Informal Economic Exchanges in a Multiethnic Borderland

CEU eTD Collection Crossing Boundaries: Informal Economic In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, of Master of the degree for of requirements fulfillment the In partial Exchanges in a Multiethnic Borderland Supervisors: Michael Stewart and Michael Miller Michael and Stewart Michael Supervisors: Nationalism Studies Program Studies Nationalism Central University European By: David Karas David By: May 2009May

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C T TALKAND CORRUPTION CORRUPTION C G F MARKETLABOUR THE HUNGARIAN EXAMPLE OF THE RELATIONS OF MARKET ETHNICISATION THE S S C ETHNICITY INSTITUTIONALISING F F BOUNDARIESMORAL SOCIAL AND CROSSING ETHNICITIESAND INFORMALITY D H T UNCERTAINTIES GEOPOLITICAL O B T INTRODUCTION INDING TRATEGIES CHOOLING ROM ROM HE HE HE OUNDARIES ORRUPTION OSTS ENSUSES ENERATIONAL EPENDENCE ISTORICAL RGANISATION S

SEMANTICS HISTORICAL

PECIFICITY BOUNDARIES ECONOMIC AND

REFUGE

AND

BENEFITS INTO OF INSTABILITY

TALK AND AS

STATE

COMPLIANCE FAULT

OF

IDENTITY DEFICIENCIES IN ETHNICITY ANTHROPOLOGY OF

INFORMAL :

TO CONTENTION ETHNICITY T SETTING

OF

CATEGORIES RANSCARPATHIA TRANSACTIONS

LINES

ETHNIC

MORAL AND ECONOMIES AND

OF

BOUNDARIES

THE EXIT TO COMPETITION

STANDARDS

POSTCOMMUNIST

STATE ’ S

RESOURCES

TO

:

THE

INFORMALITY

STATE

:

31 22 21 20 14 12 12 62 61 61 59 48 47 46 41 37 35 35 2

9 7 4 4 CEU eTD Collection

BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX CONCLUSION B T S EXCHANGES MUGGLING HE LAT

CRIMINAL

NETWORKS : CROSSING

PROFESSIONALIZATION : :

ACCESSING

STATES

THE

TOGETHER

STATE

OF

INFORMAL THROUGH

INTERPERSONAL ACTIVITIES

RELATIONS

OF

TRUST

88 85 82 76 74 70 70 3 CEU eTD Collection népességeésmagyarsaga a népszamlalasiésnépmozgalmi adatok tükrében 1 without any attribute of autonomy. unit administrative an became and SSR Ukrainian the to integrated eventually was it 1946, In Transcarpathia. upon claims its relinquish to Prague pressured USSR the dismembering Treaties Vienna the Czechoslovakia. In with 1945, Soviet troops established de facto control over the region, accordance and in region, the Hungary reoccupied 1938, In Slovaks). to close culturally themselves considered population Ruthenian predominant region’s (the self-determination ethnic on based unification a state, Czechoslovak formed newly the joined it War, World the after Kingdom, Hungarian the of part was Transcarpathia 1920, until identifications: ethnic imposed externally and ingroup upon effect dramatic a had region the of history modern The and Romania. km 800 (12 region The Hungarianborder. Ukrainian- the predominantlyalong live a who (12,5%) minority Hungarian significant to home is region the but communities smaller represent Russians and Slovaks Ruthenian/Ukrainian of ethnicityare (78,4%) who of most people, million a half approximately to home is oblast) (Zakarpatska Transcarpathia The specificity of Transcarpathia . Tankönyv- és Taneszköztanácsa, Pedagógusszövetség censuses in minorityHungarian the Transcarpathiaand 99US essdt,suc:Mla,Jze tMla,D svn 05 2005. Istvan, D. Molnar, et Jozsef Molnar, source: data, census USSR 1989 Introduction 2 )

is bordered by Poland, Slovakia,HungaryPoland, by bordered is ), Beregszász: A Kárpátaljai Magyar Kárpátaljai A Beregszász: ), 1 . Roma, Poles, Romanians,Poles, Roma, . ( ThePopulation of Karpatalja 4

CEU eTD Collection eod te ovos sl-neet o h he tts t riiily ips ethnic impose artificially to states three the of self-interest obvious the Beyond category. the annexation, Moscow decided to incorporate all Ruthenians into the Ukrainian ethnic USSR,althoughcultural theproximity Ruthenians of Ukrainiansand justified formally as identified Ruthenians, under Hungarian rule, were thefigures Hungariansof skyrocketed, while forthe people the of most era, Czechoslovak the During community: certain a of numbers exaggerated the whichcensuses ethnic conduct to interest state’s occupying every in was self-determination.It ethnic of rhetoric the used annexations integrationtheregionof different to polities theseas different integrations/occupations/ the legitimate to states foreign and elites local by manipulated always was Ethnicity of Kingdom the from autonomy its Hungary after and before Transcarpathia 1. Map Romania. Source: Source: http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/belso.php3?nev=129 Romania. 2 Transcarpathia is here the formerly Hungarian region embedded between Slovakia and Slovakia between embedded region Hungarian formerly the here is Transcarpathia 2 5

CEU eTD Collection ethnicity,and languagein national census 3 relative fluidity in past and present individual ethnic self-identifications. a with coexist elites political local by endorsed narratives essentialist the put, Briefly mention Kiev’s forceful animosity to not consultation, popular without 2008 October in independence Transcarpathian declared even persons 100 approximately of group a claims: their consolidating of different projects of territorial autonomy while Ruthenianmovements are inthe process backingKMKSZ), and (UMDSZ community Hungarian the of representation the for favouringelites primordialistlocal narratives.competing Two politicalstruggle parties Today,minoritynationalismwidespread is amongRutheniansHungarians well,and as these groups. separating of task the complicates further which fact a Orthodox, or Catholics Greek predominantly are Ruthenians Greek-Catholics, and Roman-Catholic Calvinist, are religious boundaries are not isomorphic with the different ethnic categories: Hungarians strong incentives to use the entire range of the different possible answers. Furthermore, very them gave powers external the but questions these about unsecure felt Locals Slovak or Ukrainian or would it be an entirely distinct cultural heritage? dialectof considered a be Ruthenian wasto latter: Ruthenian the ethnicity of for place the over uncertainty general a and former the for policies assimilationist Hungarian of becauseblurred were other the on ethnicitiesSlavic other Ruthenianand and hand, one the on ethnicity Hungarian and Ruthenian between lines the categories: ethnic locals the upon categories ne.html 4 Press. http://www.russiatoday.ru/Art_and_Fun/20081201/Ethnic_group_seeks_autonomy_in_Ukrai ete,DvdI,adDmnqeAe.20.2002. Arel. Dominique and I., David Kertzer, , accessed 15 December 2008 December , accessed 15 3 this process was facilitated by an actual fluidity between fluidity actual an by facilitated was process this 4 . . Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Cambridge NewYork: UK; Cambridge, . Census and identity: the politics of race, of politics the identity: and Census 6

CEU eTD Collection Informality)», Questions de Recherche, collection électronique du CERI-Sciences politiques, CERI-Sciences du électronique collection Recherche, de Questions Informality)», 6 5 extremelysocialistbe gravecrimesthe stateverypurpose againstto of the legitimacy:during communist rule, private propertymoral and black markets were considered and legal of lack their common in share exchanges economic Informal life. social of dimensions different to belong to seem otherwise would which phenomena proximity(non-monetarybetweenblat serviceexchanges), barter,bribery,nepotism or scrutiny for its vagueness at practices economic of range wide the characterise to ill-suited be may Informality hardly triggered academic attention. Europe Eastern in nationalism and life everyday of dimension specific this between relation the about studies empirical illegal) deemed and taxation escaping activity economic significant a of existence the (namely economies the command of communist specificity a be to seemed what identified scholars many while Moreover, underlying structural transformations that gave birth to modern nations and nationalism the for accountable held are economies capitalist analyses, constructivist and modern For ethnicity: of student the for notions essential are boundaries and economy Both somewhat ignored apart from a few innovative studies: in spite of its specificities, betweeninformality boundariesand openshighly stimulating perspectives, whichwere dynamics the through problem this Grasping context. post-communist the in identitiesmutate ethnic how observing for field ideal an is Transcarpathia that follows It Boundaries and informal economies N.J.: Princeton University Press.University Princeton N.J.: 7 n°17. « 2006. Myriam. Désert, Gellner, Ernest. 1983. Ernest. Gellner, Kornai, János. 1992. 1992. János. Kornai, The socialist system: the political economy of communism of economy political the system: socialist The Nations and Nationalism 6 , but, at least,allows it one tospeak of a semantic and cultural

e dbt rse sr l’informel sur russe débat Le , Cornell University Press,Ithaca. University , Cornell

Te Rsin Dbt on Debate Russian (The 7 whileafter . Princeton, . 7 5

CEU eTD Collection 9 change in the postsocialist world 8 local while people, common the for Transcarpathia of in exchanges manifestations economic informal visible most the constitute bribery and smuggling blat, Today, after 1991. household a many for essential was that income an electronics),cigarettes, (gasoline, geographiclocationparticular in facilitated transfrontier smuggling variousproductsof the and scarce extremely are resources economic the disappeared: never practices well as makers policy and scholars divides scopeactual their about debate the if post-communisteven the era, in degreesvarying to exist still and countries communist all in widespread were economies Informal feared is disorder where places are crossings border and Markets (…) domains jealously guarded of borders the breaches (-trade) wholes… bounded to pertaining order “ up: it summed Verdery and Burawoy segmentation.As based ethnic with incompatibleinherently a are instance) for hospital or school a in place better a securing (for necessitates blat networks social The impermeable group boundaries: Transcarpathia,overarchsupposedlypractices these of that as such multiethnicsetting a in narratives: nationalist essentialist to pose they threat fundamental the is purpose our for important more even But market. the outside occur transaction economic of both state capacity and the viability of market economies where a significant proportion jeopardise practices same the of resilience the economies, capitalist to transition the Soviet politics and business 2006. V. Alena Ledeneva, exchange See See uao,Mcal n ahrn edr.19.1999. Verdery. Katherine and Michael, Burawoy, Ledeneva, Alena V. 1998. 1998. V. Alena Ledeneva, 8 . ” abig, U; Nw Yr, N, UA abig nvriy Pes and Press. University Cambridge USA: NY, York, New UK; Cambridge, . . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Cornell University . Ithaca: How Russia really works: the informal practices that shapedpost-informalpractices that the works: reallyRussia How . Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. & .Lanham: Rowman Russia'seconomyfavours:networking, blat,of informaland uncontrolled movement violates the sense of sense the violates movement uncontrolled 9 . In Transcarpathia, it is clear that these that clear is it Transcarpathia, In . Uncertain transition: ethnographies of ethnographies transition: Uncertain 8

CEU eTD Collection tripsof pettysmugglers backand forth between Hungary and Ukraine.Our respondents Furtherinterviews took place Mukachevoin and Uzhgorod, while wealso followed the Ruthenians and Hungarians don’t outnumber one another too much. wheremunicipality urban only the Beregovo, of town the in spent was fieldwork the as well as interviews of share Transcarpathia.lion’s The in 2009 April participantobservation conducted life-trajectory in and semi-structured on based is study Our Organisation therefore and questions the relation between life state, subjects and moralities. social of dimensions inevitably public and it private as between individuals boundaries presupposes and state the between relation the from inseparable is exchanges economic of dichotomy informality/formality the Finally, contexts? the with coexist abovementionedcategories/boundaries, practices whichmostpeople generally other in adhere to these in participation groups’ self-defined ethnically individuals’and do Transcarpathia, questionremains,territorialhowboundaries in the nation- modern building. in Yet, if informal economic exchanges factor constantly challenge political, ethnic and major a was appropriation in-group territorial and shared identification a for basis the identification constitutes often boundaries of elaboration practicaldiscursiveand the concern:primary of are groupsboundariesethnic between cultural and symbolic First, ethnicity. analyse to approach manifold a in understood be to ought Boundaries boundaries: of variety a challenges informality sense, this In elites “specialise” in electoral fraud and nepotism Difference 10 Barth, Fredrik. 1969. 1969. Fredrik. Barth, . London: Allen & Unwin.. London: Allen 10 eod ertra onais ae epcal motn o group for important especially are boundaries territorial Second, . Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture of Organization Social The Boundaries: and Groups Ethnic 9

CEU eTD Collection the state and to the market and finally the dynamics of informalexchangesensuredynamics of that the finally market and the to and state the to relation Transcarpathianstheir represent which through talk” “corruption the shape that strategies discursive the the economy, circumscribedblack ethnically less to relation frameworks: explanatory main which individuals challenge or accept it, the ethnicisation of the legal job market and its by four strategies the and institutions state along by ethnicity of institutionalisation/reification problem between this relation the approach in role vital to propose therefore We a state. the and markets communities, play ethnic Transcarpathian they that but activities, marginal or residual only not are economies informal that demonstrate to precisely is study solidarities different and trust of natures different about enquiring necessarily are we Transcarpathia, in other each to relate ties administrations) local economic actors) and political (between theabstract “people”and the state embodied in (between economic groups), ethnic within and (between ethnic do how to understand seek we if Therefore, networks. social in solidarities enables what and defines solidarities which escape both moral norms and the relevance of ethnicity. Trust is what deeply are of systems create divisions economies informal other, political) the on institutionalised, (and and entrenched ethnic hand, one the on Transcarpathia: in apparentlythatcontradictory fact interrogationshape processesthe Our take on dwells were assisted by a Ukrainian translator. Romanians. The interviews were conducted in Hungarian with two exceptions when we or Roma theRussians, as such communities of other of analysis dynamics internal and deep interactions a integrate to impossible technically was it identification): Ruthenian-Ukrainiansself- on (dependingRuthenians,or Hungariansand ethnic were Creating Social Trust in Post-Socialist Transition Approach 11 ohti, B. « Bo. Rothstein,

» in Kornai, Janos and Rose-Ackermann, Susan and Rothstein, Bo (eds.) 2004. (eds.) Bo Rothstein, and Susan Rose-Ackermann, and Janos Kornai, in »

oil Tut ad Hnsy i oenet asl Mechanisms Causal A Government: in Honesty and Trust Social , New ,New York: Macmillan. 11 . The aim of this of aim The . 10

CEU eTD Collection access to commodities and services through interpersonal networks. 11 CEU eTD Collection Similarly, the Russian and Ukrainian“Zakarpattia,Zakarpatska and RussianZakarpattyeoblast” or Similarly,the “Karpatalja”. to westwardlimits fix doesn’t and Ukrainecountry,namelyanother into elementsgeographical Hungarian of extension legitimate and natural a as region the considers still idiom Hungarian the such, As (puszta). plains Hungarian long the with conflatednaturally are Ukraine present in westwards further lowlands the while East, the in Carpathians the by delineated are region the of boundaries implicit the form, Hungarian its in West: the necessarilyto regionsituated the to centre conceptualises a Carpathians)example the for beginningsHungarian of or “Karpatalja”The slopes (the as it they may be, all of these names have a strong political and geopolitical component. “Zakarpattia or Zakarpatska oblast” in Russian and Ukrainian. As implicit and seemless Czech, in Rus” “Podkarpatska Hungarian, in “Karpatalja” called successively been have territories These names. Ukrainian and Hungarian respective of understatements the political bear doesn’t and Ukrainian and Hungarian in region the of names competing the to correspond doesn’t Transcarpathia English use: we name very the being space political essentialpredominantcommentlanguage, to regionis closely uponandto the tied it in and geography of representations nationalist and National The semantics of contention self-conscience we may dare call geographical identity. instabilityinternational of borders during 20the political very the enough, paradoxically but any specifics, age-old to with region correspond historical not does Transcarpathia here call we entity geographical The dependence theof identity uncertainties: Geopolitical l er a smlr maig hy al ma h ein byn h Carpathians. the beyond region is region the the which to according centre the example, mean Hungarian the Symmetricallyto all they meaning: similar a bear all th century created strong a geographical 12

CEU eTD Collection 12 “Aragon”, as such ensembles geographic other to contrary identity: political and autonomousgeographical an have to thought not Transcarpathialanguages,is both In only conceptualise the region in relation to a centre or core geographictheirHungarian bothpolitical that andUkrainianspheres and is idiomscan semanticallyconnectionofTranscarpathiathatbetween statesrest a of two the reify to territory a over claims implicit the beyond problem profound more and second The terms) to the rest of the Ukrainian “national space”. geographic (in closed hermetically almost is that region a to state Ukrainian the of embeddedirredentism), Ukrainian “Zakarpatska oblast” reflects uneasy the relationship the “Hungarian” of plain, which notiscoincidence a but belies historicallya and part semantically easternmost the of separation political the – “absurdity” hypothesised geographical of rationality a underlies languageHungarian geographically, the region the the defining (in ensembles by it justify to seems name Hungarian the while territories:national own their of extension an being Transcarpathiaimagineas idioms over“Transcarpathia”. They underlie twoproblems: first,Hungarianthe andUkrainian sovereignty territorial of claims competing the understanding for guidelines essential are they interpretations: semantic sterile not are reflections These eastwards. plains Ukraine,Ukrainianthe partwhichof is stateisolated yet Ukrainianthe of fromrest the of part the is Zakarpattia pragmatic: more and clearer are region the of boundaries but state Ukrainian the into integrated geographically politically separated fromrestUkraine the of theCarpathians.by Here implicitthe be to thought is region the “beyond”defined,East:necessarilyidentified, makesinasmuch sensethe is situated in Beregszasz, 2005. Beregszasz, (1947-1952) Svetko, Erzsébet, « Erzsébet, Svetko,

, i in », aptla Tarsadalomtudomanyi Karpatalja,

Kisebbségpolitika Karpataljan a szovjet rendszer kiépitésének idején, kiépitésének rendszer szovjet a Karpataljan Kisebbségpolitika

tanulmanyok 12 . T, Bdps – Budapest MTA, , 13

CEU eTD Collection internal administrative boundaries of Ukraine: the formal administrativeformal the boundaries of the Ukraine: administrative internal boundariesof by eastwards and Ukraine and Romania Hungary, Slovakia, Poland, frontiers between international the by westwards delineated Ukraine, of km part westernmost 800 12 today encompasses Transcarpathia Ung. Bereg, Maramaros, Ugocsa, counties: or regions administrative four between divided were They 1920. until kingdom Hungarian the of part were Transcarpathia present of territories The Historical instability charged as “Karpatalja” or “Zakarpattia” politically as just is which alternative) English other (the “Subcarpathia” to contrary idiom, neutral relatively a is it geography: of interpretations reified nationalistically English the for two between choose to preference avoids it that our fact the in rooted that precisely is “Transcarpathia” state us let history, this reviewing Before political changes always taking place outside Transcarpathia. geopoliticalhistoryregion, the of indeedhasonethat been informed dependenceby on the reliably reflects and encapsulatesTranscarpathia of definition a such that believe we consequences: far-reaching has This submission. and dependence with equated is Transcarpathia of liminality or peripheralitygeographical the sense, this In centre. distant a by dominated is Transcarpathia that spontaneously assume languages both Moscow), (or Kiev or Budapest it be periphery, a as defined Transcarpathiais which is it against“centres”differentsetting Althoughrelations. power inextricably embeddedin because particular is “Transcarpathia” boundaries surroundings, own their their of independently imply that notions “Siberia”, or “Tuscany” “Burgundy”, dominant centre symbolically situated in the North this time – Prague. North this in thetime symbolically situated centre dominant « Czech of translation approximate the is it 13 Without further examining the diffusion of this term in English, we may simply remark that remark simply may we English, in term ofthis diffusion the examining further Without 13 .

Podkarpatska Rus Podkarpatska

», implying this time a third a time this implying », 2 n the in 14

CEU eTD Collection 14 into corps” “free send theundercover,operated battalions military these 1937: as early to as PodkarpatskaRus enough confident felt Budapest Hitler, with Horthy’s alliance regent and claims irredentist Hungarian of radicalisation the Following Podkarpatska Rus remained a constitutive part of Czechoslovakia until 1938. debates, internal these of spite In Ukraine). western independent and eastern Soviet between divided then was (Ukraine Slovakians with than Ukrainians and Ruthenians closerculturallinguisticWestern and with a Ukraine proximitygrounds on of between strategies: while most felt loyal to Czechoslovakia, other currents favoured a unification name ofPodkarpatska Rus. The localRuthenian elites remained divided overlong-term theunder stateautonomousfederal the an withinregion of statusalthough keepingthe Czechoslovakia join would territoriesRuthenianwherebyMasaryk with agreement an Czechoslovaknascent the state formationof the to recognised by president Wilson and it had an active role during the negotiations leading soon was legitimacy Council’s The Pittsburgh. in National formed was Ruthenians of Council a disintegration, Empire’s Austro-Hungarian the of eve the On Europe. Eastern than ratherAmerica originatedin identity)nationalRuthenian a emergenceof miningindustriesPittsburgh.political of organisationtheThus, Ruthenians theof (and the worked wheremanyin UnitedStates the massivemigration to flowa in part taken 19 the of end the by War:World First the coherentwhole a Under Transcarpathia. call we Hungarian rule,the region hadnospecific denomination and was not perceived region toform entire the embrace oblast” “Zakarpatska 15 Appendix ofthe and 5 2, 3 Maps Kalman, Moricz, 2001. Moricz, Kalman, duringsee 20th century, the affeting Transcarpathia changes viewof territorial a clearer For 14 . The formation of a Transcarpathianof a end formation the Theof territorywithbegan . Karpatalja Sorsforduloi th century, the native Ruthenians had alreadyRutheniansnative had century,the , Budapest: Hatodik Sip. ,Budapest: Hatodik 15 : On October25 On : th 1918, it reached it 1918, 15

CEU eTD Collection aiy te nerto f Tasapti no te US, wih ws fraie on formalised January 22 was which USSR, the into Transcarpathia of integration the ratify cede to but choice other voluntarily no had ProvisionalCouncil local the USSR: to the Transcarpathiato forced was Prague talks, peace the during influence under Stalin’s however, Czechoslovakia, into reintegration the preparing Transcarpathia, frontiers. pre-war Following theSoviet liberation, Czechoslovaka 1937 Provisional Council wasconstituted in its accepted and Transcarpathia over claims territorial to 20January On GULAGcamps. the to deported were populations these of majority the prisoners: war as Hungarianand enemies18 deservedwhocivilianssameof treatment age abovethe the Germanmale Ukrainian Battalion)Fourthofficiallydeclaredall the administration (of 13 November On Transcarpathia.“liberated” troops Soviet the when 1944 in region the reached finally War World Second the of frontline Jewish The period). speaking this during Hungarian place considerable took community the of camps death the to deportation (the rule Hungarian fascist under thus was Transcarpathia 1944, and 1938 Between of Treaties Vienna November first 2 The Rus. Podkarpatska occupy to free left was support, Germany’s Nazi enjoying Hungary, Czechoslovakia, of disintegration the to leading andthediffusion ofHungarian propaganda among locals. After theMunich agreements consistedsabotagein Czech of infrastructure, actions against Czech military personnel, and War of MinistryHungarian the by fixed nonetheless were missions their actions, Hungariangovernment claiming officially connectionno responsibilityandno theirfor sovereignty by becoming a mere oblast of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Socialist Soviet Ukrainian the of oblast mere a becoming by sovereignty of attributes all lost Transcarpathia Czechoslovakia, in autonomy territorial Unlike nd 1946. nd 1938 confirmed the integration of these territories into Hungary. th 94 pca ere ise y te lcl Sve military Soviet local the by issued decree special a 1944, th 1945, Hungary officially surrendered to the USSR, renouncedUSSR, the surrenderedHungaryofficiallyto 1945, 16

CEU eTD Collection Hungarians Russians Ukrainians Nationality/Year 17 16 persistent multicultural setting as one can see in the following chart a of testify census) Ukrainian 2001 the and 1989 of census Soviet last (the censuses ethnic reliable last the figure, this about doubtful be necessarily region.may one the Although in nationalities registered officially 76 as many as allegedly are there territory a small so withincoexist identitiesnational many so where EuropeEastern emergence of nation-states in the region. To this day, it remains one of the last places in multicultural EasternEurope which vanisheda withtheAustro-Hungarian Empire andtheconsecutive of remnants last very the of one is Transcarpathia that understand to essential is it but Ruthenianidentity of question the upon touchedalready have We 1991, in Union Soviet the Transcarpathia remained an oblast of the of newly independent Ukrainian republic. collapse the with Finally, organs. administrative autonomouscontrary bottomand to republics, absolutely independenthad no political- very the at was oblastadministrations, territorial Soviet the of hierarchy the in (SSR): ésalls s npogli aao tükrében adatok Tankönyv- és Taneszköztanácsa. Pedagógusszövetség népmozgalmi és népszamlalasi onr osf ad Mla, D svn Istvan, D. Molnar, and Jozsef Molnar, Map4 Appendix, See 155711 49458 976749 1989 Figures 151516 30993 1010127 2001 05 2005. 12,5 4,0 78,4 1989 , aptla éesg é mgasg a magyarsaga és népessége Karpatalja Zakarpatska % within eesáz áptla Magyar Kárpátaljai A Beregszász: oblast 12,1 2,5 80,5 2001

17 97,3 62,7 103,4 : % in 2001 index base 1989=100 17 16 :

CEU eTD Collection Table 1. The nationalities of Transcarpathia Other Slovaks Roma Germans Belorussians Romanians ésalls s npogli aao tükrében adatok népmozgalmi Tankönyv- és Taneszköztanácsa. Pedagógusszövetség és népszamlalasi a 18 Stalin interests: Soviet against went that perspective a institutions, autonomous with status nationality titular for qualified automatically have would they nationality, a as Rutheniansrecognisedwere region: the of status oblast the justify also Moscowcould ethnicity, their of out called Ruthenians stripping officially by was pragmatically, USSR More reunification). the into integration the (indeed brothers their from Transcarpathiaof groundsonthe thatRuthenians invasion were onlyUkrainians unjustly separated the justify could USSR the that is obvious most the purposes: several served This Orthodoxy). into integrated also was Greek-Catholicism religion, (their Ukrainians as classified became Ruthenians and censuses from banned formally was ethnicity/nationality Ruthenian of category official the Transcarpathia, incorporated Rutheniansthe mentionof no is therethat striking is is What Könyvkiado. 19 Botlik, Jozsef, 1997. Jozsef, Botlik, Istvan, D. andMolnar, Jozsef Molnar, on Based Total 1245618 8756 7329 12131 3478 2521 29485 Harmas kereszt alatt 1254614 5005 5695 14004 3582 1540 32152 , Budapest: Hatodik Sip Alapitvany Uj Uj AlapitvanyMandatum Sip ,Budapest: Hatodik 18 100 0,6 0,6 1,0 0,3 0,2 2,4 2005. 2005. , eesáz áptla Magyar Kárpátaljai A Beregszász: Karpatalja népességeés magyarsaga 100 0,4 0,5 1,1 0,3 0,1 2,6 19 : in fact, after the USSRthe afterfact, in : 100,7 64,0 77,7 115,4 103,0 61,1 109,0 18

CEU eTD Collection 20 self-identification, subjective individuals’ the often for irrelevant was or illegitimate considered classification state-imposed this hand, one the on process: this inform paradoxes Two markers. ethnic fabricated actively state the whereby 1960’s the after of taxonomy place entire in put were schools primary “Gypsy” An “Hungarian”and “Russian”,“Ukrainian”, system. schooling ethnic the through foremost and first institutionalisingthem, by boundaries ethnic embeddedcommunism, after and during life,political and public other, Transcarpathians,the of majorityon the by shared was boundaries ethnic complex in resulted Transcarpathiacharacterises that instability historical The Dependence as identity labels, different radically under depending on the period. categorised were persons same the sometimes and families same the see, shall we as boundaries: ethnic about uncertainty general a (late19 coercivedominantpoliciescategorisationpursueddecadesstates’ ethnicof by systems cases, both In Ukrainians. as self-identify Ruthenians many as in just Transcarpathia, origins) (and names Ruthenian have Hungarians many delicate: is Ruthenians divide between Russophones and Ukrainophones is already sensitive, the position of the linguistic the where country a in today, Even Hungary. Czechoslovakia and to access important,footholdCarpathians, offeringbeyondUSSRa thethe railwayhighwayand strategically was it because region the over control military strict a exert to wanted Rakoczi Ferenc Karpataljai Magyar Fôiskola. Magyar Karpataljai Ferenc Rakoczi tanulmanyok eesaz, Aio e ap ihr, 20. 2005. Richard, Papp, et Aniko Beregszaszi, th century andlaterfascist Hungary Sovietandthe Union after 1945) resulted in 20 , Budapest & Beregszasz: MTA Etnikai-nemzeti Kisebbségkutato Intézet – II. – Intézet Kisebbségkutato Etnikai-nemzeti MTA Beregszasz: & Budapest , : on the one hand the experience of circulation between ethnic categories ethnic between circulation of experience the hand one the on : aptla Tarsadalomtudomanyi Karpatalja. 19

CEU eTD Collection ertraiy i. Te aporain o ie egahcl sae truh patcs and practices through space geographical given a of appropriation The ie. territoriality 21 a of emergence the geographical identity and in an increased trespassing of ethnic boundaries. resulted both actors external by domination geopolitical Further, object. geopolitical a as Transcarpathia created correlate) a as dependence dependence.on Briefly put,political andgeographical peripherality andliminality (and eventuallyled constructionthe to geographical a of identity (self-identification) Transcarpathia’sautonomisationexternalidentityand powers’ rootedin competition is that fact the identity: national Ruthenian beyond consequences reaching far had This powers. 1920,thehistory Transcarpathia of hassince beencontinuously determined externalby in granted were they recognition initial the after territory: “their” of the determination on impact less the had Ruthenians the that is independenceparadoxical is Ruthenian What movement. the was Transcarpathia objectified that entity common Albeit considered today as an organic ensemble by all nationalities living there, the sole identifications. ethnic instable and geographicalidentity emerging gradually a reflects 20 the in Transcarpathia of history the toponyms: the regarding our remarks perspective into puts history chaotic Transcarpathia’s of overview brief This and regimes countries to impose previous their own ethnic categories often of only years before. attempts ethnic the of with reconcile legitimisation to and difficult were institutionalisation boundaries an such that being second the transnationales entre le Mexique et les Etats-Unis (Territories of Mobility. Migration and Migration Mobility. of (Territories Transnational CommunitiesEtats-Unis between Mexicoles and the Unites States) et Mexique le entre transnationales Pierre Faret, see représentations What we refer to as geographical self-identification is very close to Faret’s concept of concept Faret’s to close very is self-identification geographical as to refer we What Informality and ethnicities: crossing social and moral and crossing social ethnicities: and Informality , Les territoires de la mobilité, Migration et communautés et Migration mobilité, la de territoires Les , boundaries , CNRS, ,CNRS, 2003. th century 21 based

20

CEU eTD Collection Theideathat communist countries havefundamentally different economic mechanisms From Economic Anthropology to Postcommunist Informality legitimacy of these categories and of their separation are seldom questioned. impermeabledimensions of social experience are being constantlytrespassed, albeit the allegedly how well: as West the in work things how about teach to lessons important have may East the at looking sense, this powerfulIn functionality. legal-rational a of narrative by overshadowed efficiently more only place, take processes similar whereeconomies market Western old the in than apparent more somewhat dynamics uneven, syncopatedWest– integrationmodernity callmakemay thesewhatone into– the to relation peripheralin history its specificity of the world, the of parts other from different very not probably regard that in is Europe Eastern If spheres. international and local informal, and formal economic, and ethnic private, and public spaces, outer construct groups social boundaries and how theyuse, re-appropriate, redefine how andultimately toywith inner and on consequences important having both boundary, of concept the through approached be can both that is assumption the another: one withdimensionsentertain these relations the examine will I fields. two these link one may understandhow to order anthropologicalin literaturefrom drawing concepts key thorough attempt to linkthese two realms. In the following,we proposetoreview some no been has there while corpuses separate produced have enquiry scientific of fields experience: everyday informal economiesresurgence the nationalistandof post-communist discourse politics.andThesetwo of fields separate two engages study This than market economies seems obvious, although, if one looks at practices instead of instead practices at looks one if although, obvious, seems economies market than 21

CEU eTD Collection trends later fused with Western European and American anthropological traditions of anthropologicaltraditions American and European Western with fused later trends two These legality. socialist by condemned officially were that property of modes scientistshighlighted mechanismsthe informal of economies economic – activities and socialRussiancommunistwhile regime, a property’sprivatetolerationunder of realm the secondeconomy– mechanisms the instrumentaldescribing scholarswere the of in alleviatedaccess goodsto andservices. therefore is It coincidence nota thatHungarian USSR, the in endemicshortages necessitated elaborationthe complexsocial encouraged, a of of networksset that even or tolerated was property private of renaissance the 1970’s, the after Hungary, in while corpuses: different two produced USSR) (the heaviest the consumptionwere on constraintseconomic where one the and (Hungary) property of hierarchies the regarding orthodoxy socialist from furthest the deviate andconsumption, the were production legislations, of system rigid too otherwise an of viability the sustaining socialist instrumentalin by criminalised formally micro-mechanisms, These economic regulation had to exist so that the entire edifice didn’t collapse. underBrezhnev becameespecially,mechanismsimpossible otheroverlook that it to of surface, the beneath Yet, War. World First the during experienced Britain Great or GermanyFrance, which of economies,forms nationalisedwar on modelled were they administrativedifferentand thatWesternfromolder view,not experiences pointof for legal purely a from were, economiescommandcommunist The 1980’s. the after only socialism under life everyday defined transactions economic of sorts what realise to legislations,becomes it clearwhy social science, bothin sides oftheiron curtain, came Co. Co. 22

Kornai, János. 1980. 1980. János. Kornai, economicsshortageof Economics of shortage Economicsof . Amsterdam; New York: North-Holland Pub. North-Holland York: New Amsterdam; . 22 . The country. wherethestate theletrules 22

CEU eTD Collection the relation between the ownership (that is free use, commodification and exchange) of infrastructure: exchange) state’s the and on commodification relies always use, institutions or free collectives individuals, is by (that objects ownership the between relation the 24 time 23 elite at consumption looks in the ranks of the one whether socialism: during eradicated not was property private that clear also is it Furthermore, decentralisation. of degree minimal a for necessary yet orthodoxy, Marxist of eyes the in legitimate less slightly ownership, collective ownership state property, of type one only admitnormally countriesSocialistdo property: was systemsocialist late the in anthropologists by examined thoroughly be to concepts first the of One early post-communist period. communist, late the in meanings new acquired capital and exchange property, value, as such concepts basic countries: socialist of settings political and institutional the to distinguishingparticulareconomypracticeslinking horizonsfor the new be to seemed there path, this Following societies. all by shared situation generic a but standards bureaucratic ideal Weber’s or rationality individual of norm the from deviance a not the body social. For our purpose, it is useful to keep in mind Polanyi’s thesis as a guideline: power well: relations,affectiveas relations, symbolic production, necessarily all are intertwined theeconomy in political is economy all terms, other In society. given a the to contrary neoliberalideal-type, separateno there that, is field purely for economic mechanisms within is anthropology economic of assumption fundamental The approaching economic practices. life in Stalin's Russia 25 182)2001: whatsoever (Hart, no there is property a state, without narratives, contemporary to aberration an of something intuitively seems it although And Gronow, Jukka. 2003. 2003. Jukka. Gronow, oay,Kr.20.2001. Karl. Polanyi, embededness . Boston, MA: Beacon Beacon Press. .Boston, MA: 23 of economicexperiencedimensionssocialprocesses of iswithinof all . Oxford; NewYork:Berg..Oxford; The great transformation: the political and economic origins of our of origins economic and political the transformation: great The Caviar with champagne: common luxury and the ideals of the good the of ideals the champagne:and commonluxury with Caviar 24 . However, communist countries also tolerated forms of forms tolerated also countries communist However, . nomenklatura 25 or household consumption in general, it 23

CEU eTD Collection 391. informal while ownership, of 26 legislation collectivist socialist a of collapse the for countriespostcommunist in irrelevant is economy “second” the definition, this to According(barter).goods and (blat) servicesnon-monetary exchanges of and bribery) strictlyforbidden undersocialism rangingsmuggling,monetaryfrom (blackto market, were that activities encompass practices economic “informal” while socialism, under profitpersonal for propertycollective of use legal the or propertyindividual of forms typologyKornai’s with accordance in “black”,“second” “informal”and economies ofteninterchangeably.usedare Here,and distinctions:conceptual some maintain to important is it clarity, of sake the for Yet fundamentally antithetical with the socialist project. etc. travel healthcare, housing, as differentiatedgoods(Westernluxuryconsumer andaccessto servicesgoods) andsuch with classes social terms other in hierarchies, of existence The regimes. communist workers alike. Itis just asobvious thatgrave consequences ensuedfor the legitimacy of and peasantsintellectuals, elites, by shared equally was illegal, and illegitimate albeit obviousspheres is propertypursuit thethat of it private just as of camebe, property, to different the intermingled incredibly how see to surprising hardly is it successful: and property had to be reduced toaminimal level. None of thesetwo objectivesproved be consumptionindividual other, the to on them, boundariesbetween clear with maintained had ownership of taxonomies legal and legitimate between boundaries the the hand,one the assault:on Thus, dual propertyconstantlysocialisthierarchieswerea under of attraction. its lost never consumption individual that obvious becomes N.J.: Princeton University Press.University Princeton N.J.: 27

Zukin, Sharon. 1978. "The Problem of Social Class under Socialism." Socialism." under Class Social of Problem "The 1978. Sharon. Zukin, Kornai, János. 1992. 1992. János. Kornai, The socialist system: the political economy of communism economyof political the system:socialist The 26 ne h upcs o rvt rpry was property private of auspices the under 27 the “second” economy refers to the legalised the to refers economy “second” the Theory & SocietyTheory & . Princeton, . 24 6:

CEU eTD Collection 28 boundarieseconomies,systemicdraw betweenfirst the informal,to and effortssecond our of spite In persisted. collective) or (national ownership of types different the but The transition to market economies raised new problems: private property was legalised economic inputs the state was the unable to deliver. for compensated they because tolerated were economies informal put, Briefly Foucaultrealmof the calls vitallatterinterestsandthe mimeneed state. thenoto surprise:There of is what thisis relationsbetweenthe populations the concernedthe according to punishment to the of betweencrimes thatdeserve more or lesssevere punishment but also adjustthe severity distinguish they do only not more, is what periphery, their on infringements tolerate regimes legal all actually brutality: their for known otherwise leaderships state by toleratedwidespreadwere practices such that possible was it how ask rightly can One 35) p. Favarel, by quoted 1987, (Grossman Armenia in 179% Ukraine, and Belorussia in Leningrad,67% in 38% increased householdby have income would 1980 year the for socialismtransformation:duringandthe survey,According non-declared a to revenues concernedhere areinformal withWe economies lateexistence their for proved in vital economies (then considered illiberal). market in tax-evasion serves it sympathies), liberal (seducing postcommunistmarkets for stepping-stone adequate an or capitalism of survival a either as considered thus undersocialism, theinformal economy niche wasindividualfora entrepreneurship and while that is ambiguity the regimes: capitalist and socialist in both exist economies 29 1965-1995 2007. Gilles. Favarel-Garrigues, by

Foucault, Michel. 1994. Michel. Foucault, Grossman, Gregory. 1985. 1985. Gregory. Grossman, 28 . . Paris: CNRS éditions. CNRS . Paris: Dits et écrits: 1954-1988 illegalism A tonsorial view of the Soviettonsorialsecondthe economyA of view Lapolice des moeurs économiques, del'URSS Russie, la à , in other words the domainother“elasticity”wordslegalthe of in , . Paris: Editions Gallimard.Editions .Paris: . [S.l.: s.n. quoted s.n. [S.l.: . 25 29 .

CEU eTD Collection exchange 32 4.101:ofSociology, Journal 31 change in the postsocialist world 30 inaccessible woulddoctorwhobe through officialservicechannelswould expect buta help each other out but expect reciprocity: one can arrange a consultation with a reliable networks these of Partakers altruistic. not is Blat network. the of efficacy the sustain to simply proceedingsor legal of fear for either entry: to barriers maintain to interest insiders’ in is it while network a such into entry gain to interest outsider’s the in is it employmentopportunities). as Paradoxically,information(such to access and services these to access secure to was issue vital most the rose, symmetrically healthcare or resourcesthe thestatesof shrank while barriersthe socialto services educationsuchas Polishcounterpart networks social stable relatively on relying services of exchange monetary flourished: practices informalconditions, these Under therefore and currencies hindered savings, consumption of and investment. value face the eroded inflation while market, labour Unemployment being endemicafter privatisation, little help couldbe expected from the population to cope with the hardships of liberalisation: communist practicesnot only survived but they wereessential for large segments of the “fuzzy” ownership property of “recombinant” forms new termed sociologists and them. Anthropologists fuse to managed seemingly privatisation by about brought transformations Buchowski, E. Conte, C. Nagengast eds. Freiburg: Universitätsverlag: 259-279.Universitätsverlag: Nagengast Freiburg: eds. C. E. Conte, Buchowski, In Enterprise. Socialist 33 Dunn, Elisabeth. 2001. Carrots, Class and Capitalism: Employee Management in a Post- a in Management Employee Capitalism: and Class Carrots, 2001. Elisabeth. Dunn, American Capitalism," European East in Property “Recombinant 1996. David. Stark, uao,Mcal n ahrn edr.19.1999. Verdery. Katherine and Michael, Burawoy, eeea ln .19.1998. V. Alena Ledeneva, . Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.University New UK; York, USA: Cambridge NY, . Cambridge, znajomosci Poland Beyond Communism. “Transition” in Critical PerspectiveCommunism.CriticalBeyondPoland “Transition” in 31 n prle o te futain o rpry rgt, late rights, property of fluctuation the to parallel In . Russia's economy of favours: blat, networking, and informal and networking, blat, favours: of economy Russia's . Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. & .Lanham: Rowman 33 gained a new topicalitynewreliable, moneygainednot wasa as and Uncertain transition: ethnographies of ethnographies transition: Uncertain blat , the Russian term for non- for term Russian the , 32 or its or 30 . M. . or 26

CEU eTD Collection eoitn eirct rm te Mdl gs t h 1990s the 35 to Ages Middle Press. New York: Macmillan Hampshire, the from reciprocity negotiating 34 toessential also networkswere blat second,officials,administrationspolice, local and proceedings, legal to thereforeentrepreneur an strong interest engagingsolidarityfora had in networks with vulnerable was everyone upon relied be couldn’t property post-communistnormslegalwhenof era an capitalismfactors:main twoin because of not criminalof underworld:were the birthrestricted very networksto theblatessential were for practices These networks. identical or similar on rely they for blat with otherinformal practices black-marketingsuch as smugglingand havetightconnections particular.Moreover,Transcarpathia in and Republics,UkraineSoviet former most as connections), kin multiethnicespeciallysuch statesor in family of degree(involving a nepotismfromdistinguish blat to pressed hard be would networksone finally,neither, amongblatinformationrare services or not accesswasto money paymentfor hand, in corruptionboundariesand administration betweenblurring blat the thus official an to) close (or of part were they because so did offer to something had who individuals the cases most In nepotism: corruptionand bribery, blat, as such practices demarcate and categorise naturallyto problematic same) very indeed the is to It informality. amounts encouraged which inflation, of effect the rather (or money transformation the along went that cohesion social of loss the for compensating solidarity, and trust networksalso of are thesecertainway, a marketin capital.socialYet, efficientto way an is blat sense, this in to, access have they resources and services the with trades administrativelocalpreferential return,a as such access in body. to Everyone involved prtoal eie s te mss f etutd pwr fr piae gi” Source: gain”. private for power entrusted of 2009, 15:20. misuse the http://www.transparency.org/news_room/faq/corruption_faq#faqcorr1 as defined is “Corruption operationally definition: International’s Transparency example for See vague. formidably We shall refrain from a normative definition of corruption since these are in most cases most in are these since corruption of definition normative a from refrain shall We 2000. Rogachevski. B. A. Ledeneva, V. Alena Stephen, Lovell, 34 . The blurred boundaries between property rights and the shortage of shortage the and rights property between boundaries blurred The . onmls Basingstoke, Houndmills, . Briberyand blatRussia: in cesd Jnay 13 January accessed , 35 , on the other the on , 27

CEU eTD Collection 38 n°17. politiques, CERI-Sciences du électronique collection Recherche, de Questions Informality)», 37 общественный научный фонд. Портного. М.А. ред. издержек, трансакционных 36 (non- cases both in is assumption The formulated. is “informality” which against “formality” the questioning worth is it fashion, similar a In measured. is corruption) legitimacy of standards moral normative setting by bureaucracy its with interaction everyday through particular in nation-state state the to relation normalised a construct to attempt an reflects discourse corruption itself, in other words, the problematisation of corruption by media and public constitutiveof part a “corruption is the talk” that findingis major general. Indeed,one in space public and state the to relation the about were corruption of issues telling first it identified the symbolic power of corruption narratives, second it highlighted how semanticcorruptionproximityinformality: the with concept becauseof engagedof the that literature anthropological critical the at look to instructive is it regard, this In boundaries of legal and illegal, legitimate and illegitimate, public and private. notion very the with consubstantial Forsome, there animmanent is impossibility tosemantically capture informality thatis other illegitimate and illegal activities. boundarieswithporous share scrutiny under practices various the since becomes term information of channels routinised of absence the in together suppliers and investors information, bring amass of Western bureaucracy 39 Perspectives Herzfeld, Michael. 1993. 1993. Michael. Herzfeld, In Corruption. of State the Narrating 2005. Akhil. Gupta, « 2006. Myriam. Désert, аскв, СЮ 00 2000 С.Ю. Барсукова, . C. Shore and P. Haller eds. London, Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto eds. Press. MI: London, Shoreand Ann Arbor, P. Haller . C. " . Chicago: University of Chicago of Press. Chicago University . Chicago: еи Нуня прпкиа, впс V. М: Московский М.: XVI. выпуск перспектива”, “Научная Серия 36 . The deeper one digs into informality, the more evasive the evasive more the informality, into digs one deeper The . The social productionof indifference: exploringthe symbolic roots " Проблемы, успехи и трудностипереходнойэкономики и Проблемы,успехи еомлня патк осйкг инс зеркале в бизнеса российского практика Неформальная

e dbt rse sr l’informel sur russe débat Le 37 nomlt s aot wa apn t the at happens what about is Informality . 39 gis hc eine (n ti case this (in deviance which against Corruption. Anthropological Corruption.

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CEU eTD Collection 41 40 odds,all shallwe attemptkeep to theterm with these precautions mind:in thenotion if postcommunistAgainstsocieties. in particularly salient as networks social and capital everyone knowsmisleading. is Atthe sametime, it alsoidentifies the complexof social it criminality, and supposes a Manichean sociability interpretation of the world in between modernist terms which pretty much gap the bridges dangerously it of series practices, large extremely an covers it vague, too is it it: with bear to difficult is it Eastern Europe? The existing literature pinpoints so many weaknesses in the notion that in informality to approach anthropological the from learnt be to is what end, the In hand and far fuzzier empirical interactions on the other one the on spheres private and political public, normalised of world ideal an between prosperous discrepancy the most overlook to pretending the for “West” in the criticising thus were capitalisms, relations economic informal entrenched deeply how demonstrate to sought who scholar a many by embraced vividly was criticism this surprise, nobody’s To paradigm. teleological and orientialising an of part then is (ortheSouth) naturalhas a preference forinformality, unlike thelegal-rational West: it Therefore, practices. rooted East the deeply that granted for takes it when ideological bias an informalityinherentlybears with compromise to had – Europe Eastern of case the in communism modernisation– of form degenerated a where countries in societiesrural of remnantarchaic anti-modern, an perceivedas informality contrast, is By large. at project) a (as modernity and rationality, of ideal Weberian the with do subjectsinstitutionalisedbetweeninteraction and legalised codified, routinised, to superiority (legitimate) moral a is there that formality) and corruption MI: Pluto Press.Pluto MI: PerspectivesAnthropologicalCorruption. MacLennan, Carol. 2005. Corruption in Corporate America: Enron – Before and After. In After. and Before – Enron America: Corporate in Corruption 2005. Carol. MacLennan, Sage Inc.Publications Informality 2000.Rules: Jozsef. Böröcz, . C. Shore and P. Haller eds. London, Ann Arbor, Ann London, eds. Haller P. and Shore C. . 41 . 40 that has a lot to lot a has that 29

CEU eTD Collection dramatise this contradiction: social science has been aware of its own limitations yet limitations own to its of aware need been has science social no contradiction: this dramatise arguably is There objectification. of limitations very the objectify to language, own its with modernity deficienciesof the formulate to paradoxicalattempt a is it sense, this In categories. those between in happen that practices and exchanges capture to aims that concept a precisely is Informality porositycategories. scientific between the grasp to difficult fundamentally it make classification of hierarchies the doto with theunderlying assumptions that inform scientific enquiry thein modern age: The problems encountered in the very attempt to define economic informality have a lot From Boundaries Back to Transactions its of spite in interest of devoid shortcomings. not is informality that now for posit simply will We standards. own their nonetheless by focus our attention on particular them practices which we will discuss judge later, let us to appropriate seems it topic) the issue of informalityas problematic (Russia wasthe epicentre of scientificdiscussion on the raised themselves and ideal-type, legal-rational the embraced societies European Eastern alternativeas still it, to normativebias have well may It of capital. socialresources,namely exploitation the favoured countries communist in capital domestic of lack the that clear also is it specific,Easternconsidered an be to not is it If 1990’s. the in liberalisation following instability legal general the of because second 1970’s, the after countries communist in statism and property private of marriage uneasy the ofbecause first – EuropeEastern extraordinarilyin effect fluid in been have practices economic illegal and legal between boundaries because so is it vague semantically is 42 capable to produce intelligible discourse even about these

Latour. Bruno. 2007.Bruno. Latour. disciplinarisation f kolde ad te gnrl psin fr tplge and typologies for passion general the and knowledge of Changer de société. Refaire de la sociologie 42 . It becomes very clear if one . Paris: La La .Paris:Découverte. 30

CEU eTD Collection the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Theory ofNationalism 44 Press. University Harvard Mass.: categorising and objectifying norms 43 of productions symbolic and political legal, of coexistence the of paradox apparent the with concerned basically is nationalism and ethnicity of notions the around done work the of much that say to exaggerate inextricably belonging, of intertwined narratives withthe emergence ofmodern states in Europe essentialist produced historical that the as well contingencies as Nuer) the of think to enough is (it categorisation ethnic other hand, social sciences have also successfully demonstrated the empirical fluidity of self-understandingethnic of terms geographyin define to attempt an always citizenship cannot be divorced from geography because, as Kaiser puts it, nationalism is consequences political tangible very with inclusion identification,andlegal its correlate, citizenship, aresemantic constructs ofclosure and theorising is that anthropology, liminality economic for problem a as identified we What problematic of non-institutionalisedthe economies link with ethnicity and territory.to us allows it informality: to relation in benefit with used be can enquiry of object an boundaryas that believe we but sciencesocial in notion comprehensive the genealogyof a draw to frameworks present the exceed fundamentally would It looks at cognate and slightly less exotic terms, such as “boundary”. nationalism 45 Routledge. Londres: « 2002. Robert. Kaiser, Anderson, Benedict R. 1991. 1991. R. Benedict Anderson, Brubaker, Rogers. 1992. 1992. Rogers. Brubaker, , is all the more common to the student of ethnicity and geography. Ethnic geography. and ethnicity of student the to common more the all is , . London; NewYork:Verso. . London;

Homeland making and territorialization and making Homeland Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany and France nationhoodin and Citizenship Imaginedcommunities: reflections onthe origin and spreadof 43 . What is more, ethnicity and ethnicity more, is What . 45 . Inshort,. it wouldn’t seem

», In In », . Daniele Conversi ed. Conversi Daniele . Ethnonationalismin . Cambridge, . 44 . On the On . 31

CEU eTD Collection 48 Press. University Princeton Princeton: 47 Press.California of University Berkeley: complex develops landscapes, and 46 cities reshapes states, other with draws state frontiers the effective: be to circumscribed spatially be to has relations power of institutionalisation An coordinates. geographic within place takes always citizens its control to state the by attempt the nationalism: of component geographical the Boundaries are tightlytied with ethnicityfor another reason,abovementioned, as that is imposing in of social life. state the of spheresprivate and identification, public of references existing and imposed role subjects, the on focusing ethnicity/nationalism works other to agenda this adapt may We omnipresent. are interfaces while differences group legitimising for created myth a authenticityis cultural of core the created: communityis imagined an negotiation, and opposition through where, loci the precisely are groups various understanding Barth’s In boundaries: with phenomenon and the variationsnationalist of ethnicity as a category for self-understandingthe are tied of study the Therefore, interactions. social existing of material raw of relations the upon discipline power and meaning impose to attempt institutionalised state) the (embodiedin modernity the and language the how about is question RégimeAncien the in torn between the nascent states of France and Spain subjects along with empirical evidencetestifying of the subject’s fluidity: beit Catalans 49 Difference 1969. Fredrik. Barth, Gellner, Ernest. 2006. Ernest. Gellner, Brubaker, Rogers. 2006. 2006. Rogers. Brubaker, aln, Ptr 99 1989. Peter. Sahlins, . London: Allen & Unwin.. London: Allen 49 46 if weif understand boundaries alsointerfaces as between state and Nations and nationalism Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture of Organization Social The Boundaries: and Groups Ethnic or Hungarian minorities in contemporaryHungarian minoritiesRomaniain or onais h aig o rne ad San i h Pyrenees the in Spain and France of making the Boundaries: Nationalistpolitics and everyday ethnicityin a Transylvaniantown 48 . Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.Blackwell MA: . Malden, , boundaries, that is interfaces between interfaces is that boundaries, , 47 , the basic the , 32 . .

CEU eTD Collection Press. ethnicity,and languagein national census 52 1977-1978 France, 51 de Collège the Macmillan. New York: Palgrave Hampshire; at lectures population: 50 moralities of economic exchange is to turn to the notions of trust and moralities. circulationbetweencategories circulationand betweenethnic problems of the connect to way useful A about. brought modernity negotiations and transactions tensions, the relationsbetween categories shaped state,bythethey also question leastathighlight or power and legitimacy transgression, with concerned both are they Because norms. trespassingthe boundaries of between private/public spheres andlegitimate/illegitimate aboutinterrogation an common in share they problems: epistemological similar pose ethnicity/nationalism literatureof economiesinformal the and that is suggest we What administrative territorialisation of the communities thus created censuses in markersethnic bureaucraticascriptionof complexity the through of level remarkable the a because there reached USSR typologies territorial former and the ethnic of in hierarchies salient especially is state the of activity This them along the same geographic references as the ones legitimised by the state. community territorialising by space collective of memory interpretation symbolic the over monopoly a claims space remodelling by citizens the monitoring for surveillance of technologies territoire. Le cas du système politique soviétique et soviétique russeet du politique cas système Le territoire. 53 Blum, Alain and Filippova, Elena, 2006. « 2006. Elena, Filippova, and Alain Blum, (ed).1984. Pierre Nora, ete,DvdI,adDmnqeAe.20.2002. Arel. Dominique and I., David Kertzer, ocut ihl ihlSnlat n rodIaDvdo.20.2007. Davidson. Ira Arnold and Senellart, Michel Michel, Foucault, ofsubjects who conceive ofanexisting bond proper:in – society between– 51 . When efficient, this exhausting work produces in fact an Les lieux de mémoire . Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Cambridge NewYork: UK; Cambridge, .

Territorialisation de l’ethnicité, ethnicisation du ethnicisation l’ethnicité, de Territorialisation . Paris: Gallimard..Paris: Census and identity: the politics of race, of politics the identity: and Census

», Espace onmls Basingstoke, Houndmills, .

géographique 53 . Security, territory, Security, 35 52 imagined

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CEU eTD Collection charge to define relationships between ethnic groups: territorial autonomy was a key a was autonomy territorial groups: ethnic between relationships define to charge in put was apparatus legal and taxonomy complex a consequence, a As jurisdiction. Soviet of subjects collective legal as nationalities of recognition the through vanish would ethnicity of legitimacy entire the time with that hoped and claims nationalist undermine to resolved Moscow matter, to continued ethnicity their citizens, Soviet relevant ethnicitycategorymosta Marxistfor for simplethat as in politicsfactthe and legitimacyideological of lack the between Torn Russians. ethnic considered not were differentpeopleswho the with found be arrangementto of was sovereignty, sort some maintainterritorial to order in immensemulticulturaland Russia,Tsarist countryfrom an inherited USSR the view, of point pragmatic a From struggles. and interests class Marxiststobeanartificial and ephemeral movementopposedas to“real” yet fetishised considerednationalistbymobilisation was and classesworking the reasons: exploitationof the main two for claims nationalist ideologically,nationalethnic or groups undermining wereconsideredbourgeois a be cover-up to for in interest vital a had markers.ethnicSovietstate TheUSSRas the in institutionsStatecentralrole playeda Censuses and state categories contrary, trust and moral norms are at the core of our enquiry. solidaritiestrustanddepend the on establish, groupsto able arethe damp sustain on or networks inter-ethnic and intra- because with, markets and state the invest people trust of nature and degree the by informed are economy of moralities the Because administrative statuses of Soviet territories reflected the official recognition or the or recognition official the reflected territories Soviet of statuses administrative element inrecognising a nationality’s relativeweight in relation toanother. The various Insititutionalising ethnicityInsititutionalising 34

CEU eTD Collection 55 1992. Understanding Theoretical 54 proximity cultural Ruthenians’ the by legitimated was Transcarpathia Czechoslovakof annexation the sense: perfect makes testimony this context, historical a in Put at the time, we only became Ukrainians when the Russians came in later No actually,wereUkrainians, we not wereCzechs. Ruthenians,we Greek-Catholicyes Ruthenians the under was It “Ukrainian”. write to had they yet and Hungarians Greek-Catholic but one no was there schoolUkrainians. At were they say to had they Szolos,everybodywhereraion of coming the Hungarian fromam was I butme, for As censuses. This translates into absurd family trajectories: ethnic own their of legitimacy the used always Transcarpathia occupied successively that countries different the Thus, War. World First the after sovereignty political of especiallyEasternEurope, in whereethnic self-determination becameformalclaim the bureaucraticcensusesmereneverservedgeopoliticalalways were they tools: interests, 20 ethnicisation of techniques Different sovereignty. of attributes without regions administrative colour-blind were oblasts while territory nationality’sanother withinminorities specific to autonomousrightsrepublics granted states, potential be to considered were that entities political with hierarchy this of categoryethniccertain a of denialofficial 56 Identities Contested State, E., female Hungarian Greek-Catholic, 82 years, Beregovo Greek-Catholic, Hungarian female E., « Dominique, Arel, « V., David Waller, th century but censuses and schooling may be the most prominent of all. Ethnic all. of prominent most the be may schooling and censuses but century

Ethnic Mobilization and Geopolitics in the Soviet Union: Towards a Towards Union: Soviet the in Geopolitics and Mobilization Ethnic Demography Politics in the First Post-Soviet Censuses: Mistrusted Censuses: Post-Soviet First the in Politics Demography

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», in in », Population Journal of Political and Military and Political of Journal 55 , 16(6), November-December 2002. ,16(6), November-December were put in place in Transcarpathia during the during Transcarpathia in place in put were 54 . Soviet Socialist Republics were at the top the SocialistRepublicsat Sovietwere .

Sociology , vol.20, Summer vol.20, , 56 . 35

CEU eTD Collection case) exerts the heaviest control (physical, biological and intellectual) on individuals. on intellectual) and biological (physical, control heaviest the exerts case) this in state socialist the (and state the where locus the specifically is system school for principle a idealisedstandpoint, less the a from hand, other the common elaboratingOn good. the as identification class dominates ethnicity where space political between communities, so that, in the context of a socialist regime, they allegedly offer a barriers institutional set and difference ethnic naturalise they is, self- ethnic that identification, of reification the for space a propose they hand one the on role: dual establishingforrole ethnic markers vital a played schools regions, multinational in especially apparatus, an such Within Schooling into ethnicity ethno-cultural and linguistic grounds. but religious on not time this Ukrainian, of that with fused was category Ruthenian the as 1946 after Ukrainian considered being their in concluded logically Ruthenian as them categorised state Czechoslovak the that fact the family Hungarian this for case,this in taxonomiesthat ownUSSR,imposed their so the later and war duringthe Hungary fascist countries, occupying the enough, complex wasn’t situation the if where “allRuthenians areGreek Catholics and allGreek Catholics are Ruthenians”. As logic syllogistic a of virtue by entire category different a an into forced Catholics, be could community Roman or Calvinists Hungarians and majority in Catholics Greek are Ruthenians as Ruthenian: state-ascribed to Hungarian self-identified from religious boundaries wereporous used in this case by the authoritiesthat to shift the ethnic categorynotice to interesting is It 1938. and 1920 between numbers Ruthenian exaggerating in interest an had Prague that so Czechs), therefore (and Slovaks with years after Ukrainian independence) kialalkulasanakelsô évtizedében (The Situation Hungarianof education Transcarpathia,in ten 57 rs,Idk,20.2005. Ildiko, Orosz, A Magyar nyelvu oktatas helyzete Karpataljan az ukran allamisag ukran az Karpataljan helyzete oktatas nyelvu Magyar A , Ungvar: Poliprint., Ungvar: 57 . Theparadox ethnic. of schools theythathave a is 36

CEU eTD Collection insecure about their right place of belonging and the reificationprocess throughthe belongingwhich and of place right theirinsecure about individualsmarriages, mixed between blatant is contradiction the notice, may one As that it could be otherwise Hungarian. little Actually,true Ihave always considered myselfa tobe Hungarian andit never became occurred tome I how is That Hungarian. in educated be to had the question,I that of out was it Ukrainianmothersaidschool. a My myin me put parents to in convince to was tried I teacher the When origins, Ruthenian way. my other of because no kindergarten, was there kids, other the with Hungarian speak to had I Hungarian. 98% was village our as especially me, on influence huge a had family mother’s my think I Calvinist. a side mother’s my Greek-Catholic, from a am I side, father’s my From Hungarian. as me perceived they different: was it me Ruthenianneighbours,Hungarian.forremainedthe but Forhea a as up grew of sort he thus and Hungariancontext a in up grew already father my but family,Ruthenian name Hungarian typically a have I know, you ironic.As Hungarianrather is primaryschool,a which schooled in was I and half-Hungarian family: Ruthenian)half-Ukrainian(actually a into born was who old years 49 L., of case the identificationthroughplacethis which processtook in ways the on look a have us Let classrooms. the in happened that everythingcontrol to considerable effort a displayed state the for position state’s the legitimated actually apparatus “multicultural” this communitiesthat Sovietsoera, wereallegedly sustain to themselves,free other,the on the duringchildren their for school particularethnic a choose to free left were parents individuals’dualityreflectsThis in trajectories lifeTranscarpathia: in hand,one the on 59 58 L., male Hungarian, 25 years old, 25 old, Beregovo years Hungarian, male L., in fact Ukrainian name has a He typically 59 . 58 (laughs): on my father’s side, we come from a from come we side, father’s my on (laughs): 37

CEU eTD Collection ors önéé. flôTsavdk mgao aynev-kaai eyee g kutatas egy keretében helyzete anyanyelvi-oktatasi magyarok felsô-Tisza-vidéki A környékén. Forras 60 educationprovided theonly common placewhere thisminority language was tolerated. affordedthestatus official of language throughoutthecommunist apartperiod, that so public community the setting for role vital a played schools Hungarian language, upon hinges primarily self-identification ethnic Hungarian For state was being captive to the “nationalities issue”. owntheirspecificities. counter-intuitive Thisis oftenthought centralis the that sinceit Ukrainians and Hungarians) were actually dependent on the state for the perpetuation of contrary to popular belief, the various ethnic communities of the USSR (here Ruthenian that mention to worth also be may it perspective, broader a From disciplinarisation. of techniques through fabricated but birth predeterminedby not is it that and evident communitynothingtheir self-that has fact the representations,these awareof well are espouse who ones the individuals,boundaries,even sharpthe with familiesorganic as ethnic this arenot that important: although these imagined ethniccommunities accomplishing think ofthemselves of duty a categorisation has process erasingby uncertainties.all paradoxical is It bloodthat andbirth system education public the other, specificascribing ethnicitychildrentheirdecidinga by to about theirschooling, the on of choice free relatively a have families hand, one the On it. change to impossible thisdoesn’t changethefact that theprocess successful, is and once place,in becomesit process:the penultimate sentence belies even sensea ofcritical irony in this regard, yet excerpt,itis also obvious that theindividuals are well awareof narratives the ethnicityfabrication essentialist with replaced and deconstructed is insecurity this anyanyelvi-oktatasi helyzete egy kutatas tükrében 61 rs, Idk, Ildiko, Orosz, Istvan, Csernicsko,

, sous la direction de Orosz, Ildiko, Poliprint, 2007.Ungvar,Orosz, Poliprint, direction Ildiko, de ,sousla ayrk a Tzafra önéé. A flôTsavdk magyarok felsô-Tisza-vidéki A környékén. Tizsa-forras a Magyarok

«

Az ukrajnai kisebbségek és a nyelvi oktatas nyelvi a és kisebbségek ukrajnai Az , Poliprint, Ungvar, 2007.Ungvar, , Poliprint, 61

», in in », Hnain a not was Hungarian : Magyarok a Tisza- Magyaroka 60 n this In . 38

CEU eTD Collection think they wouldn’t have enough time to be Hungarians I (…) Hungarianculture of basics assimilatethe to time the have even don’t children mean, I solution. good a not is schools Hungarian in classes Ukrainian to dedicated time of amount the Increasing issue. this solve to Ukrainianstate the of duty the is it Ukrainophones of lack the amongthat problem,Hungarianstrue real but is a poses It Beregovo Raion said: theirinterests and shape their strategies.As B., 58 years old,Head of the Councilof the calculatecommunities and individuals which to according rationality the is this since us to concern little of is erroneous be representationmay this that fact The mobility. social and assimilation between is Hungarians the for choice the brief, In ethnicity. Hungarian their abandoning to tantamount perceived was USSR) the under Russian effort Hungariana family had(has) putto into educating their children Ukrainianin (or languageand therefore oftheir ethnicity was alwaysperceived zero-sum a as game: the assimilate.to TheHungarians faced anentirely different issue: preservationthe theirof proximity of Ruthenian and Ukrainian languages (even Russian) made it easier for them officialcategoriesrecognition grantedof werenot1946objectiveaftersort any the but Ruthenians,although absolutelythe groups:forgottenethnic by various differently the in Barth’sup sense. Theproblem ethnicity/language, of schooling set andsocialmobility affects are boundaries where loci the precisely today are still and communism, betweensocial mobility and thepreservation ofethnic boundaries. Schools were during Thisled toa crucial dilemma for most families, one that endures until today: thechoice 62 B., male Hungarian 58 years old, Beregovo years 58 old, male Hungarian B., 62 . 39

CEU eTD Collection their children in the institutions which will enable their children the greatest social greatest the children their enable will which institutions the in children their schooling in interest an has household a level, individual the At calculation. interest and strategies collective and individual between here tension a is there believe We do so, they probably expect some kind of compensation. to choose nonetheless they perspectives.If professional and academic children’s their severethey that Hungarianaware elementaryare a theyschools, to childrentheir send to choose they when that so problem, this know parents that remains It schools. these in staff teaching Ukrainophone trained and infrastructure basic the providing not for and elites Ukrainianstate political administration (both attheoblast and nationallevel) point Hungarian each to other local divisive: highly is responsibility of question The society. Ukrainian broader within children Hungarian of integration the impeach production of symbolic or cultural boundaries here: quitethe concretely, Hungarianabout schools speaking only not are we that so 18, of age the by Ukrainian elementary master don’t usually institutions such in schooled children Hungarian that mentioned often interviewees quality: bad very of is schools Hungarian in language Ukrainian language national the of the teaching to allocated time the on contingent as understood is boundaries of production the frontiers.Here, of set a perpetuation of the to down boiled be community can a of production boundary betweenonlyempiricalthe ethnicsocialgroups divisions, reality is of perpetuation the and fictional are communities if for context this in relevant highly is position Barth’s that think we Again, community. ethnic the perpetuate to The last sentence captures the acuteness of the problem: for locals, there is a moral duty Strategies of compliance and exit 1995. 63 Urciuoli, Bonnie, « Bonnie, Urciuoli,

Language and Borders and Language 63 ht i aaoia s ta h dcto of education the that is paradoxical is What .

,», Annual Review of Anthropology of Review Annual , vol. 24, vol. , 40

CEU eTD Collection Zakarpatska oblast Beregovo Raion Uzhgorod Municipality Uzhgorod Raion pupils, we discover a foreseeable correlation: schooled all among pupils Hungarian of ratio the and municipalitiesTranscarpathian in Hungarians of ratio the between extremely comparison a is to proceed we education if yet Hungarian fragmented, about data statistical available The funding. substantialclaiming for legitimacy certain a maintain to able are Budapest by funded all NGOs and parties political Hungarian journals, Hungarian regional Beregovo, of University Hungarian Rakoczi Ferenc II. the as such institutions educational that Hungarian strongcollectivethe therefore,maintenancestate,funded by means a the of heavily is minority Hungarian the to dedicated apparatus institutional the interests: symbolic about just not is This self. own ethnic its sustaining in the interest an contrary, has community the on level collective the At schools. Ukrainian to children mobility: in the case of the Hungarians this means there is a rationality for sending their Municipality/Administrative Region

9,68 63,1 0,98 32,7 % of children schooled elementary schools in Hungarian

12,1 76,1 6,9 33,4 Hungarian Population in % 41

CEU eTD Collection 64 game where linguistic assimilation necessarily implies giving up one’s own ethnicity. duality existsbecause the Hungariansconceptualise the problem in termsofzero-sum a community.This his to traitor a as systematically seen is one out, opting by strong: is individualan on actuallyareasbasis,whereheavyethnic costin do theminority beara of efficientHungarians strategies,morealthough exit that fact the to alludedthe Transcarpathia and face problems the of picture superficial a sketched far so have We verify this hypothesis but it seems highly plausible. to data sufficient have not do We stronger. be may minority the protect to incentive the danger, in not is community ethnic the where hand, other the On endangered. already is community the of survival the where areas in strategies mobility social predominance a individual of to partly least at backdiscrepancytraced this be that can posit We expectablefigures. the under-representedbelow are Hungarian well children community, sizeable a represent don’t Hungarians where areas in contrary, the On of goal collective strategies. the mobility) (social exit individual out majority, rule to seems preservationcommunity the represent Hungarians where areas in city: Hungarianfeebletheoverallpopulation in the to linked Uzhgorodbe may schooledin children Hungarian of rate low extremely the strategies: individual and Uzhgorod collective the for between goals differentiated about telling except still be may Hungarians) exception This Municipality. among rates fertility weak extremely the account into taking (especially striking is ratios two the between correlation the yet data, this of basis the comparisonin-depth on an to proceedcannot Obviously, we Table 2. Hungarian elementary school attendance ésalls s npogli aao tükrében adatok népmozgalmi Tankönyv- és Taneszköztanácsa. Pedagógusszövetség és népszamlalasi a Based on Molnar, Jozsef and Molnar, D. Istvan, Istvan, D. andMolnar, Jozsef Molnar, on Based 2005. 2005. , eesáz áptla Magyar Kárpátaljai A Beregszász: 64 Karpatalja népességeés magyarsaga 42

CEU eTD Collection Hungarian town, it was quite normal for me to speak Hungarian with whoever. (…) I (…) whoever.Hungarian with speak to me for normal quite was it Hungariantown, a remains still Beregovo because and ladies old the with Hungarian speaking up grew I since and mother my Ukrainian with or togetherRussian speak to normal was it home, at us for but well, as Ukrainianschool the to went later I (…) factory. radio taughtEnglish at theUkrainian primary school no. 5and my father used towork at the mother My to. time have didn’tparents my when me afterlooking were they and war, this in the expropriatedcountesses after lived were They Hungarianladies. two we kommunalkawith child, a was I when But Ukrainian. as myself of thought always I Beregovo. in here up grew I Russian. is father my and Ruthenian is mother My The same problems do not affect Ruthenians, I., 35 years old: entry.extremelybarriers comparedto high are to exit microcosmbarriers to wherethe ethnic isolated linguistically this of part becomes he/she but, isHungarian, a representation, as and identified self-identifies this one reify once background, that ethnocultural institutions one’s notwithstanding and strategies the to pointed doesn’t It mean thatanything suchHungarian a as ethnic purityexists: wehave already Ukraine but I know Budapest well in elsewhere been never have I Hungary, from news the get I TV, their watch never totally I language, the am speak don’t I I Ukrainian: feel say I should why to Anyway, (…) Hungarian proud am I therefore school, Hungarian a in educated was I Hungarian, are friends My environment.Hungarian totally a totally in family, Hungarian a in village, Hungarian totally a in Transcarpathia in 1984 in born was I Hungarian pupils and students. As L., 25 years, young professional states: of isolation political and cultural linguistic, complete a into translate problems These 65 L., male Hungarian, 25 years old, 25 old, Beregovo years Hungarian, male L., 65 . 43

CEU eTD Collection scholarship for studying economics in Hungary but I had to come back on weekends, a on back come to had got I but Hungary economicsin studying I scholarshipfor Later, brotherhood? transfrontier the for not if anyway, here come have would else who tourists: Hungarian with mainly worked that agencies tourist local for guide a as work to started he Later, cigarettes. sell to weekends on Hungary to went worthless,we wassalary so 1990’s, his the in back teacher,but a wasfather My testifies: I. As market. labour Ukrainian the into integration of chances their upon effect direct a has Hungarians the of isolation linguistic the perspectives,professional of terms In the community. leavingradicalremainingdilemmaentirelyarrangements, the of or withfaced are they find to trying they were and community, their within remain to Hungarians on heavy extremely are constraints the ethnicity, Hungarian of realm the enter reasons various for may Ruthenians while world social their of isolation the but apart them sets that necessarilySlaviclanguages.not Hungarians’is imbalanceobvious:The it is language major the to regards with isolation linguistic sustained) least at or self-imposed (a shift relativelyeasilyfromRussianUkrainian to and Hungarian speak do Hungarian is majority the where border the Hungarian to next margins km 20 the within living Ruthenian-Ukrainians or Ruthenians that noticed frequently I conversations,informal in testimony: isolated an not is This don’t understand why Hungarians can’t speak the language: they live here after all 67 66 See Appendix 3.Appendix Table See 35 old, Beregovo Ukrainian, years I., male the example of the Hungarian labourmarket the Hungarian example of the The ethnicisation of market relations: of market ethnicisation The 67 . On the contrary,the OnHungarians suffer. from 66 . 44

CEU eTD Collection Finding refuge in ethnicity doubled: it went from 27% for the 1994/95 scholar year to 40% in 1996/97 16, schooled inaHungarian institution, who did not pursuesecondary education almost For force. proportionBeregovopupilsaged1997,the between the raion, of instance, and1994 in labour unskilled as working or Transcarpathia of sectors professional Hungarianspecifically young the into integration either of paths: two trajectories follow may Hungarians the Ukrainian, speaking Without Ukrainian. of command elementary an with them provide doesn’t system education minority Hungarian the beingsegregated against, becausenot Ukrainianthe labour marketracist butbecause is Hungariansyoungare fact, In market. job the upongeneration’s positionmarginal his community’s his and of aware is he that shows“normal” jobs to refers I. that fact The Ukrainians for setting up a business or getting a normal job setting a where everybody Hungarianelse is well:assimply we can’t compete withthe onlyhire you ifyou speak Ukrainian.For people likeme, thesolution isto finda jobin Beregszasz, you can’t find a job in the administration, in a bank or a shop because they in here, even And letters. Latin Ukrainianphoneticallywith wrote even we and heart foreignlanguages. remember, I understanddid we learnedwelittlethat so textstheby Hungarian in generationschoolsasRussianwhereUkrainiantaughtup were grewor now. (…) Hungarians above 30 all speak Russian as it was mandatory at school but my can’tcommute anymore, even if Iwanted to,Icouldn’t be lookingfor ajob in Hungary wouldhave muchcostso thatfamily my couldn’t afford Andnowit. with Schengen, we it program, MA an for but Hungary, in stay to wanted I well. as guide a as working 69 68 Beregovo years Hungarian, 26 old, I., male http://www.karpatok.uzhgorod.ua/karpatalja.html , accessed 10 December 2008. December , accessed 10 68 . 69 . 45

CEU eTD Collection Transcarpathia to visit the pass where Hungarians first entered the Carpathian Basin)Carpathian the entered first Hungarians where pass the to visit Transcarpathiato (going Budapest from tourists for tours organising agency tourist Hungarian a strategiesamongRutheniansmarketisation of language),headethnicity(the and the of professional similar about asked When them. segregate to everything does view their passive defensivesituationa as strategy oppressiveagainstan Ukrainian whichstatein HungariansTranscarpathia of conceptualiseacknowledgetheynever and fact theirthis the inasmuch ironic is This ethnicity. into shelter finding for state’sand coercion perceived the escaping for opportunity an offered the economy that market assert of can independence One people. of number substantial a to employment provide can language Hungarian of exploitation the where market niche a marketcreating ethnicity, to way efficient an is it that say to exaggerated isn’t it monopoly: a enjoy thebarrier to entry. As such, Hungarians created theirown protected marketwhere they marketwherejobplace owntheirHungarian politic, in put languageveryconcretely is body Ukrainian broader the from self-excluded) (or excluded isolated, linguistically Hungarians, the sense, certain a community.In the young of outside job a most get Hungariansto for impossibility the to reaction a primarily is this before, seen have businessesadministrations,and commandthe Hungarian of language wevital,but as is these For Transcarpathia. in graduates Hungarian of majority the employ they but trivial seem may professions These schools.elementary in teachersHungarian as part most for extraordinarilyworking over-represented staff educational the and functions, publications(from webzines printedto poetry), Roman HungarianCatholic andCalvinist religious numerous the bureaus, local countless with parties political Hungarian two the Hungary, from tourists recruit that Hungarians by run agencies tourist the What we call the Hungarian sector of the Transcarpathian labour market is composed of replied without cynicism: 46

CEU eTD Collection 70 of lack the about complain motivationamong youngHungarians. Theywere frequently picturedlazy, unwilling as constantly persons same very the that observed we occupythe most prominent positions within the community. Throughout our interviews whogrew upbefore andafter 1991 L. as Just those between generationalgap so. a exists aforementioned there quote, the in mentioned do to interests vested are there that though appears it closer inspection Upon community? the of survival the ethnic threaten impermeable necessarily such that boundaries maintaining in interest an have would who irrational: community’s counter-productiveappear own maysituation overall and the glance, first responsibility. At their with perspective in it put never they still, market, labour Young Ukrainian the limitless. integrate to inability not their by embittered are is L. as such politicians professionals and journalists operators, tourist teachers, Hungarian for demand local the logically, quite saturated, already is market labour thisstrategy doesn’t offer sufficient perspectives to youngergenerations: the Hungarian Hungariansmuchthethat problem so Thenot is pursue isolationist an strategy thatbut Generational fault lines and competition Ruthenian tourist business is fake, this is ethno-business, nothing more like this, they change theirnationality when suits it them. (…) would I say that thisnew are they Ruthenian,sometimes Ukrainian, be to pretend sometimes Ruthenians mean I ridiculous, really is This Ruthenian. only is Transcarpathia that demonstrating of aim the with touristsattracthere, to trying are they us, imitate to trying are they Now Budapest, 1998. Budapest, 71 Csernicsko, Istvan, Istvan, Csernicsko, Beregovo years Hungarian, 50 old, female S., A magyar nyelv Karpataljan nyelv magyar A 71 . In fact,In older . Hungarians now between 50and 60 , Osiris – MTA Kisebbségkutato Mûhely, Kisebbségkutato MTA – Osiris , 70 . 47

CEU eTD Collection years, editor in chief of a Hungarian journal, MP of the Transcarpathian Council (theTranscarpathianCouncil the of MP journal, Hungarian a of chief in editor years, even have to elaborate a hypothesis for the answer came during an interview with E., 49 didn’t we obvious, quite was explanation the although and surprising certainly was exclusion own their for young interviewees the blamedour among many that fact The behind a desk,hours they just don’t understandeight this is normal work to expected are they when Today, money. easy making frontier, the at trafficking fathers their saw they 1990s, the during up grew they anyway, And (…) me themselvesopportunities,excludeto thesesense from any doesn’tmake which they language, the speak don’t they since and schools Ukrainianspecialised to go to havewouldthey Hungarian but well no plumbers,electricians.pay jobs Theseno (…) Hungarian: a neverfind to suretechnician, be a can needyou whenyou And this. like properemploymentfind to seriouslyexpectunderstanddon’tUkrainian. they how I of seven monthsbefore Icould findsomebody. YoungHungarians just don’t speakaword wait to had I Hungarian. and Ukrainian in bilingual and diploma a with somebody for looking was I simple: was requirement The ad. an published I publication. our for journalist young a hire to wanted I year, Last here: crazy really is situation This told us: newspaper online Hungarian a of chief in exceptionaleditor 56, I. their example, for contentiousness, for puzzling were reactions these Sometimes work. or study to 72 I., male Hungarian, 48 years old, Beregovo years Hungarian, 48 old, I., male 72 . 48

CEU eTD Collection comfortable position: even if it is sometimes hard to conciliate our different roles in roles different our conciliate to hard sometimes is it if even position: comfortable rather a have generation, my mean I We, (…) vote. they who for check don’t I and party my join to colleagues my asked never I example, For difficult. is it if even line, tobe close to atleast one side. But wetry topreserve our independence inthe editorial whoelects delegates tothe Motherland Fund?The twoparties, therefore, everyone has And independent. economically be can’t We Budapest. in located Fund Motherland the and parties the on depend all we funding, further for So more. fabricate can’t weHungarianshere, 000 150 have we tiny: readershipis the mean subventions. I for Basically(…) entiresocietyHungarianthedependentciviltwo is the oneof on parties side.other the accurateinformation on the handhave first from I gossipsand just are thesebecause amusing it find often I Council, the in on going is what about journals other in articles read I newspaper:when the on influence good vey a had also it And journalistpolitician.first anythingbecamethe who a notcontradictory am I this:with Council of the oblast here in Uzhgorod. But anyway, in retrospect, I don’t think there is enteredthe I becameBeregovo’s and mayorhe list, his secondon was elections,I the power,but as wesay, onceyou rentyour ass…So Istayedafter the campaign. We won for looking wasn’t I (…) in. gave finally I times. five refused I staff. his of director wascampaigning he municipalthe for elections advisorhis askedbe andheto me 2006: changedin only Things (…) career. his attentionto special pay didn’t I favour, a for asked never I politician, a became he When friends. good been always have we school,from G. knewpolitician. I a be neverwantedto I here.work and stay choseto I dollars, 10 or 8 only was salary my when even and journalist a am I job, my love I Council of the oblast) and a prominent figure in one of the two Hungarian parties: different roles. (…) As a good friend of mine keeps on saying “Migration is a good a is “Migration saying on keeps mine of friend good a As (…) roles. different play all organisations, we civil various membershipin our journalismand in politics, 49

CEU eTD Collection aoiy ad te ol e icpbe o eln ih ay ofca Ukrainian official any with dealing of incapable be would they and majority in Ukrainian speak don’t these since neither rivals Hungarian qualified and young with compete to have don’t they other, the on economy), niche Hungarian the within located still are (they language Hungarian by competitors Ukrainian from protected are they hand, one the On monopoly. dual a by protected are they competition: of that, in spite of their relatively small number, the aging actors don’t suffer from any sort isolationyoung of Hungarians render them incapable competeto forthese positions, so cultural under-qualificationand endemic the but two rivals be actually these would generations market, labour the In to. exposed are the children from their suffer isolation don’t linguistic Ukrainian not if Russian least at learn of to forced situation were who classical a is generations older the This positions: of number limited charge. a for competition insider/outsider in already those for bad necessarily not is positions qualified parents’ their on take to inability generations’ young the the massive emigration flow which decimated the Hungarian community after 1991 and thequestion ofprofessional perspectives and distribution E.’s is last sentence. Ineffect, shallenduringseeandthe importance ofinformal relations. More directly connected to resilienceinterpersonal the majorreasonof for later a networks we interests. is Thisas factional differentresponsibilitiesadvancepersonalor their to use they and time same the at levels different on play actors since rule general the multipositionality Social is so that it is virtually meaningless to speak of an independent civil society. explainsextraordinary the it elitelocalconflationrolesamong political civilthe and of excerptdisplaysHungarianThis several dynamicshand,the one community: of the on thing, the more people leave, the more shit we have left to share”(laughs 73 administration.Theyconstitute bridgevitalthe between isolatedan community theand E., male Hungarian, 49 years old, 49 old, Uzhgorod years Hungarian, male E., 73 ). 50

CEU eTD Collection h ugra omnt n t eain t h dcto ytm i Hungarian in minority system schools numberbuta offacts must bementioned: thepolitical education mobilisation of the to relation its and community Hungarian the politicalsituationwithin the specificsof the on much elaborate too to wish not do We of projects vague territorial autonomy. and oblast Zakarpattia in language official an as Hungarian of recognition the toward demands politicaltend their so, do to allocatingfunds for Kiev lobbying or schools, Hungarian in even Ukrainian learn to children for arrangements new place in putting of instead Hungarian: in education of development the defend who ones the also are large, at community the to detrimentalevidently is which quo, statusexisting the vehement defendersof most the coincidence that a probablyisn’t It niche labour market are valid. ethnic a creating impermeable for ethnicity of potential marketable an the exploit to attempt their boundary, as Hungarian language institutionalise the to among efforts strategies their community, and behaviours dominant between parallels stress a Gellnerian Marxist theory of elite manipulation rationalistoffer a wishcaricatureto complexof social politicaland over- forces, to nor sustaindominant a position within specific a social world Becker’s in sense. Wedonot establishand corporate,to individual and actors, allows card ethnic the that remains it necessarily not is there where class-project conspiracya but or a is there seriously that thinknot coordination: do we agency imputes and reductionist somewhat is instrumental our that fact analysisesteemedthe marketableandawareof are roles.We accumulate further to them allows position oligopolistic rather or monopolistic their and rivals of lack The people. their to indispensable are they that so Ukraine of rest the Hungarian minority dates back to the 1960’s and was strengthened during the during strengthened 74 was and 1960’s the to back dates minority Hungarian the

Gellner, Ernest. Ernest. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism , Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1983 Press,Ithaca, University , Cornell 74 . We nonetheless think that our 51

CEU eTD Collection and 1960’s,their parentsor grand parentswere deported and expropriated after the war, 1940’s the between born were trajectories:they similar very with leaders by managed are sides political both that job-marketis Hungarianniche the within Hungarian elites ofposition the for story this in relevant Transcarpathia. is over territorialclaimsWhat all in gave 1993, in Kiev with Treaty a signing after Budapest, that and unfeasible completely remains it that clear became it as agenda the from disappeared virtually autonomy of issue The Party). Socialist Ukrainian (the forces Kuchmist to close was UMDSZ the while coalition, Orange the with KMKSZ the forces: Ukrainian opposite with allied were parties two the revolution, Orange the since) (and During Kiev. of radicaltheirdemandsin autonomyof whileUMDSZ the criticised is vassalbeing for a morecommunity) and the beyondrecruit don’t and ethnic are parties both since sense much make doesn’t term (the “nationalistic” more as pictured often is KMKSZ the personal along and membership dissentions, eventually ledto theformation the of an alternative party, theUMDSZ. Today, divided autonomy of issue specific the but party political real a organisationinto cultural a from turned KMKSZ the 1990’s, the gradualterritorialprofessionalizationautonomy.movement the and With duringthe of university) kindergartento (from levels all at Hungarian in education developmentof KMKSZ) or Szovetseg of Kulturalis Hungarians Magyar (Karpataljai the organisation cultural unite single to a within was Transcarpathia writers) or teachers were whom of all (almost intellectuals Ukrainianby initiated mobilisation, the this of goal from The Rukh. movement borrowed nationalist directly were action of of Models repertoires USSR. the mobilisation, throughout revival nationalities’ the to parallel in 1980’s Transcarpathia) Intermix.Ungvar: Transcarpathia) 75 uk, Gög 04 2004. György Dupka, 75 h ocee poet u owr ete rud the around centred forward put projects concrete the : uooi öevsk Karpataljan törekvések Autonomia Atnm rjcs in projects (Autonomy , 52

CEU eTD Collection 76 Hungarian the within and community Transcarpathia in both stratum social distinct a form for Hungary on dependent (albeit resources) 1996 in Beregovo entirely first in the university of Hungarian foundation the spectacularly most and 1991 after Budapest from funding of attraction the schools, elementary Hungarian new of opening the population, the of 20% municipalitiesthan representHungarianmore they in where of Hungarianethnicity. achievedTheylegalisationuse regard: thissuccessesthethe of in they infrastructure their of recognition positive the the of: deprived be) to (considered children been had themselves their although offer efforts, to their meant movement, were social sincere, undoubtedly a of controls the at Once advantage. their to sovietbureaucraticit the integrated use in infrastructureto how knew they and managedinitiatesuccessfulto a political mobilisation, precisely is it because theywere certainly wasn’t praised by Moscow) but they were not isolated. On the contrary,USSR if they the in Hungarian (being segregation of feeling the with up grown have may theirworkplace factories,in kolkhozes andother units ofproduction). Inany case, they at or teachers became they if education of ministry the administrations(either official with deal to had they careers, their throughout and Ruthenians,Russians, Ukrainians, with colleges in lived they university, to admitted being for Russian speak to had cases,boththeyUniversity chosemathematicsLvov, the in of physics, wentto they or placewhere ofHungarianusethe wasofficially tolerated before theythe1980’sif or – the in education only higher the – 1961Uzhgorod, University Stateopenedin Hungarian of the department of completed many areas, rural from come generally they countries as well, with local oligopolies of rural elites see Kovach, Imre et Kucerova, Anna, Kucerova, et Imre Kovach, see elites rural of oligopolies local with well, as countries 77 politikatudomany They are not isolated in this attempt as similar situations emerged in the neighbouring the in emerged situations similar as attempt this in isolated not are They « Miklos, Kovacs, 76 77 . Notwithstanding their opportunistic or personal oppositions, they clearly they oppositions, personal or opportunistic Notwithstandingtheir . . Yet, if they managed to put in place the infrastructure they would have would infrastructurethey the place in put to managed they if Yet, .

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CEU eTD Collection ae as en ta iclto ewe tnc ctgre uh a uhna and Ruthenian officialcensuscategoriesvariance of the to dueuncommon onlynot Hungarian(not is as such categories ethnic between circulation that seen also have Weresources.economic scarce for competition of context a in mobilised be to prone capital a become can ethnicity inasmuch strategy this for rationale economic strong state exploit still institutions for strengthening their local positions. minorities Wehave demonstrated thattherea is ethnic postcommunism: and communism between sustainethnic boundaries localthistheregard,level. atIn firmthere exists continuity a and create to as so Ukraine) of system school minority the and economic Hungary of support (the states an uses as strategy Hungarian ethnicity The institutionalising boundary. for social impermeable apparatus state Ukrainian the by offered opportunities the broadly more and policy, nationalities Soviet of vestiges the uses The Hungarian community or social world therefore functions as a closed microcosm: it could fill in, but they also condemned future generations to depend on them. economicand politicalforces by creating positions, which theywere the only ones who Ukrainian of constraints the that from away break So to managedpersonally they eventually, etc.). language culture, values, of terms in also but projects autonomy of terms in only (not large politicalcommunitySoviet at emancipate the from to wanted they possibilities, widening and repression political of softening gradual the with children because theytheir always considered the USSRas an illegitimate to political actor and transmit to not chose they knowledge the precisely is This system. Soviet knowledgetheirwiththe entrepreneurs foremostdo of and first 1980’s to had the after their that fact intellectuals,technicians or to part) most (for peasants from mobility the successful social acknowledged never they children, as themselves for wanted Ruralis, janvier 2006, 46(1) janvier Ruralis, «

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CEU eTD Collection 78 ethnic difference, she interrupted an anecdote about local interethnic cohabitation: ethnic discussing when relationswithhost,myandwhile nevershe mentioned interpersonal symmetry, conflicts rooted in ironic an in specific: Hungarian a not is This stereotypes of set a to reduced is other pronounced,the once before, issue an posed never probably it the Although categories. ethnic by different to severed belong they suddenly that discovery is relationship this in had she trust The to. adheres she boundaries ethnic of legitimacy political the and person a with entertains interviewee the trust of relationship the between tension a is there that case this in obvious is It Don’t pay too much attention to what she may tell you about Hungarians (…) anti-Hungarianstandpoint. very this have often they but language their dances, their traditions, their Ruthenians, respect and like I (…) you. tells she what about completely she Is say: Ruthenian or does she have Hungarian she ancestors? (…) Then does you should be very careful what And (…) Hungarian. was she that evident Wenever spoke aboutbutwealways it spoke Hungarianin anyway, wasself- it mefor me that the person she had known for more than 20 years was not Hungarian: entrepreneur,colleagues, intervieweean nowfromlearntmy reacted she harshlywhen former her of one with teacher, Ruthenian retired a host, my about Speaking tension: in be may space public the boundariesin ethnic closed of norm the and realm private the in crossing boundary ethnic individual Nonetheless, dynamics. these criticised Ukrainian, or Hungarian Ruthenian, self-identified they be interviewees, our nobodyamong people: most to legitimate appears construction boundary ethnic of norm ethnicreification and categorisation process of thesubjects by schools valorised. is The the instead and downplayed, are trajectories these that but intermarriage) to also but Groups and Social Categories 79 These psychological mechanisms have been investigated at length in Tajfel, Henri. Henri. Tajfel, in length at investigated been have mechanisms psychological These S.

female Hungarian, 50 years old, old, Beregovo years Hungarian, 50 female . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. University Cambridge .Cambridge: 78 . Human 55 79 .

CEU eTD Collection miia ujcie ucrany o uhna-kanas aot ter ethnic their about Ruthenian-Ukrainians of uncertainty subjective empirical Two claims. the closure: boundary Ruthenian ethnic Ruthenian radicalise of way to the in lay likely weaknesses fundamental are Kosovo, and Ossetia as such precedentsinternational Nonetheless, kin-state. external any of support the on count cannot and 1990’s the of half second the in active became mobilisationonly political Ruthenian The Transcarpathia. in Hungarian or Russian Ukrainian, than ambivalent and fragile more far is ethnicity Ruthenian today, indeed, that say to derogatory not is it categories, ethnic and polities other into assimilate to attempts foreign of history immemorial an with Coupled project. construction boundary ethnic Hungarian the to they didn’t have minority schools which could have afforded them similar opportunities period,Soviet the during status ethniclegitimate officially an enjoy Rutheniansdidn’t complexHungarianone,Ruthenianmorethan Still, for boundariesethnicones:far are Self. her representationof satisfactory a with her provide they as long as subsequentstereotypes the and categories ethnic existing the adopt to happy is and criticism) enthusedby the opportunity todo so (notwithstanding the historical justification for her highly is lifetime, entire her for censuses) ethnic Ukrainian in recently legalised only identityethnic(Ruthenianclaimher chance to person,a didn’tethnicityhave who was conversation: this of topic previous our with do to little very fact in had reaction This will change something. It would be normal to have our own country Ruthenianthis hopeRuthenianCongress I is land: this that but here live can they that UkrainiansHungarians for for and clear be must It (…) us. to thingsterrible did they constructthey Hungary,wasthese thismemorials duringwar,Vereckeandif the in as theirs, is land this claim They here. things worst the did Hungarians view my in But 80 mobilisationcould a pre-existentinfrastructure such any of lack the identificationand M., female Ruthenian, 50 years old, 50 old, Beregovo years female Ruthenian, M., 80 . 56

CEU eTD Collection hrh it rhdx fe h eod Wrd Wr iial, a mnrt of minority 81 a Similarly, War. World Second the after Orthodoxy into Church their of incorporation forced the following Orthodox assimilated became who those and Church Greek-Catholic the to faithful remained who those between divided are boundaries:Ruthenianslinguistic isomorphicwith not are differencesreligious stated, already have we As difficult. very it render religion as such cleavages cross-cutting further and intermarriages time, over practices categorisation ethnic states’ different Transcarpathia: in sustain to consuming time and energy are markers ethnic short, In Costs and benefits of ethnic boundaries through Transcarpathia for Ruthenians before Russian medias. passingpipelines the for property the claimed Getsko that mistake a wasn’t probably it Indeed, cause. their advance to Russia with deal a enter to leaders Ruthenian for amidstperpetualthe economic tension between Kiev andMoscow, would rationalit be andTranscarpathia through go Europe to gas Russian channelling pipelines Ukraine: objective separatism, economic interestsbetween Transcarpathian Ruthenians of Moscowand converge against accusations false forging of FSB) (the Kiev accuse they 2008 December in struggle their publicise to journalists by Russian inviting cause their to attention foreign bring to attempted Getsko Petr Transcarpathia Ruthenian of Minister Prime self-proclaimed and Uzhgorod of Sidor Dmitry priest movement,Greek-Catholic the of distributeleadersRuthenianpassports. The to began and Transcarpathia of independence the proclaimed Congress Ruthenian National self-declared a seem, 2008, October may in it emerging: are as identity marginal of entrepreneurs as Ruthenian and difficulties, these of face the in Even exploit. February 2 February Source: 2005. Ukraine, Center. in International People Rusyn Rusyn Subcarpathian Indigenous of Nationality the Recognising h taeis o uhna eesoit mvmns ae cmie n Agmns for Arguments in compiled are movements secessionist Ruthenian of strategies The nd 2009, 17:06. http://www.rusynmedia.org/documents.html 81 . Although . , accessed , 57

CEU eTD Collection ne-ru lsr n noprto. Nrs ad patcs ae teeoe almost therefore constantly at odds with one another. are practices and Norms incorporation. and closure inter-group for mechanisms of complexity incredible the and “groups”, numerous of coexistence the for basis daily a on contradicted constantly is myth this where places few the of entrenchedin Europe andinthis Europeanideal-typical classificatory rationality, one is inescapably although Transcarpathia, but else everywhere cores without peripheries only be they may only not think, to want may people what than porous more groups blatant counter-example to the norms set forth by essentialist narratives: not only are all European a the is Transcarpathia that is of problem The world. corollary the of sense a making for technologies also is it Europe, Eastern in late nationalism of legacy romantic the only not is This objectivation. subject of dimension its in here understoodmodernity of by-product a also is classify and separate to attempt costly this hegemony: cultural and manipulation elite profit-maximisation, markets, niche talkingaboutcalculationsonlyethnicised not economicof are we forgetthat us let not expectedthe benefits.thanlowerTerms borrowed be economics from seemsto should boundaries ethnic maintaining and re-inventing inventing, of opportunity of cost The other but I don’t think this is bad, we have nothing in common after all whenandthey leave, secondthere a is mass Hungarianin Wedonotforus.meet each earlier come Ruthenians church. same the use we although offices separate have We Hungarian Greek Catholicold said: years 58 L., closure. social inter-group of myth the maintaining to difficulties technical absurd pose that situations two Greek-Catholics, equally are Hungarians 82 L., male Hungarian Greek-Catholic, 58 years old, Beregovo years 58old, Greek-Catholic, Hungarian male L., Corruption and Corruption Talk Corruption and Corruption 82 . 58

CEU eTD Collection 83 accumulate to states of abilitysubstantially invasionshave the reducedmigrations and instability,politicalhistory: contingentreasonson Frenchmen for or Britons of that to differentvery been always has state the historicalexperienceof local the instance, for EuropeEastern in yet West, and North furthercountries with inevitably them connect a in example imaginedparticularthe relationcountless“West”: to for geopolitical, for religiousties etc. are Europe Eastern and Mediterranean core. hypothesised a to “civilisational”community representalso or butare themselves peripheral a in position imagined an of parts as themselves of think which world, the of regions to particular inevitable of grounds these analysis on talk convincing criticism bureaucracy a offered Herzfeld disenchantment: similar face well may societies industrial westernised all in Individualsexperience. everyday by negated completely is goods and services of provider and exchange economic the desired relationship with the state as a functioning rational bureaucracy, regulator of individuals, aspirationsof Transcarpathia, the in that neverthelessis said be can What The historical deficiencies of the state’s resources the reflection of all social sciences. pretentionthe engageto lengthy a in debate overquestion the hasbeen exhaustingit as have not do we industrialised and societiesproblemsin same the hierarchiespose and be to this believe don’t specificallyEasternan European issue we again, although regard, this in problematic is states and rationality of postcommunist of placeThe well. as state everyday the experiencerelation to existsin norms classification, of norms between dichotomy same The 84 Press. Martin's York: St. Herzfeld, op. cit. Herzfeld, sud nes 92 1992. Anders. Åslund, The Post-Soviet economy: Soviet and Western perspectives Western and Soviet economy: Post-Soviet The 83 : the questionredistribution,the of : decentralisation 84 e, eblee teei something is there believe we Yet, . . New . 59

CEU eTD Collection experiencesdependenceof “West”the on impossibility andthe breakto away fromthe re-establishedformer only Berlin or Washington,London to directed or originatedin- goods and ideas of flows into integration gradual the and USSR the of collapse The West reduced the horizon of expectations for Transcarpathians. geopoliticalempirical theclosureof boundaries the to and orderSoviet the time, same the at but Other Eastern alien an into them sucking alienation further of experience an was it Hungarians, and Ruthenians for representations: these on consequences durée of affect narrative and a is state peripheral.already Therefore,the deception in EuropeanEasternstates peripheral to relationgeographic preciselyits identitythrough acquired scale, territorial smaller a on even which Transcarpathia, as such region a important an is peripherality component of ofEastern European collective self-identification, experience this all is the more true in the If extent. great a to subjectivity beingEuropeanEastern shaped one like or live to able being not states of trauma the nation and capitalist) in organised White, Christian, mean: may this (whatever European a being of inescapability The contexts. distant in originate to perceived were that norms regimes, moral their regulate that norms the to up live to incapable being of frustration the by time long very a for informed been have polities these achievementsof artistic and history modern The so. did they them, Unfortunatelyfor community. this of members inseparable as themselves imagine didn’t region the of governmentalitycomingfromelsewhere wouldn’tpeoples beendetrimentalhavethe if of practicemodels in put to inability“Western Europe”.This comparable resources to “East”. n Tasapti. Te Sve xeine hd cmlx ad differentiated and complex had experience Soviet The Transcarpathia. in longue 60

CEU eTD Collection We all had problems before, but the times of mafia wars of the 1990’s are over. (…) I (…) over. 1990’s are the of warsmafia of times problems the had before,but all We restaurants and a hotel stated for example: Ukrainiantwoentrepreneurowns a who relations. E., existingpower unfairnessof the usuallydoesn’tinvolve respondents the personally thereforecriticiseand category allowsto one second The state. inefficient an against creativity” “entrepreneurial their and people whoactively do corruptofficials valorise theirown position byemphasising underlabelthecorruption. of Thefirst category usually is described necessary a as evil classified also are businessmen and politicians local involving scandals “big” other, administrations,the these on to relation the unexceptional of featureand common a is people, the feeling of relative deprivation is not very different. On the one hand, bribery courtsetc. Evenif Transcarpathiaoffers arguably moreservices and infrastructure toits councils, local hospitals, schools, administrations: local with relation their through whatwe have witnessed in Transcarpathia.In both cases, individuals dealwith the state India rural in fieldworks Gupta’s Akhil world: the impossibleis It notnotice to theastounding parallel thisregard in withother regions of Corruption talk: setting moral standards to the state (the state) and citizens. servants administrations,civil public between bribery of sense the in here corruption relationshipthis howabout contradictsforth ideas expectations:their consideronly we set they which through conversation of a topic eternal an maintain and state, the individuals to relationship which through practices of ensemble an both constitutes it for dismiss to impossible is it but corruption of problems semantic the discussed previously have We corruption. is state the to relation the of feature important One and the Imagined the State and Imagined 85 Gupta, Akhil. « Akhil. Gupta,

Blurred Boundaries: The Discourses of Corruption, The Culture of Politics of Culture The Corruption, of Discourses The Boundaries: Blurred

», American Ethnologist 22, May 1995: 2.May1995:22, Ethnologist American », 85 especially are extremely close to close extremely are especially 61

CEU eTD Collection W In a similar vein, M. 50 years remembered: emergency, one has to know whom one can turn to caseofbusinesscompletelypolishMy(…) in just that’sthem, that is all just legal, it’s this But friendshipalso timeis andmoney. don’tButI usehim. these relations foranything illegal,on I count always can I problem, serious a have I if but year, a once other each see we Kiev, in friend high-up a have I expensive. too simply is it levels, both at relations entertain to me for And manners. good about is This disrespectful. be would it upset, be would here contacts my official, high-ranking some with speak Uzhgorodproblemdirectly wentto to and a had I If level.abovethis go to wantdon’t I Council. City the and Raion the of Council the with contacts have to efficient more for themselves but for patients, so we will send them a little something (…) For me, it is there.PublicserviceTheCouncilthe of health of called yesterday me example,for not moneyreturn,encounterwell.we asIn if problems, canalwayswe countsomebody on us costs this because have w what with do make we but things small are These there. are we dinner, a for hand a need they if attend, organisessomething,we raion the of Forinstance, theif Inland Revenue holding is areception, we help them, theCouncilif everyone:kindbe to try bankhaving a is party anadministration, a orif there.am I tofind theright person,to beconsiderate, buy gifts(…) When people arecelebrating, I much:haveyoutoo would me cost lookingit establishingoblast as for levelthe at ties not am I level, city the at administrations local with relations my polish only I (…) services good providing about care only I activity, illegal of kind any in engaged not had issues with local bullies a long time ago but it doesn’t work like this anymore. Iam 86 during the privatisation, we were asked to move out. They promised us a brand new flat E., male Ukrainian, 51 years old, Beregovo years 51 old, Ukrainian, male E., e used to live in a kommunalka with my husband and our two children but then but children two our and husband my with kommunalka a in live to used e 86 . 62

CEU eTD Collection over the region with trucks driving the bags at night and no apparent corporate body corporate apparent no and night at bags the driving trucks with region the over all scattered bags, sealed in appeared material waste this of tons of dozens 2003, and in scandals biggest 1996between Primex: the as known locally agent chemical Transcarpathiathe concerned of One rationales. different with operates personal admit) involvement to not local tries (or important no has interviewee concerns the which which in and situation, personalities corruption of category second The active agents who fight the state’s apathy. involvementbribing servantscivilin represent allows because themto themselves it as own their of easily relatively speak they expectations, their contradicts it if it, about complain they if them, upsets experience this If satisfied. be to greed or desires has necessarilywho levers, the at being human a is always there end, the in that fiction, a charge: in person the to short-cut Transcarpathians understand allegedthewellanonymity thattoo all a bureaucraciesof is get to way a find to has one that inefficient so simply are services Public discretion. state’s the to left if out work cannot things that is consensus general the treatment, fair secure Inlandto trying for the or officials Revenue of consent the with tax-evasion in facilitating individuals for and Either state Transcarpathia. the between relations of part intrinsic an still is bribery that demonstrate experiences two these outcome, their in different very Although live here, they offered some ridiculous compensation but they ruined our lives still we happened, never It (…) quickly.something get would we sure make to money much so spent I going. was case our how check to everyday almost went basically Council,I housing the department the of to went I see. can you as small very is which house, parents’ my to temporarily moved We amount. small relatively a paid we if 87 responsible for these operations. The rumours rapidly spread that Primex is some sort of M., female Hungarian, 49 years old, 49 old, Beregovo years female Hungarian, M., 87 . 63

CEU eTD Collection uhniiae Pie. Acrig t ugra ore, ti s js ypout i the in by-product country a regulations, international and a EU to according as contentious is issue The radiation. just of signs is shows material the claim this scientists Ukrainian hand, other the sources, on tires, of production Hungarian to According Primex. authentificate 88 chemical,themanage willof end,he ridsellandget towhich brought he here through the in that so constructionmaterial, a as Primex use to plan they that is joke biggest the Now, trucks.(…) drivingthe were whopeople the of someknow I but him to back imported from Hungary through a company named O…, which legally cannot be traced was Primex businesses. racketeering and smuggling trafficking, human in involved was he bandit, a as career his started He (…) share. important an has he which in example,thecleaning company thecity,of Ukrainian-Hungarian a V… is joint venture the for businesses: Besides, his to sectors. linked always are different tenders procurement public municipality’s in ramifications with N… company, very a important controls He this. for responsible is mayor the that knows here Everybody me some precisions about the background of the story: a conferencegaveend the of auditor an conference, M., the to after pointlesswitch-hunt.Soon everyone asked he and exploited be to boon economic an actually were chemicalmysterious this of quantities large the opinion, his in Primex: to protection quality water of theme the from exposé his shifted he when view surprising a shared localofficials. Among speakers,the theHeadV.,Tisza-Borzsa the of Protected Region administrative and political Ukrainian mainly with Council raion Xy. the of building the Hungarian localagency in tourist a organisedHungarian by and NGO a fundedby was conference the Transcarpathia: of potential development the about conference open wide the in it leave to only Ukraine to imported illegally and dangerous radioactivea “somebody” that waste boughtHungarianfrom stationspower Primex really is or who was responsible for its importation: we are here concerned with concerned here are we due importation: its without for power relations. ofpublic-civil representations responsible another was who to or is material really Primex hazardous and waste what us interest really doesn’t it Ultimately, process. treatment subsequent the of surveillance dangerous its discharge cannot The different scientific tests do not concord: Hungarian and Ukrainian authorities tried to tried authorities Ukrainian and Hungarian concord: not do tests scientific different The 88 . I took part in a in part took I . 64

CEU eTD Collection namely the constant opposition between expectations of legal-rational efficiency and efficiency legal-rational of expectations between opposition paradox, constant aforementioned the namely the in rooted is contradiction This bribery. “benign” or legitimateinvolvementpettyattemptingone’swhen process, to even in the partakerin a everyoneacknowledgeis narrativesalso that these time, same the At people. simple of martyrdom the and space public-political rotten and inefficient an between ruled, and rulers between differentiation a affirm to one allow talk corruption of types two closeddoors. The boundaries of moralities areextremely blurred: on the onehand these behindplaceallocation, powertakeswhich systemof real the cover-up to a only were regulations formal where village, Potemkine a only was infrastructure legal the if As maintain their position and interests. governancespecificof modethecriminality of throughas powerfultype whichbut the a as even not exchange, of form particular a as conceptualisednot here is Corruption side. other the on “people” the and short, in state the businessmen, and politicians encompassing elites, corrupt the between dichotomy a constructs one which strategies through discursive the about but facts the of veracity the about not here is issue Althoughpersonscites,thethink thepartnerhavereason tohewe our close to hadties the raion’s administration ofladder climbing steadilythe is withouttalent man young this and lot earneda have couldalthough we mine, the of benefits the from penny receiveda never city the here, goldmine the controls daughter Kuchma’s family. Kuchma’s into married he speech, opening the gave who secretary young the for As (…) Transcarpathia. in charge in andwhichcontrols. he That’s howthings peopleworkkindofhere:the arewhothis is protectionenvironmental for responsible are administrationsthat and companies the 89 providesimplyincapableapparatus to state is the disappointmentthat fact the the over Anonimised Anonimised 89 . 65

CEU eTD Collection n diitain r ter etn u e ae oc gi ocre ee wt their with here concerned again once are we but extent their or administrations and 90 other are there marriage, besides Nonetheless, Transcarpathia. in strengthened are markers ethnic market, labour the and politics party churches,schools, illegitimate:in considered are relations inter-ethnic contexts, institutionalised in that seen have We the politicians in Kiev deserve to be shot like dogs allstop, say peoplewill the day, Ukraine.One (…) moneyto giveperson wouldnever simply that money loan, the normal a crime: a is This rest. of the give They next? do they do disappeared.what And thirds two spent already had government the that saw they and money this of use the audit to Brussels from people sent even They UkrainianaccordedIMFthe the thathearloanto government, this crazy. WhenI go I formerly gasoline smuggler, who spoke about the economic situation of Ukraine: Theclearest illustration thispoint of heardwe cameyears, from35 I. ethnic Ukrainian, always contingent on the position of the observer who identifies corruption exchange, of types qualifies that morality of type a is it exchange: or practice of type particular a to according defined be cannot corruption Therefore, elites. ruling the of not evidently is activitiesillegal) officials (and illegitimatesuspected the that grounds same the public appreciatedon bribing else: somebody identify to one allows bribery: it when corruption becomes Corruption others. not of corruption the always is corruption therefore is Corruption accountability). escapes (and services basic ersnain o hruh acut o hs rcie e orpin Assessment: Corruption see practices 91 these of account 2006. USAID Final February Report Ukraine. thorough a For representation. I., male Ukrainian, 35 years old, 35 old, Beregovo Ukrainian, years I., male individuals between bribery of effects detrimental existing the underplay to wish not Wedo 91 . 90 . 66

CEU eTD Collection 93 A. Misztal 92 realmpolitical public- the and private the between and groups ethnic between relationships regulate both that exchanges economic contentious other numerous are there bribery, Besides another on the one hand and with the state on the other. practices inevitablydraws and toenquireus about the nature oftrust ethnic groups entertain exchanges with one economic of field the in especially relations, interethnic questioning Therefore, relations. economic from divorce to impossible are relations much moreto economy thanprices: affects, moralities (regimes oflegitimacies), power is there therefore, fiction, a not is activities economic all of embededness social the in engage to individuals transactionsOnotherall.the at hand, havewe as previously alluded to,believewefor that state the in trust of nature and degree certain a with the protection of possessions and the regulation of exchanges must always be correlated propertyprivateguarantee to is state the of functions basic the of one as with, state the invest can individuals trust the on dependent necessarily is exchanges economic ofnature the hand, one the reasons.On two least at for necessarilytrust contingent on is property of exchange the relations: these of dimension hand important other an the constitutes on Trust enough. efficient not is services and goods to access for exchangescloselyreciprocalare to tied situationfavours a in where legaltheapparatus these of part important practices, whichbypass these boundaries:economic exchanges, favoursand trust arean throughout Ukraine, see Williams, Colin C. and Round, John. “Rethinking the Nature of the of Nature the “Rethinking John. Round, and C. Colin Williams, see Ukraine, throughout 94 For an account of informal economic practices, encompassing work beyond exchanges beyond work encompassing practices, economic informal of account an For cit.op. Hart, Misztal, Barbara A. 2000. 2000. A. Barbara Misztal, .London:Routledge. 94 . We have already seen how strongly does ethnicity become a form of form a becomeethnicity does strongly how seen already have We . 92 Other Informal Other . This triad is not fortuitous in our formulation: economic formulation: our in fortuitous not is triad This . Informality: social theory and contemporary practice / Barbara contemporary/ practice and theory Informality:social Exchanges 67 93 ,

CEU eTD Collection customs officers were also making huge profits because they knew of course but they but course of knew they because profits huge making also The were officers customs us. for waiting side other the on contacts our had we and car a with Zahony at frontier the crossed we friends, with going was I there, Everybody went ago. years Youshould haveseen thetraffic jams theUkrainian-Hungarianat borderfifteen tenor as salaries were simply blocked. A., 62 years old remembers: thesecond halfofthe1990’s) and when savingsdating from the communist era wellas bankruptcy(during of verge the on constantly was state the when time a at especially revenue tempting a offered Hungary or Poland Slovakia, and Ukraine between price in difference the and firearms) or drugs (unlike Ukraine in legal and easy was access theirpast: the cigarettesin and gasolineconcernedwere goods frequent most two The decline.steady a on smugglingeffect, is in that learn surprisedto weresmuggling and of evidence massive find to expected Transcarpathia, we in experienceprevious upon Based ago. years of couple a until unabated went and USSR the of collapse the with immediately emerged it activity: economic diffused widely a be to used Smuggling Crossing states together hypothetical ethnic boundaries (the myth of which is already very difficult to maintain). the crosscutacross economicinformal exchangesdo that confirmfindings our Indeed, activities. economic marginal in it expect to rational be would it institutions, formal in banned or captured is cooperation intergroup If cooperate. to brought necessarily self-identification,ethnicare their independentlyof people, most resources,economic little as with Transcarpathia as small as region a in that clear also is it hand, other the exploit.On postcommunistcertaincategory to the a economymarketin capital for noml Eooy oe Lsos fo kan” nentoa ora f Ubn and Urban of Journal International Ukraine”, from 2.2007:June31. Research Regional Lessons Some Economy: Informal 68

CEU eTD Collection Transcarpathian localities to assess the reality of smuggling. It became very clear very became It smuggling. of reality the assess to localities Transcarpathian betweendistancesshorter on as well as Ukraine and Hungarybetween forth and back numerousroutesHungarian) on a Ruthenianand (two drivers followedthree have We the Schengen area. repeatedpressures and incentives parton the ofthe EUsecure to theEastern frontier of countries have decreasedand customssurveillance has become moreserious because of concerned the between differentials price the improved, has Ukraine in conjuncture economic the least: at reasons three dramaticallyfor changed has situation the Today, animals. only came back at dawn and went directly to school after the journey. (…) We lived like I that so had we what selling weekendfor the remember travelling all I and school at bringingcigarettes Slovakiato andHungary. dutyforMondayonwas Once I morning sold everything valuable we had, and we had to look for something else. Then we began brought we (Hungary)mine, F…soldthemhome in jewellerymarket.andwe at hadthe onSoon,we we of colleague a with went I First, weekend. every guarded) not frontierweregreenfrontierthat the (portionsthe cross of to remember used we howI at the time: stillvividly remembered today: M., bankofficer, wasteacher a inanelementary school basiccommodities,mostaretimeshardshipsThethese actual thefact. of in foodoften acquiringsmugglingenough for only by wereprofitsmade economic the severesituationand extremely an facing was Ukraine context: in put be should testimony This received fantastic bribes when they were not personally involved 95 commoditiesThetoday. petty to reducedeffect in smugglingis that trips these during A., male Ruthenian, 62 years old, 62 old, Beregovo years male Ruthenian, A., 95 . 69

CEU eTD Collection 300 forints, they share the surplus between colleagues according to taxis). On another On taxis). colleaguesto accordingbetweensurplus the share they forints, 300 than more hold to allowed not (althoughevidence customsofficersare any of absence the in even go, him letting for forints 2000 driver the asked simply Hungarianofficer conclusive),the not was (whichprofessional check and lengthy a after witnessedhow we formalities: contradict doesn’t bribery Routinised twice. paid be should bribes that means which frontier, the of sides both on checks double by complicated further and they have to be bribed in order to tolerate even this petty criminality. The transfer is vehicle,either at Zahony otheror at Beregsurany. Thecustoms officersany are wellaware of this as check customs same the through go to have Taxis benefits. expected thedisproportionately than discoveredis higher if pay to price the and illegal remainsit products, of quantities small ridiculously concerning albeit that say is to It needless money. extra pay to required are they load, own their have passengers the if passengers,taxiseitherthetransport owntheirsuppliesgoods (usuallyof cigarettes) or the besides trips, these During taxis. are Hungarians) or Ruthenians Ukrainian(ethnic citizens only that mention to worth is It USD). 10 and 5 (between forints 2000 minimumof3passengers required.is The price per passenger varies between 1000 and use the services of “taxis”. For a “taxi”, to drive the distance between these two cities, a or there change and Tchop the to train the take to on either Commuters have side. Ukrainian Beregovo to goes communication bus routine no border, Ukrainian the to numberpassengers:of minimalexample,for fromNyiregyhaza, biggest the Hungarian citynext a concern typically trips These activity. professional another to complimentary resource a only are activities these others, some for or changed conditions economic the when opportunities better find couldn’t who those mostly are called frequently are they as “taxis” or drivers that so weak extremely effect in are profits cain h od cmrsd tet ha hns ysm saute: although statuettes: gypsum Chinese cheap twenty comprised load the occasion, 70

CEU eTD Collection We enquired about the reality of inter-ethniceconomicillegalactivities cooperation of reality in the enquiredabout We The criminal professionalization of informal activities ethnic niche labour market. own their within work Hungarians most that fact simple the for milieus professional other in seen haven’t we which solidarity of degree a be to seems there yet activity, this in ethnicinvolved equally no are Hungarians absolutely and Ruthenians is taxis: there among homogeneity fact, in as informative highly is sentence last The the passengers and the loads. We are all Ukrainians long. for it do won’t I think I else. someone find you day, next the somebody, know to time the have even don’t you so customs the at shifts the rotate even they now And jams. traffic the in hours 6 or 5 sometimes spend you and more increasingly pay to have frontier,you the at it verify also kilometre counterbecausethey the back turn to have you check, the pass you everything, once with careful be to have you work: much too demands It somewhereelse. Mukachevo,or Beregovo to going is who someone catch whenexpressthe from Budapest arrives railwaytheat station canhopefullythatsowe morning the in Nyiregyhaza in be to early come to have we Today, (…) 1996. after job real my became it but before things and people carried already had I Beregovo. electricianworkan used toas I factoryworkedalsosome andforX.time I the near at small relatively a amount. Taxis were lucidfor about their prospects, P., Ruthenian:go him let officer customs the cigarettes, of packs the than transport) to forbidden formally importantly, more (and suspicious more objectively 96 with a young respondent, M., 26 years: P., male Ukrainian male P., (…) (…) With the other taximen, we all know each other, we get along well: we splitwe well:along get we other,each know all taximen,otherwe the With 96 . 71

CEU eTD Collection allow personal hire-purchases so that some friends of mine were involved in this in involved were mine of friends some that so hire-purchases personal allow to used stores opportunitybig arose: new a economiccrisis, the Before (…) problem. my and partnerswere BelorussianTchop and Russian kids althoughin Iam Hungarian, never it up posed a grew I this: in issue an not is Nationality (…) contacts have I where railway the in Lvov, in position a find to try will I think I mind. my changed employmentthe of holdcontractmanagedI get evenbut customs, applying tothe I for considered I on, count can revenuesyou good the Given (…) frontiersafely. the cross can you where abandonedand industrial estate an is there where place a migrantsto bring we frontier: green the to trips his on X. help sometimes I increasingly. drugs lucrative,traffickingmoney:human is big involvedin are whofriends have still I (…) workplace. your respect to have you think I this. did never I there, from things many chargeoftheIT surveillance ofthe production chain and although lotof peoplea stole (…) I later worked at the X. factory where electronic products were assembled, I was in money theynever knew about in thefirst place. But this is whenIstopped thisbusiness. live in a different world and they didn’t know anything about this. Eventually I only lost parentsprocedure my because the duringworriedreally was I (…) lawyer the paying savingsfor my all lost I anything but get didn’t eventually, lawyer,I goodso a hire to managed I and me againstproofs real hold didn’t police The police).(secret SBU the informantto an was later, learned I as who, friend a of father the by betrayed finally was police.I the considerableattention the broughtof euros dollars me amountsor of change to had I that fact the was: it risky, sound doesn’t it Although Uzhgorod. in customers my here themto assemblebring and them to had only I stuff, the withcame personallynever carriedanything across theborder, had people I for me.doit They to I components. computer and electronics of smuggling the in involved mainly was I scheme: they went to the countryside andasked for thepersonal data of people, usually 72

CEU eTD Collection 97 have parents interviewee’s escape the to only not wanted community.He Hungarian the within positionsrespectable control: institutional of constraints the escape regard this in different very is money) involving not informal (and services with concerned exchangeof type other the see, shall we as because, important is This market. the createaffectivenecessarilynot ties,trustis morepresentinformal in exchanges thanin transactions:monetised informal transactions involving commodities donot necessarily economic “informal” and “formal” govern respectively would that spheres solidary also means that it is naïve to suppose a dichotomy between public/capitalist and private/ governscareertherespondentour of crudestthe is possible profit-maximisation, which that morality of regime the Second, transaction. economic of type this in dismissed seriouslyboundednessnarrativescompletelyactivities:illegal closurearethe of in and A series of important facts are discussed here: first, ethnicity has definitely no relevance (laughs) namesyou giving for me on countDon’t this. with mess to not better is it business, so this in dead shot was somebody year Last sector. this control they because revenues connections,and numbera localof officials, mayors and deputies can count on serious political have you if only things of sort this do can professional:you very something become has this that say would I speaking, Generally (…) trouble. in are they now and big too became of this But banks. from quantities loans for asked or large data false with products buying and stores to going for others hired and information unemployedelderlyorthey actually– they compiled paid themthis for- lists withthis York: Cambridge University Press.University York: Cambridge 1989. Bloch. Maurice and P., Jonathan 98 o h eain bten mntsd ecag n eie f mrlte, se see moralities, of regimes and exchange monetised between relation the For years Hungarian, 26 oldmale M., 98 . Finally, black markets offer substantial gains for individuals who wish to wish who individuals for gains substantial offer markets black Finally, . 97 . Moneyand the morality exchangeof . Cambridge; New Cambridge; . Parry, 73

CEU eTD Collection daughterin the past,Ialso managed to gether agrant for travelling abroad her by writing to lessons private given had I acquaintance: an called I so money, of amount ridiculously higha askingfor customsofficerswere frontier, the the problemat a had five years ago, I went to Hungary because the quality is better there. On my way back, I fridgebought a rightperson: knowthewhenI hazards. importantmostto The thingis too dangerous, there is only the cigarette business left and it doesn’t pay well for all the is it now Hungary but gasoline to bring to used son My work.things how well know I cases of the mechanisms at play in blat: witnesses a shortage of the state itself one goods, material of shortage the after Ironically, networks. blat of the targets primary are infrastructures or quantity or quality sufficient in provide cannot state the informal servicesitself:state where the resource soughtis monetised,after most exchanges not the are Yet afford. cannot they goods by surrounded now are people for logical seem would deprivation relative of sense increasing an wages, low of context for a economiesmarket transition in to the supply:with short securing consumer in goods used heavily also was communism during blat many as counter-intuitive for seem may role vital a play still Thisgoods. exchangeto accessdoesn’tprimarilyTranscarpathians.cover of type This services and goods of exchanges monetary informaltransaction, discoversanotherof typeonedifferent Lookingpatterns:at Non- Blat Networks: accessing the state through interpersonal trust Hungarian niche labour market, which entraps his generation. professionallimited the perspectivesthe also of butmarket the regulations legal of the procedures before 1991. procedures before administrative complicated of hardships the overcome to citizens Soviet by used been already 99 This position, although true in essence, should not be exaggerated neither as blat had blat as neither exaggerated be not should essence, in true although position, This 99 . The following excerpt offers several illustrative 74

CEU eTD Collection nueal ueurce, gnrly wt vrapn trbtos o ta only that 100 so attributions, overlapping with generally bureaucracies, innumerable created planning over-centralisationand world: ideal-typical an such of shortcomings individual the for protection of mechanisms automate and anonimise to designed purposely are bureaucracies modern Although risks. unforeseeable against insurances as function that relationshipsCity all the are Council at department housing the of secretary the dentist, everyday a teacher, solving a knowing For profiles. different most contingencies, one is advised the to have contacts in vitally important local administrations: have who “nodes” other internal by with contacts establishing operate in interest an has individual networks partaking each differentiation: Blat networks. stable relatively necessitates Blat free now daughtersfortwo her teach agreement: I an have We bit. little numbersa the change wentseeto this person whom knowI and whoworks theat City Council, askedI her to thelist was 253, which means wouldthatit have taken ages for himgethisto flat. SoI themunicipality.by Theproblem thatthere is aremany so applications, numberhis on son’sdealwithmy to problem: socialthe appliedhousingin flathe fora estate owned Hungaryand brings he some gasoline unclehis to who lives there. (…)Last timehad I to me takes arrangement:he an find always we eventually, But angry. really get I so me,doesn’tpayprivatejustfrequently lessonsbutfor comes he He teach. whomI boy thisalso Thereis penny.(…) a didn’tpay customsI officer andthe person to spokein She solved. was issue the minutes, 5 Within her. called I why is administration.That customs the prominentin officialsomehusband became Meanwhile, her me. on count can you service, a need you Whenever – me told then mother Her dissertation. her critical issues for social theory 101 Beregovo years 50 old, Ruthenian, M., female dm abr,Urc ek n os a on 00 2000. Loon. van Joost and Beck, Ulrich Barbara, Adam, 100 . . London; Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE. .London; Thousand Oaks, Calif.: 101 , blat networks developed against the against developed networks blat , The risk society and beyond: and society risk The 75

CEU eTD Collection our influence for getting them votes in our village. And we don’t get in trouble with any forgetabout ouroppositions. party promisesa certainIf a amount team,ouruse to we commona interest,the team, andthe stadium we managed to build together,so thatwe andevenUkrainians. Theypoliticiansare andbusinessmen, educated people. haveWe In my village, we have this football team. We have Hungarians from both political sides completely put aside in blat networks: is sphere public the of segmentation the which with ease the is puzzling more Even a but minimal degree ofproblems, trust is an adequate meanssolving for protection against risks.for exist they elsewhere, available not are which trust of whicharenotavailable the “open”: in again, their aimconstructnot to is deep relations communication, of channels offer networks blat divided, politically and ethnically is space public this where Transcarpathia In space. public segmented a of antithesis weak ties” of “strength the illustrate rather networks blat friendships: typically not are most in, joining by memberscan expect shortcutto find a theserviceto oradministration that they need. These so actors of number sufficient a between solidarities of communicationmobilisationensure the they the and as longfunctional are as they and networks facelesscorporatewithinre-instatestructuresinterpersonal trust to attempt Blat relationsof fairness. or rapidity efficiency, of lack their precisely is perceived theinterfaces where individuals may formulate demands to thestate, what negatively is Bureaucraciesalive. constitutereallyadministrationstheysuch: and rejected as not are interpersonaltrust, creativity and solidarity could maintainthe administrativebehemoth 78, May: 6. 78, May: 102 Granovetter, Mark S., 1973. « 1973. S., Mark Granovetter, 102 . The necessary internal differentiation of blat networks is in that regard the regard that in is networks blat of differentiation internal necessary The .

The Strenth of Weak Ties Weak of Strenth The

», », AmericanJournal Sociology of 76

CEU eTD Collection rnatos peetd hr: mntsd ifra xhne ev h ups of purpose the serve exchanges informal monetised here: informal presented of transactions types two the between differences the to back go should we Finally, between the regime of morality of modernity and the experience of peripherality. communities, ethnic between subjects, and state between gap the bridge exchanges Informalsegmentation. ethnic of constraints the and economy market of constraints the state, inefficient an of constraints the soothe to serves here informality image: opposite the shows contrary the on Transcarpathia scrutiny. public escape that life the workplace, at while ethnic ties could furnish a basis or for cooperation in the realms institutions of social national in place taking solidarities and cooperation witness public lives of Transcarpathians is somewhat surprising: one could reasonably expect toand private the between dichotomy The secondary. completely are frontiers ethnic inter- relations, such In state. the to access an guaranteeing for vital are they as just on constraint communities ethnic and worlds heavy social various between solidarity and communication a pose which gates social institutionalised the overcoming for useful deemed and necessary are networks blat that show extracts two last These is for a great deal concerned about ethnicising these networks of solidarities. and securing in superiority strengtheningmoral solidarities when actualthe output ofthese individuals theiratworkplace a be to seems There here. questioned not is it secureelectoralnecessaryfraud gravityof to the footballand as activityleisuresuch a moreprivateastoundingthe interest.all disproportionalitycaseis Thethethat between political even their to comes and it when ethnic cooperation of capable of absolutely therefore reification seem boundaries the on rely who people same very The sides: we split votes in the village so that everyone is happy in the end 103 Anonimised 103 . 77

CEU eTD Collection e my acp ht mntsd ad nnmntsd ecags d o las bln to belong always not do exchanges non-monetised and monetised that accept may we 104 effect is similar. their although trust, of relations interpersonal than state the to access an securing for to belong differentregimesmoralities of transactions informal non-monetised and monetised that is hypothesis Our relations. state-civil of fetishisation the of profoundly fetishisation more and the markets capitalist deconstruct to attempt an as perceived be could contrary the distanciates relationsofproduction between subjects inherently and objects: Marxista interpretation ofblaton money that interpretations, Marxist in present hypothesis, dichotomybetween monetised non-monetisedand transactions confirmseemold to the The life. social of dimension”“formal the in relationscollective regulating norms the access to public services orthe state broadly speaking. They bothstand in opposition to get to individuals allow networks blat non-monetised while commodities, accessing ewe eie f mrlte. Se See moralities. Press. of Minnesota University Minneapolis: of regimes distinguishing for criterion empirical between relevant a view our in remains it moralities, different Our findings therefore contradict Appadurai’s critique of this Marxist dichotomy: dichotomy: although Marxist critique of this Appadurai’s contradict Our therefore findings 104 : money (bribery,: corruption) simplyacceptable is less paua, Ajn 96 1996. Arjun. Appadurai, oent t Large at Modernity 78 .

CEU eTD Collection Similar examples can be found throughout the world for the re-appropriation of modern of re-appropriation the for world the throughout found be can examples Similar 1051 of possibility sustaining the political ties and solidarities for within postcommunist multiethnic limits polities. very and the test oppressive attempts these an today, polity, within centralised communities different for realm an public finding about autonomous only not is struggle the higher: are stakes the cases, and Hungarian Ruthenian both in ethnicity exploiting for rationales economic of emergence the and resources state’s post-Soviet the of weakening dramatic the with time, same the At so. do to act actors corporate which by strategies the in era precedent the with isolating even or closing themselves legitimating, defining, for state the use happily small, communities,however that and bottom the at reinvented being actively are categories the symbolic violenceby which states objectify their subjects,alsois it clear that ethnic Transcarpathiaconvincingmodernity, that example ofprincipala and projectoffersof productimposed by malevolent states: clearis ifit that thestate itself in probablyis the a solely as considered be not should categories ethnic institutionalisation of the First, for further investigation before we turn to a broader interpretation of our case study. propose to like would conclusionswe partial of series a and to come have We economies moralities. state, subject, between relation broader obviously the are and these fragile extremely where context the a between in relation boundaries the ethnic upon of reflection institutionalisation a initiate to attempted here have We oahn (d) Si Lna itr n h ot f Cnlc, Lno n NewYork: and London Conflict, of Roots the and History Routledge. Lanka: Sri Spencer, Lanka", (ed.) Sri rural in Jonathan past national a of cultivation the and development grassroots awakenings: "Rural 1990. Michael Woost, see: identities, ethnic strengthening in ideologies 105 . In this sense, the postcommunist period testifies of strong continuities strong of testifies period postcommunist the sense, this In . Conclusion 79

CEU eTD Collection state’s inability to regulate the body politic satisfactorily. We do not think that this that think not do We satisfactorily. politic body the regulate to inability state’s the of constraints, self-imposed and imposed its of free get to attempts body social the which through practices the also are dynamics these that is paradox The implicit. hidden, remain relations social of part substantial a for down reach cannot - effect in remainsunaccountable thepublicto thetopatand themechanisms bywhich thestate - effect in governance which by mechanisms the constitute They modernity. of project the against measured backwardness, of testifies it inasmuch acknowledge to wants legal-rational governance, they constitutethe shadowy partof sociallife, which nobody of this situation.They are the causesbecause they arein sharpcontrast with the idealof consequences the causesand termedthereforeinformalthe relations bothwe are What public good. moralstandardsachieving“corruptionset preciselyattemptforthe the to an is talk”of construction The injustice.counter to resourcessufficientorganisation politicalwith a not so muchthe oppressive nature ofpolitical life, ratherthe impossibility ofrelying on solely as a complex ofpower relations: but here again, inour sense,what criticised is is individuals by described often then is state the and subjects betweenrelationship The boundary making and isolation. ethnic against guarantees reliable no offers itself in economies market of overture theirperceived the reify Therefore, capital. marketable to a communities becomes ethnicity ethnic while differences push redistribution of deficit a and public services unavailable infrastructures, obsolete administrations, Inefficient state”. of by groups who inherently seek autonomy: they are rather causal reactions to a “shortage opportunisticreaction an just not view our in are closure ethnic of dynamics the Still, as consequences to some of the structural dysfunctions of the postcommunist state postcommunist the of dysfunctions structural the of some to consequences as paradoxresolution:forasks understanding informal transactions onlycauses onlyor as 80

CEU eTD Collection subjectivities of capitalism. Upon this broader topic see see topic broader this Upon capitalism. of subjectivities 107 Perspective, Cultural Press. University York:Cambridge New in Commodities Things: of Life Social The (ed), Appadurai Arjun In « 1986. Igor. Kopytoff, 106 objects, ideas and norms – and the empirical experience of always trespassing them men, between – world the of sense making for boundaries draw to effort inescapable evidencemalleabilityto the moral of regimes, capable findto compromises betweenan as rather but practices deviant or marginal as not conceptualiseto“informal”economies useful it think therefore We life. social of dimensions segmented symbolically between in happening is what capturing of incapable fundamentally are interactions exchanges of spheres between spheres, private and public between dichotomies The mechanisms. such understanding for language preciselyWe believe socialthatsciencesbeen formulateunable far proper to have so a believe that it would not be intellectually honest to ignore half of the problem. advancenormative propositions formore orlesssocial control abruptly to putit but we to position comfortable a in be would we and picture, the simplify certainly would Urry. 1994. Urry. 2005. We believe that the study of informal transactions would be vital for understanding the understanding for vital be would transactions informal of study the that believe We in Tiv the among exchange of realms triadic of theory Kopytoff’s example for See The new spirit of capitalism of spirit new The Economies of signs and space

The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process as Commoditization Things: of Biography Cultural The . London; New York: Verso, and Lash, Scott, and John and Scott, Lash, and Verso, York: New London; . . London; Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. .London; Thousand Oaks, Calif.: 106 ewe oml ad informal and formal between , Boltanski, Luc, and Eve Chiapello. Eve and Luc, Boltanski, 107

» In » 81 .

CEU eTD Collection Appendix 82 CEU eTD Collection Map 3: Transcarpathia as part of fascist Hungary (1938-1944) after the 1938 the after (1938-1944) Hungary Vienna fascist Treaties of part as Transcarpathia 3: Map Source: within Region CzechoslovakiaAutonomous between 1920an and 1938 as Rus) (Podkarpatska Transcarpathia 2: Map Source: Source: http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=200 http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=200 Illustrations 83

CEU eTD Collection Source: Map 4: The Ethnic Composition of Transcarpathia in 1910, 1930 and 1989 http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=246 84 CEU eTD Collection Hungarians Ukrainians Ethnicity s mgasg ésalls s npogli aao tükrében adatok népmozgalmi Kárpátaljai Magyar és Pedagógusszövetség Tankönyv- népszamlalasi és Taneszköztanácsa. a magyarsaga és Source: Table 3. Multilingualism in Transcarpathia according to ethnicity %3D1&ei=oDgfSozkMM3dsgaN9tXVCg %3D20%26hl%3Dfr%26lr%3D%26sa%3DN%26start%3D40%26um &tbnh=81&tbnw=116&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dzakarpatska%2Boblast%26ndsp fr&start=43&sig2=1LbtEgGP2mJnBuzeEKagw&um=1&tbnid=AjQMJF50bRM8dM: %25C5%25A5&usg=__QIUhKJnXl2N7X0obcibQ4bcxio=&h=210&w=300&sz=42&hl= %25C3%25A1_oblas Oblast_Transkarpatien.png&imgrefurl=http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakarpatsk political_simple_Oblast_Transkarpatien.png/300pxMap_of_Ukraine_political_simple_ imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Map_of_Ukraine_ Source: Ukraine after 1991 Map 5: Transcarpathia as one of the 27 oblasts of Ukrainian SSR and independent Hungarian Slavic speakers covers disproportionately older generations that are already N.B. Ukrainian 46,7 These figures do not accurately represent reality because the high proportion of http://images.google.com/imgres? Based on Molnar, Jozsef and Molnar, D. Istvan, Istvan, D. Molnar, and Jozsef Molnar, on Based % of speakers of another language than mother tongue Hungarian 3,1 over-represented among Hungarians. Russian 26,5 30,5 Eng. 0,63 0,64 0,33 0,35 Ger. 2005. 2005. Karpatalja népességeKarpatalja 0,09 0,09 Fra. , eesáz A Beregszász: Other 0,9 0,9 85 speaks own

mother tongue Only 68,8 41,3

CEU eTD Collection Transcarpthia) 1998. Istvan, Csernicsko, Oxford: Berg Publishers. Carrier,G.James. 1997. Meanings oftheMarket. The Free Market inWestern Culture. town Brubaker,Rogers. 2006. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1992. Rogers. Brubaker, of change in the postsocialist world Katherine1999. Verdery.Burawoy, Michael, and Böröcz, Jozsef. 2000. Informality Rules: Sage Publications Inc. York: Verso 2005. cases)Chiapello. Eve and Luc, Boltanski, Russian and Soviet The territory. géographique of (Territorialisation of russe et ethnicisation soviétique politique ethnicity, système du cas Le territoire. du Blum, Alain and Filippova, Elena, 2006. « Culture Difference 1969. Fredrik. Barth, while you're doing it 1998. Saul. Howard Becker, York: St. Martin's Press. Åslund, Anders. 1992. Mistrusted State, Contested Identities 2002.« Dominique, Arel, Press. 1996. Arjun. Appadurai, spread of nationalism 1991. R. Benedict Anderson, critical issues for social theory 2000. Loon. van Joost and Beck,Barbara, UlrichAdam, sriso Istvan, Csernicsko, . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 35 , Osiris – MTA Kisebbségkutato Mûhely, Budapest.

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