information about how to use 197071 73 75 77 79 cattle fodder had to be destroyed because it agricultural chemicals - much as Fig.4 Cotton production and DDT use contained pesticide residues too high to be physicians in Western countries rely upon in India, 1970-78 fed to animals while crops that had never pharmaceutical companies for infor suffered severe infestations were suddenly mation about new drugs. Beginning in on pesticides in agriculture and public devastated by previously innocuous 1967, therefore, FAO put together a small health and served on subcommittees insects80-84. working group of experts on integrated responsible for formulating UN policy. pest management which published tech Not surprisingly, these subcommittees nical manuals and disseminated other stressed the need to apply more pesticides Integrated pest management information88- 94 • in a more effective manner rather than to In response, entomologists developed Three years later, it commissioned an limit their use or replace them with what they crill integrated pest management American entomologist, Dr Louis Falcon, alternative forms of pest control. And systems8S ,86, the key to which lies in timing to develop an integrated system in what is more curious, none of these deliber insecticide applications so that the crop is Nicaragua, a system which achieved ations included representatives of other protected from predators only at the most remarkable success within a few seasons. international constituencies such as vulnerable stages of its growth cycle. As it Similar programmes were subsequently environmental groups, labour unions or turns out, cotton buds destroyed by pests undertaken in Mexico, Peru and farmers' organizations. Perhaps for these regrow throughout the plant's life, so that Pakistan95 • Then, in 1975, FAO delegates reasons, in June 1978, the current director producers can afford to sustain a high level met in Rome to consider the question of general of FAO, Eduard Saoumi, finally of insect damage before there is a need to pesticides in agriculture and public health. expelled ICP from his agencylOO. apply pesticides. Simple precautionary Although they recognized that integrated measures may also lower their chemical pest management offered a potential costs: up to 75 per cent of the hibernating solution to many health problems, they The problem boll weevil population may be eliminated recommended that F AO place its emphasis In 1976, WHO published a technical by the ploughing under of crop debris after on teaching growers in developing nations report entitled Resistance oj Vectors and 1ol harvest. Thus many growers west of the how to make more' 'safe and efficient" use Reservoirs oj Disease to Pesticides • In Mississippi now spray their fields only of pesticides96 ,97 • this report, WHO's Expert Committee on seven or eight times each season instead of Insecticides declared that "resistance is 25 or 30; similar measures have been probably the biggest single obstacle in the developed for raising corn, rice and many Whys and wherefores struggle against vector-borne diseases and 87 kinds of fruit • Why did F AO choose this course of is mainly responsible for preventing suc So why did WHO not urge cotton pro action, which in retrospect does not appear cessful malaria eradication in many ducing countries to employ integrated to have been guided by an accurate appreci countries . . . . Evidence has also management systems that would not ation of the perils of pesticide addiction? It accumulated to show conclusively that is important to examine how pesticide resistance in many vectors has been caused 30.0 manufacturers have influenced the policies as a side-effect of agricultural pesticide of international agencies. As public usage". Accepting this unhappy fate, the concern about the effects of toxins like report concluded that "vector control was 25 .0 DDT began to grow in the 196Os, these cor likely to depend on substantial, continued porations formed a trade association called use of pesticides for at least a decade". In GIF AP (Groupement International des these circumstances, it foresaw no alter 120.0 Associations Nationales de Pesticides) native but to " encourage commercial firms .E!c... which in turn worked directly with UN to continue the search for pest control, '" 0 technicians through a F AO bureau known especially compounds with a novel mode of ~] 15.0 as the Industry Cooperative Programme action". And yet, as many specialists have ! (ICP). By the early 1970s joint FAO-ICP pointed out, such compounds are unlikely regional seminars had been organized in to resolve this dilemma or to undo the 10.0 many parts of the world to promote new damage which in-bred tolerance has and better ways of distributing agricultural already caused: detoxification appears to pesticides. More important, high-level rely on physiological processes which are 5.0 officials in WHO and FAO, who share the both irreversible and difficult to disrupt. In industry's views on many major issues, effect, thoughout southern India, the re invited GIFAP to play an active part in crudescence of malaria now represents a 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.0 agency "consultations" and other internal social cost of growing high-yielding rice - Index of rice production meetings98,99. In this way, for example, no just as elsewhere in India and Cental fewer than 25 corporate representatives America it represents a social cost of Fig.3 Relationship between rice production and malaria incidence in India, 1%9-77 lent their expertise to the meeting in Rome producing cotton.

Recognizing such difficulties, in the trialised, affluent world" 104. HYV rice cultivation has been available same year WHO - joined by the World principally to wealthy farmers who sell Bank and the United Nations Development A solution? their grain at premium prices. Many Programme - established its Special Must poor countries inevitably choose specialists now feel that the green Programme of Research and Training in between more productive forms of agricul revolution in such regions has not signifi Tropical Diseases (TDR) to coordinate ture and the uncontrollable spread of cantly improved the lot of most peasants efforts against six ancient scourges of parasitic disease, between the irrecon and smallholders 105. mankind (malaria, schistosomiasis, the cilable claims of "food versus health", as Acknowledging this fact, institutions filariases, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis several writers have recently proposed? like the International Rice Research Institute and leprosy) 102 • By June 1980, TDR had The evidence, based on a common pattern and the International Maize and Wheat allocated over $2.8 million to 38 separate of social and epidemiological factors, Improvement Center have begun to re projects concerned with problems of appears to suggest another conclusion. In evaluate the advantages both of traditional Anopheles resistance and Plasmodium almost every major case of malaria plant varieties and of native cultivation transmission. Unfortunately, however, resurgence, large landowners overuse techniques. Perhaps the problem of these projects tend to reflect WHO's con pesticides on crops like cotton and tobacco malaria resurgence is amenable to similar viction that progress in the field of malaria which make no substantial contribution to solutions, not by means of technological research depends almost uniquely on basic the subsistence requirements of the rural innovation alone, but also by showing a breakthroughs in such areas as biology, poor. Instead, income from such ventures proper respect for the social and environ immunology and the invention of new is generally channelled into luxury con mental conditions which make resurgence drugs. So far, only 7.1 per cent of TDR's sumption at home or speculative invest unavoidable. And while more equitable malaria funds support inquiries into non ments abroad; only in rare instances does it answers are found to the question of chemical means of vector control 103 • Or as serve to finance the production of basic poverty and landlessness, surely it makes Peter Collins has written, the programme foodstuffs or capital equipment. sense (as FAO's own panel of experts has draws its models from "many of the ideas Even more distressing, much the same once again reaffirmed) to employ an and techniques developed by biomedical situation now prevails in India's main rice integrated system of pest management on research into the diseases of the indus- growing regions, where the technology of such crops as rice and cotton.

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