CYCLING AND URBAN AIR QUALITY A study of European Experiences
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences www.ecf.com 1 RESPONSIBLE EDITOR European Cyclists’ Federation asbl Rue Franklin 28 B-1000 Brussels CYCLING AND
AUTHORS Dr Guy Hitchcock & Michel Vedrenne URBAN AIR QUALITY RICARDO-AEA Gemini Building, Fermi Avenue, Harwell, Oxon, OX11 0QR, UK A study of European Experiences www.ricardo-aea.com
Expert review by Prof. Dr Bas de Geus of Vrije Universiteit Brussel
CONTACT PERSON AT ECF Benedicte Swennen Urban Mobility Policy Officer [email protected]
COVER PHOTO BY Amsterdamize
November 2014 ECFgratefully acknowledges financial support from the LIFE programme of the European Union.
The information and views set out in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Union.Neithe r the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein.
Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged.
2 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences www.ecf.com TABLE OF CONTENTS ABOUT THE EUROPEAN CYCLISTS’ FEDERATION
ECFis the umbrella federation of bicycle users’organizations in Europeand beyond.Our aim is to havemore FOREWORD 6 peoplecycling more often andwetarget to double cycling by 2020in Europe.To reachthis goal wework with our membersand partners on putting cycling on the agendaatglobal, European,national and regional level. EXECUTIVESUMMARY 7
INTRODUCTION 8
MEASURESTO INCREASE CYCLING MODE SHARE 9 1.measuresaimed directly at increasing cycling 9 • Bike share schemes • Cyclinginfrastructure • Provisionof trip-end facilities • Integration of cyclingin public transportnetworks • Personalisedtravel information
2. measuresaimed at reducing the demand of other transport modes 11 • Low emission zones • Congestioncharging • Speedmanagement: 30 km/h (20 mph) zones • Car-free zones • Parking rationing and charging • Higher vehicle costs
3.Packagesof measuresand links with air quality policies 13
REVIEW OF CASE STUDIES 14 1.Antwerp 15 2. London 17 3. Nantes 19 4. Seville 21 5. Thessaloniki 23 6. Conclusions 25
IMPACT ASSESSMENT 26 1.Scenariodefinition 26 2. Study zones 27 3.Impacts of cycling on emission reductions 27 4. Impacts of emission reductions on local air quality 28 5. Impactsof improvements of local air quality on health 29 6. Conclusions 30
RECOMMENDATIONS 31
BIBLIOGRAPHY 32
4 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 5 FOREWORD EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Dear Reader, Air pollution is amajor issueof concernto the public and of active cyclists. In this regard Sevilleexpectsto achieve a 3 politicians, with the focusof attention being on poor air qual- reduction of 4 μg/m in the annualmeanof NO2 in 2020 due Breathing clean air is one of the most important things for all of us. Working on our mission ity and the wayit affects the quality of life in urbanareas.It to the implementation of a complete packof traffic demand ‘More people cycling more often’, the European Cyclists’ Federation (ECF) supports all those who work on the promotion of cycling and strive to achieve better air quality in our is well recognisedthat road transport plays a significant part management measuresincluding cycling. cities. This study shows the potential effect of more cycling for cleaner air in our cities. in air pollution in urban environments,and thus contributes to this public health issue. Thefinal part of the study provided an illustrative assessment ECF’s main conclusion from this study is that investments in modal shift and getting more of the impactsof cycling, in terms of modeshift from car people cycling more often, makes areal contribution to improve air quality. Although small, there is actual and real decrease in air pollution from traffic which can be enhanced by its However,controlling the emissionsfrom road transport, the traffic, asa potential measureto improve urban air quality combination with technical measures. However, cities need to be ambitious and strive for main sourceof air pollution in most urban areas,hasnot levels (NO2,PM10and black carbon) in three of the casestudy a radical transformation of their urban transport system if they want to improve air quality. been an easytask. This is becausetransport emissions are cities (Antwerp, London and Thessaloniki).To accomplishthis, Air pollution is still too high with moderate increase of cycling or a limited approach for influenced by many factors suchasvehicle technology, fuel simulations werecarried out with two hypothetical scenarios: small car-free areas. type, vehicle size anddriver behaviour. Technical measures (i)atypical, moderatecycling investment scenarioinvolving Cyclists, pedestrians and other inhabitants do not pollute the air in the cities, but they are alone, in terms of technologies that directly reduceemission an assumed23%increase in cycling mode share (away from suffering from bad air quality. At the same time, cycling along with good public transport from road vehicles,are insufficient to meet compliancewith private motorized transport) and (ii) a limited car-freescenar- and walking facilities, is a key solution to maintain a good accessibility to green zones and urban air quality objectives. Thishasbeenhighlighted by io involving the closureof one or two major roadsin the re- car free areas in cities. the failure of vehicle Euroemission standardsto produce spective cities. Theassessmentshowedthat modal shift from A transformation of the transport system has to be pushed in all policies that have an the reductions in emis- private motorisation to impact on the mobility choices of people – and air quality policy is one of them. ECF sions expectedin urban cycling produced significant strongly recommends international institutions, countries, and cities to include modal shift areas. Therefore a more reductions in the emissions and cycling as a reliable measure to provide cleaner air in urban areas. I am sure that this “There are still major challenges to human health demand-side-focused ap- of NO , PM and black car- study is useful for all policymakers, advocates and researchers on the local, national and from poor air quality. We are still far from our x 10 international level for their work on the transition of cities into healthier and more liveable proach is needed to reduce bon. Thisvaried from city places. the impactsof transport, objective to achieve levels of air quality that do to city dependingon the suchasair pollution, and not give rise to significant negative impacts on local traffic situation. These Dr. Bernhard Ensink, develop a more sustainable human health and the environment.” emissionreductions in turn ECF Secretary General transport system. resulted in improvements in Janez Potocˇnik,European Commissioner for the Environment the air quality levelsof the In line with this approach (Potocˇnik,2013) studied zonesin the cities. cycling measuresare now Theimprovements again presentin the air quality varied from city to city asa and mobility plansof numerouscities around the world. This result of local conditions with for examplemuch greater ben- report setsout to understand in more detail the role that efits being seenin Antwerp than London.Alsoin two of the cycling measurescan have aspart of a mode shift approach three casestudies the observedreductions were not enough to help improveair quality. In relation to this a set of relevant to achievecompliancewith the Europeanlimit values. measuresdirected at increasing cycling mode sharewere investigated. Thesemeasuresare classified as to whether Theassessmentof air quality impacts was complemented they were aimed directly at increasingcycling or aimed at re- with an analysisof health improvements brought about by ducing the demandfor private motorized transport. Themost the reduction of ambient concentrationsof particulates. This representative examplesof measuresdirected at increasing assessmentwasmadeby estimating the disability adjusted cycling werethe development of cycling infrastructure such life years(DALY)metric for cardiopulmonary diseasecaused asbicycle share schemes,separated cycling lanes and tracks, by poor air quality levels.In all cases,the global disability provision of trip-end facilities and integration of cyclingwith levels were reduced asa consequenceof the improvements urban public transport networks. Asfor those measuresdi- produced by modal shift under the two modelled scenarios. rected at reducing the demandfor car use,the most relevant were congestion-charging schemes,low-emission zones, Themain conclusionthat canbe drawn from this study is parking rationing and increasingvehicle costs. that cycling measurescanimprove urban air quality levels as part of a packageof measuresdirected at reducing overall To understand the potential role of cycling measuresaspart road traffic. Although the extent of the improvementwill vary of an approachto air quality managementa selection of from city to city and acrossthe city itself with our analysis
five Europeancities were studied ascasestudy examples. showing changesin NO2 concentrations from zero to 12.6µg/ 3 3 Theselected cities were Antwerp, London, Nantes, Seville m and changesin PM10concentrations from 0.3 µg/m to 1.4 and Thessaloniki,all of which are recognisedfor positively µg/m3 at the studied monitoring locations. However,overall implementing cycling asa feasiblealternative to private the changesin London and Thessaloniki were not enough motorisation, albeit to different extents. All of thesecities, to meet the Europeanlimit values.Thissuggeststhat mode exceptfor Thessaloniki,explicitly mention the promotion and shift measuresaloneare unlikely to be sufficient to meet the developmentof cycling in their air quality plans.Fromthe Europeanair quality limit valuesin urban areas.Therefore,a review of the respective modeshares,cities with a known successfulapproachto combat air pollution is a combination and well-developed cycling infrastructure suchasAntwerp of both non-technical and technical measures:encouragea or Seville exhibited the highest increasesin mode sharewith modal shift, including the shift towards cycling, and reduce respect to previous yearsand havethe largest populations emissionsfrom the remaining traffic suchaspublic transport and delivery vehicles.
6 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 7 INTRODUCTION MEASURESTO INCREASE CYCLING MODE SHARE
Air pollution is oneof the main environmental factors linked that coversdifferent policy aspectssuchaspromoting clean Everycity hasa particular modal split, which is defined by 1. MEASURES AIMED DIRECTLYAT to adversehealth effects suchaspremature mortality and fuels and vehicles, collective passengertransport, designing the number of trips that are madeusing a particular type of CYCLING preventable illness acrossEurope.Thegreatest impact on demandand mobility managementstrategies, increasingtraf- transportation. Thismodal split is related to different aspects human health is in urban areas,where air pollution levels are fic safety and security, car-independentlifestyles and public suchascity size, population, density, age,car ownership Bicycle share schemes at their highest. Transportis the most important sourceof involvement. schemes,income, householdswith children, public transport Bicycle (bike) share schemeshave emerged asan innovative air pollution in Europeancities and assuch,hasa significant fares, public transport servicefrequency, rain, trip distance approachin a number of cities in Europe,Asiaand North role in improving air quality and public health (Stanleyet al., Thiscontext hasfavoured the position of cycling asa cost-ef- and land-use mix (Santos et al., 2013).Therefore the ECF America, with over 700 programmesin operation around the 2011). fective alternative to individual motorised transport among promotes the “Cycling asa System”concept to consider these world (Meddin and DeMaio,2014).Thefirst bicycle sharepro- environmental stakeholdersdue to the fact that bicycles diverse city contexts (Ensink andMarhold, 2014). gramme wasimplemented in Amsterdam in 1965,being anon- TheEuropeanUnion hasan air pollution regulatory frame- are zero-emission,low-carbon vehiclesthat are efficient in ymous and free of charge.Thisfactor madethe programme work that seeksto reducethe burdenof ambient air pollution terms of speed, cost and urban space(Börjesson and Elias- Most factors that increasemodal shift from private motorised fail soonafter its launch, due to vandalism. An improved bike on human health, natural and managedecosystemsand the son, 2012;Küster, 2013).Additionally, over the last 10 years transport to cycling canbe classifiedin two categories: sharing programme wasimplemented in Copenhagenin 1995 built environment. TheAir Quality Directive (2008/50/EC) cycling hasbeen seenasan effective method for improving through the useof coin-deposit docking stations. Thisscheme and the 4th DaughterDirective (2004/107/EC)set limit, target a healthy lifestyle in developed countries (Steinbachet al., • Pull measuresaimed directly at increasing cycling. Thiscat- evolvedby incorporating advancedinformation technologies and threshold concentrations for a seriesof pollutants and 2011;Press-Kristensen,2014). Thecombination of these two egory includes measuresespecially directed to encourage for bicycle reservations,pick-up, drop-off and tracking. In require Member Statesto assessandreport compliance with factors hasmadecycling aconstant policy option in urban air usersto changefrom their usual transport modesto cycling 1998,the city of Rennes(France)launched the first IT-based these environmental objectives on a regular basis (EEA,2013; quality plans,aswitnessedin the Air Implementation Pilot exclusively. Any modal shifts produced by thesefactors will programme (Vélo à la Carte) and in 2007, Parislaunched Eu- Hitchcock et al., 2014). which followed urban policy making in 12cities in Europe result in anincreasein the proportion of cyclists in the city. rope’s largest IT-basedschemewith over 20,000 bicycles and during 15months in 2012(EEA,2013).Other European-fund- • Pushmeasuresaimed at reducing the demand of other 1,450docking stations available every 300 meters (Vélib). The Despitethe fact that mitigation strategiesand significant ed city planning programmes such asCIVITAScontemplate transport modes.Thesefactors correspond to measures emerging fourth generation systemshaverefined the IT-based reductions in emissionshave been in focus for many years, cycling asan essentialpart of the multidisciplinary approach aimed to restrict the useof non-sustainabletransport concept and seekseamlessintegration of bike sharing with ambient concentrationsof air pollutants lag clearlybehind that is necessaryfor improving urban air quality levels. modes(e.g. cars) but do not directly encouragea modal public transportation and other alternative modes,suchas this emission decreasingtrend (Guerreiro et al., 2010).In shift towards aparticular alternative. Asa result, these taxis and car sharing (Shaheenand Guzman, 2011). particular controlling the emissionsfrom road transport, Despitethis, there hasbeenlittle study onthe direct impact measuresmay not increasethe proportion of cyclists. the main sourceof air pollution in most urban areas,has of cycling measureson air quality aspart of an integrated Themain benefits of bike sharing arerelated to the reduction not been an easytask. This is becausetransport emissions approachto air quality management.Thepurpose of this re- Apart from these two categories,a host of broader contexts of pollutants and GHGemissionsdue to the replacement of are influenced by many factors such asvehicle technology, port therefore is to provide a consideration of the key aspects are likely to havekey influences in modal shifts. Examplesof trips madeby cars.After the launch of Bicing in Barcelona fuel type, vehicle size and power (Sundvor et al., 2012),and that promote modal shift and that reinforce the position of these canbe the public perception on road safety, national (Spain),the city’s bicycle modal split increasedby 1%(from most significantly the impact of the Eurovehicle emission cycling asa cost-effective policy option for the improvement energy policy, excessivereliance on fossil-fuels, cultural 0.75%to 1.76%in 2007) over a period of 2 years(from 2005 standards hasbeen lessthan anticipated especially for diesel of urban air quality levels and more importantly, for the com- aspects, etc. to 2007). Velo’v in Lyon(France)reported that bicycle use vehicles (EEA,2013;Hitchcock et al., 2014). Due to the lack of pliance with the air quality targets establishedby European reduced the automobile mode shareby 7% in 2007. successof direct technical measuresin tackling this problem, legislation. Theabove described measuresare non-technical measures action has focusedrecently on a multidisciplinary approach to improve urban air quality: focusing on structural and Severalstudies have examined the motivating factors associ- behavioural changes,while technical measuresare usually ated with bike shareusein North America, China,the United end-of-pipe measures.However, both are well related since Kingdom and Australia (Fishman et al., 2014). Convenience non-technical measurescan be usedto support the uptake consistently emergesasthe main motivating factor for bike of technical measures(for example,giving fiscal/economic share use. Thedistance between home and closest docking incentives to renew the carfleet). station is a factor directly associatedwith convenienceand this hasbeenfound to be areliable predictor of bike shareus- age.A study in Montréal (Canada)reflectedthat living within 500 m of a dockingstation resulted in a threefold increasein the use of bike share (Bachand-Marleau et al., 2012).Similar findings were shown in London, where fun appearedto be an additional key motivation for casualusers(TfL, 2011).
TABLE1. PREVIOUS TRANSPORTATION MODE REPORTEDBY CURRENT BICYCLE SHARE USERS
New City Private Car Public transport Walking displacements Other Barcelona 10% 51% 26% 0% 13% Berlin 4% 26% 21% 3% 46% Brussels 7% 60% 32% 0% 1% London 0% 54% 39% 0% 7% Lyon 7% 51% 37% 2% 4% Paris 8% 65% 20% 0% 7% Stuttgart 4% 20% 26% 16% 34%
8 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 9 Thereis animplicit assumption amongstakeholdersthat the Thecreation of new cycling infrastructure is usuallydirectly (Martens, 2007).Acomparison of travel times on 25home- Particularly important elements of cycling awarenesscam- implementation of bike shareprogrammeswill havea direct correlated to an increasein modal shift. A 2003 cross-sectional to-work links in the Netherlandsindicated that the travel paigns arecycling demonstration days(i.e. car-free days,traf- impact on motor vehicle use.A recent study on the bike share study in the commutingbehaviourof 43 cities in the United time ratio between public transport and private car candrop fic-free paths, etc.). Oneof the principal aims of these days programmes in Melbourne, Brisbane, Washington D.C.,Greater Statesrevealedthat every additional mile of bike lanesper from an average1.43to 1.25hours if the bicycle is integrated is to encouragepeople to take up cycling for the first time or Londonand Minneapolis/St. Paulshowedthat this is very squaremile led to a 1% increasein bicycle commuters (Dill in the public transport commute(Martens,2004). to start cycling again,providing the opportunity for lessex- dependent on the city. Reductionsin motor vehicle usedue and Carr,2003). A study carried out in Dublin in 2012revealed perienced cyclists to gain the confidence, experienceand fun to bike sharewere of approximately 90,000 km per annumin that the construction of segregatedcycling lanesproduceda A study carried out in 2006 in the Netherlandsshowedthat necessaryto enable them to cycle more. Creating at least one Melbourne and Minneapolis/St. Pauland 243,291km for Wash- 74.1%changein the opinion of residents on cycling safety, with a substantial degreeof integration of cycling in the public high quality traffic-free cycleroute in every urban areadrives ington D.C.In Greater Londonhowever, motor vehicle use 56.4%of the surveyedpeopleactually consideringshifting to transport networks is achievedby simply providing sufficient people to cycling again, enjoying the experience and convinc- increased 166,341kmper annum largely due to a low car mode cycling due to these new infrastructures (Caulfield et al., 2012). and attractive bicycle parking facilities at public transport ing themselvesthat the bicycle is a valuable and appropriate substitution rate (Fishmanet al., 2014).A study carried out in stations (Gatersleben and Appleton, 2007). Thissame meansof transport for everyday use(Jones,2012). Barcelonashowedthat the bicycle sharing schemeof the city Similar findings were observedin Seville in 2010,where the experience demonstrated that bicycle lockerslocated at bus (Bicing) producedanannual changein mortality of 0.03 from existenceof the cycling infrastructure (120km) produceda stations were hardly used by passengersdue to their cost and Oneof the most relevant annual events that raise cycling road traffic incidents and 0.13deathsfrom air pollution. Addi- global modal shift of 32%from former car usersand 5.4% the perceivedlow risks of theft and vandalism. awarenessin Europeis the EuropeanMobility Week,which is tionally, this study found that 12.28deathswere avoided and from motorcycle userswith a total spent budget of €35 an annual campaignon sustainable urban mobility organised carbon dioxide emissionswere reduced by approximately 9 Gg million (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla,2010).Thisultimately Cyclingintegration efforts arecurrently part of the transport by the EuropeanCommission.Theaim of this campaign is when compared with car users (Rojas-Ruedaet al., 2011). produced a global increasein modal shareof cycling in the planning strategiesof different cities in Europe.In the Flem- to encourageEuropeanlocal authorities to introduce and city from 0.5% in 2006 to 7%in 2013.In the city council of ish region of Belgium, 22%of all trips to the station are made promote sustainabletransport options and to impulse modal A study with information from surveysabout bicycleshare Darlington (UK),the injection of €5.3 million in cycling infra- by bicycle.In the Netherlands,39%of all trips to the station shift from private motorised transport amongcitizens. Oneof userscarried out in London, Brussels,Berlin, Stuttgart, Paris, structure (40 km) since2004 produceda total increasein cy- are madeby bicycle and 10%of train passengerscontinue the most important eventsthat take placeduring this week Lyon, and Barcelonashowedthat private motorisation is cle trips of 26-30% and changedcycling mode sharefrom 1% their trips on this mode.In Denmark,25%of train clients is the “In Town Without My Car” day, in which cities set aside reduced by the implementation ofa bicycle sharescheme to almost 3% (5.1trips per 100 people) (DCC,2007; Sloman usethe bike to get the station and 9% in Sweden,yet in the one or severalareassolely for pedestrians, cyclists and public (being asmuch as10%in Barcelona).Additionally, other et al., 2010).In Malmö, the construction of 410km of bicycle city of Malmö this number increasesto 35%.In Copenhagen transport (EC,2014). An experiment conducted in Brussels transportation modessuch asmopedsor motorcycles suf- lanesin 2009 resulted in a total 20% increasein the number (Denmark) and Berlin (Germany),bicycles areallowed in during CarFreeSunday(20th September 2009) revealed a fered important reductions asa consequenceof the bicycle of cycling trips and raising the cycling modal sharefrom 20% trains and underground transport while in Dresden(Ger- reduction in the local concentration of BlackCarbonof 6 μg/ sharescheme(46% in Berlin and 34%in Stuttgart). Current in 2003 to 22%in 2013,having spenta total budget of €40 many), Strasbourg and Lille (France)bicycles are generally m3. Thisreduction lasted only during the hours in which car bicycle sharersreported their previous usual transport to be million (ADVANCE,2014; CIVITAS,2014). allowed on trams (ECF,2012). circulation wasrestricted. Oncenormal circulation wasre-es- those shown in Table 1(Zwerts, 2014). tablished, black carbon concentrations returned to their usual levels (38 μg/m3) (Fierens, 2013). Provision of trip-end facilities Information and awareness campaigns Cycling infrastructure Apart from the developmentof the cyclinginfrastructure Information and public awarenesscampaignsare important Cyclinginfrastructure refers to the existenceof segregated itself, ancillary facilities are necessaryfor encouragingmodal determinants in the successof policies directed towards cy- Personalised travel information lanes,bicycle parking slots aswell ascycle storagefacilities shifts. Theexistence of proper and safecycle parking and cling. Thereis a needto develop acycling culture and acriti- In general, aggregate-levelstudies havefound a positive at home,work or public transport stations. Thisinfrastruc- storagefacilities is likely to increasethe degreeof modal cal massof cyclists which makesfurther adoption more likely correlation betweenthe investmentin cycling infrastructure ture is not particularly related to a bicycle sharescheme,but shift inacity with cycling infrastructure. A study carried out (i.e. commutersare more likely to cycleif those around them (particularly lanes)and overall levels of bicycling. However, rather directed to private cyclists. in the United Statesrevealedthat the existenceof bicycle are alreadycycling). Information campaignsare destined to there are still important knowledgegapson individual-level parking facilities wasthe secondpriority after segregat- increasethe awarenessof the general public on the existence preferences, which in somecaseshave found a correlation Thereis a generalperception among stakeholders that cre- ed lanes among surveyed users,lockers being the most of cycling infrastructure and on other factors suchashealth between cycling and proximity to separatepaths, or that ating cycling infrastructure will increasemodal shift (usually preferred (against exterior lockable or coveredlockable facil- benefits, cost-effectiveness,etc. cyclists go out of their way to use paths.Astudy carried referred to asthe “build it andthey’ll come”principle) and ities) (Taylor and Mahmassani,1996).A study in the Neth- out in the Portland (United States)incorporating GPSdata in most cases,this principle is true. However,other factors erlands showedthat the existenceof cycle storagefacilities According to Doumaand Cleaveland(2009), the effectiveness collection revealedthat cyclists prefer routes that reduce might aswell determine the successof a cycling infrastruc- nearby usual workplaces increasethe number of cyclists, and of cycling campaignsin UScities like Chicagoor Orlando was exposureto motor vehicle traffic (Broachet al., 2012).It ture suchasthe location of facilities along usablecommuting particularly, women cyclists(van der Kloof et al., 2014). increased by awarenesscampaigns and bicycling advocacy. highlights the need of designing personalisedtravel infor- routes, the overall network connectivity or the amount of Thesemajor campaignsadvertised the presenceof bike lanes mation that reflects individual route choicesand assures publicity and promotion (Doumaand Cleaveland,2008). and createdexcitement about the new transportation option. conditions for efficient transportation, securityand comfort. Integration of cycling in public transport net- A similar casewasobservedin Mexico City’s, which despite A fully integrated personalisedtravel information systemthat Theimportance of creating cycling infrastructure is related to works low cycling levels,quickly reachedthe capacity of its bike accountsfor cycling in the urban public transport network is the public perception of cycling asrisky. A surveycarried out in Thecurrent practisesin the promotion of cycling asan sharing schemeof 30,000 membersand now hasa waiting list still pending, evenin those cities with a fully-evolved cycling 2010among UKadults found that 86% selectedcycling asthe alternative mode of transport focus on its seamlessintegra- to join (Shaheenand Guzman,2011).Information campaigns policy framework. mode most at risk of traffic accidents,asopposedto 2-7%for tion with existing public transport networks (i.e. “bike-and- have fostered cycling in severalGermancities suchasBerlin, other modes(Thornton et al., 2010).A similar study in Portland ride”). Thenumber of policy initiatives to promote the use Frankfurt, Hamburg andMunich. In Berlin, communication (USA)revealedthat there is significant potential for increasing of bike-and-ride, the combineduseof the bicycle andpublic efforts are lessvisible than infrastructure improvementswhile cyclingwith a saferinfrastructure stating that 60% of the resi- transport for one trip, hasseena considerableincreaseover in Frankfurt somecommunicationefforts like the “bike&busi- dents would cycle if safety wasincreased, 7%are enthused and 2. MEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING the last 10years worldwide. Examplesof these practises are ness” campaignwere noticeable despite the lessimportant in- confident, lessthan 1%are strong and fearless, and apropor- THE DEMAND OF OTHER TRANSPORT the designof bicycle routesto stations, the provision of bicy- frastructure improvements (Lanzendorf and Busch-Geertsma, tion are not interested in cycling at all (33%)(Geller,2012). cle rackson buses,allowing bicycles on trains, bicycle lockers 2014).Theinformation and promotion campaignundertaken MODES and parking facilities at stations (IST,2010). by Munich cost €4 million and between2009 and 2014is ex- Thisclearly highlights the need of developing separate Low emission zones (LEZ) pected to raise cycling modal share to 17%in 2014(von Sassen cycling infrastructure to increasethe perception of safety Low emission zones(LEZ)are areaswhere vehicles that do Theintegration of cycling in public transport commutes and Kofler, 2013).TheUKcities of Peterborough and Worces- among the public opinion (Goodmanet al., 2014). Research not meet a minimum standard for vehicle emissionsare is particularly interesting for reducingdoor-to-door travel ter invested in the period between2004-2008 a substantial confirms that the type of bicycleinfrastructure matters: restricted from entering and are subject to large fines if they times, particularly in the trips betweenthe transport station part of the €8.1and €5.3million budgetsin funding cycling potential usersprefer physically segregatedbicycle paths to do enter. LEZsaredeemed restrictive measuressince they and homeor the work place. Asa feeder mode, cycling is awarenesscampaignsthat resulted in cycling modal sharesof curb lanes,bicycle lanesand roadswithout bicycle facilities affect driving habits and involve fleet renewal.More than substantially faster than walking and more flexible than 17%and 16%(38% and 23%increase with respect to 2004) (Heinen et al., 2010). 200 LEZhave already beenimplemented in Europe,with the public transport, eliminating waiting and schedulingcosts respectively (Slomanet al., 2010).
10 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 11 LEZof London (UK) and Stockholm (Sweden)the most known Cities suchasHelsinki (Finland) and Edinburgh (UK) are in Applying high parking chargestranslates in a reduction of encouragingpedestrians or cyclists to usethe least polluted examples (Panteliadis et al., 2014). Other LEZscanbe found the verge of applying a congestion charging schemeand are traffic congestion. A study carried out by the Associationof routes). Somecity planning measures,e.g. moving house- in Antwerp, Athens, Prague,Copenhagen,Berlin, Bremen, awaitinga final decision by policy makers. Town & City Management in 18cities in the UK suggested holds or schoolsto lesspolluted areasfall in this category Karlsruhe, Budapest, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Rome,Palermo, that parking costsshouldbe adjusted to the type of location (Transphorm, 2014). Verona, Lisbon,Trondheim, Brighton and Oxford. being referred to in order to be effective (ATCM,2013).A Determining the link of cyclingwith air quality is not straight- Promoting cycling is usually included in the implementation Speed management: 30 km/h (20 mph) zones study conductedin Valletta (Malta), suggestedthat reducing forward, dueto the fact that its implementation in the city of LEZs.Changesto ownership and useof local vehicle fleets Theimplementation of speedmanagement measuresacross the amount of parking slotsin the central areaof the city level is usually part of a packageof measuresthat control road are expected effects of the LEZaswell astransport modes. urban roadsand particularly 30 km/h zonesfollows the need aswell asintroducing a charging systemfor non-residents traffic pollution asa whole. In the Air Implementation Pilot Changesin transport modestake sometime to settle down, of maintaining circulation speedat a safelevel for pedestrian (6.25€/day) madethe amount of vehiclesentering the city published by the EuropeanEnvironment Agency,the promotion starting to becomeapparentin the months precedingthe and cycling activity. Additionally, the measureis directed centre decline by 7.4%,along with a 10%shift from private of cycling is oneof the common measuresthat are implement- motorisation to public transport, cycling and walking (Attard start of enforcement and appearto continue to changefor at towards reducing traffic and noise pollution at denselypopu- ed by cities to reduce the concentrations of NO2 and PM10.The least one year afterwards (Ellison et al., 2013). lated urban centres. Severalcities in Europehave implement- and Ison, 2014). Air Implementation Pilot also analysedthe Time Extension ed 30 km/h zonessince these were first implemented in 1992 Notifications (TENS)ofthe cities of Antwerp (Belgium), Berlin Despite the fact that LEZdo not specifically enhancecycling, in Graz(Austria). A study carried out in Mol (Belgium) and (Germany),Dublin (Ireland), Madrid (Spain),Malmö (Sweden), their implementation canbecomean important decision Barcelona(Spain)suggestedthat the implementation of 30 Higher vehicle costs Milan (Italy), Paris(France),Ploiesti (Romania), Prague(Czech factor for modal shifting. No data is availableon the effects km/h zonesmayhavea limited effect in urban air pollution Higher vehicle costs should be generally associatedwith the Republic),Plovdiv (Bulgaria), Vienna(Austria) and Vilnius of LEZsonmodal shift. Somecities like Berlin have increased and that the most important advantageof such zonesis road vehicle ownership costs and the vehicle usecosts.Vehicle (Lithuania). Most of the TENSfor these cities state that cycling their modal share of cycling by 10%between 1998and 2014 safety (Int Paniset al., 2006). Barcelonaintroduced in 2007 usecosts are usually considered asthe costs related to fuel is being promoted actively to comply with the Europeanlimit consumption, maintenance and use taxes.Whenconsidering (from 3%to 13%)due to traffic managementstrategies that a 30 km/h zone(Zona30) in its city centre and sincethen, values for NO2,PM10and benzenebut cycling is always part of a havediscouragedthe useof private motorised transporta- similar zonesarebeing implemented in the rest of the city economicfactors related to ownership and use,cycling is combination of measures(EEA,2013). tion (SFCC,2014).In London for example, the bicycle share and accident rates have dropped by 27% (CDC,2009). Since a more cost-effective alternative. In the UK,the following schemeof the city is deemedan essential part of the general the introduction of Zona30, the 30 km/h speedlimit has factors apply when counting the costsof choosinga bicycle LEZplan. been extended to 215km2 (26% of the city) and hasseency- over a car.Theinitial outlay of a bicycle is in general, much The impact of a package of measures at the cling trips increaseby 30% overall, from around 1%in 2006 lower than that of a car (in its cost,the interest lost and city level the depreciation).Theminimum third party liability and the to nearly 2% in 2009. TheZona30 areasincluded additional Thereis little evidence/information in the literature that vehicle excise duty (VED)are not mandatory for cyclists. Fuel Congestion charging mobility measuressuchasstreet signs, rubber studs, raised quantifies the effect on ameasure-by-measurebasisof air costsare a major factor where cycling benefits over motor- Congestioncharging aimsto reducecongestion within a pedestrian crossingsand humps.In Bristol (UK), two streets quality policies usedby acity to improve air quality levels. ing, as well asmaintenance and parts. In general, travelling specifiedareaof the city through the application of daily were given 20 mph limits in 2011and within 6 months, TheTransphorm Project has developed an integrated assess- 10miles/day by bicycle could saveof up to €2,150eachyear. tariff that enablesmotorists to drive in this area,leaveand cycling and pedestrian activities increasedby up to 12%in ment tool (IATV)that allows analysingdifferent transport Thisis especiallyrelated to the fact that in the UK, about re-enter the charging zone asmany times as required in one these roads (Cedeño-Tovar and Kilbane-Dawe, 2013). scenarioson a city level for Athens, Helsinki, London, Oslo one fifth of the energy consumedin transport comesfrom day. Congestioncharging zonesare different from LEZbe- and Rotterdam.Despitethe fact that no explicit scenarios journeys of lessthan 8 km which could be madeby foot or causethese chargesare for circulation in a specified zoneof were developed for cycling, a 10%less-traffic scenario in bicycle (Brand et al., 2014). a city regardlessof the vehicle type, whereasLEZrestrict the Car-free zones 2020 waselaborated. This10%traffic reduction could be pro- entrance of a specific type of vehicles (Hamilton, 2011). Car-freezonesare usually urban planning strategies that seek ducedby a modal shift to other transportation modes(such to regenerate spacesthat are heavily affected by road-traffic. ascycling). Thefollowing table (Table 2) includes the PM10 Themost notable example of a functional congestion Theobjective of creating car-free spacesisto increase quality concentration(in μg/m3) that this tool quantifies for this 10% charging zone is found in London. TheLondon congestion of life in the surrounding areasand to encouragecitizens 3. PACKAGES OF MEASURES AND traffic reduction scenario aswell as the reductions (in μg/m3) charging schemehas achieved a 27%decreasein traffic to shift from private motorisation to cyclingand walking LINKS WITH AIR QUALITYPOLICIES in concentrations with respectto the referenceyear (2008) levelsof the affected zonesinceits implementation in 2002 exclusively. In the EuropeanUnion, reclaiming city streets and the reductions in caseof a BusinessasUsual scenario in (80,000 fewer carsevery day). Asa result, the daily journeys for people hasbecomea priority in environmental planning Ona regional or city level, transport and city planners as 2020. The valuescalculated are background values, rather by bicycle in Inner London1 have increased 81%(from 0.32 to with noticeable policy examplesin Copenhagen,Strasbourg, well asenvironmental authorities are working on individual than roadside. 0.58) between 2002 and 2013(TfL, 2014). Other cities such Ghent, London (Vauxhall Cross),Cambridge, Wolverhamp- strategiesto improve air quality and health accordingto their asStockholm and Singaporehave implemented congestion ton and Oxford (EC,2014). According to a study carried out regional and local conditions. Regionalor urban policies are In order to identify the current state of cyclingpromotion charging aswell. Aswith LEZ,information on the potential in Northampton (UK), reclaiming heavily congestedzones e.g. bypasses,traffic flow measures,environmental zones, asa specific measurefor improving urban air quality levels, modal shift to cycling originated by the implementation through the introduction of car-free zonescanreduce 15% cycling lane networks, improved public transport etc. Some the analysis of specific air quality plans adopted by European of congestion charging schemesis not available but some of peak hour traffic in the immediate surroundings andhelps city authorities will go beyondthat and usemeasuresfor cities is madein the following chapters.Additionally, a series modal shift may be expecteddue to the fact that the scheme guaranteecritical masspatronage for public transport and specific hot spots2 (i.e. 30 km/h zones,car-free zones).In ad- of hypothetic mode sharescenariosareevaluated through doesnot apply to bicycles. cycling (NCC,2007). dition, there are measures,that do not changeemissions,but an air quality modelling approachin order to estimate the exposures,by technical measures(controlled ventilation with potential reductions in pollutants’ concentration caused In Stockholm, the congestion charging zone wasintroduced filter) or non-technical measures(changein behaviour, e.g. exclusively by such cycling measures. in 2007,covering adistanceof approximately 5 kmfrom Parking rationing and charging the city centre. Howeverthe majority of work commuters Theuseof individual motorised transportation canbe discouragedthrough parking rationing and chargingprac- to the central areasof the city maketrips longer than 5 km. tises. Parkingrationing consistsin reducing the number of (Jansson,2008). Theapplication of the congestion charging TABLE2. PM CONCENTRATIONS FOR SCENARIOS QUANTIFIED WITH THEIATV TOOL FOR THE10% TRAFFICREDUCTION SCENARIO available parking areasin the city while parking charging 10 zonedecreasedincoming traffic to the inner city zoneby 18% consistsin applying high tariffs to vehiclesthat usethose PM concentration PM concentration PM concentration (SFCC,2014). City 10 10 10 areas,either generally or during a specific period of time. The (Baseline:2008) (BAU:2020) (10% traffic reduction: 2020) usual parking management actions are directed to regenerate Other congestion charging schemescanbe found in cities 3 3 3 city centresand aimed to increasethe viability of business Athens 15.0μg/m 8.0 μg/m 8.0 μg/m like Bergen(Norway), Durham (UK), Gothenburg (Sweden), by improving trade, and their outcomesare directly related Helsinki 8.5μg/m3 7.5μg/m3 7.0μg/m3 Oslo(Norway), Trondheim (Norway) and Valletta (Malta). to a modal shift (although not exclusivelytowards cycling). London 9.0 μg/m3 8.0 μg/m3 7.0μg/m3 Oslo 15.0μg/m3 14.0μg/m3 14.0μg/m3 1 Defined asthe London boroughs of Camden,City of London, Greenwich, Hackney,Hammersmith and Fulham, Islington, Kensington and Chelsea,Lambeth, Lewisham,Southwark, Tower Rotterdam 14.0μg/m3 13.0μg/m3 13.0μg/m3 Hamlets, Wandsworth and Westminster. classification.
12 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 13 REVIEW OF CASE STUDIES
In this section, the useof cycling asa relevant measurefor improving air quality is reviewed in five Europeancities: Antwerp (Belgium), London (United Kingdom), Nantes (France),Seville (Spain) and Thessaloniki (Greece).Thesecities were selected by taking into consideration their participation in the EuropeanMobility Week,their recognition ascities in which cycling hasbeen continuously supported and their geographiclocation throughout Europe.Theassessmentof the air quality status for eachof these cities is made attending to the compliance of the air quality managementzonesencompassedin the metropolitan areas 3 with the NO2 and PM10limit values(LV) establishedin Directive 2008/50/ECand for the latest reported year (2012).
TABLE3. AVERAGE MODE SHARE OF THE STUDIED CITIES Verwaest City Year Car Bike Walk Bus Metro/ Tram Train h Elisabet
Antwerp 2010 41% 23% 20% 6% 8% 2% , London 2006 39% 2% 20% 19% 10% 8% Antwerpen
Nantes 2012 52% 5% 27% 16% d Sta
Seville 2011 53% 7% 7% 28% 5% 0% © Thessaloniki 2010 55% 10% 10% 25%
1. ANTWERP Current state of cycling Policymakingin Antwerp hasbeentraditionally favourable General features towards promoting cycling asa measurefor improving urban Antwerp is a city located in the north of Belgium (Flemish mobility aswell asair quality. Theefforts of the city towards Region), whose metropolitan zone coversan areaof 204 re-establishing cycling asa feasible form of transport aswell km2 (SB,2014).In terms of its population it is the second asthe existing bicycle culture are positively perceived in most populouscity in Belgium after Brussels,with a total of Europeand abroad. In 2013the city was rated with a 72Co- 510,610inhabitants (2008) (SB,2008). Thecity is located on penhagenizeIndex6 (5th placeamongst 20 cities worldwide). the river Scheldtand is linked to the North Sea,sheltering Thisindex measuresthe friendliness ofa city towards cycling one of the largest seaports in Europe (Figure 1).Theweath- in terms of its infrastructure, facilities, modal split andmodal er in Antwerp is distinctly maritime andusuallymild, with increaseprojections. Asof now, Antwerp hasmore than 100 significant precipitation in all seasons4.Theaveragetemper- km of cycletracks, separatedinfrastructure and implement- ature and precipitation are 3.0°Cand 65 mm in Januaryand ed best practice asa result of intense political engagement. 18.0°Cand 78 mm in July (Peel et al., 2007). Antwerp hasexperienceda modal shift of 7% towards cycling in the period between 2008 and2010(from an initial 16%to 23%).Themajority of people who changedtowards Urban transport and mode share cycling werepreviously usingprivate motorisation and public Thecity has a well-developed transport infrastructure. It con- transport (EPOMM,2014).Despite this high modal share, in sists in a network of roads (1,206km) and tunnels, aswell as 2011the city introduced a bike sharesystemin its central part tram (12lines) and buslines which provide accessto the city (Velo Antwerpen) that hasbecomepopular due to its intelli- centre and suburbs (Flemish Government, 2011).Thetotal gent placement and saturation rates (CDC,2014). number of registered cars in Antwerp is 238,5565,with 56.2% of the commute journeys made by car and 13.0%made by bicycle (Eurostat, 2014). According to the EuropeanPlatform Air quality status on Mobility Management (EPOMM),the general mode share Thecity of Antwerp encompassestwo air quality manage- of Antwerp is balanced between car (41%), bicycle (23%) ment zones: BEF01S7(Portof Antwerp) and BEF02A(Ant- and walking (20%) asshown in Table 3 (EPOMM,2014). The werp). In 2012,only zone BEF01Sdidnot comply with the 8 mode shareof cycling in Antwerp is the highest amongstthe PM10daily LV, exceedingit 36 times in station BELAL05 studied Europeancities. (Beveren)while the city of Antwerp is itself in compliance. To improve the air quality levels,since2004 themunicipality of Antwerp hasestablished a generalmobility strategy (Mas-
2Measures on hot-spot level arethose allocated exclusively on high-concentration zoneswithin a city and not elsewhere.Thesemeasuresusually differ from city-wide measuresin that they intend to abate high pollution levels that occur locally. 3 3 3 3 3 NO2 – annuallimit value (40 μg/m ), hourly limit value (200 μg/m ). PM10– annuallimit value (40 μg/m ), daily limit value (50 μg/m ). 4 Köppenclimate classification-Oceanicclimate. 5 Number of passengercars registered as of 2011. 6 Themaximum CopenhagenizeIndex is 100. 7 StandardEuropeancode for the air quality management zones. 8 StandardEuropeancode for the air quality monitoring stations according to AirBase.
14 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 15 terplan Antwerpen), whichcontemplatesinvestment in road an integral cycling programme(Totaalplan fiets), which is and public transport infrastructure in order to alleviate the circumscribedin the general mobility strategy of Antwerp heavily-trafficked zone of the port of Antwerp (CELINE,2013). (Masterplan Antwerpen)and the mobility plan of the Flemish Theeffectiveness of this general mobility strategy hasnot Region(Mobiliteitsplan Vlaanderen).Thesemobility plans beenquantified due to its long-term nature. In Figure1it can aim to increasethe modal shift from private motorisation to 9 be seenthat ambient NO2 levels in Antwerp have decreased other transport modes.Concretely,the local cycling pro- 2 μg/m3 in the period between 2000 and 2012(from 47 μg/ grammeincludes a seriesof direct investment and promotion m3 to 45 μg/m3). Theaveragemean annual concentration of actions to increase mode shareaswell asroad safety (Vlaam- 3 PM10 in zone BEF02Ais 27μg/m in 2012(Figure 2). seOverheid, 2008). Additionally, the city launcheda bicycle share program (Velo Antwerp) in June2011which hasgrown up to 150stations and 1800bikes, with a total investment Cycling as an air quality improvement measure of €60 million in 2013.Theeffectivenessof the local cycling Theair quality plan of the FlemishRegionsubmitted to the programmeand the general mobility strategies in terms of 10 EuropeanCommission for a time extension in the compli- emission reductions and impact on NO2/PM10concentrations
anceof the PM10LVscontemplates the implementation of wasnot quantified and is not reported.
TABLE4. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITYIN ANTWERP Baxevanis r ANTWERP
a Alexande Air Quality Metric 2008* 2010 2012 Limit Value ©
3 3 NO2 annual mean – [μg/m ] 38 36 35 40 μg/m NO hourly exceedances– [hours] 2 0 6 18h>200 μg/m3 2 2. LONDON moting public participation in “active travel”,andhighlighting 3 3 PM10annual mean – [μg/m ] 23 27 27 40 μg/m the existing cycling infrastructure. Asof 2012,approximately 3 General features 150,000 bicycle journeys per daywere registeredin the PM10 daily exceedances– [days] 27 25 27 35d >50 μg/m Londonis located in the Southeastof Great Britain, covering Central London cordon (TfL, 2014).Despite the efforts, cycling b Mode Share 2008 2010 2012 an areaof 1,572km2 and is the capital city of the United King- mode shareshowed an almost negligible increase(0.9%) Cycling 16% 23% Unavailable dom (Figure 1).Standing on the banks of the river Thames,it between 2001and 2008, in contrast with public transport which increased its mode share by 4% (EPOMM,2014).As a Private car 61% 41% Unavailable is the most populous city in the EuropeanUnion (8,416,535 inhabitants in 2013),accounting for 12.5%of the UKpopula- consequence,local authorities haveoutlined plans for spend- Measuresfor air quality improvement tion (GLA,2012).London hasa temperature oceanic climate ing €1100million on cycling over the next yearsin order to • Mobility plansaimed to improve public transport and slow modesinfra- (Cfb)1,with averagetemperatures and precipitations of 8.3°C deliver a step changein cycling provision and to support the structure – Masterplan Antwerpen. and 51mm in January and 23.2°Cand 41mm in July (Peel et growing number of cyclists in London (TfL, 2014). • Cyclingprogramfor the region: Totaalplan fiets. al., 2007). • Public transport plan: Pegasusplan. Air quality status Summaryof measureson road-traffic • Parking management measures. Theareaof GreaterLondoncorrespondswith the air quality (2008-2014)c • Increasing the uptake of cleaner vehicle fleets (electric, hybrid, etc.). Urban transport and mode share managementzonethat reports compliance with the European • Adjustment of registration and annual circulation taxesfor carsand Londonhasone of the largest transport infrastructures in LVsfor NO and PM (UK0001– Greater London Urban Area). trucks basedon environmental performance. Europe,consisting in an extensive network of roads (14,830 2 10 In 2012,this zone did not comply with the two NO LVs(hourly • Roadpricing strategies. km), the Underground (metro), many buslines, a tram, a light 2 and annual). TheNO hourly LV was exceeded132hours and • Dynamic traffic management. railway, and severalurban and suburban railways (TfL, 2013). 2 Thetotal number of passengercarsregistered in London the annual meanwas94 μg/m3 in station GB0682A(London Cyclingasa measurein the local air quality plan Yes is the largest amongst the studied cities, namely 3,035,845 Marylebone Road).Sourceapportionment studies for the city Extensionof cycling infrastructure [km] 100 km vehicles2 (Eurostat, 2014). While 31.9%of the commute jour- suggestthat road traffic is responsiblefor approximately 70% neysin London are carried out by car,only 4.3% of them are of the measuredair quality levels (Defra, 2011).In order to Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €60,000,000 made by bicycle. Thepoor mode shareof cycling in London is comply with the NO2 LVs,the Greater LondonAuthority has Bicycle sharing scheme Velo Antwerp confirmed by the averagemode sharein 2010(2%), in con- established alow emission zone(LEZ)in 2008, affecting the circulation of diesel-engine lorries (>3.5t), buses,coaches,large Participation in the EuropeanMobility Week Yes.Latest participation: 2013 trast with the preponderanceof private motorisation (39%) and public transport (37%) (EPOMM,2014). vansand minibuses,and will adapt it to different Eurostand- Participation in “In town without my car” event Yes.Latest participation: 2013 ards. TheLondon LEZproduced areduction in the NO2 quality levelsof the city of 0.2 μg/m3. In addition to this, the conges- a Averageair quality values reported for BEF02A(Antwerp). Current state of cycling tion charging zone hasbeen discouraging vehicles from access- b Mode share data from EPOMM. c In London, policymaking has beenprogressively supporting ing Central Londonsince 2003 and with an averagereduction Information from the PM10 TimeExtensionNotification for the FlemishRegion(2008). * Referenceyears for mode share data according to EPOMM. cycling asa feasible transport mode that could helpalleviate of 8% in NOx emissions(Defra, 2012).In general, the mean air
congestion and increasemobility in the city. Thecontinuous quality levels of NO2 in London havenot changedsignificantly development of cycling infrastructure and promotion haspro- between 2000 and 2012(Figure 1).Theaverage meanannual 3 duced an estimated 103.2%increase in cycle journey stages concentration of PM10in zone UK0001is 22μg/m in 2012. in GreaterLondonsince 2000. Themost notable cycling-ori- ented action hasbeenthe adoption of the Londonbicycle share scheme(BarclaysCycleHire) in 2010and its continuous Cycling as an air quality improvement measure. Despite the fact that the London LEZandthe congestion 9 Measuredasthe annual mean concentration. integration in the urban public transport network (TfL,2010). 10Reference year: 2005. Additionally, the city hasbeentaking part in campaignspro- charging zoneare the flagship policy instruments for im-
16 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 17 proving air quality in the city, cycling hasbeenconsidereda employees,outlining cycling routes,building and improving relevant abatement measureaswell. The2011air quality plan cycling tracks, increasing and securing cycle parking slots and elaboratedby the GreaterLondonAuthority for obtaining a tackling cycling burglary (Defra, 2011).Theeffectivenessof the
time extension in the compliancewith NO2LVsoutlines the cycling-oriented measuresin terms of emission reductions
implementation of cycling-promotion measuresin 17bor- and impact on NO2concentrations wasnot quantified and is oughs. Examplesof these measuresare the implementation not reported. of cycling bestpractice, promoting cycling amongstpublic
TABLE5. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITYIN LONDON
LONDON Air Quality Metrica 2001 2006 2012 Limit Value
3 3 NO2 annual mean – [μg/m ] 51 51 48 40 μg/m 3 NO2 hourly exceedances– [hours] 60 458 132 18h>200 μg/m 3 3 PM10annual mean – [μg/m ] 27 29 22 40 μg/m
3 Blanchard
PM10 daily exceedances– [days] 29 152 27 35d >50 μg/m e Mode Shareb 2001 2006 2012 Christian
Cycling 2% 3% Unavailable © Private car 41% 39% Unavailable Measuresfor air quality improvement 3. NANTES Air quality status • London Low Emission Zone (LEZ). Thecity of Nantesis coveredby the air quality management • Low-emissionpublic sector fleets. General features zone FR23A01(Paysde la Loire-Nantes), which in 2012com- • Operation of the congestion chargingzone. Nantesis a city located in western Franceand is the capital plied with all the LVsestablished by EuropeanLegislation for • Promoting smarter travel (enhancingcycling). of the Paysde la Loire region (Figure 1).Its metropolitan area NO2 and PM10.Despite compliance with the EuropeanLVs,air Summaryof measureson road-traffic covers 524.6 km2 and hosts 873,133inhabitants (2010) making quality levels in Nantes in 2012were between 14and 22μg/ c • Busemission programme (improvement of bus fleets). (2001-2014) th 3 3 • Taxi emissionsprogramme(improvement of taxi fleets). it the 6 most populous city in France(INSEE,2014).The m and between 17and 26 μg/m for the NO2 and PM10 annual 3 • Increasethe uptake of electric vehicles. city hasa WesternEuropeanoceanicclimate, with frequent meansrespectively. NO2 levels in Nantes decreased8 μg/m • Smoothingtraffic flow and reducingidling. rainfalls throughout the year and cool temperatures (Cfb)1.The in the period between 2000 and 2012according to Figure 1.Theaveragemean annual concentration of PM in zone • Carclubs and car sharing. averagetemperatures and precipitation are 4.5°Cand 91mm 10 in January and 17.0°Cand 39 mm in July (Météo-France, 2013). FR23A01is 22 μg/m3 in 2012(Figure 2). Cyclingasa measurein the local air quality plan Yes Extensionof cycling infrastructure [km] Unclassified Cycling as an air quality improvement measure Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €1,100,000,000 Urban transport and mode share Thetransport network of Nantesreflects its character asa Air quality policymaking in Nanteshasbeenoutlined in Bicycle sharing scheme Barclays CycleHire mid-size Europeancity. Thecurrent network hasthree tram- the Regional Air Quality Plan(Paysde la Loire) and the Participation in the EuropeanMobility Week Yes.Latest participation: 2013 way lines, suburban railways and an extensive busnetwork Urban TravelPlan(“A mobile city is a sustainable city – with 56 lines. Themunicipality of Nantes has481,882passen- 2000/2010”). Thegeneralobjective of the plan is to reduce Participation in “In town without my car” event Yes.Latest participation: 2013 ger carsregistered2, with 63%of the commute journeys car- private motorisation mode shareto 50% (currently 52%)and ried out by car and 4% made by bicycle (Eurostat, 2014).The by promoting cycling in the city centre. All of the measures a Averageair quality values reported for UK0001 (GreaterLondon Urban Area). b Mode share data from EPOMM. averagemode shareof the city in 2010suggestsa prevalent outlined in section 3.3.3areincluded in the air quality plan c Information from the Air Quality Plan for the GreaterLondonUrban Area(2011). private motorisation (52%),followed by walking (27%)while and areexpected to be completed in a temporal scaleof 5 to cycling accounts for only 5% of the trips (EPOMM,2014). 10years (Nantes Métropole, 2013).Theeffectiveness of the cycling-oriented measuresin terms of emission reductions
and impact on NO2concentrations wasnot quantified and is Current state of cycling not reported. Nantes hasa 373km network of separated cycling tracks with a clear trend towards expansion,participating in the inter-regional (la Loire à vélo) and the pan-EuropeanEu- roVelo 6 routes.Thereis sufficient political will to maintain cycling investment to impulse modal shifts in the cityand the metropolitan areas,having spent €40 million between 2009 and 2014.Additionally, Nantes hasa bicycle sharing system in placesince2008 (Bicloo) with more than 5 thousand subscribers (TAN, 2014). Cycling investment hasproduced a shift in the modal sharein the metropolitan areaof Nantesof 2.5%(from 2% to 4.5% between 2008 and 2012).Asa result of its involvement in promoting and investing in cycling, Nantes has been awarded with a 72CopenhagenizeIndex in 2013(CDC,2013).
18 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 19 TABLE6. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITYIN NANTES
NANTES Air Quality Metrica 2008 2012 Limit Value
3 3 NO2 annual mean – [μg/m ] 19 14 40 μg/m 3 NO2 hourly exceedances– [hours] 0 0 18h>200 μg/m 3 3 PM10annual mean – [μg/m ] 17 22 40 μg/m 3 PM10 daily exceedances– [days] 20 20 35d >50 μg/m Mode Shareb 2008 2010 Cycling 2.0% 4.5% Private car Unavailable 52% Measuresfor air quality improvement • Promotion of sustainabletransport strategies (carpools, walking). • Enhancementof cycling infrastructures. Summaryof measureson road-traffic (2008-2014)c • Speedlimitations. • Integration of inter-modal solutions for transport. • Encouragingcleaner vehicle technologies among users.
Cyclingasa measurein the local air quality plan Yes Ciclogreen © Extensionof cycling infrastructure [km] 373km Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €40,000,000 4. SEVILLE commuters to the old town) (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla,2010). Bicycle sharing scheme Bicloo Thetransformation of the city’s mobility hasbeenrapid and Participation in the EuropeanMobility Week Yes.Latest participation: 2010 General features positive, partly due to a sustainedcompromiseon behalf of urban planners. Thisultimately led to a changein modal Participation in “In town without my car” event No Sevilleis the capital andlargestcity of the region of Anda- lusia, in Southern Spain(Figure 1).Thecity is located in the sharefrom 0.5% in 2006 to 7%in 2013,which awarded the 2 city with a CopenhagenizeIndex of 76 (CDC,2013).Asof a Averageair quality values reported for FR23A01(Paysde la Loire-Nantes). banksof the Guadalquivir river, covering an areaof 140 km b Mode share data from EPOMM.Thecycling mode share in 2008 was taken from (CDC,2013). and hosting a population of 703,021in 2011making it the now, the local and regional governments plan to spend €421 c Information from the Revision of the Planfor Atmospheric Protection in Nantes-St.Nazaire(2014). fourth most populous in Spain(INE, 2011).Seville hasa sub- million in maintaining the existing infrastructure and expand- tropical Mediterranean climate (Csa)1,with dry summersand ing it to the nearby urban areas. wet winters. Theaveragetemperatures andprecipitation are 10.9°Cand 66 mm in January and 28.1°Cand 5 mm in July. On average, Seville has 66 days of rain a year (AEMET,2014). Air quality status Thecity of Seville andits metropolitan areaare coveredby the air quality management zone ES0125(NuevaZonaSevilla Urban transport and mode share y Area Metropolitana). ZoneES0125compliesin 2012with all Thecity hasan extendedtransport network that servesthe the LVsestablished by Europeanlegislation, except for the
neighbouring urban agglomerationsand that connectsit with PM10 daily LV which is exceeded 40 days in station ES1638A the rest of the region. Thepublic transport network of Seville (Bermejales).According to a sourceapportionment study, is composedby urban and interurban bus lines (38 lines), a most of these exceedancesarecausedby the intrusion of tram and a metro system with 4 lines. Thecity is also served Saharandust into the Iberian Peninsula,whoseextraction
by suburbanand regional train lines. Thetotal number of ve- would result in compliancewith the PM10daily LVfor this hicles registered in Seville is 281,208in 2004, with 55.0% of zone (Peyet al., 2013).Nevertheless, local authorities have the commute journeys made by car and 1.1%bybicycle (Eu- applied for a time extension to the EuropeanCommission rostat, 2014; CTM,2014). Themode share of Seville is charac- with a comprehensiveair quality plan that contains cy- terised by the importance of private motorisation (53%)and cling-oriented measures(Junta de Andalucía, 2014). Asfor
public transport (33%),aswell asa moderate penetration of NO2 mean concentrations, the overall levels in Seville de- cycling (7%) (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, 2010). creased27μg/m3 in the period between 2000 and 2012(from 52μg/m3 to 25μg/m3) (Figure 1).Theaverage mean annual 3 concentration of PM10 in zone ES0125is33μg/m in 2012. Current state of cycling Sevillehasimplemented one of the most ambitious pro- grammesfor the promotion of cycling, which haschanged Cycling as an air quality improvement measure the patterns of mobility in the cities. In the period between Theair quality plan of the city of Sevilleconsiderscycling 2007 and2010,80 km of differentiated cycling trackshave within a packof measuresdestined to reducetraffic volumes beenbuilt in the city, organisedin 8 itineraries. In the follow- through the promotion of non-motorised transport. The ing years,an additional network of 30 kmwasbuilt in order measureitself is linked with a seriesof other measuresthat to complementthe existing one.Apart from the infrastruc- intend to reducepollution levels integrally. Thedocument ture, Seville hasits own bicycle shareprogramme (BiciSevil- of the air quality plan specifiesthe measuresconcerning la), which hasgained acceptanceamongthe residents of the cycling as(i) the designof cycling itineraries and routes, (ii) city due to its convenienceand smart location (especiallyfor reinforcing and expanding bicycle shareschemesand (iii)
20 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 21 extending and securing bicycle parking slots. To increase discounts and preferential rates are to be appliedfor com- modal share(and pollution abatement), the city council will mute journeys that combine cycling and trains or buses.The consider implementing eco-bonusinstruments for the acqui- complete packof measuresacting on road-traffic (including sition of bicycles, aswell astrip-end facilities. Theseamless those cycling-oriented) is expectedto achievea reduction 3 integration of cyclinginto the public transport network is objective of4 μg/m of NO2or PM10after 2020 (Junta de alsoestablishedin the air quality plan, by specifying that Andalucía, 2014).
TABLE7. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN SEVILLE
SEVILLE Air Quality Metrica 2006 2012 Limit Value
3 3 NO2 annual mean – [μg/m ] 34 24 40 μg/m 3 NO2 hourly exceedances– [hours] 3 3 18h>200 μg/m
PM annual mean – [μg/m3] 41 33 40 μg/m3 Chic 10 e
3 Cycl PM10 daily exceedances– [days] 152 40 35d >50 μg/m i Mode Shareb 2006 2012c
Cycling 0.5% 7.0% Thessalonik © Private car Unavailable 35% Measuresfor air quality improvement 5. THESSALONIKI tive to the congestedeastboundstreets of the city (Megas • Promoting non-motorised transportation modes. Alexandrou and Vasilissis Olgasboulevards). In 2013the city • Developingand enhancingcycling in the city. General features inaugurated its first bicycle sharing scheme(ThessBike),with • Creatingseparateinfrastructure for cyclists. Thessalonikiis the secondlargest city in Greeceand isthe 450 public bicycles, 26 collection points and6 subscription • Imposing restrictions to useof private cars(bans). stations (DT,2014). d capital of the region of Macedonia, covering an areaof 111.7 Summaryof measureson road-traffic (2006-2014) • Incentivising the useof high-occupancyvehicles. km2 with a total population of 322,240inhabitants in 2011 • Increasingandimproving existing public transport infrastructure. (NSSG,2011).Thecity is located in the northern fringe of the • Introducing new car-freezonesin the city centre. ThermaicGulf andbounded by Mount Hortiatis on the south- Air quality status • Revisingthe existing mobility plan to integrate intermodal transpor- east (Figure 1).Theclimate of Thessaloniki is determined by Thecity of Thessalonikiis encompassedwithin the EL0004 tation options. the sea, having a humid subtropical climate (Cda)with mean air quality managementzone (Oikismos Thessaloniki).In
Cyclingasa measurein the local air quality plan Yes temperatures and precipitation of 9.3°Cand 37mm in Janu- 2012this zone did not comply with both PM10LVs:the annual ary and 31.5°Cand20 mm in July (Peel et al., 2007). LV was surpassedby 1μg/m3 (41μg/m3) in station GR0018A Extensionof cycling infrastructure [km] 110 km (Agia Sofia) and the daily LVwas exceeded79 daysin station Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €421,000,000 for that station. Localauthorities haveapplied for a time extension to the EuropeanCommission,including an air qual- Bicycle sharing scheme Bici Sevilla Urban transport and mode share Asa mid-size Europeancity, urban transport in Thessaloniki ity plan which callsfor the implementation of low-emission Participation in the EuropeanMobility Week Yes.Latest participation: 2012 relies basicallyon private motorisation and public transport. zones,parking penalisation schemesand the eco-bonuses Participation in “In town without my car” event No Regardingprivate motorisation, passengercarsin the city for the renewal of the passenger-carvehicle fleet (Vlachos are driven approximately 600,000 veh∙km everyyear.As and Lavdaki, 2004). In general, the averageNO2 annual mean 3 a Averageair quality values reported for ES0125(Nueva ZonaSevilla y Area Metropolitana). for public transport, the city is servedby 92bus lines that concentrations in Thessaloniki decreased17μg/m in the pe- b Mode sharedata for cycling from CopenhagenizeDesign Company. connectit with its regional zoneof influence anda metro riod between 2000 and 2012(from approximately 39 μg/m3 c Mode sharedata for cycling in Seville arereferred to 2013. Mode sharedata for private carsis referred to 2011. to 22μg/m3) (Figure 1).Theaveragemean annual concentra- d systemthat will be inaugurated shortly. Thetotal number of Information from the Air Quality Planfor the Metropolitan Areaof Seville(2010). 3 carsregistered in the municipality of Thessalonikiis 145,000 tion of PM10in zone EL0004 is 36 μg/m in 2012(Figure 2). (2006), with 72.4%of the commute journeys carried out by car (OSET,2014).Themode share of the city in 2010 indicates the preponderanceof cars (55%)and public transport (25%). Cycling as an air quality improvement measure Cycling hasa 10%of the mode share, the second highest At present, local authorities of Thessalonikiare not consider- amongst the studied cities (EPOMM,2014). ing actions directed towards increasinginvestment in cycling to improve air quality. Accordingto the air quality plan of the city, most actionsare related to the construction of new Current state of cycling public transport networks aswell asthe drafting of a new Despite the fact that Thessalonikidoesnot have an extensive mobility strategy for the city and a low-emission zone. cycling infrastructure, important efforts are being done by the local authorities to create acycling culture that encourag- esa modal shift among users.Since2010, the city has been hosting cycling schoolsand events(the cycling carnival) as well as publishing promotional pamphlets and documentsin order to create a critical massof usual cyclists (DT,2010). The city currently hasa differentiated cycling track in the new- ly-refurbished seasidezone(Paraliaki), providing an alterna-
22 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 23 TABLE8. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN THESSALONIKI 6. CONCLUSIONS THESSALONIKI In general,it canbe saidthat four of the five studied cities motorised traffic, which in turn is the mostrelevant pollut- Air Quality Metrica 2006 2010 2012 Limit Value are implementing cycling-related measuresto comply with ant sourcein urban agglomerations. Despite recognising 3 3 cycling asa potential alternative to private motorisation, its NO annual mean – [μg/m ] 39 27 22 40 μg/m the NO2 and PM10limit values, obligated by EuropeanLegis- 2 lation (the only exemption being Thessaloniki).Thedegree effectivenessasan individual measureor within the broader NO hourly exceedances– [hours] 0 0 0 18h>200 μg/m3 2 of development of thesecycling measuresdiffers from city scopeof the air quality and mobility plans hasnot beenas- 3 3 to city, from advancedinfrastructures and political commit- sessedby local authorities individually. Only Sevilleevaluated PM10annual mean – [μg/m ] 30 46 36 40 μg/m ment in the caseof Seville or Antwerp, to limited degreesin its effectivenessincluded in a wider packageof road-traffic PM daily exceedances– [days] 0 0 79 35d >50 μg/m3 10 the caseof Thessaloniki. However there is general agree- measures. Mode Shareb 2006 2010 2012 ment in the fact that cycling is a useful alternative to reduce Cycling Unavailable 10% Unavailable Private car Unavailable 55% Unavailable FIGURE1. TEMPORALEVOLUTION OF THEANNUAL MEAN CONCENTRATION OF NO IN THESTUDIEDCITIES Measuresfor air quality improvement 2
• Implementation ofalow emissionzone. Antwerp London Nantes Seville Thessaloniki LV • Construction and development of an underground transportation system Summaryof measureson road-traffic (Metro Thessalonikis). 70 (2004-2014)c • Implementation of economic/taxation instruments for the uptakeof cleaner vehicles. 60 ]
• Parking penalisation schemes. 3 Cyclingasa measurein the local air quality plan No [μg/m
- 50 Extensionof cycling infrastructure [km] Unclassified n Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) Unknown 40 Bicycle sharing scheme ThessBike Concentratio
Participation in the EuropeanMobility Week Yes.Latest participation: 2013 n 30 Mea
Participation in “In town without my car” event No l
20 a Averageair quality values reported for EL0004(Oikismos Thessalonikis). Annua b Mode share data from EPOMM. 2 c
Information from the PM TimeExtensionNotification for the Agglomeration of Thessaloniki(2004). NO 10 10
0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
YEAR
FIGURE2. TEMPORALEVOLUTION OF THEANNUAL MEAN CONCENTRATION OF PM10 IN THESTUDIEDCITIES.
Antwerp London Nantes Seville Thessaloniki LV
70
] 60 3 [μg/m
- 50 n
40 Concentratio
n 30 Mea l
20 Annua 10
PM 10
0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
YEAR
24 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 25 In all casesit is assumedthat the modal shift to cycling occurs (A501), BakerStreet and Gloucester Placeand the area is of IMPACT ASSESSMENT only from private motorisation andnot from public transport a mixed residential and commercial use. or other transportation modes.Thisis simplification just to re- • Thessaloniki.Thehistoric centre of Thessaloniki was cho- flect the potential for cycling aspart of a modeshift package. sen asthe analysis zone (1.2km2) becauseit is the location Theobjective of this section is to estimate the potential urban centre. Therespective local11 mode sharesconsid- of the Agia Sofiaair quality station (GR0018A),which is reductions in pollutants emissionsand concentrations aswell ered for eachof the cities under this scenarioare shown in responsiblefor the non-complianceof the zone with the ashealth benefits that cycling measuresbring about as part of Figure 3. PM10daily limit value. Thezoneis primarily commercial a packageof measuresto improve air quality. Thestudy has • Typical cycling investment scenario (S1-TCS).Thisscenar- 2. STUDY ZONES and residential, with important roadsthat connectthe city focused on specific example zonesin Antwerp, London and io reflects the consequencesof a constant, moderate invest- east and westbound such asEgnatia Odos,Ioanni Tsimiski, Thessalonikithree of the casestudy cities. Thesecities were ment in cycling on the modeshareof a city. Forthe three Theimpact assessmentfocused on a representative zone of LeoforosNikis and Mitropoleos. chosenasthese arethe cities that, according to section 3, are studied cases,an increasein the cycling mode shareof 23% eachof the cities,rather thanthe entire city, for simplicity. in infringement of the Europeanlimit valuesfor NO2and/or wasassumedasrepresentative of a city in which cycling is In every case,the selected zoneswere closeto monitoring PM10and havedrafted air quality plans to assurefuture com- encouragedby the existenceof infrastructure, bicycle share locations in which exceedancesof the Europeanlimit values pliance. Theassessmentis basedon three scenarios that are schemes,etc. (Figure 4). Theselection of this modal shift were registered in order to assesswhether cycling-oriented 3. IMPACTS OF CYCLING ON EMISSION representative of different degreesof increasedcycling mode correspondsto the expectedgrowth of cycling in a city with policies could drive future compliance (section 3). Thestud- REDUCTIONS sharerepresenting different levelsof cycling investment. someinfrastructure alreadyimplemented (derived from our ied zonesare described as follows and presented as mapsin literature review andfrom previous expert knowledge).For technical appendices(available on www.ecf.com/airquality). this scenario,it wasassumedthat new cyclists were former Impacts were assessedinterms of the differences in the annual emissionof nitrogen oxides (NO )12,particulate matter passengercar drivers in every case. x • Antwerp. Theselected zoneconsists in an area of approx- (PM )and black carbon (BC)13between the three scenarios. 1. SCENARIO DEFINITION • Limited Car-free scenario (S2-CFS).Thecar-free scenario imately 1.6km2 located in the surroundings of Borgerhout 10 is alimited and not a radical approachthat reproducesa Annual emissionsfor eachof the scenarioswere quantified air quality station. Theareahasseveralmajor roads(Plantin from changesin activity (i.e. vehicleskilometre driven) and Threescenarioswere defined in terms of different degrees traffic situation in which a limited part of the city, maximum en Moretuslei, Lieutenant Lippenslaan,Binnensingel, Noor- emissionfactors for every vehicle type presentin the studied of cycling mode share,ranging froma modestpenetration of two roads, is closedto motor vehicles. Thescenario aims to dersingel, etc.) and is primarily of a residential character. zone(Figure 3).Thedetailed methodology on the quantifica- cycling (business-as-usual)to an ideal situation where cycling reflect the “In Town without my Car!” event. Oneor two im- According to what waspresented in section 3, exceedances tion of emissionsis found in technical appendices(available completely substitutes private motorisation. Thesescenarios portant roadsin the studied cities were modelled asclosed in Antwerp (zone BEF01S)aredriven by station BELAL05 on www.ecf.com/airquality). arethe following: to traffic. Additionally, this limited car-freescenarioincludes (Beveren)which is located in the industrial zoneof the • Businessas usual scenario (BAU). The business as usual the increase in the cycling mode shareof 23% considered port. Asa result, the analysiswasmadeon the Borgerhout Theresults suggestthat increasing the cycling uptake in the scenariocontemplatesnormal vehicle circulation patterns for S1-TCS(Figure4). The car-free scenario is based on clos- station where cycling is morelikely to be part of the local city reduces the emissions of NO , PM and BC14in the stud- in the studied cities and amode sharein which private ing Plantin en Moretuslei (Antwerp), Marylebone Roadand x 10 mode share. ied areas.Thehighest NO emission reductions are observed motorisation predominates. Thisscenariotries to reflect BakerStreet (London), Ioanni Tsimiski and LeoforosNikis 2 x • London.Thestudied zone of London is an area of 1.1km lo- for London15followed by Antwerp, with the smallest reduc- asmuch aspossiblethe current situation of cycling in the (Thessaloniki). cated nearthe London MaryleboneRoadair quality station tions being in Thessaloniki.In the caseof PM10 emissions(in- (GB0682A),which drove non-compliance for the entire air cluding BC),the highest reductions are observedfor Antwerp. quality managementzonesfor the NO limit valuesin 2012. 2 Adopting cycling investment strategies that producea 23% Thezone’s most important roads are Marylebone Road FIGURE3. ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY FLOWS PERVEHICLETYPEIN THE STUDIEDZONES (2012)
FIGURE4. ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF a) NO AND b) PM , BC FORTHESTUDIEDSCENARIOSIN LONDON, ANTWERP AND THESSALONIKI HGV LDV Buses Cars Motorcycles Bicycles X 10
250 30 N0X BC 800.000 110226 PM10 25 200 135578 [t/yr]
700.000 - [t/yr] 135578 s -
s 20 150 600.000
Emission 15 l Emission l [veh/day]
- 100 500.000 Annua 10 Annua C X Flows /B 9893 10
400.000 NO 50
PM 5 12168
300.000 12168 0 0
35853 BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS Average Daily 44100 l 44100 London Antwerp Thessaloniki London Antwerp Thessaloniki 200.000 451436 347606 318846 Annua 260694 200734 148882 100.000 11 The observedmode shareswere obtained asa function of annual averagedaily flows in the studied zonesof Antwerp, London and Thessaloniki, considering the cycling mode shares 128574 99002 94014 reported in EPOMM,(2011). 12 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) correspondsto the total massof nitric oxide (NO)and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emitted at tailpipe. Emissionsare reported asNOxbecauseboth, NO and NO2 suffer chemical changesinthe atmosphere (NOis further oxidised to NO and both contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone). Concentrationsare reported only asNO becauseit is 0 2 2 the nitrogen oxide which produceshealth impacts. BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS 13 TheIIASAdefinition of black carbonis the carbonaceousprimary particle speciesthat is emitted mainly from combustion processes,witha‘black’, light-absorbing aerosol that composes mainly from elemental carbonand iscommonly known assoot (Kupiainen andKlimont, 2007). 14 London Antwerp Thessaloniki Theemissions of PM10 include the emissions of BC.
26 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 27 (S1-TCS)increasein cyclists led to reductions of 18%in NOx representative set of meteorological conditions. Thedispersion concentrations of pollutants in the studied zonesare located sufficient reduction for compliancewith the PM10annual limit 3 and 19%in PM10in Antwerp; 27%in NOx and 4% in PM10in of pollutants wassimulated with the California LineSource near high-trafficked roads(Plantin en Moretuslei, Marylebone value(40.9 μg/m ).
London; and 16%in NOx and 17%in PM10 in Thessaloniki. Dispersion Model (CALINE4)using the meteorological condi- Road,Ioanni Tsimiski). Concentrations tend to decreasewith
Asmight be expectedwith the additional closureof a major tions of the particular daysin which exceedancesof the NO2 distance from these roads, unless these roadsare adversely Thereductions in air pollutions concentration arequite diffe- rent from the changesin emissions in each of the zonesand road in the car free scenario (S2-CFS)ineachof the study and/orPM 10limit valueswere registered in the respectiveair affected by specificlocal conditions and urban structure (for this is a result of the considerableinfluence of factors such zonesthe reductions increaseto 36% in NOx and 48% in quality monitoring stations (Table 9). TheNO2hourly means example in Dorset Squarein Londonor Plateia Aristotelous in asmeteorology, urban configuration and regional influences PM10in Antwerp; 61%in NOx and 36% in PM10in London; and and the PM10daily meansobtained from the simulation for Thessaloniki). (Keukenet al., 2012).Thishighlights the difficulty of drawing 15%in NOx and 17%in PM10 in Thessaloniki. all the pollutants were converted into annual meansthrough a statistical parameterisation basedon historical air quality Theresults in Figure 5 aboveshow the simulated air pollu- simple conclusionon the impact of cycling measureon air Thedifferences between the cities reflect the differences in observations from AirBase(Vedrenne et al., 2014).Further tions levels for the BusinessasUsual (BAU)and the reduc- pollution asit dependon a significant rangeof local conditions the vehicles operating in these cities and the particular zones details on the configuration of the model andthe processing tions achieved with the cycling investment scenario (S1-TCS) including both the existing traffic mix and local meteorology. chosen.Thisin turn will generatedifference in emissions of outputs canbe found in the technical appendices(available and the car free scenario (S2-CFS). savingsfrom the displaced vehicles asa results of mode shift on www.ecf.com/airquality). to cycling. In addition the highest reductionsin emissions Analysingthe achievablereduction of air quality levelsat the are associatedto those cities in which the closedroad hasa Thegeneral modelling processfocused only on the contribu- monitoring locations under the three scenariosallows quan- 5. IMPACTS OF IMPROVEMENTS OF higher vehicleflow. tions of road-traffic in the studied areato the local air quality tifying the effectivenessof cycling with regardsto complying LOCAL AIR QUALITY ON HEALTH levels (measuredby the respective monitoring location). As with the NO2 and PM10limit values. a result, the simulated concentrationsdo not account for all Ultimately the driver to improve air quality is the desire the sourcesthat exist in the area(i.e. residential, off-road, In the caseof Antwerp, S1-TCSreducedthe NO annual mean 2 to reducethe healthimpact of poor air quality on the city etc.) nor do they considerthe contribution of adjacentroads by 6.3μg/m3 and the annual mean for PM by 0.3 μg/m3 at 4. IMPACTS OF EMISSION REDUCTIONS 10 residents. Thissection provides illustrative assessmentof outside the studied domains. the monitoring station location. Thehighest reductions for ON LOCAL AIR QUALITY this scenarioarelocated at the junction between Noordersin- the potential health benefits of the scenariosassessedhere. Forthe purposesof this project, the quantification of the Resultsare presented assimulated concentrations at the gel and Koolstraat (14.0 μg/m3 for the NO annual meanand Impacts have been assessedasto the differences in the con- 2 impacts of air quality on humanhealth wasmadein terms abovemonitoring locations, asshown in Figure 5, and as 2.0 μg/m3 for the PM annual mean).Reductionsare higher centration of nitrogen dioxide (NO ),particulate matter (PM ) 10 of the disability adjusted life years(DALY)metric for black 2 10 with S2-CFS,which decreasedthe NO the annual mean 12.6 general concentration map for eachzone.Generally, high 2 16 and black carbon (BC)between the three scenariosunder a 3 3 carbon (BC) asrecommended in Raoet al., (2013). DALYis μg/m and the PM10annual mean 1.4μg/m . Themaximum reductions are located at the samejunction, with reductions a relevant health-impact metric that extendsthe conceptof 3 3 potential yearsof life lost dueto premature death to include ashigh as18.0μg/m for the NO2 annual mean and 3.0 μg/m for the PM annual mean.Theseare significant reductions, yearsof healthy life lost by virtue of being in statesof poor 10 health or disability (Murray et al., 2002). TABLE9. EXCEEDANCE DATESFOR WHICH IMPACTS IN CONCENTRATIONS WERE EVALUATED which although Antwerp is in compliancewith Europeanlimit valuesat Borgerhout station, showsfurther improvements City Air quality station Exceeded LV Date Value can be achieved. In order to allocate the shareof damagethat air pollution hason poor health, BCconcentrations were converted into Antwerp Borgerhout None 18/02/2012 - For London, the NO annual mean wasnot improved at the population-attributable fractions (PAF)which werein turn NO hourly LV 24/07/2012 (9a.m.) 277μg/m3 2 2 air quality monitoring station (MaryleboneRoad)by anyof multiplied by raw DALYratesfor cardiopulmonary health London Marylebone Road 3 the scenarios,partially becauseof the unfavourable dis- outcomes in the countries of the selected cities. Thesevalues NO2 annual LV 2012 94 μg/m persion patterns that affect concentrationsat this location originally camefrom the Mortality and BurdenDisease PM daily LV 12/12/2012 57μg/m3 Thessaloniki Agia Sofia 10 aswell asits exposureto nearby highly-trafficked roads. Estimatesof the World Health Organisation (Mathers et al., 3 2006). To this respect, health impacts werequantified only PM10 annual LV 2012 41μg/m However,reductions are observedat other locations in the studied zone and rangebetween 8.0 μg/m3 for the annual for the contributions of roadtraffic to the air quality levels mean with S1-TCSto16.0μg/m3 with S2-CFSrespectively in at the studied monitoring locations (Table 9). Further details the junction between Melcombe Street and GloucesterPlace. on the methodologyfor quantifying the impactsof local air FIGURE5. a) NO AND b) PM AIR QUALITYLEVELSATTHE RESPECTIVEMONITORING LOCATIONS UNDER THETHREEANALYSED SCENARIOS 2 10 3 quality on humanhealth can be found in technical appendi- In the caseof PM10the annual mean is reduced by 0.3 μg/m cesto this study (available on www.ecf.com/airquality). for S1-TCS.Themaximumreductions for PM10 annual means Annual Mean Annual Mean are achievedin the vicinity of Regent’sParkand BakerStreet 100 70 Max 36th Concentration Station (3.0 μg/m3 for the annual mean under S1-TCSand4.0 TheDALYrates (in daysof disability per 10,000 inhabitants) ] 3 μg/m3 under S2-CFS).Theseimprovements are much smaller for the three scenariosand the studied cities are shown in 90 60 than seenin Antwerp and sowould continue be in infraction Figure 6. In the caseof Antwerp, the BAUscenario produces ] 3 [μg/m of the Europeanlimit valueseven with the cycling measures. 836 DALYper 10,000 inhabitants due to cardiopulmonary
80 n-
[μg/m diseases.Theinclusion of cycling measuresreduces the
- 50 n 70 disability by 50 years(to 786 DALY)under both scenarios.In In Thessaloniki,the NO2 air quality levels were not improved in Agia Sofiaunder the simulated scenarios.Despitethis fact, the caseof London, the BAUscenario producesa disability 60 40 Concentratio improvements are seenelsewhere in the streets of Thes- rate of 1478DALYper 10,000 inhabitants, which is reduced th 50 saloniki, with the greatest being at the heavily congested to 1471DALYby S1-TCSandto 1438by S2-CFS(respective 36 Concentratio junctions of Mitropoleos and PavlouMela with PalaionPatron reductions of disability in 7and 39years).Finally for Thes- x n 30 40 Germanou. Theseimprovements can be ashigh as3.0 μg/m3 saloniki, the BAUscenariocontemplates adisability rate of Mea 3 l and 14.0μg/m for the annual meanunder both scenarios.In 1442DALYper 10,000 inhabitants which after the adoption 30 Mean/Ma 20 the caseof PM10,the annual mean wasimproved by 0.3 μg/ of cycling measuresreducesthis value slightly to 1438for Annua m3 in both cases.Undertaking cycling investment to achieve both scenarios. 2 20 Annual NO a modal shift asspecified in S1-TCS,doesnotbring about a 10 10 10 PM
0 0 BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS 15 Provideddata refer to the studied zonesand not to the entire urban agglomeration. London Antwerp Thessaloniki London Antwerp Thessaloniki 16 Theused BCannual meansaccount for the background levels aswell.
28 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences 29 FIGURE6. DALY (BC) RATESFOR THESTUDIEDSCENARIOS IN LONDON, ANTWERP AND THESSALONIKI RECOMMENDATIONS DALY
1800 Technical measuresalone, in terms of technologies that Overallthe reduction in traffic levelsbrought about by cycling directly reduceemission from road vehicles,are insufficient measures,andother mode shift initiatives, will generate to meet compliancewith urban air quality objectives.This reductions in emissionsand ambient concentrations of pollut- 1600 hasbeenhighlighted by the failure of vehicle Euroemission ants, and ultimately providesa benefit to humanhealth. standardsto produce the reductions in emissionsexpected 1400 hab] in urban areasashasbeen noted in various studies (Carslaw Thedegreeto which these air quality benefits will becomeevi-
0 et al., 2013:EEA,2013;Hitchcock et al., 2014). Therefore a dent is afunction of the level of modal shift aswell asthe spe- more demand-side-focused approachis needed to reduce the cific characteristicsof the city including existing traffic flows, 1200 impacts of transport, suchasair pollution, and develop a more fleet composition, meteorology andurban topology. Therefore
[days/10,00 sustainable transport system.A commonly usedframework is the benefit of any packageof cycling measureswill vary from
- 1000 s the three-pillar systemknown as Avoid-Shift-Improve (Dalk- city to city, dependenton its local situation. However,in all five mann & Brannigan, 2007; UNEP,2013): of the casestudy cities modeshift to cycling on its own was
800 • Avoid the need to travel to accessgoodsand services, unlikely to be sufficient to achieveto air quality objectives,
inhabitant through efficient urban planning, communicationtechnology, although it did generateair quality related andwider health 0 consolidation activities and demandmanagement. benefits. 600 • Shift people and goodsthat need to be moved towards more 10,00 inherently sustainable modessuchaswalking, cycling, public Thekey actors in developing cycling aspart of the solution to per Y 400 transport, rail and(whereappropriate) water transport. urban air quality are the city authorities andthey needto:
DAL • Improve the environmental performance of vehiclesby the • Promotemeasuresthat shift residentsfrom private motor- adoption of low-emission vehicle technologies and more isedtransport to cycling, rather than promoting cycling per 200 efficient operation of vehicles. se,to ensurethat air quality benefits aregenerated; • Integrate cycling measuresaspart ofa wider mode shift
0 In line with this approachcycling measuresare now present packagewith a combination of ‘pull’ measuresto directly BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS BAU S1-TCS S2-CFS in the air quality andmobility plansof numerouscities around attract car usersand ‘push’ measureto more generally dis- the world. In termsof air quality this needsto be related to courage car use; London Antwerp Thessaloniki a modeshift awayfrom motorised road transport, and the • Complementcycling andother mode shift measureswith emissionsbenefits that this brings, rather than anincreasein technical measuresto reducethe emissions from the remain- cycling per se. Thereforecycling measuresneed to be part of ing traffic suchaspublic transport and delivery vehicles. an overall approachto reduceroad traffic in order to generate air quality improvements. In addition there are further co-benefitsof cycling regarding 6. CONCLUSIONS health (through physicalactivity), climate change,noise, Theexamination of the measuresaimed at increasing cycling humanrights (accessto mobility for all parts of society/popu- mode sharesuggeststhat in order to encouragecycling and lation) and economy(congestion-easing,improving travel-time Theobjective of this chapter wasto assessthe effective- ascardiopulmonary DALYrates) in the three cities. In the attract people out of cars,municipalities haveto engagein reliability) andall theseco-benefitsshould be taken into nessof cycling, asa measureintended to encourage modal caseof Antwerp and London, the car-free scenario (S2-CFS) developing the appropriate infrastructure (bike shareschemes, accountwhen authorities discussinvestments in cycling from shift away private motorisation, in order to improve the air produced further reduction when comparedto the enhanced differentiated tracks,end-of-trip facilities, parking slots,etc.), the point of view of air pollution. quality levels of Antwerp, London and Thessalonikiunder two cycling investment scenario (S1-TCS)duetothe fact that the carrying out positive information campaignsandmore widely hypothetic scenarios.In every case,modal shift from private closedroadshad the highest traffic flows in their respec- discouragingthe useof private motorised transport through Thusin summary, from an air quality managementpoint of motorisation to cycling producedreductions in the emissions tive study zones.In the caseof Thessaloniki,the reductions the adoption of policy instruments suchascongestion charg- view, cyclingshouldcontinue to be part of air quality plans of NO , PM and BCbut this varied from city to city depend- achievedby the car-free scenariowere marginal due to the x 10 ing or low-emission zones. that aim to tackle air pollution at the urban scale.However ing on the local traffic situation. Theseemissionreductions in fact that the closedroadshad significantly lower traffic flows they must be part of a packageof measuresdirected at reduc- turn resulted in improvementsin the air quality levelsof the and were not the oneswith most circulation in the domain. Analysisof the Europeancasestudy cities revealed that the ing overall road traffic, to ensurethat the associatedemissions studied zonesin the cities, although the improvements again most successfuldrivers for modal changeare the development benefits and air quality improvements are generated. These varied from city to city as a results of local conditions for Theseresults showthat there is no simple relationship of appropriate cyclinginfrastructure andits correct integra- air quality improvementswill in turn give rise to numerous examplewith much greater benefits being seenin Antwerp between cycling measuresand improvements in air quality tion with the public transport network. In thesecasesadirect societalco-benefits.Howeverthe extent of the air quality im- than London.Other formulation: they contribute partly to asthe exact relation is very dependent on local conditions. relationship between these variablesand anincreasein cycling provementswill vary from city to city andacrossthe city itself compliancewith Limit Values. However,the introduction of cyclemeasuresmost likely as modal share hasbeen observed. For example, cities such as with our analysisshowing changesat the selectedmonitoring part of a wider packageof measuresto reduce road traffic 3 Antwerp or Seville havethe highest cycling modal shareand locations in NO2 concentrations from zero to 12.6µg/m and Evenwithout the improvements being enoughto achieve will showimprovementsin air quality and although these 3 3 the largest cycling infrastructure amongthe studied cities. In changesin PM10concentrations from 0.3 µg/m to 1.4µg/m . compliancewith the air quality limit valuesthey did provide improvements may not be enoughto meet air quality compli- the caseof Thessaloniki and London, moderate increasesin Although overall the changesin London and Thessalonikiwere health benefits showing decreasesin life year lost (measured ancelevels they will still generatehealth benefits. modal sharehavebeen observedaswell, yet cycling infrastruc- not enough to meet the Europeanlimit values.Thissuggests ture still needsto be improved. that modeshift measuresaloneare unlikely to be sufficient to meet the Europeanair quality limit valuesin urban areas. Fourof the five studied cities, (Antwerp, London,Nantesand Therefore,a successfulapproachto combat air pollution is a Seville)explicitly presentcycling aspart of their respective combination of both non-technical and technical measures: air quality plans.Tobe mosteffective at improving air quality encouragea modal shift, including the shift towards cycling, local authorities should focuson encouragingmodal shift and reduceemissionsfrom the remaining traffic suchaspublic from private motorised transport to cycling in order to reduce transport and delivery vehicles. road-traffic pollution, rather than promoting cycling per se.
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34 Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences www.ecf.com 35 ECF gratefully acknowledges financial support from the LIFE programme of the European Union. Rue Franklin, 28 1000 Brussels,BelgiumPhone: +322880 92 74 Fax: +322880 92 75 [email protected] www.ecf.com