NUMBER 30 GAJAH 2009 Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 30 (2009)
The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which members of the AsESG and others can communicate their experiences, ideas and perceptions freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can bene t. All articles published in Gajah re ect the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the AsESG.
Editor
Jayantha Jayewardene Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust 615/32 Rajagiriya Gardens Nawala Road, Rajagiriya Sri Lanka [email protected]
Editorial Board
Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando A. T. J. Johnsingh Centre for Conservation and Research 101 Magnolia, Esteem Gardenia 35 Gunasekara Gardens Sahakara Nagar Nawala Road, Rajagiriya Bangalore 92 Sri Lanka India e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Heidi Riddle Dr. Alex Rübel Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary Direktor Zoo Zürich P.O.Box 715 Zürichbergstrasse 221 Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058 CH - 8044 Zürich USA Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Arnold Sitompul Dr. A. Christy Williams Conservation Science Initiative WWF Nepal Program Jl. Setia Budi Pasar 2 P.O. Box 7660 Komp. Insan Cita Griya Blok CC No 5 Baluwatar, Kathmnadu Medan, 20131 Nepal Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] e-mail:[email protected] GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 30 (2009)
This publication of Gajah was fi nanced by the Wildlife Reserves Singapore Editorial Note
Articles published in Gajah may be used, distributed and reproduced in any medium, provided the article is properly cited.
Gajah will be published as both a hard copy and an on-line version accessible from the AsESG web site (www.asesg.org/gajah.htm). If you would like to be informed when a new issue comes out, please provide your e-mail address. If you would like to have a hardcopy, please send a request with your name and postal address by e-mail to
Jayantha Jayewardene 615/32 Rajagiriya Gardens Nawala Road, Rajagiriya Sri Lanka
Cover: Elephant herd in the Yala National Park, Sri Lanka Photo by Prithiviraj Fernando
Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini Printed at Melios (Pvt) Ltd. NUMBER 30 2009
GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Contents Gajah 30 (2009)
Editorial 1 Alex Rübel
Notes from the Co-chairs IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 2-3 Simon Hedges and Ajay Desai
Correspondence 4-5 D. K. Lahiri Choudhury
Correspondence 6-7 C. Stremme
Socio-Economic Status of Elephant Keepers (Mahouts) and Human–Captive Elephant Con ict: 8-12 A Case Study from the Three Management Systems in Tamil Nadu, Southern India V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan and N. Baskaran
Distribution, Demography and Basic Husbandry of the Asian Elephant in the Tourism Industry in Northern Thailand A. Godfrey and C. Kongmuangr 13-18
The Analysis of Data from Studies of Crop-Raiding 19-23 R. F. W. Barnes
The Uda Walawe Elephant Transit Home - Another Opportunity Missed? 24-28 S. Miththapala
A Forest Ride on Wild Elephants: The Philosophy of Wilderness in Buddhism 29-31 R. Ramanathapillai
Community-Based Human-Elephant Con ict Management in Assam 34-40 A. Zimmermann, T. E. Davies, N. Hazarika, S. Wilson, J. Chakrabarty, B. Hazarika and D. Das
The Human-Elephant Con ict: A Review of Current Status and Mitigation Methods 41-52 B. M. A. O. Perera
Twin Elephants Born in Nepal 53 J. Thapa
Report of the International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium, Thailand, 2008 54-55 H. Schwammer
First National Symposium on Elephant Healthcare and Managerial Practices 56-57 K. K. Sharma
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants 58-66
Book Review: Poisons and the Pachyderm - Responding to Poisoning in Asian Elephants by Jacob Cheeran 67
News Briefs 68-72 Gajah 30 (2009) 1
Editorial
Alex Rübel (Member Editorial Board) In the world of animals, elephants are giants, What can we learn from history for elephant mega vertebrates, the largest mammals on land. conservation? It is illusionary to believe, that In the evolutionary history of species, there is a there will be a new equilibrium between humans tendency of becoming more powerful, stronger or and elephants in the same habitat without a sound bigger, either to avoid being predated by potential conservation management plan. If we want to enemies or to remain a potential predator. Only have a chance for a long-term survival of the a few species at the top of the food chain have species, the stakeholders have to agree to the achieved this role, some examples are the big answers of all relevant questions and there have cats, the rhinos and the elephants. The population to be pragmatic approaches to this conservation is not the limiting factor pressuring the predators management plan. any more, availability of food, hunger and drought took its place. It is obvious, that huge animals There are challenging questions to be tackled: need huge habitats to nd what they need. Where can habitats for the Asian elephant to survive in viable populations be found nowadays? Before man learned to use re, started to settle What is the targeted size of a coherent population and became superior to the mega vertebrates, to secure long-term survival? How can isolated there was a ne equilibrium between the different populations be avoided? How can Human species, between predators and prey, and their Elephant Con icts (HEC) be kept under control? habitat use. How can the population be controlled in the long- term as not to destroy its own habitat? Man changed the world. His ability to prevail over species, of which he had been afraid or The Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG) who had never been part of his diet, crushed the can help nding answers to these questions, but fragile equilibrium. The destroyed habitats due it is the governments who have to decide on the to the growing human population accelerated management plans, as well as executing and the process. Possible new big prey and easy to controlling them. However, the main part of the hunt animals as the elephant bird, the dodo, the stakeholders is neither the governments nor the American bison and possibly the mammoth, AsESG, it is the local population. If we fail to were the rst to be exterminated. Competitors to include the local people into the conservation humans such as the lion, the tiger or the snow plan, total failure is not far. The main way of leopard came soon after. Looking back at this sad convincing them of the necessity of the elephants’ history, there has never been a case where animals survival, is through education. For the plan to be came back into a habitat in which humans and successful, it is important to convince them of beasts lived together in a natural balance. Animals the intrinsic value of the elephant in its habitat have either become extinct again or a concise and to teach them how to live with the ‘neighbour conservation management plan was employed, elephant’. As Baba Dioum said: “In the end we mainly for areas where people could be kept out, will conserve only what we love. We will love for example national parks or reserves. Where only what we understand. We will understand the mega vertebrates leave the reserve, they are only what we are taught.” This is true locally seen as threats to man and his cultures. One sad and internationally. Also zoos and elephant example was the poaching of Asiatic lions in the institutions far away from their habitats, can put Gir forest two years ago, that began as soon as pressure on the governments and can help, with some animals started to leave the small reserve money, to make this happen. regularly.
1 Gajah 30 (2009) 2-3
Notes from the Co-chairs IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Simon Hedges and Ajay Desai Firstly, we would like to take this opportunity to to do that we will persist in dealing with the thank all the Asian Elephant Specialist Group’s symptoms rather than address the real problems members for their service to the group and to and also fail to capitalize on the conservation Asian elephants in IUCN’s last four-year period opportunities we have. With the increasing threats or “quadrennium”. By the time this issue of Gajah that elephants face and with the additional threat is published, we should be well into the new of global warming just around the corner we need quadrennium, which we hope will see renewed to shift gears and move beyond symptoms to the efforts by the group’s members to secure a bright root causes. Needless to say we cannot simply future for Asian elephants and their habitat. stop treating the symptoms but we need to move beyond doing just that. The Asian Elephant Specialist Group is marking the start of the new quadrennium in a number Prithiviraj Fernando in his editorial in Gajah of ways including the posting of all back issues 28 opens a new, important, and very productive of Gajah on the group’s website (for which we subject for thought and discussion. It is not just the owe a debt of gratitude to Jayantha Jayewardene subject of his discussion piece but the concept that and Hank Hammatt) and by organizing an is important. We all need to start looking hard at international workshop on the mitigation of where we are going. How do our ideas, concepts, human–elephant con ict (HEC) in Asia to and actions actually affect conservation? Do we coincide with the Society for Conservation need to follow a path because it was considered Biology’s Annual Meeting in Beijing in July. important or standard at some point in time? He The HEC workshop is being organized by the calls upon us to start thinking ‘outside the box’ AsESG’s Human–Elephant Con ict Task Force and consequently to take a harder look at our under Ravi Corea’s leadership with nancial approaches to conservation. This is not to say we support from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s should drop all we have been doing but rather Asian Elephant Conservation Fund to whom we we need to review our approaches and actions are very grateful. in a more critical manner. Such a review and an outside the box style of thinking will help us Looking back the editorials in the last few nd better approaches, or to improve our current journals we see some really useful insights for approaches, to conservation and management. the group that can guide us all towards better conservation. Jayantha Jayewardene states in his Taking the above two points into consideration, editorial in Gajah 27, “All too often conservation Heidi Riddle’s editorial in Gajah 29 becomes of elephants has been limited to treatment of the very relevant and important; that is to say she symptoms rather than addressing the root causes” stresses the importance of communication. The and suggests that research “can identify and focus various meetings we have had and are planning attention on the causes of problems rather than to have are all about communication, getting the obvious symptoms, which has been the main together to share information and collectively focal point of elephant conservation in most of formulate better strategies for conservation. the range states.” We couldn’t agree more with The Task Forces too are all about that, bringing that, as conservationists we all need to understand our collective knowledge together for better the species and its ecological requirements and understanding elephant conservation issues, we need to understand the problems it faces and to discuss and debate, and resolve issues (both problems it causes in turn. Finally, we need to simple and contentious), to collectively produce understand what implications all the above has information and provide guidance that will for conservation and management. If we fail help elephant conservation. The objective is to
2 put the best we have out there so that elephant the applicant’s ability to meet a number of criteria conservation can bene t from it. With the and applications are made by following a simple forthcoming human–elephant con ict workshop online process. we will initiate a process where everyone can contribute, even those who do not attend the We will continue to keep the group’s members workshop. The nal product will strangely not informed of funding opportunities as they be a nal product but a living document that arise and would like to request that the group’s will be constantly revised based on the inputs members also keep us informed of funding we continue to receive. The same approach will sources so that we can pass the information on to be taken for all documents produced by all Task the wider membership. Forces. The documents will keep growing and improving as our own collective experience and Over the next quadrennium, we intend that Gajah knowledge grows with time. However, all this will continue to be published twice a year, in June will be possible only if we communicate and and December in both hard copy and electronic take the time to contribute. We do realize that (PDF) versions available for download from the most of you have time constraints so the door group’s website. We encourage you all to submit to contribute will always be open and you can articles for publication in Gajah as its continuing contribute at any stage or as many times as you success will depend on the willingness of the wish. Communicating within and outside the AsESG’s members to publish in their journal. AsESG is what will make us and the group more effective, or “better elephant conservationists” as Heidi aptly puts it. Co-chairs’ e-mails: [email protected] We proposed an AsESG listserv/forum board [email protected] early in the last quadrennium but the group’s membership thought that this was unnecessary (citing low participation in other related listservs). Nevertheless, we feel that it may be useful to review that decision as members are increasingly drawn into the group’s activities, particularly those of the Task Forces, and we would welcome your views.
On the funding side, of particular note as we begin the new quadrennium is a newly- available dedicated source of funding for species conservation, the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, which should prove very helpful in our endeavours for Asian elephants. We encourage the group’s members to review the Species Fund’s requirements and to apply for funds for Asian elephant conservation projects; more information can be found here: www.mbzspeciesconservation.org. Two types of grants are available: those of US$ 5000 and those of between US$ 5000 and US$ 25,000. Species Fund grants will be awarded based on
Sunset in southern Sri Lanka Photo by Prithiviraj Fernando
3 Gajah 30 (2009) 4-5
Correspondence
Comments on: C. Arivazhagan and R. Sukumar (2008) Constructing age structures of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations: A comparison of two eld methods of age estimation. Gajah 29: 11- 16. The above paper makes some interesting points: South India where maknas are few compared Method of ageing ungulates is taken on African to tuskers. Some are thick-tusked from the start experience as the degree of tooth eruption gaining girth with age, some are thick from the and from (Laws 1975), However, these refer beginning and becoming massive with age – they to African elephant populations only in dry are conceptualized under different names by vegetation areas but not to the data of African elephant men in N. E. India. elephant populations in wet areas, for the simple reason that large-scale culling was mostly in the Again the upper fold of the ears is not a safe dry savannah areas. This is the main source of indicator as the upper part of the ear sometimes information. The same degree of variation in starts folding even in animals as young as 8 to 9 Indian elephants can be anticipated as well, such years. See, for example, the photo of two cows on as for example, between elephants in wet Periyar the covers of the last no.s of Gajah. What is more and dry Singhbhum forest. This should be kept diagnostic is the folding and attening of the in mind before any generalisation is made and upper fold of the ear. Further it is the hardening African experience indiscriminately applied of the ear cartilage, as Milroy (1992) points out, to the Asian conditions. Of course, we have no that is more signi cant, which can, not only be scope for large-scale culling for collection of seen but also herd even in dense cover. Time and data, as Laws et al. aided by parks in Africa had. again I have detected the presence of a large male Besides, one has to keep in mind the different in the presence of a herd from the metallic sound structure (serration) of the molars in African and of the ears apping. Asian elephants. Precise measurement of height by using Non-destructive methods have been recognised photagrammetry, (science of measuring size at in the paper based, again, on African “experience a distance by photography) was used by Iain and methods and it is claimed that such eld Douglas- Hamilton (1975; 62-63). This was techniques are most applicable to the endangered replicated by Sukumar (1989; 224-225). Douglas- Asian elephant” (Sukumar 1985, 1989). The Hamilton’s and Sukumar’s works were pioneering saddest omission in the literature cited is Milroy efforts for which they had to improvise their own (1922, 2002), who discusses the morphological instruments. However, a common surveyor’s signs of identifying Asian elephants. Skull instrument “Theodolite” (10-12 thousand INR) size, ear size, extent of upper fold of the ears, or a improved digitized version “Total Station” depigmentation of ears, temporal and buccal (10-12 Lakhs INR) may be more conveniently depression, and tusk thickness (for males) here used. Then the results obtained by personalized again depend on limited eld data; for example, instruments can be checked and veri ed by a few of the present elephant researchers have third party. Ear size nor de-pigmentation are cared to observe, analyse and measure thousands conspicuous indicators for wild Asian elephants. of domesticated elephants one saw in the annual Wild elephants have the colour of the state of Sonepur fair which used to be a veritable school their last wallow, unless the data used are from for students of Asian elephants. Skulls size of the private and govt. stables. maknas at least look conspicuously larger than that of tuskers veri able however only on death The four major height classes as laid down are and tusk thickness alone may not be a suf cient perfectly acceptable with some modi cations. indicator offered by the data gathered from “Adult” here only indicates height classi cations.
4 Calf 3’ - 4’ Juvenile 4’ – 6’ Subadult 6’ – 7’ (5 ½ - 7 ft – female 6-8 ft – male; in Arivazhagan & Sukumar) Adult 8’ + (>7 ft female >8 ft male; in Arivazhagan & Sukumar) Maturity differs with sex. This height group is References now accepted in most govt. elephant censuses in India. At present capture by mela shikar is only Douglas-Hamilton, I. & Douglas-Hamilton, O. permitted between 5’ and 7’ height classes, and (1975) Among the Elephants. The Viking Press, this appears to be a fairly accurate classi cation New York. of age-structure by age / height. Lahiri-Choudhury, D.K. (1996) Hathi O In northeast Indian elephant lore accepted by Banjangaler Katha (“Tales of Elephants and elephant men, tusks are classi ed into 12 types, Forests”, in .Bengali). Kolkata, Pratikshan. each conceptualized and given a different name which is descriptive, so also back shapes into Laws, R.M., Parker, I.S.C. & Johnstone, R.C.B. 3 or 4 categories, tail according to length into (1975) Elephants and Their Habitats. Clarendon 4 categories and tail brushes including cut tails Press, Oxford. (Lahiri-Choudhury 1996). This was photocopied and used for elephant census in North Bengal in Milroy, A.J.W. (1922) A Short Treatise on the the early 2000 with photographs, line drawings, Management of Elephants. Government Press, and legends and descriptions translated into Shillong. regional languages. Classi cation of height categories into six [is unnecessary], unless one Milroy, A.J.W. (2002) Management of Elephants intends to examine the lives of divergence in a in Captivity (with additional materials) Bist, S.S. family under close study in a given period of (ed.) Dehradun, Nataraj. time, as in the case of Boadicea’s Family Tree (Douglas- Hamilton 1975; p. 275). While full of Sukumar, R. (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology admiration for the work of Douglas-Hamilton and and Management. Cambridge University Press, Sukumar, without a clear management objective Cambridge, UK. or focus, research may soon become recherché and become an attempt to throw “pseudo-light on non- problems” (Kingsley Amis, Lucky Jim). D. K. Lahiri Choudhury It is time to remember that survival of a species Calcutta, India depends on its proper management. “Species E-mail: [email protected] survival commission’s” concern should not only be iconic species in isolation.
Drawing by Arnab Roy
5 Gajah 30 (2009) 6-7
Correspondence
Comments on: F. Kurt and J. Endres (2008) Some Remarks on the Success of Arti cial Insemination in Elephants. Gajah 29: 39-40. After reading the above article I feel the authors have been born - 17 males, 5 females, and one of make an unbalanced judgement and disqualify unknown sex - all of them produced by natural the efforts and achievements of researchers breeding, mainly by wild bulls. Furthermore, and scientists working in the eld of elephant under natural conditions not every mating reproduction, wherein arti cial insemination necessarily leads to pregnancy, but no data exists (AI) is but one component. In the following about natural conception rates in wild elephants. note, I would like to make some comments about Thus it cannot be judged, as this article attempts remarks made, and data published in this article. to do, to which extent failure of conception during AI is caused by technical obstacles, and to which During the past few years, AI has been developed extent it might be normal. No information is given as one result of intensive research about elephant in the article about pathological ndings in still- reproduction, including its anatomy, physiology, births to evaluate to which extent still-births and endocrinology and health. Conducted over deaths soon after birth were caused by diseases the last 15 years, this research has provided (e.g. EEHV) or health problems unrelated to AI. us with pioneering knowledge about elephant reproduction, a eld of science where knowledge It is surprising to me that the authors highlight was stagnant for centuries. the Pinnawela elephant orphanage in Sri Lanka as an example for good, successful, natural Of course in general, natural breeding should breeding. For only 12 females to be reproductive always have priority, and all efforts should be out of a group of about 70 elephants seems like made to breed captive wildlife by natural means. an alarmingly low number. The cited 22 offspring Figures given by the authors in this article from out of these 12 females, over a period of 20 years, EEP and SSP data actually represent that this has translates into an average inter-calving interval of been the case for captive elephants. Development more than 11 years, which is more than double the of AI is one result of comprehensive elephant length of normal average inter-calving intervals reproductive research, which most likely has of about 5 years, and does not suggest an ideal not yet come to its nal stage, and of course still breeding and health management program at this involves some obstacles and insuf ciencies that facility. scientists are working to resolve. In principle, the availability of AI for any kind of endangered Actually, facilities like Pinnawela and Ayutthaya species provides valuable biotechnology to assist in Thailand (where according to the authors’ data, and increase reproduction of the species in cases less than 50% of the females are reproductive) where natural breeding is not possible, and thus could bene t a lot from employing modern enables more genetically valuable individuals to reproductive assessment methods, developed by be included in the breeding process. scientists working in the eld of AI, to evaluate reproductive health, and diagnose problems In this article, the authors come to misleading in order to improve reproductive health and conclusions about several issues: the number of breeding management amongst their elephants. calves born as a result of AI is still too low to For exactly such assistance, the international make a statistically relevant judgement whether elephant community was approached by an unbalanced sex ratio is caused by AI, or is just veterinarians and researchers from Sri Lanka incidental and would even out on the long term. during the International Elephant Conservation In the elephant camp in Way Kambas/Lampung and Research Symposium held in Pattaya, in Indonesia, since 1988 until today, 23 calves Thailand, in November 2008.
6 Living and working in Asian elephant range As in many species, stress may have an effect on countries for a number of years, I have often been reproduction. If elephants are heavily stressed impressed by the skill of elephant management or undergoing painful procedures for a long and handling in many of these countries, but I period, they just simply do not cycle which have far too often also witnessed unnecessary would make successful AI impossible. By stating harshness, brutality, and cruelty during “These actions increasingly attract the interest domestication taming, and training procedures at of welfare NGOs, which often rightfully criticise a level elephant managers in western countries the brutal training methods used to make the couldn’t even dream of, often causing serious animals amenable for the A.I. procedures” the injuries and even death of the elephants. authors prove that such animal welfare and rights Having also close insight into western elephant groups’ propaganda is deceptive, denying facts management, training systems and techniques and only aiming to discredit any type of captive including training needs for AI, I need to say wildlife management. that the techniques employed are never based on brutality but are well understood and employ Christopher Stremme elephant psychology and natural behaviour to achieve training goals. Just the fact that AI has Veterinary Society for Sumatran Wildlife been repeatedly successful proves that elephants Conservation trained for this procedure are not suffering from Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia stress and brutality, but are very well adapted and E-mail: [email protected] relaxed during the entire procedure.
Herd coming out of the water in the Walawe Left Bank Project area (Sri Lanka) Photo by Jennifer Pastorini
7 Gajah 30 (2009) 8-12
Socio-Economic Status of Elephant Keepers (Mahouts) and Human–Captive Elephant Con ict: A Case Study from the Three Management Systems in Tamil Nadu, Southern India
V. Vanitha1, K. Thiyagesan 1 and N. Baskaran2
1Department of Zoology, A.V.C. College, Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu, India 2Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India Introduction management, and concerned about their quality of life, impressed upon the state governments The Asian elephant is an integral part of the culture to standardize the mahout salary across and mythology of India and elsewhere in Asia. management systems and give pay equal to the Captive Asian elephants constitute about 22–30% scale of Light Motor Vehicle Drivers (MoEF of the remaining Asian elephant population (Lair 2004). Unfortunately, there is still wide disparity 1997; Sukumar 2003). India is home to about in monetary bene ts among mahouts in the 3400–3600 captive elephants (MoEF 2004). three management systems in Tamil Nadu. As Traditions of elephant-capture, taming, keeping, per the veterinary expert’s suggestion, elephants handling, and employing for work still exist in above ve years of age are to be attended by almost all Asian countries. Unlike the west, Asian two persons: the mahout, a person experienced elephant-keeping traditions often have strong links in handling elephants; and an assistant mahout to particular communities (Krishnamurthy 1998). or ‘cavady’. Elephants up to ve years of age Despite the long history of keeping elephants, (except suckling calves) are attended by a single managing captive elephants, especially adult person, the cavady (Krishnamurthy & Wemmer males, has been an equally dif cult task in places 1995). Nevertheless, the number of mahouts per like western zoos, as well as Hindu temples and elephant found in temple and private systems private owners of India (Sukumar 2003). In Tamil is still less than the desired and recommended Nadu, a southern state of India, 135 captive number. With an insuf cient number of mahouts, elephants are being managed by the State Forest welfare standards are decreasing both for the Department, religious institutions such as Hindu mahouts and the elephants. This, in turn, could temples, as well as mutts, trusts, charities, negatively affect the relationship between mosques, and individual owners, for various mahouts and elephants, increasing human purposes (Vanitha 2007). The Government of casualties by captive elephants. In this paper, Tamil Nadu categorized these elephants into three we report on: (1) the economic standard and captive systems—Forest Department captive welfare status of mahouts in terms of monetary elephants (managed at timber camps and zoo), compensation and the number of mahouts per temple elephants (managed at Hindu temples), elephant, and (2) the human casualties caused by and private elephants (managed by mutts, trusts, captive elephants during 2003–05, across three charities, mosques, and individual owners). management systems in Tamil Nadu.
Elephant-keepers, locally called ‘mahouts’, Methods manage the captive elephants on a day-to-day basis. The standard of living and welfare status The study was carried out in Tamil Nadu, which of such mahouts have been diminishing, as the has many Hindu temples where elephants are importance of captive elephants has dwindled traditionally worshipped and held in high esteem. over the years. The Ministry of Environment To assess the welfare status and economic standard and Forests, Government of India, realizing of mahouts among the three captive management the importance of mahouts in captive elephant systems, we gathered data on the number of
8 mahouts per elephant, their background and up to ve years of age in all the systems, except monthly salary, by enquiring from the mahouts as a private institutional facility which had two well as verifying with the concerned authorities mahouts instead of one (Table 1). Since the through an extensive survey during 2003–05. mahouts of the lactating cow elephants take care Data on the number of human casualties caused of the un-weaned calves, there was no separate by the 135 captive elephants held presently was assistant mahout for the calf in the age-class up obtained by scrutinizing the of cial records to ve years in the ‘private individual’ category, available, together with information from and similarly for two calves in the ‘Forest mahouts. Department’ system. However, for elephants above ve years of age-class, the temple system Using Chi-square analysis, we tested the number engaged a signi cantly ( 2=3.55; df=1; P<0.05) of attending mahouts per elephant in each system, lower number of mahouts/elephant (1.6) than against the number required for each system, as required (2) while the shortfall of mahouts per the veterinary expert’s suggestion. Monthly observed in the private ( 2=0.676; df=1; P<0.41) salary paid per mahout and assistant mahout and Forest Department ( 2=0.114; df=1; P<0.73) across three systems was tested using One-way systems were insigni cant. ANOVA. The proportion of traditional versus non-traditional mahouts in each system was tested Mahouts’ monthly salary using a proportion test. Since the total number of captive elephants managed and the duration Mahouts and assistant mahouts were employed of their stay in the present facilities were not both on permanent as well as temporary basis. uniform across the three systems, we calculated Those appointed on permanent basis had a pay the rate of human casualty/elephant/year for each scale break-up like any other state government system separately using data on total number of employee, including a pension scheme, while human casualties and total elephant years (total the temporary mahouts were casual labourers, duration of stay of all the elephants in the present who were paid only a consolidated salary. The facilities) in each system. In this paper, hereafter, permanent appointment system prevailed only in the terms mahout and assistant mahout (cavady) Forest Department facilities and was not found are referred to as mahouts collectively unless in temples or in private systems. However, even differentiated. in the Forest Department there have been no permanent appointments for over a decade now, Results and most of the vacancies are lled on a temporary basis with a consolidated salary of US$ 24–30/ Number of mahouts per elephant person/month. Therefore, the mean monthly salary paid across the management systems The number of mahouts per elephant did not vary varied signi cantly, both in the case of mahouts much from the required number for individuals (F=43.38; df=2; P<0.001) and assistant mahouts
Table 1. Status of mahouts working in different captive management systems in Tamil Nadu (M=mahout, E=elephant, MTB=mahout with traditional background). Management system N Monthly salarya % MTB Age class # E # M # M/E Mahout Assistant Private - Individual 24 52 ± 23 49 ± 17 62.0 <5 years 1b 00 >5 years 28 52 1.9 Private - Institutional 10 64 ± 46 56 ± 23 63.0 <5 years 1 2 2.0 >5 years 9 15 1.7 Temple 41 49 ± 27 33 ± 20 55.8 <5 years 1 1 1.0 >5 years 42 68 1.6 Forest Department 5 114 ± 33 64 ± 35 83.3 <5 years 9c 7 1.0 >5 years 44 85 1.9 a = mean & SD in US$ @ INR 50/$ b = un-weaned calf without mahout or assistant mahout c = includes two un-weaned calves without separate mahout or assistant mahout
9 system (56%). The proportion of traditional mahouts recorded was signi cantly higher than non-traditional mahouts only in the Forest Department ( 2=20.02, df=1; P<0.001), but not in the private ( 2=1.24, df=1; P=0.265) and temple ( 2=0.37, df=1; P=0.541) systems.
Human–captive elephant con ict
The number of elephants that caused injury to human beings, and the rate of injury were higher in the Forest Department system (about 13% of elephants caused 18 incidences at the rate of 0.016 human injury/elephant/year) compared to the other two systems (Table 2). On the other Figure 1. An adult female in bath at the Timber hand, a higher proportion of temple elephants camp of Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary. (9.3%) caused manslaughter (9 deaths) and the rate was also higher (0.01 incident/elephant/ year) (F=5.36; df=2; P<0.01). The Forest Department than the Forest Department and private captive paid higher salary for both the mahout (mean $ systems (Table 2). Most of the casualties in the 114/person) as well as assistant mahouts (mean temple system were the general public. Out of $ 64/person), followed by private institution 18 cases of injury caused by Forest Department ($ 64/mahout and $ 56/assistant mahout) and elephants, 17 (94%) were by six adult males, individual ($ 52/mahout and $ 49/assistant with four of them involved on more than one mahout) categories. The temple management occasion (15 cases, 88%), revealing that some of paid the lowest monthly salary ($ 49/mahout and the bulls are more unpredictable in nature. The $ 33/ assistant mahout). other injury was caused by an adult female that was recently transferred from a Hindu temple Mahout background due to dif culties in handling her.
The mahouts and their assistants in the Forest Of two cases of manslaughter by Forest Department are mostly from a particular hill- Department elephants, one incidence was by an tribe community, which has a background of adult female, transferred from a Hindu temple elephant capture and keeping as a tradition, in 1995. The remaining case was due to an unlike the private and temple systems. Inquiries adult male at the onset of musth. The bull, while of 80 facilities among the three systems revealed bathing in the river, on the mahout’s command a major variation in the proportion of traditional while lifting its head, hit the mahout’s head with mahouts, with the forest department engaging its tusk. The mahout died on the spot and the bull the highest number (83%) (Table 1) followed by walked away into the nearby forest. The bull had private (62% individuals and 63% institutional to be tranquilized for chaining, as he was not categories) and the lowest number in the temple obeying the assistant mahout and other mahouts.
Table 2. Human casualties by the captive elephants (E) in different management systems. Management system # E Human injury Human death % of E N Rate/E/ % of E N Rate/E/ involved year involved year Private–Individual 29 0 0 0.000 0 0 0.000 Private–Institutional 10 10.0 1 0.007 0 0 0.000 Temple 43 11.6 8 0.009 9.3 9 0.010 Forest Department 53 14.1 18 0.016 3.8 2 0.002 Overall 135 9.6 27 0.011 5.2 11 0.004
10 However, other mahouts who were bathing their elephants in the same location felt that the incident was an unintended one, as his mahout (victim) should not have given the command to the elephant to raise its head, while standing close to its tusk. Supporting the view of the other mahouts, the bull otherwise has no record of any human casualty, although he is known for aggressive temperament in the camp.
The results suggest that the human–elephant con ict, especially man-slaughter, was higher in temple systems (0.01 human death/elephant/ year) compared to private and Forest Department systems, despite their managing mostly females (95%), which are easier to manage than adult bulls in captivity. This indicates inadequate competence of mahouts in the temple system. Discussion
The keeper’s welfare is an indication of elephant welfare. The present study shows that mahouts in the temples and in some private systems are paid less than those in the Forest Department facility. Figure 2. Kunkie ‘Kalim’ and V. Palaniswami To compensate for a lower salary, the mahouts his mahout, managed at the Timber Camp of in the private and temple systems burden the Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary. elephant with additional work. Blessing the devotees by the temple elephants, and begging with public while begging at crowded cities and at shops and residential places by the private towns, in fact, more than the temple elephants, elephants are income-generating work in these suggests a lack of competence and safeguards systems. Thus the captive elephants in private among mahouts in the temple system. This could and temple systems are forced to perform such be attributed to poor handling of the elephants activities for longer periods to make up for by non-traditional mahouts and their insuf cient underpayments (Vanitha 2007). Nevertheless, number/elephant. The higher proportion of the mahouts in less popular/rural temples still injuries caused by the bulls in the Forest do not make up the underpayments, as only poor Department could be attributed to the sudden devotees visit these temples and donate pittance. change in their behaviour during musth. The fact that, in spite of managing a large number of bulls As a result, the traditional mahouts are leaving in captive conditions, the Forest Department these facilities and the elephants are increasingly system experienced a very low proportion of left under the control of non-traditional man-slaughters compared to other parts of India mahouts. These non-traditional mahouts have (Panicker et al. 2003), reveals the competence less compassion and insuf cient experience in of traditional tribal mahouts whom the system handling these giants, and often mishandle them. predominantly engages in the profession. The higher number of man-slaughters, mostly the public by temple elephants, could be attributed to Unlike in the past, where mahoutry was a proud the higher association of temple elephants with profession of a specialized class of people, the the public than those in the Forest Department. profession has now lost its charm due to the lack However, the virtual absence of human deaths by of comparable economic bene ts and improper the private elephants, which are also associated welfare measures owing to the dwindling
11 importance of captive elephants (MoEF 2004). and H S Datye (Bombay: Oxford Univ. Press) pp Therefore, the art of mahoutry is dying at a fast 456–472. rate and effective steps must be taken urgently to improve the economic status and welfare standards Lair, R.C. (1997) Gone Astray—The care and of mahouts through better pay, risk allowance, management of the Asian elephant in domesticity. insurance policy, family accommodation, etc. as Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), advised by the Project Elephant, Government of Regional Of ce for Asia and the Paci c (RAP), India (MoEF 2004). All facilities should strictly (Thailand: RAP Publ.). adhere to the norms of the Forest Department in regards to the number of mahouts per elephant. In Panicker, K.C., Cheeran, J.V., Kaimal, K.R., the Forest Department, it was found that a large Nair, K.N.M., Ajitkumar, G., Rajeev, T.S., number of mahout positions were lled with Sethumadhavan, T.P. & Madhavan, M.R. (2003) casual labourers on a temporary basis. They need Captive elephant-human con icts in Kerala. In: to be lled-up by permanent mahouts. The hill Endangered Elephants, Past Present and Future. tribe community in southern India is specialized Jayewardene, J. (ed.) Biodiversity & Elephant in elephant-capture, taming, keeping, handling Conservation Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp and using for work - essential tools to manage 21–22. problem elephants as well as the local abundance of elephants in the wild populations. Therefore, Sukumar, R. (2003). The Living Elephants: the traditional talent and competency needs to Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior and be retained with better economic and welfare Conservation. Oxford University Press, New standards, not only for the effective management York. of captive elephants but also for the management of wild elephant populations. Vanitha, V. (2007) Studies on the Status and Management of Captive Asian Elephants Acknowledgments (Elephas maximus) at Tamil Nadu in Southern India. Ph.D. thesis, Bharathidasan University, We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department Tiruchirapalli, India. and Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Board, Government of Tamil Nadu, and private Corresponding author’s e-mail: owners of elephants in Tamil Nadu for permitting [email protected] this study. We are thankful to the elephant- keepers for patiently sharing their experiences and opinions.
References
MoEF (2004) Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Project Elephant. Report of Expert Committee on Assessment of status of captive elephants.
Krishnamurthy, V. (1998) Captive elephant management in India under different systems: Present trends. Zoo’s Print 13 (3): 1-4.
Krishnamurthy, V. & Wemmer, C. (1995) Timber elephant management in Madras Presidency of Figure 3. Female on its way to bath at Rejuvenation India (1844–1947). In: A Week with Elephants Camp conducted for temple and private elephants Proc. International Seminar (eds) J C Daniel at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
12 Gajah 30 (2009) 13-18
Distribution, Demography and Basic Husbandry of the Asian Elephant in the Tourism Industry in Northern Thailand
Alexander Godfrey and Charatdao Kongmuang
Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand Introduction and food provided to them by owners – ‘bought food’ which is de ned here as comprising all The captive and wild populations of Asian ready cut food stuff, being imported into the camp elephants in Thailand are almost entirely from a remote source and involving a monetary geographically isolated from each other. The transaction. This food source is usually low in captive population, comprising approximately plant diversity and provides the bulk of energy 60% of the total population, is found mainly in food for the elephants. Wild forage on the other the North and Northeast of the country whereas hand may be de ned as the usually nocturnal or the isolated wild populations, numbering a total seasonal foraging of the elephants in forested of 1000-1500 individuals (Lair 1997; Lohanan areas, be they private or public, providing many 2002), are distributed primarily in the Central and essential nutrients and minerals. Western regions, most of which are in protected areas (Pimmanrojnagool & Wanghongsa 2002). A ban on all logging activities, implemented in 1989, rendered 70% of the captive elephants in Legislatively, wild elephants are included in Thailand without work practically overnight the 1992 Wildlife Protection Act granting them (Lakanavichian 2001; Tippraset 2002). The basic protection from anthropocentric use. The current lack of employment for the remaining captive population however comes under the captive population is considered to be one of somewhat outdated 1939 Draught Animal Act, the major problems for elephant conservation in in which elephants are classi ed as working Thailand (Ratanakorn 2002; Lohanan 2002; Lair livestock, similar to cattle, buffalo and oxen. 2002). Upon implementation of the ban, a large Internationally, the Asian elephant is listed as percentage of elephants were transferred to the “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List (IUCN growing tourism industry, to be used for rides, 2008) and is thus protected under the CITES Act shows (Fig. 1) and entertainment (Lair 1997). (UNEP-WCMC). Materials and Methods The low birth rate in captivity and a change in the preference in the age and gender of captive The purpose of this study was to gain a better elephants in Thailand have led to a strong need to understanding of the relationships between harvest wild and foreign individuals, especially the demography and husbandry conditions of from Myanmar. The nancial sustainability of elephants in the tourism industry. Ownership elephant husbandry is currently threatened by the was correlated with age, gender, and the diet decrease in availability of forested areas (from of the surveyed elephants using chi square (X2) 90% to 22% of the national land area over the statistical analysis. last century) and the rising prices of cultivated foodstuffs globally (Kashio 1997; Lakanavichian Four provinces within Northern Thailand, Chiang 2001). The diet of the elephant in the wild is Mai, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son and Lampang composed of a large diversity of plant types were identi ed as having the highest density of (Sukumar 1989; Samansiri & Weerakoon, 2007; elephants involved in tourism. Data collection Campoz-Arceiz et al. 2008; Phuangkum et al. was carried out over a period of two months from 2005). Captive elephants consumed wild forage mid April 2008 to mid June 2008.
13 Elephants were categorised depending on their access to wild forage and their dependence on bought food stuffs.
Results and Discussion
Categorising the sample of 543 elephants by age groups showed equal distributions (20%) of elephants in the rst three age groups (0-11, 11- 20, 21-30 years) and a peak in the fourth group (31-40 years) with 26% of the sample. This could represent the remnants of the logging force left from before the ban on logging, nearly 20 years ago. The last age group (40 years and over) only comprised 15% of all indivuals.
The gender ratio for the total sample was found to be 1:2.13 (male:female), explained by Lair (1997) as the particular demand for strong males in illegal logging activities and the relative docility of the females making them more suitable for work in close proximity to tourists. This gender ratio however varied signi cantly across the studied Figure 1. Young elephant doing tricks in a show area. Figure 2 shows the gender ratio for each at the Surin Elephant Festival. district surveyed within the four provinces.
The majority of captive elephants are located in The data was collected and recorded by individual Chiang Mai province, with Mae Taeng district camps using a basic questionnaire. Age was having the largest captive population. The gender categorised into ve categories (0-10, 11-20, 21- ratios for each district show a majority of females, 30, 31-40 and 40+) and veri ed using the criteria with the exception of Lampang and Chiang Rai, for age determination provided in Phuangkum comprising 58% and 71% males respectively. et al. (2005). Ownership was categorised into Both subpopulations of Muang Chiang Mai and four groups, based on Lair’s (1997) distinction Pai districts are composed solely of females. This between those owners who physically maintain variation, ranging from 100% female in Pai district their elephants (mahout owners) and those who to nearly 75% males in Chiang Rai district, was assign this task to a hired mahout (remote owners), not found to be correlated to ownership or age, followed by ‘State ownership’, government run but to the nature and ancestries of the facilities, facilities with state owned elephants, and ’camp ex-logging concessions having a higher male ownership’: elephants owned by the camps in component. which they work. Interviews with the managers provided information on the feeding strategies When correlating age with gender, only the rst and diet composition. All the data was recorded age group deviates from the average by more on a single questionnaire, lled out by the research than 10 percent, with a male:female ratio of team. A copy of the questionnaire in Thai was 1:1.17 (Table 1). The high and growing demand made available to the interviewee. for young elephants seems to have led to some .Table 1. Gender ratios of each age category. Sex Average 0-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years 31-40 years 40+ years Females 68% 54% 73% 76% 72% 63% Males 32% 46% 27% 24% 28% 37%
14 Figure 2. Map of the distribution and gender ratios of elephants in the study area by district. ambivalence by buyers with respect to the the tourism industry. This bears more weight gender of the calves. From 20 years onwards, when considering the effect that events such as the elephants are predominantly used for riding the 2004 tsunami and the political unrest in 2008 and docility becomes the predominant criteria have had on the tourism industry in Thailand. for selection. This explains in part the increase of females and the decrease of males for older Table 2 shows the results of the Chi Square age groups. analysis between ownership and age, gender and diet of the surveyed elephants. All correlations Only one in ten elephants in the survey was were found to be signi cant to 95% accuracy. owned by the state. Mahouts formed the largest ownership group with 37% of all individuals in The dominance of mahout ownership spans the the sample, followed by 32% being owned by ve age groups with the exception of the 31-40 the tourism camps and the remaining 22% being years category, with camps owning the majority owned by private non mahout owners (remote of elephants in this group. Table 3 shows the owners). Ownership was found to be signi cantly correlated to age, gender and diet using Chi Table 2. Results from the Chi Square analysis. Square to 95% accuracy. When comparing these Correlates X2 df P value results to Tippraserts’ data from 2004 on the Ownership same population, there has been a noticeable -with Age 43.38 12 0.000 shift in ownership from camp owners to mahout -with Gender 15.89 3 0.001 owners, representing a decrease in stability of -with Diet 62.11 3 0.000
15 Table 3. Type of Onwership by age category. Ownership Average 0-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years 31-40 years 40+ years Camp 32% 29% 26% 36% 43% 20% State 10% 15% 8% 9% 4% 17% Mahout 37% 39% 34% 44% 34% 32% Remote 22% 17% 33% 11% 20% 32% ownership composition for each age category. both state and camp owners provide wild forage Elephants are at the peak of physical tness in for their elephants on a regular basis (Fig. 3). The their thirties (Pimmanrojnagool & Wanghongsa ability for both state and camp owners to provide 2002), which would explain the high number of wild forage for their elephants may be because camp owned individuals in the fourth age group, they usually own land and are therefore able as they are used to give rides. to allow their elephants to graze on it; whereas mahout owners may have less access to such land The gender ratio varies signi cantly across the and would therefore be forced to buy foodstuff four types of ownerships (Table 4). Mahout for their elephants. Phuangkum et al. (2005) go owners show a ratio of nearly three female on to describe the relationship between ownership elephants for every male (1:2.85) whereas the and diet, suggesting that remote ownership is state has a nearly equal number of males and oftentimes deleterious to the elephant’s nutrition. females, (1:1.17). This is due to the fact that the The data analysis for this study produced similar majority of elephants (86%) owned by the state results, also nding remote owner category to are found in the Lampang TECC, which has a provide the elephants with the least access to male dominated, ex-logging subpopulation. wild forage. When compared to the average ratio for the sample, both remote and camp owners showed Table 5. Percentage of wild forage for each type little variation. of ownership. Ownership % other forage % wild forage Of the 543 elephants surveyed, every elephant was Remote 64 36 dependent, at least partially, on food purchased Mahout 62 38 from a third party, concurrent with gures given State 19 81 by Phuangkum et al. (2005). The bought forage Camp 32 68 was found to consist of, but was not limited to, elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), sugar Conclusion cane (Saccharum of cinarum), banana tree and fruit (Musa sapientum) and a variety of - A comprehensive map of the study area has bamboo species (Bambusa sp.). Nearly half of been produced and zones with the largest the elephants in the sample were found to have subpopulations identi ed as being proximal no regular access to wild forage, therefore being to highly touristic areas such as the cities of fully dependant on bought or cultivated foods. Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai.
When correlating ownership with diet (Table 5) - The captive population is deemed relatively it appears that a higher percentage of both remote stable with the recent revival in recruitment, and mahout owners fail to provide their elephants especially of calves; this being attributed to the with any wild forage, while a higher percentage of growth in demand from the tourism industry. - The distribution of elephants into age categories Table 4. Gender ratios of each ownership type. was found to be relatively equal with a peak in Ownership % females % males the 31-40 years age group. Remote 64 36 Mahout 74 26 - The average gender ratio within the industry State 46 54 Camp 71 29 was found to be approximately two females per male, but factors such as illegal logging,
16 Figure 3. Bringing the elephants into camps after a night of foraging, Chiang Rai Province.
behaviour, the high demand for calves and and greatly facilitated logistical operations. historical distribution have induced variations Similar credit goes to Dr. Chanin Umpornstira, in the ratio throughout the study area. who offered great counsel and the necessary critique to adequately hone this study. Of those - All elephants in the study are dependent, to remote to the University, I would like to extend some level, on bought forage. Remote owners my deepest gratitude to Ms. Lek Chailert, whose provide the least access to wild forage. support this study made this study possible. Similarly, I am greatly appreciative of Richard - The equal gender ratio for the youngest age Lair and Dr. Wiroj from the Lampang Thai group of elephants was attributed to the high Elephant Conservation Center for their guidance demand and limited availability of young and patience in preparing the current study. calves, leading to a lack of choice regarding gender. References
- Better registration is needed to monitor and Campoz-Arceiz. A., Lin. T. Z., Htun. W., record the breeding rate in what seems to be a Takatsuki. S. & Leimgruber. P (2008) Working potentially fertile population. with mahouts to explore the diet of work elephants in Myanmar (Burma). Ecological Research 23: This study suggests that social and economic 1057–1064. factors have a strong in uence on the demography and structure of the captive population working in IUCN (2008) IUCN Red List of Threatened tourism. Therefore, future research is suggested Species. www.iucnredlist.org. to be focused on the socio-economic conditions of those owning or working with elephants. Kashio, M. (1997) Sustainable forest management in Asia and the Paci c. In: Implementing Acknowledgements Sustainable Forest Management in Asia and the Paci c. Johnson, A. & Durst, P. (eds.) FAO My sincere thanks go out to my project supervisor, (RAP), Bangkok. Dr. Charatdao who, over the course of the study, provided continuous support and encouragement Lair, R. (1997) Gone Astray - The Care and
17 Management of the Asian elephant in Domesticity. in Thailand. In: Giants on our Hands. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Proceedings of the International Workshop on Nations (FAO) Forestry Department, Rome, Italy the Domesticated Asian Elephant. Food and and Forestry Department Group, Regional Of ce Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, for Asia and the Paci c (RAP). Regional Of ce for Asia and the Paci c, Bangkok, Thailand. Lair, R. (2002) Keynote address: A regional overview of the need for registration of Samansiri. K.A.P. & Weerakoon. D.K. (2007) domesticated Asian elephants. In: Giants on Feeding behaviour of the Asian elephant in the our Hands. Proceedings of the International Northeastern region of Sri Lanka. Gajah 27: 27- Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. 34. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Regional Of ce for Asia and the Paci c, Sukumar . R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology Bangkok, Thailand. and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Lakanavichian, S. (2001) Impacts and effectiveness of logging bans in forested areas: Tipprasert, P. (2002) Elephants and Ecotourism Thailand. In: Forests Out of Bounds. Impacts in Thailand. In: Giants on our Hands. and Effectiveness of Logging Bans in Forested Proceedings of the International Workshop on Areas in Asia-Paci c. Asia-Paci c Forestry the Domesticated Asian Elephant. Food and Comminssion. Food and Agriculture Organisation Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, of the United Nations. Regional Of ce for Asia Regional Of ce for Asia and the Paci c, Bangkok, and the Paci c. Bangkok.Thailand. Thailand.
Lohanan, R. (2002) The Elephant situation in UNEP-WCMC (2008) UNEP-WCMC Species Thailand and a plea for co-operation. In: Giants Database: CITES-Listed Species. www.cites.org/ on our Hands. Proceedings of the International eng/resources/species.html. Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Regional Of ce for Asia and the Paci c, Corresponding author’s e-mail: Bangkok, Thailand. [email protected]
Pimmanrojnagool, W. & Wanghongsa, S. (2002) A study of Street Wandering Elephants in Bangkok and the socio-economic life of their mahouts. In: Giants on our Hands. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Regional Of ce for Asia and the Paci c, Bangkok, Thailand.
Phuangkum, P., Lair, R.C. & Angkawanith, T. (2005) Elephant Care Manual for Mahouts and Camp Managers. FIO and FAO, Bangkok, ISBN: 974-7946-71-8.
Ratanakorn, P. (2002) The role of NGOs in Figure 4. A well maintained elephant shelter in the management of domesticated elephants Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand.
18 Gajah 30 (2009) 19-23
The Analysis of Data from Studies of Crop-Raiding
Richard F. W. Barnes
Division of Biological Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, USA Introduction do farms with this crop have a greater risk of being visited by elephants compared to farms without Do elephants raid elds at random? This is a the crop? This question arose on our Kakum study fundamental question for wildlife managers. If the site (Barnes et al. 2005) with respect to plantains: answer is “yes,” then the manager must nd ways it seemed to us that elephants were more likely to discourage elephants from every eld. But if to raid farms with plantains. At certain times of the answer is “No, elephants select certain elds year elephants sought out the plantains because for special attention while ignoring others,” then of their eshy stems and then stayed on the farm cost-effective management becomes possible. For to eat other crops. The null hypothesis we are example, we can concentrate protection on elds testing is therefore: there is no difference in risk with the risk factor we have identi ed, or we can between farms with plantains and those without. work with farmers to reduce that risk factor to We select the 0.05 level of signi cance. make their elds less attractive to elephants. The risk that a farm will be raided is a probability. In an earlier paper I described the methods for The odds compare the probability of an event collecting data to answer this question (Barnes (such as a farm being raided) occurring relative 2008). In the present paper I describe simple to the probability that the event does not occur. methods for analyzing those data. This paper is written with the needs of graduate students in Odds = Probability of being raided = P mind. Many graduate students live in remote Prob. of not being raided 1 - P villages to collect data in order to help the farmers reduce their losses from crop-raiding elephants. For example, if there is a 20% probability (P The lack of funds, the absence of electricity or = 0.2) that my farm will be raided during the the humidity means that often they cannot use growing season, then there is an 80% probability even a laptop. So rst I present simple methods (1 – P = 0.8) that it will not. The odds that my that require only a calculator. They will enable farm will be raided are 0.2/0.8=0.25. students to get answers while still in the village or while living in a tent. Then I move to the logistic Imagine that you set out to test the hypothesis model that requires access to a computer. In a that it is the presence of plantains on a farm that subsequent paper I will deal with more complex attracts elephants. You can draw up a 2 × 2 table multivariate methods of analysis that make more to compare the frequencies of raided and intact use of the data. farms against the frequencies of farms with and without the risk factor of interest, which in this Before sitting down to start your data analysis, case is plantains. you must remind yourself of the original goals of Farms raided the study, and you must have a clear idea of the Yes No questions you are expecting to answer. Plantains Yes ab No cd The odds ratio In this example a farms had plantains and were Let us start with a simple question: does the raided while b farms that also had plantains were probability of a farm being raided depend upon untouched. On the other hand, there were c farms the presence of a particular crop? In other words, without plantains that were raided compared to d
19 that had no plantains and remained unscathed. Thus farms with plantains were 1.64 times more likely to be raided than those without plantains. The odds that a farm with plantains was raided Is this value signi cantly different from unity, is a/b. Similarly, the odds that a farm without the “null value” indicating no association? If plantains was raided is c/d. The odds ratio, OR, the con dence limits lie outside 1, then we can is then: conclude that the estimated OR is signi cant. OR = (a/b)/(c/d) = ad/bc The OR is not normally distributed, whereas its natural logarithm, lnOR, is more likely to The odds ratio is a measure of how more likely it be normally distributed (Hosmer & Lemeshow is for an event to occur for farms with plantains 2000). The standard error (SE) of the natural log than farms without plantains. An odds ratio of 1 of the odds ratio is: means no association: the odds of being raided SE = ( 1/a + 1/b + 1/c + 1/d ) are independent of whether or not plantains are present. An odds ratio of greater than 1 The 95% con dence interval for the log of the indicates an association between plantains and odds ratio (lnOR) is given by: the probability of crop damage: elephants are lnOR ± 1.96 × SE attracted to elds with plantains. An odds ratio less than 1 would suggest that elephants avoid The lower con dence interval for the odds ratio farms with plantains. In theory the odds ratio can is therefore exp[lnOR - 1.96 × SE] and the upper have values from zero to in nity. Usually you con dence interval is exp[lnOR + 1.96 × SE]. will nd it varies from 0.2 to about 20 in extreme The 95% con dence interval for the plantain cases. example is from 0.75 to 3.63 (the calculations are shown in Appendix 1). Note that the con dence Below is a real example of 203 farms, some of interval is asymmetric. We present the results in which had plantains. We suspected that plantains this manner: were a major risk factor that drew elephants on to Estimated odds ratio = 1.64 (0.75, 3.63) those farms. The null hypothesis says there was no association between plantains and raids. Our interpretation of this result is: the odds that a farm with plantains will be raided by elephants Farms raided are 1.64 times greater than for a farm without Yes No plantains. However, since the con dence interval Plantains Yes 14 63 includes 1, this association is not signi cant No 15 111 at the 0.05 level. Therefore we cannot reject the null hypothesis; we conclude that there is A super cial glance might suggest that it doesn’t no association between elephant raids and the matter whether or not you have plantains: almost presence of plantains. Our suspicion that plantains equal numbers of damaged farms fell into the attracted elephants is not supported by the data. plantains present/absent categories. However, it is a cardinal rule in crop raiding studies that one The odds ratio is a very simple method for must also look at the farms that were not raided, determining whether a particular crop attracts those in the right hand column. elephants onto farms in your area. These calculations can be done on a calculator while We rst calculate the odds that a farm with sitting in your tent. plantains was raided. The odds = P1/(1-P1) = 14/63 = 0.2222. The odds that a farm without plantains If your data are strati ed, for example you was raided = P0/(1-P0) = 15/111 = 0.1351. have elds at different distances from the river or from the national park boundary, then The odds ratio is therefore: the Mantel-Haenszel test can be used. This
OR = P1/(1-P1) = 14/63 = 0.2222 = 1.64 estimates the association between raids/no raids
P0/(1-P0) 15/111 0.1351 and a dichotomous variable (like plantains/no
20 plantains) after controlling for strata (e.g. >2 km, Note that there is a negative sign in front of the
2-4 km and >4 km from the river). It can also be expression in brackets: -( 0 + 1X1 ). This can used to estimate the association between raids/no be re-arranged so that the odds that the event will raids and a dichotomous variable (like plantains/ occur are: no plantains) after controlling for another P/(1 – P) = exp( 0 + 1X1 ) categorical variable, such as rice/no rice. The calculations can be done on a calculator, but are Another tweak gives us the expression in the lengthy, and programming a spreadsheet would form of logits (log of the odds): avoid arithmetical errors. Details and worked ln(P/1 – P) = 0 + 1X1 examples are given in Rosner (2006: 651-661). This is a univariate logistic regression model that Logistic regression describes the relationship between the odds of
the event occurring and the risk factor X1. The method above describes the association between raided farms and a categorical variable. If X1 is a binary variable (“yes/no” or “present/
There are two disadvantages. First, you can only absent”) then exp( 1) is the simple odds ratio evaluate one crop at a time. In practice, you will for X1. It is identical to the odds ratio calculated often want to evaluate the effect of one crop in from the 2 × 2 contingency table. Thus the the presence of a second crop or several other method of association from the 2 x 2 table and variables. Second, you can only use it with logistic regression are closely related (Hosmer & categorical variables (e.g. plantains/no plantains). Lemeshow 2000). In practice we often have independent variables that are continuous, for example the number of If X1 is a continuous variable, such as the number crop types grown on each farm, or the size of of food crops, then exp( 1) ---often written as rice elds. Does the risk of raiding increase with e 1 ---expresses the change in odds for each unit the size of your rice elds? Logistic regression change in X1. See Hosmer & Lemeshow (2000) is a type of model that describes the relationship or Woodward (2005) for the derivation of these between a dichotomous dependent variable equations. (like “raided” or “not raided”) and one or more independent variables (e.g. X1, X2, and X3). The As an example, at Kakum we needed to test independent variables may be dichotomous (like whether the number of crop types was a major “plantain” or “no plantain”) or continuous, such risk factor. The tted logistic regression model as number of different crop types or distance to a is shown in Table 1. The risk P of being raided national park boundary. was: P = 1
Consider a continuous variable X1 that we 1 + exp-( -2.9076 + 0.3739X1 ) suspect of in uencing elephant behaviour. The probability, P, that an event ( e.g. a raid by Which can be re-written as: elephants) will occur is: P/(1 – P) = exp(-2.9076 + 0.3739X1 ) P = 1
1 + exp-( 0 + 1X1 ) The odds ratio for the number of crops is the exponentiated value of the regression coef cient,
Where 0 and 1 are regression coef cients. i.e. exp( 1), which in this case is exp(0.3739) =
Table 1. Logistic regression model where the dependent variable is crop raids (raids/no raids) and the independent variable is the number of crops on each farm. Test for the overall t of the model: 2 = 6.50, df = 1, p = 0.0108 . Parameter Estimated SE ( ) Odds ratio Con dence interval p Coef cient for odds ratio Intercept –2.9076 0.5116 <0.0001 No. of Crops 0.3739 0.1463 1.453 1.091, 1.936 0.0106
21 1.453 with a 95% con dence interval of (1.091, farmer with 4 crops on his farm will have 1.4172 1.936). This means that each increase in the = 2.01 times the risk of a farmer who grows only number of crops, for example from 4 to 5 crops, two crop types. raised the odds of being raided by 1.45 times. Since the con dence interval did not include 1, In this example, both distance to park boundary this association is signi cant (P < 0.05). and number of crops are signi cant contributors to risk. Distance was measured in metres, so In practice there are likely to be several risk the odds ratio (OR = 0.997) means that for each factors that determine the probability that a farm metre one moves away from the park boundary will be raided. The simple logistic equation can there will be a reduction in risk of 0.997. Thus, then be generalized to: a farm 500 metres away will have a risk that is P = 1 0.997500 = 0.22 times as bad as one directly on the
1 + exp-( 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X3 ) park boundary.
In this case there are three risk factor, X1 , X2 What practical value is all this? Can it help the and X3 , while 0, 1, 2, and 3 are regression park manager to reduce the problem of crop coef cients. The odds that the event will occur damage by elephants? In this case the answer are: is clearly “Yes”: a farmer can reduce his risk
P/(1 – P) = exp( 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X3 ) dramatically by placing his elds at least 500 metres from the park boundary. If the pressures Or in the logit form: on land do not allow him the luxury of deciding
ln(P/1 – P) = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X3 where his eld must go, then he can halve his risk by growing two crops instead of four. There may be one particular variable (for example,
X1) that we are interested in testing, perhaps We can now return to the question of plantains. because we know that we can persuade farmers After adjusting for distance to the park and for to manage that particular variable. We need to the number of crops, are plantains an important know the importance of X1 after controlling for risk factor? We add plantains to the logistic other risk factors. The odds ratio for X1 after regression model (Table 3) and the result shows controlling for the other two variables is exp( 1). that the odds ratio for plantains, after adjusting For example, number of crops is clearly important, for the other two variables, is 1.01 (0.39, 2.66). but is it a signi cant risk factor after controlling The odds ratio is one: it does not matter whether for distance to the national park boundary? or not farmers have plantains on their farms. After all, we know that the risk of crop raiding falls steeply as you move further away from the Logistic regression is discussed in many statistics national park. Table 2 shows the estimates from textbooks, e.g. Hosmer & Lemeshow (2000), the tted logistic regression model: after adjusting Kleinbaum et al. (2008), Woodward (2005). All for distance to the park boundary, the number of statistical software packages include modules for crop types is still a signi cant risk factor for crop logistic regression. raids (p = 0.0228). After adjusting for distance, this model tells us that a farmer increases his All the calculations described above can be done risk by a factor of 1.417 each time he plants an with Epi-Info, an analysis package provided extra crop on his farm. Thus at a given distance, a absolutely free by the United States government Table 2. Logistic regression model where the dependent variable is crop raids (raids/no raids) and the independent variables are the number of crops on each farm and distance to the national park boundary. Test for the overall t of the model: 2 = 19.27, df =2, p < 0.0001. Parameter Estimated SE ( ) Odds ratio Con dence interval p coef cient for odds ratio Intercept –1.4164 0.6535 0.0302 No. of crops 0.3485 0.1530 1.417 1.050, 1.913 0.0228 Distance –0.0030 0.0009 0.997 0.995, 0.999 0.0009
22 Table 3. Logistic regression model where the dependent variable is crop raids (raids/no raids) and the independent variables are number of crops on each farm, its distance from the park boundary, and presence/absence of plantains. Test for the overall t of the model: 2 = 19.27, df = 3, p = 0.0002. Parameter Estimated SE ( ) Odds ratio Con dence interval p coef cient for odds ratio Intercept –1.4157 0.6540 Crops 0.3463 0.1739 1.414 1.005, 1.988 0.0465 Distance –0.0030 0.0009 0.997 0.995, 0.999 0.0009 Plantains 0.0131 0.4921 1.013 0.386, 2.658 0.9788 (www.cdc.gov). The odds ratios and Mantel- Manford, M., Dubiure, U.F., Danquah, E.K.A. Haenszel test are in the Utilities\StatCalc drop- & Boafo, Y. (2005) Risk of crop-raiding by down menu. elephants around the Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana. Pachyderm 39: 19-25. Discussion Hosmer, D.W. & Lemeshow, S. (2000) Applied We cannot properly understand the phenomenon Logistic Regression. John Wiley & Sons, New of crop raiding by elephants if we do not York. quantify it. But we must never forget that each event represents a farmer’s loss, sometimes Kleinbaum, D.G., Kupper, L.L., Nizam, A. & catastrophic, and our goal must always be to Muller, K.E. (2008) Applied Regression Analysis minimize his suffering. and Other Multivariable Methods. Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont, California. The logistic regression model illustrates how the risk declines steeply with distance from the park Long, J.S. (1997) Regression Models for boundary. In some sites it may be distance from Categorical and Limited Dependent Variables. a river or a road, or some other feature, that is of Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California. interest. These models can help the agricultural extension agents or the park manger to work with Rosner, B. (2006) Fundamentals of Biostatistics, local farmers to decide on the number of crops to 6th Edition. Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont. cultivate on their farms (Barnes et al. 2005). By growing fewer crops they will obviously reduce Woodward, M. (2005) Epidemiology: Study food production, but that will be balanced by less Design and Data Analysis. Chapman & Hall, risk of loss from elephants. Boca Raton.
The logistic model described here makes an Appendix 1 important assumption: that the farms are all independent of each other, i.e. they are randomly At Kakum we believed that plantains attracted distributed about the study area. In practice, elephants that then stayed on the farm to wreak this is unlikely. Our study farms are often in damage on other crops. The 2 × 2 table is shown groups, for example we may have 30 farms, with in Table 2. The odds ratio is: 10 farms in each of 3 villages. This clustering OR = (14 × 111) / (15 × 63) = 1.6444 presents a complication for the diligent analyst. SE of lnOR = (1/14 + 1/63 + 1/15 + 1/111) In a subsequent paper I will describe how one = (0.0714 + 0.0159 + 0.0667 + 0.0090) should deal with clustered farms. = 0.4037 The 95% con dence limits of lnOR References = 0.4974 ± 1.96 × 0.4037 = 0.4974 ± 0.7913 The 95% con dence limits of OR = exp(-0.2939) Barnes, R.F.W. (2008) The design of crop-raiding and exp(1.2887) = 0.7454 and 3.6281 studies. Gajah 28: 4-7.
Barnes, R.F.W., Hema, E.M., Nandjui, A., Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
23 Gajah 30 (2009) 24-28
The Uda Walawe Elephant Transit Home - Another Opportunity Missed?
Srilal Miththapala
Serendib Leisure Management Ltd, Colombo, Sri Lanka Introduction human interaction for most of the day, except during feeding times and the night, when they are The Uda Walawe Elephant Transit Home (UW- brought back in to the central paddock. ETH) was established by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), under the guidance The rst batch of elephants from the UW-ETH, Dr N.A. Atapattu, Deputy Director, Veterinary & comprising 3 males and 1 female, were released Research in 1995, to re-integrate orphaned and into the wild in March 1988. Before release, abandoned juvenile elephants back into the wild, generally, the elephants are rst weaned, given a at the Uda Walawe National Park (UWNP). It full meal very early in the morning, and smeared was set up somewhat as a counter measure, to the with a paste made of dung and water to minimize ever expanding Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage the residual smell of humans. Some of them (PEO), where the population was growing were tted with radio collars to enable them to rapidly. be located after being released.
The PEO of course was set up way back in 1975, To date, 66 elephants have been released in eight as a place where orphaned elephants were given batches, the largest batch being 11, and smallest shelter and looked after. The facility commenced being 4 (Table 1). The last batch released was in with only 5 calves, but with the increasing June 2008, where 8 elephants were released, all numbers, this soon became an arti cial herd of with radio collars. sorts, with the animals growing up, not fully tamed (they cannot be ridden, and only the During the initial stages, under the supervision males are put to work) and leading a reasonably of Dr. Suhada Jayawardena – Veterinary Surgeon comfortable existence. In 1984 the rst calf was of the park, a reasonable good follow up was born in captivity at the PEO and since then, there conducted, with radio triangulation to locate the have been 48 births (as at 2008). The rst calf movements of the released elephants and periodic ‘Sandamalee’ subsequently gave birth to a male observations. calf in 1997. What should have been a world class scienti c programme, has currently degenerated However, as in the case of PEO, unfortunately the into a badly managed facility, with little or no follow up, monitoring and scienti c evaluation research or scienti c observations, specially related to behavior, being carried out. There are reports that animals are being ill treated and kept in unhygienic conditions.
The UW-ETH was set up, where unlike at the PEO, the orphaned elephants were to have limited interaction with humans, so as to enable them to be reinstated back into the wild, at some point of time. The young are bottle fed (Fig. 1), and then allowed to graze in a free ranging fenced area, abutting the western corner of the reservoir. In this manner, the elephants are allowed to feed and interact with each other, without much Figure 1. Bottle feeding at UW-ETH.
24 Table 1. Elephants released from the UW-ETH. are other records and sightings of some of the Batch Date Total Males Females released elephants being isolated, and even one 1st March 98 4 3 1 case where a released elephant found its way back 2nd July 00 5 1 4 to the ETH (Miththapala 2008). However, there 3rd Jan. 02 8 3 5 is no detailed information or records of when, 4th June 0311 4 7 how, and under what conditions certain elephants 5th March 0411 7 4 have successfully integrated into herds, and why 6th April 06 9 4 5 some have been rejected. 7th April 0710 4 6 th 8 June 08 8 2 6 During a recent visit to the park, along with Total 8 66 28 38 Ashoka Ranjeewa, who is carrying out a research has been poor. Although, there are reasonable programme at UWNP (along with Ms Shermin records of some of the released elephants, they de Silva of the University of Pennsylvania), are limited to where they were at particular times, I came across a herd where we identi ed one and whether they were with another herd. More of the released females, who seemed to have prolonged and detailed observations have not integrated well with the herd. She had recently been done on behaviour and sociological aspects, calved, and Ashoka told me, that according to which are the most important areas of interest. his observations, the calf was about 3 weeks old. What was interesting was that female seemed There is a record of one released female to be much more con dent with us than any ‘Sandamali’, who gave birth to a calf in May other females I have observed in the wild, with 2005, after integrating well with a herd, and two a calf of this size. It is common knowledge that young tuskers ‘Mahesh’ and ‘Senadhi’ who were females guard a calf very protectively, even up to released and integrated with a wild herd. There about 4-5 years of age. Many a time I have spent
Figure 2. “Be wary of humans” ...?
25 hours waiting for a good photo opportunity, but more than enough for elephants to integrate into the mother and her entourage have successfully another herd. ensured that I could hardly see the calf. This is the crux of the issue. Other than for In this case, the female was right in front of our sporadic checking of where the released elephants jeep, with the calf close by her side without any are, there is absolutely no scienti c research or cause of concern. She then got on to the road with study being done as to why some individuals the calf in full sight. Then interestingly another seemed to be accepted into a herd, while others young female joined her, and began pushing her are rejected. There is bound to be complex away from our jeep. The released female with the behavioural patterns to be observed and studied, calf reluctantly began to move forward, while this given the highly complex social life of the other elephant continuously pushed and prodded elephants. There have been absolutely no records her (Fig. 2), until she moved off the road into the kept of what the structure of the herds, which vegetation. We all concluded that this was very accepted individuals into them were like, and interesting behaviour, and it could be that the what personality characteristics were prevalent. other elephant was trying to shield her from us, while the female with the calf on the other hand, On the contrary, in South and East Africa, possibly felt less threatened by us due to her early such programmes are conducted under proper days interacting with humans at the UW-ETH. scienti c management, which give rise to a wealth of information and learning. It is amazing Later on, I was also very surprised to spot the to read about the level of pre-preparation and entire batch of elephants released in June 2008, post monitoring that is done during an elephant together, in one single group on the Seenuggala release. road (Fig. 3). All of them had their collars intact and seemed to be rather timid, and kept close to I quote from the David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust each other, indicating clearly that they had not Newsletter (2008) ‘The reintegration of a young integrated with a wild herd at all. They seemed elephant back into a wild community takes time to be in good health however, and it appeared and patience, for only when the elephant feels that they had grown. (I was present at the UWNP suf ciently con dent to leave the human family, during their release in June 2009). Inquiries upon whom it has relied for protection for so revealed that the trackers knew about this and my long, and has made elephant friends in amongst concern was that no one seemed to be concerned, the wild community, will the transition begin, and that after one year, these elephants were still for a time there will be some to-ing and fro-ing in one group. Has anyone studied what kind of between the human family and the wild friends. trauma these young elephants are experiencing ……. besides which, after all, it is not possible to having being released into the wild and being dump a human child of l0 into an unknown and hostile rejected? I would reckon that 3-6 months is environment and believe that it will cope without psychological or physical damage. The same applies to elephants who are by nature fearful animals that rely heavily on the protection of the herd, and are emotionally bonded to “family.” Furthermore they make life-long friendships and like to stay in touch, and they also need the wisdom and discipline of their elders to grow up psychologically sound. Elephants are “human” animals in many respects, (with a few attributes that humans lack besides), something that has taken humans a long time to accept’.
One has to only read about the wonderful work Figure 3. The ‘Batch’ of 2008.
26 done by The David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, Lanka, even trying to locate the radio collared where each orphaned individual is studied and its elephants, is a major chore for the resident vet, individual personality and development recorded who has her hands full. To my mind, I guess to the closest details, to realize the amount of several factors, such as the structure and the effort that goes into managing such a facility. disposition of the herd, the personality of the individual (released) elephant, environment and At a ‘transit home’ orphaned elephants could food resources available would all be dependent tend to be psychotic or neurotic due to unstable factors to the success or failure of re-integration. conditions drawing from trauma set back. This could have a great effect on their acceptance to a However, there was an interesting question herd once in the wild. Although human interaction regarding reintegration that was put to me at a at the ETH is said to be minimized, in reality recent presentation I made on ‘Wild Elephants’ this is not so. The orphaned elephants would be for the National Trust of Sri Lanka, at the Barefoot forming some form of bonds with the keepers Gallery. In my presentation I touched on elephant who feed them and provide them with some form castes, taken from Deraniyagala’s (1955) study of assurance at various times. It is an accepted on elephants, and a question was raised whether, fact, that given the strong maternal bonds a calf the caste of an elephant has any bearing on the has, when orphaned it will undergo immense success of integration. At that time, I did not take trauma and stress, which will certainly require the question seriously, and casually answered that a great amount of re-assurance and love. Hence the caste system of elephants has been imposed it may be that the degree of human association by man on the elephant, just like we do it on our with the elephants at the ETH, although kept at a selves. ‘minimum’, is of little consequence. (De Silva & De Silva 2007). However, subsequently relaxing at the UWNP Thimbirayamankada bungalow one night, I The successful programmes in Africa, on the wondered whether there could be some truth contrary, rely on the concept of giving the newly to this. We had just seen a wonderful herd of orphaned elephant all the love and care it can get, elephants in the morning, by the side of the where a keeper is assigned full time, who actually Seenuggala – Thimbiriyamankada road, out on acts as a surrogate mother. Often the keeper the rock ats, and I could not help but admire even sleeps close to the orphan during the early the eight or nine individuals (with two majestic days! In fact, in Africa these facilities are called males in attendance). They were beautifully “Elephant Nurseries“ and not “transit homes“. proportioned, perfectly healthy looking with Physiological depression and distress can trigger hardly any blemishes and well built (Fig. 4). serious behavioral problems even later on in life in orphaned elephants (Post-Traumatic Stress I just wondered could this be perhaps a ‘high Disorder PTSD), and therefore it is of paramount caste’ herd, which contrasts greatly from the importance to keep the calf as happy as possible somewhat ungainly looking, more ‘dwarf- during this period. Hence could this ambivalent ish’ looking (low caste?) herds also seen at the practice of ‘minimal’ human interaction at the UWNP. These differences seem to be in the bone UW-ETH, have grave consequences on the structure of the elephants, and not as a result of behavior of the calves later on in their lives? dis-proportionate food intake and nourishment. Could the ‘caste’ of a released elephant, or at In the African programmes for post release least its physical characteristics and health, have activity, pastoral communities such as the some impact on its acceptance into a wild herd? Masai and Sambur people, who have a good I know, there is very little scienti c backing to understanding of wildlife, are engaged to be a this theory, but all the same, it’s an interesting part of the monitoring team, which continuously angle to this issue, given the immense folklore tracks the elephants for months, until they are and mythological inter-connections that the fully integrated with the wild herds. Here in Sri elephant has had, for many centuries, with Sri
27 Lankan history, culture and religion. Ayurvedha detailed observations over a period of time, which physicians and village elders in Sri Lanka will could yield some very interesting outcomes. still tell you of the superstitions and ancient lore about a ‘Saddantha’ (high caste) elephant and a References ‘Gangeiya’ (low caste) elephant. They will tell you about the 90 nerve centres of the elephant, Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1955) Some Extinct some of which are so sensitive that, if prodded Elephants, Their Relatives and the Two Living suf ciently deeply enough by the ankus, are Species. Government Press, Colombo, Ceylon/ supposed to cause death. So there could be many Sri Lanka. aspects to Asian elephant behavior that we are still not aware of. De Silva, M. & De Silva P.K. (2007) The Sri Lankan Elephant. Its Evolution, Ecology and The point I am trying to make is that once again, Conservation. WHT Publications, Colombo, Sri we have lost the chance to undertake some high Lanka. level scienti c study on Sri Lankan elephant behavior and re-integration into the wild. Other Dirckze, R.A. (2007) Rehabilitation of Orphan than for one piece of basic study (spread over Elephants at Uda Walawe. Research Report, The only a couple of weeks) done by a student as a Open University of Sri Lanka. part of her Wildlife and Management course conducted by the Open University of Sri Lanka Miththapala, S. (2008) Tranquil Footsteps. (Dirckze 2007) I am not aware of any prolonged Stamford Lake, Sri Lanka. studies done of the released elephants. The David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust (2008) The However, all is not lost, and it is still not too orphans’ project. The David Shedlrick Wildlife late for the DWLC and perhaps some private Trust Newsletter 2008: 6-10. interested individuals to get together and launch a proper study regarding the elephant integration that has taken place at UWNP. All it will take Author’s e-mail: [email protected] is patience and good prolonged analytical and
Figure 4. A ‘high caste’ elephant.
28 Gajah 30 (2009) 29-33
A Forest Ride on Wild Elephants: The Philosophy of Wilderness in Buddhism
Rajmohan Ramanathapillai
Department of Philosophy, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, USA Introduction mind originates from its spiritual solution to the problem of dukkha. Buddha outlines four noble ‘Going forth’ into the forest holds deep truths: life is dukkha (pain or suffering), samudaya philosophical signi cance in religious traditions (the origin of suffering), nirodha (cessation of that embark on the ideal of renunciation as a suffering), and magga (a prescribed way leading path to spiritual freedom. In Vedic poems, seers to the cessation of suffering). To overcome are inspired by forces in the forest; likewise the pain, Buddhism suggests, one should examine spiritual teaching and practices of Buddhism the causes of pain, and nd an effective way to unfold in the wilderness with Buddha’s journey root it out. Pain arises from cravings or desires, to enlightenment attained at the foot of a graceful particularly from sensual pleasures. Desire of the Bodhi tree. This pronouncement placed the Bodhi four nutriments—ordinary material food, contact tree as an essential symbol of Buddhist worship. between our sense-organs and the external world, Similarly, the elephant evolved as central to consciousness, and mental volition—deepen our Buddhist iconography and spiritual teaching. attachment to this world which is not permanent Essential philosophy of the Buddha is illustrated (Rahula 1973). through the images and characters of elephants. Buddha and the early Buddhist writers effectively Buddhism in the wilderness utilized the images of forest and elephants to construct a coherent philosophy and to re ne Living in the wilderness is a synonym for the methods for training Buddhist monks and nuns. renunciation of worldly bonds in Buddhist This paper examines the intricate relationship texts assisting monks and nuns to leave home of the forest and elephants to monks and nuns and commence their spiritual journey. Buddhist embarking on their spiritual journey and the writings of the Theragatha (Norman 1971) expression of this process in the philosophical and Therigatha (Norman 1969) provide rich development of Buddhism. It argues that descriptions of isolated forest abodes where observing the behavior and character of untamed monks and nuns dwelt in search of insight. and tamed elephants in the wild provided Images of trees, animals, reptiles and birds are all invaluable inspiration for Buddha’s disciples to used in Buddhist texts to communicate meaning. develop training methods for the spiritual quest. Though family activities are deemed rewarding, they leave nuns without a larger goal, providing Leaving home and leaving bonds them only with experience of a ‘low life’ (Theri. V. 18, 80). The tranquility of the forest unfastens In Buddhism the aim is to attain enlightenment their ties of worldly life and encourages them by overcoming the karmic continuity of body to re ect on the origin of sensual craving. For and mind that is bound with Samara, the worldly others, meditation at the foot of a tree reassured life. In Buddhist writings, samsara is equated and elevated, releasing apprehension and healing with home because familial ties inevitably keep the mind (Theri. V. 24,298). Climbing mountains one bound to the cycle of rebirth, as opposed and sitting steadfast on a rock induced moments of to renunciation, which leads one directly to deep contemplation undoing the knot of desires. Nibbana. For ascetics, desires of the mind and Streaming water is also a powerful metaphor, body have always been the hook to worldly life, a state which Buddha experienced as painful. Having washed my feet, I paid attention to The Buddhist critique of an untamed body and the waters; and seeing the foot-water come
29 to the low land from the high land ( owing monks must cultivate four qualities: ‘thoughts of downhill), then I concentrated my mind, like renunciation, thoughts of non-ill will, thoughts a noble thoroughbred horse (Theri. V. 114- of harmlessness, make a discerning person, not 115). a dull, drooling idiot’ (AN 5.98). Cultivation of these qualities diminishes the need for aggressive Overcoming desire and achieving a homeless pursuit of personal gain and de ates false a sense state is the ultimate goal of forest dwelling monks of self; it smoothes the process of transformation and nuns. Wise men, C p argues, ‘leave their from narrow, illusionary individuality to higher sons, and their relatives, and their wealth; great consciousness. Thus the forest opens windows horses go forth, like an elephant having broken from which young monks and nuns can cultivate his fastening’ (Theri. V. 301). new awareness. The novelty of the living forest evokes perceptions that facilitate the road to There are numerous references to forest, Nibbana. mountains, rocks, trees, groves, wild owers, animals, birds and rain in the monk’s Theragatha. Taming desire and the mind The beauty of the forest delights monks, but it is a different delight from that enjoyed in worldly Targeting evil desires that destroy self control life. The splendors of the forest teach monks that is the supreme task of every spiritual warrior. human perception of beauty, wealth and power is Unlike external political warfare, ceaseless illusionary. They are led to question the nature of spiritual battle is both internal and external. The nding happiness in impermanent things, and to Dhammapada draws on the image of a relentless delight in simple things such as sala and bamboo warrior elephant in battle: groves, things without any possessive claim on them (Thag. V. 115, 119, 127, 177, 528, 852, As an elephant in the battle 998, 1134, 1135). Climbing steep mountains and Bears the arrows shot from a bow, sitting in a meditative posture on a rock prepares I will endure insult; a monk for deep concentration; assisting in For many people have poor self-control cultivating the determination and rmness (The Dhammapada, 320). necessary for inner spiritual work (Thag. V. 115, 145,466, 887,925, 991, 1000, 1091). Meditating In Buddhist texts the image of the demon Mara on an elevated rock provides monks with an mounted on a powerful elephant is carefully eagle’s view of the calming beauty of the forest conceptualized to caution against the invisible and clear sight of the rising sun, an impression but frightful enemy. Consequently, war in the that not only elevates the mind but wraps the mind is continuous, relentless and often arises body in the sun’s warmth. unannounced. The formidable ‘king of death,’ Mara, who lives and ourishes in every thought Though forests give joy to monks, groves can be and act of desire must be, totally annihilated invaded by rutting elephants and other animals; (Thag.V. 794- 817). mistakes in the forest can risk the lives of nuns and monks. The Anagata-bhayani Sutta advises To alert young monks and nuns, the Buddhist monks to be aware of ve types of dangers: texts use fearful analogies, metaphors and similes. snake or scorpion bites, injury or illness, wild Words such as ‘poisonous snake’, ‘snake head’, beasts, criminals and vicious non-human ‘great poison’ and ‘swords’ describe human spirits. Although wild beasts can be dangerous, desire and reveal the gravity of Mara’s ambush observing an animal’s capacity for caring and (Theri. V,451, 488, 489, 491). Throughout nurturing can reverse the fear of animals learned the texts a battle cry raised against dangerous at home. The Theragatha argues that forest sensual pleasures unfurls in the words of monks dwelling is only helpful if a student associates to show the unpredictable nature of pleasure and with the right people, who will auger insight and its hazards (Thera, V. 93, 116). Nuns also express right knowledge. The Arañña Sutta explains that worries about devastating desires.
30 Sela: sensual pleasures are like swords (Naga Sutta, Ud 4.5, www.accesstoinsight. and stakes; the elements of existence are a org. 1998). chopping block for them; what you call delight in sensual pleasure is not “non Delight” for Even though enlightened, Buddha leaves his me. Everywhere enjoyment of pleasure is disciples occasionally for the quiet of the forest. defeated; the mass of darkness (of ignorance) Buddha and the tusker thus identify each other’s is torn asunder; thus know, evil one, you are need for solitude and contemplation. defeated, death (Theri, V. 58 –59). Taming mind and taming elephant Buddhism argues that real death is not death of the body but of the desire that kills awakening Developing spiritual strategies by observing wild in all beings. The site of battle against Mara and elephants is a captivating aspect of Buddhist his elephant must therefore be chosen carefully writing. Elephants are capable of friendship, to provide the best advantage for young spiritual loyalty, caring and working as a team, making warriors. Mara chooses worldly life (home) as intelligent decisions to protect their herds. Monks his battle site, but Buddha knows home is futile also observed that these massive animals can be for young students and extols the forest as the extremely treacherous when they lose their temper right place. An isolated forest far from home is but by using proper methods these intelligent absolutely essential to achieve insight. animals could be trained and tamed. Once this precious insight was gained, monks begin to The story of a wise tusker (bull elephant) in the compare the control of a wild elephant with Naga Sutta Sutta elegantly evokes the importance controlling the human mind. Taming elephants of living in isolation in a forest. The tusker in this becomes a central Buddhist analogy for taming story fed only from unbroken blades of grass and passions. The monk Kula explains, like ‘canal- branches of trees. He became ‘irritated, upset, and makers lead water, arrow-makers bend the bow, disgusted’ when he saw other elephants devour and carpenters bend wood, men who practice the trees; he was again ‘irritated, upset, and good vows tame the mind’ (Thag. V. 19). Training disgusted’ when he saw herds stir up the mud in deep seated human emotions such as fear, anger, the water while they drank and bathed; and once lust and hatred is considered to be as dif cult as more became ‘irritated, upset, and disgusted’ taming a raging elephant. Like a mahout with his when the cow elephants banged up their bodies hook, a teacher must use right methods to control against him in the water. He contemplated, ‘what the wayward emotions of a student. if I live alone far away from these jumbled herds where I feel free from unnecessary destruction or I saw an elephant on the bank of the river, disruptions?’ The tusker went to the Parileyyaka, having come up after plunging in. A man, a secluded forest, and unexpectedly found the taking a hook, requested the elephant, “Give Buddha at the foot of a sala-tree. He realized that me your foot.” The elephant stretched forth its Buddha had also left his community of monks foot; the man mounted the elephant. Seeing and nuns to stay alone for a while to contemplate. the untamed tamed, gone under the control of The Naga Sutta concludes with the words of the the man, I then concentrated my mind, to the tusker and Buddha. forest for the purpose indeed (Theri, V. 48- 50). Then the Lord, on observing his own solitude, understood with his mind the thought in the Of all the treacherous pleasures for monks, lust mind of that bull elephant, and uttered on that for women and sexual pleasure are considered occasion this inspired utterance: the most dangerous in Buddhism. The most This unites mind with mind, frightening concern for a student monk is that The perfected one and the bull elephant sexual pleasure can lead to procreation and family With tusks as long as chariot-poles: bonding. The stories of Candana, Rajadatta, That each delights in being alone in the Kulla, and Sabbakama in the Theragatha forest
31 describe how their battle against sexual passion Buddhism unites the unruly musth elephant with was dangerously troubling. Confronted by the evil king Mara. This conceptualization shows numerous ‘failing’ monks, Buddha developed that the battle against the eld of passion is not a daring technique, known as the burial ground easy. meditation. In extreme cases, the Buddha took ‘back peddling’ monks to a burial ground and It is in this context that an ideal white elephant asked them to meditate on decomposing bodies; with a perfection of right temperament, mind in this way he taught the impermanence of an and compassion emerges as a powerful image in attractive body (Thera, V. 393–394). Buddhist texts. Plato describes the perfect images of imperfect things in the world of forms; in Fighting forceful passions is compared to ghting Buddhist writing the quest is to de ne and attain the will of an uncontrollable elephant and is vital perfection. Buddhism places moral and spiritual to the spiritual journey. The Tharagatha argues, qualities in an opposing dynamic continuum in ‘As a skillful elephant trainer restrained savagery which all living beings journey from untamed to by his hook, so he by meditation suffers not his tamed life, from worldly life (imperfection) to thoughts to wander away from his exercise’ (Thag. enlightenment (perfection). This continuum is V. 113). This inner battle to overcome desires is a illustrated with Mara’s musth elephant on the left personal journey as the Theragatha suggests, ‘He (imperfection); earthly gray male elephants in the who was hard to tame is tamed by (self) taming’ middle (potential to be tamed); and the perfect (Thag. 8, 689). Meditation is Buddha’s hook white elephant on the right. This image of a sacred against Mara in his student’s minds. Nagavagga white elephant embodying love and compassion Sutta concludes, ‘Formerly this mind wandered illustrates the signi cance of perfection toward about as it liked, where it wished and according to which one must strive. its pleasure, but now I shall thoroughly master it with wisdom as a mahout controls with his ankus Descriptions of divine white elephants are in [hook] an elephant in rut [musth]’ (Nagavagga, striking contrast to the character and strength of 326). other gray elephants. Unlike gray male elephants, the white elephants in the Jataka stories possess White elephants and enlightenment a balanced disposition and represent divine qualities. The noble elephant in the Alinacitta Elephants are recorded in social and political life Jataka story never urinates or defecates in the in Asian history, and descriptions of capturing water like other noble living beings, and even large numbers of elephants to build an infantry, its dung smells sweet! The story of Guatama and seizing the feet of elephants of a eeing Buddha descending from Tusita heaven to earth enemy, are not uncommon. Culavamsa show as a white elephant born as a human stands how the political and military power of kings is above all. The birth of Gautama Buddha unfolds dependent on them possessing excellent elephants with the auspicious dream of his mother Queen (Geiger 2003). Tra`ining an elephant to follow Mayadevi. In her dream, a young shining white a mahout’s commands was necessary for its elephant with six tusks holding a lotus ower effective role in social and political life. Although in his silvery trunk enters her body. From this the elegant analogy of taming elephants and the powerful story of Buddha’s conception the white human mind gives an aesthetic edge to Buddhist elephant evolved to become a great spiritual sign writings, the authors recognize that all earthly or symbol deeply rooted in Indian mythology. male elephants go through cycles of mutsh when, driven by sexual passion, they behave in an unruly In conclusion, the intricate relationship of nature fashion. Higher levels of testosterone give them in Buddhist philosophy is so strong that one an advantage over other male elephants as they cannot imagine the ourishing development of have a readiness to ght to death. A mahout’s early Buddhism outside the realm of the forest and nightmare is his elephant in musth failing to wildlife. Of all the animals in the forest referred recognize him. Acknowledging this behavior, to in Buddhist writings, elephants have a great
32 philosophical signi cance as well as a special Bangkok. spiritual status. As we have seen, a most striking part of this discourse is that Buddha is associated Geiger , W. (trans.) (2003) C lavamsa: Being with elephants at many levels. Mara’s elephant the More Recent Part of the Mahavamsa. Asian is the opposite nature of Buddha in the mind of Educational Service, New Delhi. a student. Buddha is described as a mahout who tames the passionate and dangerous mind of his Gupta, S.K. (1983) Elephant in Indian Art and students. The idea of Buddha using meditation as Mythology. Abhinav Publication, New Delhi. a hook to tame the mind of a student is compared with a mahout’s use of a hook to control an Naga Sutta [The Bull Elephant] Translated from elephant. Finally, Buddha’s life is exempli ed as the Pali by John D. Ireland, www.accesstoinsight. that of a white elephant through identi cation, org ‘You have the name “elephant” blessed one; you are the best seer of seers’. Buddhism not Norman, K.R. (1969) The Elders’ Verses 11 only elevates elephants beyond the natural and Therigatha. Luzac and Company, London. human realm but also argues that all beings are equal and can progress to superior potential: Norman, K.R. (1971) The Elders’ Verses 1 the enlightenment. Consequently, the untamed, Theragatha. Luzac and Company, London. tamed and enlightenment are a potential in all living being who strive for Nibbana and travel Rahula, W. (1973). The Heritage of the Bhikkhu. the same journey as noble beings who have Grove Press, New York. overcome worldly life. Srivastava, KS. (1989) The Elephant in Early References Indian Art: From Indus Valley Civilization to A.D. 650. Ratna Printing Works, Varanasi. Bock, C. (1985) Temples and Elephants: the Narrative of a Journey of Exploration through Upper Siam and Laos. White Orchid Press, Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Elephant painting at the Grand Palace in Bangkok, Thailand. Photo by Jennifer Pastorini
33 Gajah 30 (2009) 34-40
Community-Based Human-Elephant Con ict Management in Assam
Alexandra Zimmermann1,2, Tammy E. Davies1, Nandita Hazarika3, Scott Wilson1, Joydeep Chakrabarty3, Bhaben Hazarika3 and Dhruba Das3
1North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Chester, UK 2 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK 3EcoSystems-India, Guwahati, Assam, India
Introduction Between 1997 and 2001 there were 208 human and 175 elephant deaths in Assam as a result of Northeast India is considered a high-priority area the con ict (Gureja et al. 2002). for Asian elephant conservation (Choudhury 1999; Sukumar 2006) with a particular need For the long-term, landscape-scale strategies for for the mitigation of human-elephant con ict habitat restoration and elephant conservation (HEC) (Gureja et al. 2002). The forests of the are essential, but these are conceptually and Himalayan foothills contain one of the last politically challenging to devise and take many remaining viable elephant populations and also years to implement. Meanwhile community one of the most acutely threatened (Sukumar & tolerance of elephants is deteriorating, threatening Santiapillai 1996; Choudhury 1999). Estimates to undermine larger-scale conservation efforts. for the wild elephant population in Assam vary Addressing this is precisely the objective of but are believed to be in the order of around human-wildlife con ict mitigation: to prevent 5,000, which represents around 20% of India’s community tolerance of wildlife from deteriorating total wild elephant population and 10-15% of in order to buy time for the development of long- the global Asian elephant population (cf Project term solutions. Elephant Synchronised Census 2002, IUCN 2008, Sukumar 2003). Assam, therefore, is one In 2004, the UK-based North of England of the most important strongholds for the survival Zoological Society (which runs Chester Zoo) of the Asian elephant. joined forces with the Assam-based NGO EcoSystems-India to create the Assam Haathi However, in Assam, unsustainable extraction Project for human-elephant con ict mitigation of forest products and encroachment of forests (www.assamhaathiproject.org), which received for agriculture are fragmenting habitat, the funding from the UK Government’s “Darwin most visible and immediate effect of which is Initiative” in 2007 (Defra 2008). The project direct con ict between elephants and people uses a community-based approach to integrate (Kushwaha & Hazarika 2004). This con ict research and monitoring with con ict mitigation has become an annual occurrence which results and the protection of livelihoods. In this paper not only in loss of crops, but also destruction of we describe our approach as a case study for property and loss of human lives, and in turn, effective approaches to human-elephant con ict retaliation against elephants. An indicator of the mitigation. severity of this con ict is seen in the response of the affected communities, many of which, Study area despite revering elephants in their culture (e.g. Ganesha in Hinduism) have taken to poisoning The state of Assam in Northeast India has an area and electrocuting elephants in desperate attempts of 78,438 km2 and a human population of over to protect their lives and livelihoods (Gureja et 26 million people (Census of India, 2001). Our al. 2002). A series of elephant poisonings in 2001 project works in two districts, called Sonitpur and attracted extensive media attention and raised Goalpara (Fig. 1), which are particularly prone to awareness of the severity of HEC in Assam. frequent and severe cases of HEC. Within these
34 Figure 1. Map of Assam, showing locations of Sonitpur and Goalpara study sites. districts the project works intensively with 825 it lends itself less well to community involvement households from six villages, and less intensively and is highly donor-dependent. Visual tracking, with a further 26 villages, which adds up to an on the other hand, can compromise the accuracy outreach span of over 5,000 households. Both of some of the data, but is a sustainable way to districts contain a mosaic of land-use, including involve communities and therefore conducive to rice cultivation, homestead gardens, villages, long-term conservation efforts. tea plantations, degraded secondary forest and protected areas. The study site in Sonitpur district In the Assam Haathi Project we follow the covers an area of 1,175km2 and is bordered by latter method: 27 community members have the protected areas of Nameri National Park and been trained and engaged as “ eld monitors” to Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary to the north and record elephant movements and details about the Brahmaputra River to the south. The Goalpara con ict incidents. This approach also establishes district study site is a 1,325 km2 transect delimited an independent con ict reporting system (as to the south by the forested Garo Hills and to the suggested by Hoare 1999) and prevents the north by the Brahmaputra River. The majority common problem of farmers’ exaggeration of of people within our study sites are farmers, tea- crop-raiding and elephant damage (cf Siex & estate workers and day-wage labourers. Struhsaker 1999). Field monitors are stationed throughout each study area and visit crop-raiding Community-based elephant monitoring and property damage incidents as they occur, verifying these and recording their locations with In order to develop strategies for human-elephant a GPS unit. Details of the incident are entered con ict management in the long-term, it is essential onto a reporting form, including: elephant to understand the spatial and temporal patterns group size, composition or herd identity, time of of crop-raiding and the movements of elephants incident, damage to crops and/or property, any in the area. Spatial monitoring of elephants crop protection methods in place, and any human can be achieved in various ways, ranging from or elephant injuries. expensive satellite telemetry studies to simply following elephants on foot or by vehicle. While The eld monitors also record the locations of telemetry provides high-quality and ample data, elephant herds (and single males or bachelor
35 Figure 2. Training session for elephant monitors: how to identify individual elephants. groups) as they pass through the agricultural community level, and e) it provides indirect landscape, identifying bulls and matriarchs by education about elephants and conservation. distinguishing body features (Fig. 2). Elephant groups are followed across the study area Crop-raiding in Assam occurs from June to landscape by a relay system, where eld monitors February, with peaks from October to December, are responsible for recording all movement and coinciding with the harvesting of paddy. As con ict on their patch of land until the elephants observed by other studies on HEC, crop-raiding move into the patch of another eld monitor, takes place from late evening to early morning who then picks up the observation. The elephants (e.g. Sitati at al. 2003; Venkataraman et al. are monitored only in the agricultural areas, as 2005). There are two identi ed herds within following them inside the dense forests is not Goalpara; one with a mean herd size of 21 and 22 logistically possible with this method (another individuals and maxima of 50 and 35 individuals limitation of visual tracking). The data collected respectively. The Goalpara herds predominantly by the eld monitors are then transferred into use the forested Garo Hills to the south of the a GIS database for spatial analysis, which is study site, moving north to the forested area by currently being analysed for elephant migration the river. Both herds are found more frequently routes, con ict hotspots, spatial correlates and around agricultural areas during crop harvesting seasonal variation (Wilson et al. in prep). season. In Sonitpur, seven herds have been recorded, with mean herd sizes ranging from Despite its scienti c limitations, this low-tech three to 13 individuals and a maximum of 130. monitoring method is very appropriate for a Most of the herds in Sonitpur leave the protected community-based approach because: a) it is easy forests in the north around June/July and travel to expand or to replicate in other areas, b) it is to the banks of the Brahmaputra River in the sustainable (it is cheap and can easily be adopted south, using tea-estates along the way as refuge or copied by other communities without external and resting areas. Understanding the migration NGO input), c) it provides ample opportunity patterns of the herds, and the landscape variables, for awareness-raising and capacity–building in which facilitate elephant movement and create the communities, d) it encourages leadership con ict hotspots (Wilson et al. in prep) allows us and responsibility for dealing with HEC at the and the communities to anticipate crop-raiding
36 The total losses of crops and property between 2005-2008 in our study areas was £98,000 (Rs 6,86,00,00). Response to the mitigations has been positive, with communities taking initiative to improving or adapting the methods to best suit speci c local situations. We have observed a marked reduction in crop losses in the Sonitpur district from 227 ha lost in the 2005/06 crop- raiding season to 58 ha in the 2007/08 season.
Among the methods we have tried, we found hand-held spotlights to be the most popular Figure 3. A spotlight for deterring elephants. option. In response to demand, we developed a spotlight with a voltage regulator to withstand incidences and plan interventions accordingly. the uctuations in the local electricity supply (Fig. 3). Spotlights are effective when used in Community-based crop protection conjunction with other methods such as noise, fencing and chilli smoke. Most studies of best practice in human-wildlife con ict mitigation advocate the need to empower We have assisted communities with the installation local communities and encourage them to of simple electric fences at three sites. These are take responsibility for preventive action (e.g. 2.2 m high and have two strands of electri ed O’Connell et al. 2000; Jackson & Wangchuk wire, powered by solar photovoltaic panels 2001; Osborn & Parker 2003). Our project (Fig. 4). Although this is our most expensive works closely with a village to develop the most appropriate and bene cial mitigation method for the given village. This involves a considerable amount of initial effort in rapport-building and discussions about past and existing interventions. We then offer ideas for suitable options appropriate for the community, which makes the decision of which method to take forward.
A variety of crop and property protection methods have been devised in Asia and Africa. We consider these to fall into three categories: 1) Early warning systems: to alert villages in advance that elephants are approaching (e.g. trip wire; watchtower) 2) Barriers: to prevent elephants from entering a particular area (e.g. trench; electric fence; chilli fence; buffer zone) and 3) Deterrents: to discourage elephants from entering an area and/or chase elephants away (e.g. chilli smoke; spotlights). Most of these methods work better in combination with one another and when used in irregular rotation, as elephants can become habituated to deterrents and have been known to outsmart barriers and early warning Figure 4. A two-strand electric fence installed in systems. Sonitpur district.
37 intervention option (at a cost of approx £1,400 quickly and do not create adequate smoke. Chilli / Rs1,11,000 per kilometre), it is extremely fencing (ground chilli, tobacco leaves mixed effective for vulnerable areas such as villages with automobile grease and smeared onto rope that are exceptionally prone to crop-raiding or – a method described by Osborn & Parker 2002) the protection of granaries. has also been particularly effective at one project village in Goalpara. With this method, the community contributes materials (usually wooden posts), plus the labour Challenges and opportunities of constructing the fence, and we provide the more expensive materials, such as wire and energizers. Community-based conservation has been The villagers are taught how to maintain the projected as the most practical approach to stem fence and are asked to take responsibility for biodiversity loss in developing countries (Mehta this. Where the village is un-electri ed, solar- & Kellert 1998). However, working successfully powered lighting systems has been used, which with communities to achieve mutually bene cial has the added value of providing the community results poses a number of challenges. First with a little extra electricity supply. among these is gaining communities’ trust and engagement and conveying to them the Chilli smoke has also been found to be effective conservationist’s purpose of genuinely wanting when used correctly. For this method, dried red to help them in order to protect the survival chillies, tobacco leaves and dry straw or grass are of habitats and species – an ideology that is placed on a square of cardboard which is then often met with suspicion. This step may take rolled up to make a tube, and fastened with wire. considerable time – a challenge particularly if a A stick is then placed into the centre of the tube project is dependent on, for example, a typical to create a handle, and the chilli/straw end is lit three-year project cycle at the end of which (Fig. 5). Chilli smokers need to be prepared in measurable results must be demonstrated to the advance and are most effective when villagers funder. The rst year or two of rapport-building work as a team using at least three smokers at may be devoid of any such results, but is crucial once. When approaching elephants are sighted, for ensuring long-term impact. the smoke is directed towards the elephant (and away from other villagers or livestock) to deter Key to this, as we learned in the Assam Haathi the elephants. Sometimes villagers have not Project, is to have frequent meetings with the prepared the smoker in advance and instead communities (both formal and informal) and invest throw chillies into a re made at the edge of the full effort into good and regular communication. village – this also works as a deterrent as the Meetings need to be followed with action swiftly, burning chillies produce a pungent smell, but is and opportunities for not only participation, but less effective because the chillies burn out more also leadership and responsibility, need to be created. For example, in our project, once the community has decided on the mitigation they wish to employ, eld monitors will coordinate and provide training to the villagers. Meanwhile, interim results from the data analysed by our project staff are shared with communities regularly, to update them on progress and help them to see the value of research and understand the bigger picture of human-wildlife con ict.
The Assam Haathi Project is now becoming demand driven, with communities approaching the project and asking for assistance. In order to meet this demand and increase the capacity Figure 5. A chilli smoker.
38 of our outreach, we have produced a handbook Conclusion called “Living with Elephants in Assam” - an illustrated guide to making and using crop- The Assam Haathi Project is now working together protection methods. We are currently evaluating with other local NGOs towards proposing long- this to determine whether (and with which term management solutions in Assam, but therein combinations of outreach) such a guide is many more serious challenges lie ahead. Ensuring effective as a conservation tool (Zimmermann et there is adequate habitat conserved for elephants al. in prep). through halting the fragmentation and destruction of forests is a priority, but this requires enforced Measuring success legislation and further funds. Protecting areas of land that connect forest patches and elephant Measuring the impact of conservation projects populations has previously been tried and there that have long-term aims is nearly impossible are currently ve elephant ‘corridors’ of varying in the short-term; however, there are interim success in India (Johnsingh & Williams 1999). indicators that suggest whether a project is Unfortunately some corridors have failed due on a good track to having a positive effect to poor protection and poor communication towards its wider aim. Among these are short- between stakeholders resulting in developmental term changes in a) community behaviour (via activities that have rendered the corridor un- informal observation) b) local people’s attitudes usable for elephants (Johnsingh et al. 1991). The (via before-and-after questionnaire surveys) and approach that we foresee for the areas in which c) patterns or frequencies of con ict (counts of we work is to create a ‘corridor of tolerance’ - a crop losses, damage and injury or deaths of both multi-use passage along the elephants’ traditional elephants and people). Four years into our project migration routes that allows co-existence, with we have seen an independent spread of awareness its inevitable losses of crops, through a system and willingness to take action for crop protection of good depredation management and socio- beyond our project villages, we have observed economic support to communities along this the spontaneous copying of crop-protection by path. While there are various options for the long- neighbouring (non-project) villages, noticed term solution in Assam; the only certain aspect much more positive attitudes towards elephants is that all stakeholders – including different in our project villages and recorded signi cantly conservation NGOs - will need to unite in their fewer elephant and human injuries and deaths aims and coordinate their approaches to achieve (data currently in analysis). successful conservation of the Asian elephant and its habitat. Nevertheless, community-based HEC mitigation is ultimately only a re- ghting solution and References does not address the root cause of the problem. Therefore, once a participatory HEC management Census of India (2001) Basic Data Sheet: Census approach has been established and community of India 2001. Of ce of the Registrar General and tolerance levels have stabilized, the real challenge Census Commissioner, India. Available online: begins: how to secure the long-term survival of www.censusindia.gov.in. elephants on a landscape scale. Spatial data on elephant movement should form the basis for long- Choudhury, A.U. (1999) Status and conservation term management plans, but involving the local of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus in north- communities at every step of the way is essential. eastern India. Mammal Review 29: 141-173. This is because participatory HEC management projects create a structure and communication Defra (2008) Darwin Initiative Announcement of pathway for involving communities in the Successful Round 15 Darwin Projects. Department planning and implementation of long-term for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, HM strategies, and hence their sustainability. Government of the UK. http://darwin.defra.gov. uk/news/initiative/round_15_announce/
39 Gureja, N., Menon, V., Sarkar, P. & Kyarong, S.S. Elephants and Improve Livelihood Security of (2002) Ganesha to Bin Laden: Human-Elephant Small-Scale Farmers. Mid-Zambezi Elephant Con ict in Sonitpur District of Assam. Wildlife Project, Harare, Zimbabwe. Trust of India, New Delhi. Osborn, F.V. & Parker G.E. (2003) Towards an Hoare, R.E. (1999) A Standardized Data integrated approach for reducing the con ict Collection and Analysis Protocol for Human– between elephants and people: a review of current Elephant Con ict Situation in Africa. IUCN research. Oryx 37: 1-5. African Elephant Specialist Group, Nairobi, Kenya. Project Elephant Synchronised Census (2002) Asian Nature Conservation Foundation: www. IUCN (2008). 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened asiannature.org/resources/statistics.htm Species. www.iucnredlist.org. Siex, K.S. & Struhsaker, T.T. (1999) Colobus Jackson, R & Wangchuk, R. (2001) Linking snow monkeys and coconuts: a study of perceived leopard conservation and people-wildlife con ict human-wildlife con icts. Journal of Applied resolution: Grassroots measures to protect the Ecology 36: 1009-1020. endangered snow leopard from herder retribution. Endangered Species Update 18: 138-141. Sitati, N.W., Walpole, M.J. Smith, J. & Leader- Williams, N. (2003) Predicting spatial aspects Johnsingh, A.J.T., Sathyakumar, S. & Sunderraj, of human-elephant con ict. Journal of Applied S.F.W. (1991) Ariankavu Pass, a lost elephant Ecology 40: 667-677. corridor in South India. Environmental Conservation 18: 368. Sukumar, R. & Santiapillai, C. (1996) Elephas maximus: status and distribution. In: The Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Williams, A.C. (1999) Proboscidea; Evolution and Palaeoecology of Elephant corridors in India: lessons for other Elephants and Their Relatives. Shoshani, J. & elephant range countries. Oryx 33: 210-214. Tassy, P. (eds.) Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. pp 327-331. Kushwaha, S.P.S. & Hazarika R. (2004) Assessment of habitat loss in Kameng and Sukumar, R. (2003) The Living Elephants: Sonitpur Elephant Reserves. Current Science 87: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour and 1447-1453. Conservation. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK. Mehta, J.N. & Kellert, S.R. (1998) Local attitudes toward community-based conservation policy Sukumar, R. (2006). A brief review of the status, and programmes in Nepal: a case study in the distribution and biology of wild Asian elephants, Makalu Barun conservation area. Environmental Elephas maximus. International Zoo Yearbook Conservation 25: 320-333. 40: 1-8.
O’Connell, C.E., Rodewell, T., Rice, M. & Hart, Venkataraman, A.B., Sandeep, R., Baskaran, N., L.A. (2000) Living with the modern conservation Roy, M., Madhivanan, A. & Sukumar, R. (2005) paradigm: can agricultural communities co-exist Using satellite telemetry to mitigate elephant– with elephants? A 5-year case study from East human con ict: An experiment in northern West Caprivi , Namibia. Biological Conservation 93: Bengal, India. Current Science 88: 1827-1831. 381-391.
Osborn, F.V. & Parker G.E. (2002) Living with Corresponding author’s e-mail: Elephants II: A Manual for Implementing an [email protected] Integrated Programme to Reduce Crop Loss to
40 Gajaha 30 (2009) 41-52
The Human-Elephant Con ict: A Review of Current Status and Mitigation Methods
B. M. A. Oswin Perera
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine & Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Globally, wild elephants are present in 50 of the ecosystems they inhabit. Due to their countries, 13 of which are in Asia and 37 in requirement for large areas of forest habitat, Africa. At present the number of wild Asian conservation of elephants will automatically elephants (Elephas maximus) is between 35,000 ensure the conservation of other species that and 50,000 (www.elephantcare.org), while the co-exist in the same habitat. However, they can number in captivity is around 16,000. The trend also modify the environment in positive as well in almost all Asian range states has been a drastic as negative ways by their actions. The elephant decline in wild elephant numbers, due to a range is also a ‘ agship’ species, especially in Asian of anthropogenic factors related to increasing countries, being closely associated with the social human population, loss and degradation of forest and cultural aspects of people, and this factor can habitat, fragmentation of breeding populations and be harnessed to promote its conservation. increasing human-elephant con ict (HEC). The Asian elephant is categorized as an ‘endangered’ Many studies have been carried out on HEC both species in the Red List of the World Conservation in Asia (Sukumar 2003; Jayawardena 2004; de Union (IUCN, 2008: www.iucnredlist.org) and is Silva & de Silva 2007) and Africa (Hoare 1999; classi ed with the Convention for International Walpole & Linkie 2007), but despite the lessons Trade of Endangered Species (CITES, www. learnt and the wide range of measures and cites.org) under Appendix I. management strategies that have been employed to mitigate HEC (Nelson et al. 2003; Osborn & The number of wild African elephants (Loxodonta Anstey 2007; Fernando et al. 2008), the intensity africana) at present is between 470,000 and of the problem is clearly increasing. 630,000 (Blanc et al. 2007). They have declined from over 5 million animals located throughout The objective of this paper is to: (a) review the continent 100 years ago, to the current the current status of HEC and methods used number con ned to fragmented habitats in sub- for its mitigation in the Asian range states; Saharan regions. Whereas poaching for ivory and (b) highlight some differences in the African meat was a major reason for the decline in the context; (c) summarize the current and potential past, loss of habitat is the biggest threat to their new technologies for mitigation of HEC; and (d) continued survival at present. Paradoxically, identify further studies and actions needed. though, elephant numbers are increasing in some countries and may need to be controlled in order to Elephant range, population and human- prevent degradation of their habitats. The African elephant con ict elephant is categorized as ‘near threatened’ in the IUCN Red List and populations of most The population of wild Asian elephants in range states are classi ed under Appendix I with most range countries is a matter of debate. The CITES, except those of Botswana, Namibia, minimum and maximum numbers in each country South Africa and Zimbabwe, which are included as estimated by the Asian Elephant Specialist in Appendix II. Group (AsESG: www.asesg.org) of the IUCN and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF: www. Elephants play an important role as ‘keystone’ panda.org/) 2000 are given in Table 1, together and ‘umbrella’ species, maintaining biodiversity with more recent estimates. The distribution of
41 elephant populations, intensity of HEC and the two main populations with over 100 elephants mitigation methods used in the Asian range states in each (Hefferman 2004). Studies are underway are summarized below. using camera trapping and faecal DNA based capture-recapture methodology to establish more Bangladesh accurate gures (Pollard 2007). Most incidents of HEC have occurred in the south and southwestern The resident population of wild elephants is regions, and have been increasing with crop raiding between 151 and 344 (Feeroz et al. 2004). They and damage to cottages reaching a frequency of are restricted to the southeastern forested areas, two per month in some areas (Hefferman 2004). which are shrinking due to pressure from human The recently established Seima Biodiversity activities, leading to increasing incidents of HEC. Conservation Area (SBCA) in eastern Cambodia There is also trans-border movement of elephants is an important habitat for elephants, together in to Bangladesh, from Meghalaya and Assam in with the Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary lying India and from Myanmar. These non-resident to the north. Although there are many indigenous herds cause serious damage to crops and houses villages within the SBCA as well as large recent (Anwarul Islam, pers. comm.). Feeroz et al. (2004) settlements around it, at present there are few report that during a period of one year from June problems with HEC. The mitigation measures 2001 to May 2002, HEC occurred in 28% of the include land-use planning and law enforcement, elephant range and resulted in 38 deaths and 94 undertaken by the Forest Administration with the injuries to humans, as well as 3 elephant deaths support of local communities (Pollard 2007). and damage to crops and households amounting to US$ 86,000. China
Bhutan Elephants exist only in the Upper Mekong Basin, in the southwestern part of Yunnan and the current The current population is believed to be between number is between 165 and 213, distributed in 6 400 and 600 (Murdoch 2008) and are located counties (Zhang 2007). The number of incidents along the border with India. With a land area of losses to household crops increased from 612 of 38,000 km2 and a very low density of human in 1991 to 16,380 in 2004, with 132 people being population, the occurrence and intensity of HEC injured by elephants and 24 of them dying during is low. this period (Luo 2007). The mitigation methods used include electric fences, anti-elephant ditches Cambodia and walls, and improving elephant habitats to increase their natural feed availability and keep The number of wild elephants is uncertain, but them away from farm lands. In some instances possibly 250-600 (Murdoch 2008). There are village settlements have been relocated, but
Table 1. The estimated population of wild Asian elephants in the range states in 2000 (source: www. elephantcare.org/asiandem.htm) and recent available estimates. Country 2000 estimate Current Min. Max. Estimate Reference Bangladesh 195 239 151 – 344 Feeroz et al. 2004 Bhutan 60 100 400 – 600 Murdoch 2008 Borneo 1000 2500 1100 – 1600 Murdoch 2008 Cambodia 200 500 250 – 600 Murdoch 2008 China 250 300 165 – 213 Zhang 2007 India 19,090 29,450 27,669 – 27,719 http://envfor.nic.in/pe/pe.html Indonesia (Sumatra) 2800 4800 2000 – 2500 Hammatt et al. 2004 Lao PDR 950 1300 800 – 1000 Khounboline 2007 Malaysia (Peninsular) 800 1200 1220 – 1466 www.wildlife.gov.my Myanmar 4639 5000 4000 – 6000 Kyaw & Cho 2004 Nepal 41 60 70 – 100 Yadav 2004 Sri Lanka 3160 4405 3500 – 4000 www.dwlc.lk Thailand 1300 2000 3000 – 3500 Stewart-Cox & Ritthirat 2007 Vietnam 109 144 57 – 81 Hefferman 2004 Total 34,594 50,998
42 elephants seem to nd their way to these new with the support of the US Fish and Wildlife locations as well. Currently local government Service to minimize HEC by encouraging and management agencies are helping villagers villagers to adopt alternative cropping and to plant cash crops that elephants dislike and livelihood options, and Ecosystems India and are providing more compensation for losses, but Green Guard, which work mainly on developing the success of many of these measures has been early warning systems and experimenting with limited (Roger Luo, pers. comm.). chilies and other biotic deterrents.
India Indonesia
Project Elephant of the Government of India The number of elephants in Sumatra had been (http://envfor.nic.in/pe/pe.html) estimates the estimated to be 2000-2500 (Hammatt et al. 2004), present number of wild elephants to be 27,669- but more recent estimates indicate this to be 2400- 27,719. This project has declared 26 elephant 2800 (M. Wahyu & Donny Gunaryadi, pers. reserves with an area of 60,000 km2 to protect comm.). The important elephant habitats are in elephants, their habitats and corridors. The 5 the provinces of South Sumatra and Lampung in elephant reserves in Assam have around 3,780 the south, Aceh in the north and Riau in the east. animals and, although poaching is not a serious In the early 1980s Lampung was reported to have issue in the state, there have been about 152 deaths 12 areas with elephant populations, but Hedges et of elephants during 2001-2007 that can be related al. (2005) have found that only three areas, Bukit to unnatural causes (Amit Sharma, pers. comm.). Barisan Selatan National Park (BBSNP), Way Each year, HEC results in about 300 human Kambas National Park (WKNP) and the Gunung deaths and damage to 10,000-15,000 houses and Rindingan-Way Waya complex (GRWW) still 8-10 million hectares of crops, while over 200 had resident populations in 2002. Their estimates elephants die due to human-related activities, of elephant populations for the BBSNP and which include poaching for ivory or meat, WKNP were 498 and 180, respectively. A study poisoning, cattle-borne diseases, electrocution on modelling of the population trend in the and collision with trains (Bist 2002). WKNP (Sitompul et al. 2008) has shown that the population would continue to increase over the The full range of traditional and modern measures next 50 years, even with a moderate degree of for mitigation of HEC is used by the state anthropogenic removal of elephants. institutions and villagers, with varying degrees of success (Fernando et al. 2008). The Government The high human population density of Lampung of Assam has formed an Elephant Task Force, province and the close proximity of settlements and several NGOs are actively assisting in HEC to the remaining elephant habitats have resulted management. WWF-India (www.ww ndia.org) in a high degree of HEC. Between June 2000 and is implementing the AREAS (Asian Rhino and September 2002 Hedges et al. (2005) investigated Elephant Action Strategy) programme, and has 717 crop damage incidents around BBSNP and evolved a model for HEC management (the WKNP, and found that elephants destroyed 21 Sonitpur Model) that uses high tech tools like houses, killed three people and disabled another GIS and remote sensing along with traditional three persons. The direct nancial loss due to methods like elephant monitoring, guarding key crop raiding in villages around WKNP during depredation tracks employing kunkies (trained this period was US$ 12,000. A range of strategies tame elephants) and chasing off wild herds. Longer are used for mitigating HEC, including habitat term measures include maintaining contiguity of management, barriers, early warning systems, habitats and elephant populations in the critical deterrents, driving away using “ ying squads” areas by working with and supporting the state of men and mahouts with captive elephants, departments and communities (Amit Sharma, and capture of problem animals followed by pers. comm.). Other NGOs that are active include translocation or taming. Taming of captured Aaranyak (www.aaranyak.org), which is working animals is done in Elephant Training Centres,
43 but the survival rate of such animals appears to 1,220-1,466. A recent study using dung counts in be very low, raising major concerns regarding its the Taman Negara NP has shown the presence success (Hammatt et al. 2004). of around 630 animals, which is much higher than previously believed (www.elephant-news. Lao PDR com). The Malaysian state of Sabah on the island of Borneo and the adjacent areas of Indonesian Known historically as Lane Xang (land of a Kalimantan have a combined population million elephants), the current number of wild estimated at 1100-1600 (Murdoch 2008). HEC elephants in Lao PDR is not known, but is occurs in most areas around elephant habitats, thought to be 800-1000 (Khounboline 2007). and the mitigation measures used include erection Many of the elephant populations are thought to of electric fences and translocation of problem be relatively small and dispersed within national animals to NPs. and provincial Protected Areas (PAs), corridors and adjoining areas, located in the north, central Myanmar and southern parts of Lao (Alex McWilliam, pers. comm.). Myanmar has a land area of 676,000 km2 and 50% of this is under forest cover, with 4% declared Nearly two thirds of the human population in Lao as PAs, and the number of wild elephants is live in rural areas and practice shifting cultivation, estimated at 4000-6000 (Kyaw & Cho 2004). many doing so within or near the network of A study by Leimgruber et al. (2008) has found PAs. Levels of HEC are increasing and it is now that the capturing of about 100 elephants each a social and economic issue. In addition, many year, which has been practiced for many years to development projects are planned or underway in maintain the captive population at around 6,000, areas where elephants occur and this will further could result in extinction of the wild population reduce habitats available to elephants. The in 31 years. The number of incidents of crop Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS: www.wcs. raiding, damage to houses and human deaths is org) states that deaths of elephants due to HEC increasing, and the main methods of mitigation are increasing, but a major threat is also poaching are driving elephants back to forest habitats and for ivory, involving both local and transboundary capture followed by translocation or taming hunters. An ongoing study in the Nakai Plateau, (Kyaw & Cho 2004). where a hydroelectric project has inundated a large area of elephant habitat in and adjacent to Nepal the Nakai-Nam Theun PA, showed an increase in HEC incidents from 7 to 11.2 per month over Nepal has a land area of 147,000 km2 and 18% of a four year period (McWilliam 2008). The main this is designated as PAs. The number of resident mitigation methods include community based wild elephants is between 70 and 100, with an crop defence involving early warning systems and additional transboundary population of 50-75 active as well as passive deterrents (Khounboline shared with India (Yadav 2004). HEC is present 2007). The WCS has obtained positive results at a moderate level in the areas around elephant with rope lines erected around cropping areas habitats, with crop damage being the main from which bells and rattles are hung to provide consequence. The number of deaths attributed to early warning to crop guards at night and passive HEC during the past 20 years was 66 humans and deterrents such as bottles lled with vinegar hung 18 elephants. The main strategies for mitigation on fences (McWilliam 2008). of HEC include establishment of more PAs and corridors, development of infrastructure Malaysia for guarding and protecting crops (training of villagers, erecting watch towers and electric The Department of Wildlife and National Parks fencing), deterrent measures (sirens, search lights of Malaysia (www.wildlife.gov.my) estimates the and shotguns) and planting alternate crops such number of elephants in peninsular Malaysia to be as tea (Yadav 2004).
44 Sri Lanka collective drives of herds to PAs; electrical and biological fencing; and provision of assistance The data available with the Department of and thunder ashes to villagers to drive away Wildlife Conservation of Sri Lanka (www. invading elephants. Two further initiatives for dwlc.lk) indicates a population of 3500–4000 elephant conservation are ex situ conservation wild elephants. The forest cover is 20% of the at the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage (PEO) total land area of 65,000 km2, and 14% of this and re-introduction of orphans in to the wild is designated as PAs. Sri Lanka has 10% of the from the Elephant Transit Home (ETH) at Uda wild Asian elephant population, but only 2% of Walawe. Many NGOs are engaged in community the range available for elephants in the region. level activities and educational programmes for conservation of elephants and mitigation of HEC, The intensity of HEC in many rural areas adjacent including the Wildlife and Nature Protection to elephant habitats has been increasing rapidly. Society (www.wnpssl.org), the Sri Lanka Wildlife The data from the DWLC shows that 1369 Conservation Society (www.slwcs.org) and the elephants were killed during the past 10 years, Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust. with gunshot injuries accounting for 56% of them and 68% being adult bulls (Fig. 1). Other causes A recent study on HEC in three districts of the of mortality were electrocution and poisoning north-western wildlife region of Sri Lanka (due to illegal actions taken by farmers to protect (Perera 2007; Perera et al. 2007), covering a their crops), landmines, accidental falling into land area of 11,000 km2 and comprising around agricultural wells and abandoned gem pits and 1200 villages, showed that there were over 1,000 collision with trains. Between 1992 and 2001, 536 elephants in the area. During 2006, HEC resulted people were killed by wild elephants (75% men, in the deaths of 24 humans and 66 elephants, 13% women and 12% children). On average, while there were 452 incidents of crop damages HEC results in deaths of 150 elephants and 50-70 and 119 incidents of property damages (Fig. 2). A humans each year. However, in spite of the severe major consequence of HEC was a very signi cant hardships and economic losses suffered by rural deterioration in the quality of life of rural people. people, many still have a positive attitude towards The main mitigation measures used by villagers elephant conservation (Bandara & Tisdell 2003). were: making sounds using voice, re-crackers and thunder ashes; lighting lamps or res The mitigation measures used have been around homesteads and elds; keeping watch comprehensively reviewed by Fernando et al. at night in huts built on trees; hanging metal or (2008). The main activities of the DWLC include: glass objects on perimeter fences; planting live establishment of new NPs, elephant corridors fences of thorny scrub; and use of shot-guns to and conservation areas; habitat enrichment; scare or injure elephants. However, elephants capture and translocation of problem animals; often became habituated to these measures and even became more aggressive with time.
This study identi ed an urgent need to: (a) organize proper awareness programmes and establish good communication channels with villagers; (b) recruit and train villagers to handle village level management activities for preventing elephant intrusion; (c) introduce crop diversi cation using species that are not favoured by elephants; (d) promote alternative economic activities (e.g. inland shery, livestock industries); and (e) consider relocation of elephants or humans Figure 1. An adult male tusker found dead in the in areas where no other alternative exists. As south-east of Sri Lanka with gunshot injuries. emphasized by previous authors (Corea 2004;
45 and quality of life of the rural people, resulting in a marked reduction in HEC (Srikrachang & Srikosamatara 2005).
Vietnam
The wild elephant population was estimated at between 57 and 81 in 2002, located in 11 different areas (Hefferman 2004). HEC has reached crisis levels in some areas, with 26 people killed over a two year period at one site. The drastic population crash from the numbers that were present in the 1980s, coupled with the fragmented nature of the Figure 2. House damaged by an elephant that at- present population and the continuing pressure tempted to consume the rice stored inside. on limited habitats, indicate the need for urgent action to prevent the extinction of Vietnam’s de Silva & de Silva 2007; Fernando et al. 2008), elephants. rational and scienti c management strategies need to be coupled with community participation Africa and careful selection of the mitigation methods for each location. The African Elephant Database (http://data.iucn. org/themes/ssc/sgs/afesg/aed/pdfs/aesr2007. Thailand pdf) of the African Elephant Specialist Group provides the most reliable information on the The current number of elephants is estimated population of elephants in African range states. It to be 3000–3500, scattered over 60 PAs lists three statistics for each region and country, (Stewart-Cox & Ritthirat 2007). The Western in terms of the “De nite”, “Probable” and Forest Conservation Complex (WEFCOM) “Possible” numbers. The estimates for the four has the largest population of around 1,000, and regions containing elephants are given in Table 2 includes the Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary and (Blanc et al. 2007). adjoining Chalerm Rattanakosin NP, where 130–150 elephants reside. Studies conducted The elephant populations of some African by the Elephant Conservation Network (www. countries such as Botswana, South Africa, ecn-thailand.org) show that human activities Tanzania and Zimbabwe are increasing. inside the forest cause considerable disturbance Zimbabwe has an elephant population of around to elephants, and that most crop-raiding in any 90,000 (Blanc et al. 2007), whereas the carrying one area is done by 1–3 bull elephants targeting capacity of the country is considered to be sugarcane, papaya and mango. less than 40,000. Increases in both human and elephant populations have had severe negative Another important elephant habitat is impact on the environment and biodiversity, Kaengkrachan-Kuiburi Complex in southwestern resulting in a growing HEC. An analysis by Thailand, which contains 4 PAs with around 150 Foggin (2003) indicates that, if unresolved, this elephants. The complex has over 450 agricultural crisis will probably result in a massive die-off of areas around it, and HEC is a common occurrence. elephants in some areas, and it appears unlikely In 2005 the value of crops damaged was over 4 that any method other than lethal control can million Baht. A programme initiated by HM the be applied either ef ciently or soon enough to King has allocated land that was previously used overcome the crisis. In other countries such as for pineapple cultivation around the Kuiburi Kenya, attempting to con ne elephants to PAs has NP for reforestation and habitat improvement, resulted in habitat damage, making it necessary together with measures to improve the income to nd humane methods for population control.
46 Table 2. The estimated population of wild African 2007; Fernando et al. 2008). A brief overview of elephants and their proportion of the elephant the various methods is given below. range (=ER) (Source: Blanc et al. 2007) Region Number of elephants % 1. Physical barriers (to keep elephants within De nite Probable Possible ER PAs or prevent their entry to villages) Central 10,000 59,000 102,000 29 East 137,000 166,000 201,000 26 South 298,000 321,000 346,000 39 Electric fences - expensive and dif cult to West 7,500 8,200 9,300 5 maintain, some elephants become ‘fence- Total 472,000 554,000 637,000 100 breakers’. Small community type fences enclosing villages and croplands with maintenance by the Reports on HEC in many African countries (Hoare community can be effective (Fig. 3); 1999; Smith 2007; Walpole & Linkie 2007) show Non-electric fences - need strong material, a marked increase in incidence during recent usually ineffective; years. However, in the African context, elephants Live fences - thorny plants (e.g. cactus, agave) are not the most frequent crop raiding species. and trees planted in a close (sometimes triangular) Other taxa such as primates, suids, rodents, pattern. Other measures (e.g. electric fence) are birds or insects often cause greater crop losses, needed to prevent damage to the plants until they but complaints about elephant damage tend to mature; be disproportionately higher than its relative Trenches - problems in maintenance due to contribution (Hoare 1999). erosion during rains and elephants lling them by kicking in the sides. The results from HEC mitigation methods adopted in several countries (Nelson et al. 2003; 2. Vigilance methods (to alert farmers to Sitati & Walpole 2006; Osborne & Anstey approaching elephants and increase the chance 2007) indicate that a ‘bundle of methods’ need of driving them away) to be developed for each situation, based on a combination of low-cost farm-based vigilance Buffer zones - clearing of a ve metre wide strip and deterrent measures, with active participation around elds or villages; of the affected communities. Watch-towers - at strategic points or at half- kilometre intervals along intrusion borders, Current management strategies and methods with communication to alert other farmers (e.g. to mitigate HEC whistles) (Fig. 4); String fences - with metal or glass objects (cans, HEC is increasing in both Asia and Africa. It is bottles, bells, etc.) that make a sound (Fig. 5); now a major focus of international attention, as Detection and alarm systems using tripwire re ected in the work of the AsESG and the AfESG fences, seismic, optical, laser or infrasound of the IUCN’s Species Survival Commission. The technologies; AsESG has established several Task Forces and Lights or res - at strategic entry points. Working Groups, one of which is on HEC. The AfESG has also established a Human-Elephant 3. Deterrent methods (to impede or discourage the Con ict Working Group (HECWG), which has passage of elephants in to elds and villages) identi ed ve issues that need urgent attention (Hoare 1999). Buffer zones of unpalatable crops - e.g. chilli, sesame, tea, tobacco, citrus; The methods of mitigation ranging from simple, Making noise (acoustic) - banging on metal, re- traditional methods used by villagers to modern, crackers, thunder- ashes, re-arms, cracking expensive technologies implemented by state whips, trip-wire alarms, recorded sounds (e.g. agencies have been described and classi ed African honey-bees, elephant distress calls, by many previous authors (Nelson et al. 2003; infrasound); Osborn & Anstey 2007; de Silva & de Silva Fires and lights - burning chilli or chilli seeds
47 the new location. Success with taming depends on the age of the captured animal and expertise of the tamers, and has not been very promising in some situations.
7. Culling (killing or lethal control)
A highly controversial and emotive issue, ethically and culturally unacceptable in most Asian countries. Has been used in Africa to control overpopulation and prevent damage to habitats. When employed for PAC, the culled animal may be replaced by another problem animal. Figure 3. Electric fence and solar power unit. 8. Compensation schemes and dung, strong ashing lights, light shining on compact disks hung on string; Can make people more tolerant to damages caused String fences - with application of grease and by elephants, but most are often inadequate, chilli, hot pepper oil, vinegar or other irritants; highly bureaucratic and open to problems such musth secretions or ‘fear’ pheromones; as fraudulent claims and corruption. Nails and spikes - sometimes with poison. 9. Land-use planning 4. Repulsion methods (to drive away elephants that enter elds or villages) Lack of proper planning has resulted in a marked increase in competition between humans and Use of noise (as above) and irritants - pepper spray wildlife for land, feed and water resources and (oleo-resin capsicum) and pepper-crackers; is the root cause of increasing HEC in most Elephant Response Units or “Flying Squads” countries (Nelson et al. 2003). The main factors - teams of people with or without captive that bring humans and elephant into situations elephants; of increasing confrontation are: (a) expansion Causing pain and injury - re-arms, spears. of human settlements and agriculture into forest areas; (b) loss of elephant habitats and blocking 5. Elephant drives of traditional migration routes; (c) human activities that attract elephants, such as planting To drive herds or individual problem animals to crops in previous elephant habitats, logging in PAs or other forest habitats that will hopefully forests resulting in secondary vegetation, and become their new home range; using people, creating water reservoirs for irrigation or power sometimes with trained elephants, vehicles or generation. These confrontations invariably lead aircraft. Low success rate, due to some elephants to aggressive behaviour in both humans and breaking back from the driven herd, or to those elephants, thus escalating HEC. Traditional land- driven returning to their former habitat. use patterns such as the slash-and-burn (chena) cultivation practiced in some Asian countries 6. Capture, followed by translocation or taming have proven to be elephant-friendly, and could be suitably adapted for mitigating HEC in some Usually done for problem animal control (PAC) locations. involving adult males, which take more risks than breeding herds and therefore become habitual New biological technologies to mitigate HEC crop raiders. Translocation requires a high degree of expertise and logistics, and the animals may Biological methods that hold promise for return to the original site or create problems in mitigating HEC include physiological,
48 pharmacological and immunological methods thus suppressing reproductive cycles in females. for modifying the reproduction and/or behaviour Studies in many domestic species and a few wild of elephants. These could have applications in species (e.g. deer, bison) have shown that 2-3 situations where elephant populations need to be doses of the vaccine are effective in achieving reduced or maintained without further increase, contraception for 1-2 years with no adverse or for controlling aggressive behaviour and side-effects (Fayrer-Hosken 2008). Studies musth in adult males. are currently underway in South Africa (Henk Bertschinger, Pers. Comm.) and Sri Lanka to test Manipulating female reproduction the ef cacy of this procedure in elephants.
Induction of temporary infertility (i.e. reversible Another approach is treatment with long acting contraception) in cycling females can be preparations of oestradiol 17- , which causes achieved by immuno-contraception, involving negative feedback on the hypothalamus and immunization against cellular components or pituitary, resulting in inhibition of ovulation. hormones that are essential for reproduction. A Trials in African elephants using sub-cutaneous vaccine prepared using glycoproteins of the Zona implants that are commercially available for Pellucida (ZP) of pig oocytes, when injected in livestock have shown that pregnancies can be to many species including horses and elephants, prevented for over 12 months (Hildebrandt et al. results in the production of antibodies that disrupt 2006). the normal functions of the ZP, preventing conception (Fayrer-Hosken 2008). Trials in Manipulating male reproduction and aggression Africa have shown that three doses administered at intervals of three weeks using drop-out darts Immunization against GnRH in male domestic prevented pregnancies in elephant cows for up to animals causes two reversible effects in the one year (Delsink et al. 2003). testes: reduction in testosterone production from the Leydig cells (resulting in reduced libido); and An alternative method is immunization against disruption of spermatogenesis in the seminiferous Gonadotrophin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), tubules (resulting in infertility). African bull which is produced in the hypothalamus and elephants vaccinated with three doses had is a key regulator of reproductive functions lower faecal epiandrosterone concentrations, in both males and females. When GnRH is indicating a reduction in testosterone production conjugated to a suitable hapten and administered from the testes, and showed a marked reduction with an adjuvant, it causes the production of in aggression for periods of 6-9 months (Stout antibodies that bind with endogenous GnRH, et al. 2007). Further, re-vaccination of bulls that were in musth resulted in cessation of aggressive behavior within 7-10 days of the rst booster vaccination.
Conclusions
This review shows that much information is available on the causes and effects of HEC, the methods used for its mitigation and their effectiveness in many of the range states in Asia and Africa. However, gaps in knowledge do exist, and require studies to document the quantitative effects of HEC and to determine the most appropriate combination of methods that can mitigate HEC under the speci c conditions Figure 5. Typical watch-hut built on a tree. of each location. As discussed by Hoare (1999)
49 Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Prof. Parnthep Ratanakorn for inviting me to present a global review on HEC at the 2008 International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium in Pattaya, Thailand, and Mr. Jayantha Jayawardena for encouraging me to write a review paper focusing on the Asian situation for Gajah. I am also grateful to the many colleagues who provided published and unpublished information, including Drs./ Figure 6. Metal and glass objects hung on Mesrs. Anwarul Islam (Bangladesh), Roger perimeter fences Luo (China), Amit Sharma (India), Mohammad Wahyu and Donny Gunaryadi (Indonesia), Alex and Barnes (2008), future studies should McWilliam (Lao PDR) and Henk Bertschinger use standardized designs and data collection (South Africa). protocols, as well as modern information systems to report, record, manage and respond to incidents References of elephant damage. Bandara, R. & Tisdell, C. (2003) Comparison of Studies are also needed on new pharmacological rural and urban attitudes to the conservation of methods such as immuno-contraception to Asian elephants in Sri Lanka: empirical evidence. reversibly inhibit female and male fertility, and Biological Conservation 110: 327–342 to control musth and aggression in problem bulls. These will have important applications in the Barnes, R.F.W. (2008) The design of crop raiding future as adjuncts to the array of methods that are studies. Gajah 28: 4-7. currently in use. Bist, S.S. (2002) An overview of elephant It is important that all studies are undertaken conservation in India, The Indian Forester 128: in an inter-disciplinary manner, using a fully 121-136. participatory approach with all stakeholders from the design stage through to implementation. This Blanc, J.J., Barnes, R.F.W., Craig, G.C., Dublin, requires active collaboration between scientists, H.T., Thouless, C.R., Douglas-Hamilton, I. & wildlife managers, policy makers, wildlife Hart, J.A. (2007) African Elephant Status Report enthusiasts and the local communities in order to 2007: An Update from the African Elephant nd successful and sustainable solutions to HEC. Database. IUCN Species Survival Commission, An essential consideration in obtaining the and African Elephant Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, support of local communities is providing them Switzerland. http://data.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/ with the necessary information, motivation and afesg/aed/pdfs/aesr2007.pdf training activities that are targeted to their needs in keeping with socio-cultural backgrounds. Corea, C. (2004) Saving elephants by helping people – lessons in community integrated Finally, land-use must be addressed in a forthright elephant conservation. In: Endangered Elephants: manner and hard decisions made on alternatives Past, Present and Future. Jayewardena, J. (ed.) such as crop diversi cation using species that are Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust, not favoured by elephants, promoting economic Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 136–139. activities that are not prone to elephant damage, and relocation of elephants or humans in areas Delsink, A., Bertschinger, H.J., Kirkpatrick, where no other alternative exists. J.F., DeNys, H., Grobler, D., van Altena, J.J. & Turkstra, J. (2003) Contraception of African
50 elephant cows in two private conservancies Hefferman, J. (2004) An overview of human- using porcine zona pellucida vaccine and the elephant con ict in Cambodia and Vietnam. In: control of aggressive behaviour in elephant Endangered Elephants: Past, Present and Future. bulls with GnRH vaccine. In: Control of Wild Jayewardene, J. (ed.) Biodiversity & Elephant Elephant Populations. Utrecht University, The Conservation Trust, Colombo. pp 114-117. Netherlands. pp 43-45. Hildebrandt, T.B., Göritz, F., Hermes, R., Reid, De Silva, M. & De Silva, P.K. (2007) The Sri C., Dehnhard, M. and Brown, J.L. (2006) Lankan Elephant: Its Evolution, Ecology and Aspects of the reproductive biology and breeding Conservation. WHT Publications, Colombo, Sri management of Asian and African elephants Lanka. Elephas maximus and Loxodonta Africana. International Zoo Yearbook 40: 20-40. Fayrer-Hosken, R. (2008) Controlling animal populations using anti-fertility vaccines. Hoare, R.E. (1999) A Standardized Data Reproduction in Domestic Animals 43 (Suppl. Collection and Analysis Protocol for Human- 2): 179-185. Elephant Con ict Situation in Africa. IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group, Nairobi, Feeroz, M.M., Aziz, M.A., Islam, M.T. & Kenya. Islam, M.A. (2004) Human-elephant con ict in southeastern hilly areas of Bangladesh. In: Jayewardene, J. (ed.) (2004) Endangered Endangered Elephants: Past, Present and Future. Elephants: Past, Present and Future. Proceedings Jayewardene, J. (ed.) Biodiversity & Elephant of the symposium on human elephant relationships Conserv Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 98-102. and con icts, Sri Lanka, September 2003. Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust, Fernando, P., Kumar, M.A., Williams, A.C., Colombo, Sri Lanka. Wikramanayake, E., Aziz, T. & Singh, S.M. (2008) Review of Human-Elephant Con ict Khounboline, K. (2007) Human-elephant con ict Mitigation Measures Practiced in South Asia. (HEC) pilot study in southern Lao PDR. Gajah AREAS Technical Support Document Submitted 26: 18-20. to World Bank, World Wide Fund for Nature. Kyaw, U.A. & Cho, U.K.M. (2004) Human- Foggin, C.M. (2003) The elephant problem elephant relationships and con icts in Myanmar. in Zimbabwe: can there be any alternative to In: Endangered Elephants: Past, Present and lethal population control? In: Control of Wild Future. Jayewardene, J. (ed.) Biodiversity and Elephant Populations. Utrecht University, The Elephant Conservation Trust, Colombo, Sri Netherlands. p 11. Lanka. pp 103-105.
Hammatt, H., Fahrimal, D.Y. & Mikota, S. Leimgruber, P., Senior, B., Uga, M.A., Songer, (2004) Implications of new data for Sumatran M.A., Mueller, T., Wemmer, C. & Ballou, J.D. elephants in captivity – time for change. In: (2008) Modeling population viability of captive Endangered Elephants: Past, Present and Future. elephants in Myanmar (Burma): implications for Jayewardene, J. (ed.) Biodiversity & Elephant wild populations. Animal Conserv. 11: 198-205. Conserv. Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 61-64. Luo, A. (2007) Brief introduction to the human- Hedges, S., Tyson, M.J., Sitompul, A.F., Kinnaird, elephant con icts in Upper Mekong region. M.F., Gunaryadi, D. & Aslan (2005) Distribution, Gajah 26: 34-36. status, and conservation needs of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Lampung Province, McWilliam, A. (2008) Monitoring and mitigation Sumatra, Indonesia. Biological Conservation of human-elephant con ict at a hydropower 124: 35–48. project site in Lao PDR. In: 2008 International
51 Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium. Smith, D.M. (2007) Botswana Human-Elephant Pattaya, Thailand. p 35. Con ict: Growing Elephant Population Damages Crops and Frustrates Locals. http:// Murdoch, G. (2008) Factbox - Threats Facing wildlife-conservation.suite101.com/article.cfm/ Asia’s Endangered Wild Elephants. www.reuters. humananimal_con ict_in_botswana com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSP266929 Srikrachang, M. & Srikosamatara, S. (2005) Nelson, A. Bidwell, P. & Sillero-Zubiri, C. Elephant crop raiding problems and their (2003) A Review of Human Elephant Con ict solutions at Kuiburi National Park. Natural Management Strategies. People and Wildlife History Bulletin of Siam Society 53: 87-109. Initiative, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Oxford University, United Kingdom. Stewart-Cox, B. & Ritthirat, J. (2007) Mitigating human-elephant con ict in Asia: a new initiative Osborn, F.V. & Anstey, S. (2007) Elephant/ in Thailand. In: Mitigating Human-Elephant Human Con ict and Community Development Con ict: Case Studies from Africa and Asia. around the Niassa Reserve, Mozambique. Walpole, M. & Linkie, M. (eds.) Fauna & Flora WWF Southern African Regional Programme. International, Cambridge, UK. pp 13-22. www.elephantpepper.org/downloads/ Niassa%20ele%20report.pdf Stout, T.A.E., Bertschinger. H. J. & Colenbrander, B. (2007) The use of GnRH vaccines for Perera, B.M.A.O. (2007) Status of elephants in reproductive suppression in horses and elephants. Sri Lanka and the human-elephant con ict. In: In: EU-Asia Link Project Symposium “Managing EU-Asia Link Project Symposium “Managing the Health and Reproduction of Elephant the Health and Reproduction of Elephant Populations in Asia”. Kasetsart University, Populations in Asia”. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 114-116. Bangkok, Thailand. pp 14-22. Sukumar, R. (2003) The living Elephants: Perera, B.M.A.O., Abeygunawardena, H., Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Abeygunawardena, I.S., Wanigasundera, Conservation. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK. W.A.D.P., Gunatilake, J. & Jayasooriya, A.P. (2007) The human-elephant con ict (HEC): Walpole, M. & Linkie, M. (eds.) (2007) Mitigating background and current situation in the north- Human-Elephant Con ict: Case Studies from western wildlife region of Sri Lanka. Loris 24: Africa and Asia. Fauna & Flora International 10-20. (FFI), Cambridge, UK.
Pollard, E. (2007) Asian elephants in the Seima Yadav, B.R. (2004) Human-elephant relationships Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mendulkiri, and con icts in eastern Nepal. In: Endangered Cambodia. Gajah 27: 52-55. Elephants: Past, Present and Future. Jayewardene, J. (ed.) Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Sitati, N.W. & Walpole, M.J. (2006) Assessing Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 90-92. farm-based measures for mitigating human- elephant con ict in Transmara District, Kenya. Zhang, L. (2007) Current conservation status and Oryx 40: 279-286. research progress on Asian elephants in China. Gajah 27: 35-41. Sitompul, A.F., Carroll, J.P., Peterson, J. & Hedges, S. (2008) Modeling impacts of poaching on the Sumatran elephant population in Way Author’s e-mail: [email protected] Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. Gajah 28: 31-40.
52 Gajah 30 (2009) 53
Twin Elephants Born in Nepal
Jeewan Thapa
Elephant Project, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Nepal In recent times, captive elephants have been 15, 2007. He has impregnated many females breeding excellently in Nepal. Captive elephants including cows of private hotels. His babies in different parks are now giving birth to babies started to be born since late 1999. He has sired and in almost all cases, breeding is done by around 20 babies, most of which have survived. wild dominant bulls. The Government of Nepal He was very large and aggressive. People still has established a Breeding Center in Chitwan remember him and stories about him circulate in National Park for elephants. Here also, cow the elephant community. elephants are mainly sired by dominant male wild elephants. There are around 200 captive elephants in Nepal. Around 100 of them are owned by the Department An elephant named “Devi Kali” from the Breeding of National Park and Wildlife Conservation Center in Chitwan National Park, gave birth to and 100 by private institutions. Elephants have twin baby elephants on November 6th, 2008. Both socio-cultural and economic signi cance in babies are male. The rst baby was born at 11:00 Nepalese society. Government elephants are p.m. All the elephant handlers were working on mainly used for the management of national the care of the rst baby and they were surprised parks. They are the backbone for the operation of when after four hours at 3:00 a.m. of November these parks. Elephants are used for wildlife and 7th, another baby was born. The elephant handlers park management; research; monitoring and for are very much delighted with the new babies and ecotourism. It is dif cult to consider the working are committed to look after them. This is the rst of parks without use of these wonderful animals. time that an elephant has given birth to twins in Nepal. Both babies were in good health and are a Congratulations to Devi Kali and the dedicated prime attraction for tourists in Chitwan. Now, the people working for the conservation of this babies are enjoying life, playing with each other endangered species. and suckling mother’s milk. It is really wonderful to watch them. The babies are named “Ram Gaj” Author’s e-mail: [email protected] and “Laxman Gaj” after two hindu brother gods. Devi Kali is now paid special attention and care. Later these babies will be trained and used for conservation purposes.
Devi Kali is around 48 years. She was brought from India during the late 80s. She gave birth to a male calf on August 7, 2004, which was named Krishna Prasad. Krishna is now trained and is separated from his mother. The twin elephants are her second calving.
The twin babies were sired by a wild elephant named “Romeo”. He is a resident of Chitwan National Park and people named him as he was a regular visitor to the center since 1997. Romeo remained a dominant male till he died in October Devi Kali with her twin babies
53 Gajah 30 (2009) 54-55
Report of the International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium, Thailand, 2008
Harald Schwammer
Vienna Zoo, Tiergarten Schönbrunn, Vienna, Austria
The IEF (International Elephant Foundation) Faculty of Veterinary Science of the Mahidol is a non-pro t corporation and was formed in University. 1998 to promote conservation of African and Asian elephants. The mission of the IEF is to As chair of the GEMP (Global Elephant support and operate elephant conservation and Management Program) it was an honor for me education programs both in managed facilities to present a certi cate of appreciation to Dr. and in the wild, with emphasis on management, Parntep Ratanakorn for organizing and hosting protection and scienti c research. In 2009 the the symposium in Thailand. Dr. Ratanakorn IEF is supporting 12 in-situ projects for African is secretary general of the Asian Elephant and Asian elephants but also ex-situ projects for Foundation (AEFT) but also associate professor both species. and a director in the Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Disease on Wildlife and The International Elephant Conservation and Exotic Animal (MoZWE) and last but not least a Research Symposium is an annual conference local representative of Thailand for the GEMP. and provides a platform for the exchange of information and ideas for scientists and In total 203 elephant specialists from 17 countries conservationists who work and care about (Australia, Austria, Canada, China, Germany, elephants. In 2008 the International Elephant Hungary, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Laos, Conservation and Research Symposium took Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Netherlands, place at the Nong Nooch Tropical Botanical United Kingdom, USA) came to Thailand to Garden in Thailand from November 24 to 26, join this important scienti c Symposium. A wide 2008. The Symposium was organized by the IEF, range of presentations were on the program - 47 the AEFT (Asian Elephant Foundation) and the oral papers and 6 posters were presented. The
The organization team of the IEF Symposium 2008
54 topics concentrated on in-situ and ex-situ elephant place over two days and around 300 elephants conservation and research, human elephant were shown. The everyday life of the elephant con ict, elephant health issues, reproduction, and its mahout was the central theme of the world- behavior and management. famous Surin Elephant Round-up held each year since 1960. The festival is also a fascinating The ASERC (Austrian Sri Lankan Elephant tribute to all things “elephant” – including many Research and Conservation Project) had the excellent show-acts performing old-time elephant possibility for funding travel costs for some hunts, demonstrations of intelligence, strength colleagues from Sri Lanka and therefore eight and gentility, and the spectacular re-enactment of talks could be presented by Sri Lankan elephant a war elephant parade. specialists. The next International Elephant Conservation The symposium was followed by a closed one- and Research Symposium takes place from day EEHV (elephant endotheliotropic herpes January 24. to 30, 2010 and will be hosted by virus) workshop and a one-day closed meeting the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa. of the GEMP (Global Elephant Management The conference venue is located 45 km north of Program). Pretoria at the Kwalata Game Ranch. Further information will be soon on the IEF website at A pre-tour to the annual Surin Elephant Festival, www.elephantconservation.org. which is the most popular and visited festival of Thailand was organized for the participants and was an extra-ordinary highlight and unforgettable Author’s e-mail: [email protected] experience for all. At Surin itself the festival takes
War elephant at Surin
55 Gajah 30 (2009) 56-57
First National Symposium on Elephant Healthcare and Managerial Practices
Kushal Konwar Sharma
College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Assam, India Asian elephants are presently under threat due to • Approaches for clinical examinations various factors and a multi-pronged approach is • Body weight estimation necessary if this species, which is recognized as • Microchip implantation a agship species, is to be saved from extinction. • Drug administrations by various routes Consequently, the rst ever ‘National Symposium • Foot care, corrective foot trimming on Elephant Healthcare and Managerial Practices • Administration of anaesthesia in India’ was organized. This was an initiative of • Tusk care and trimming etc. the Directorate of Project Elephant, Government • Field laboratory procedures etc. of India, which also provided nancial assistance. The symposium was held in the College A total of fty elephant workers, conservation of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural experts and elephant veterinarians from across University, Guwahati, Assam, which is located in India participated in the symposium. A few the most strategic region of the country in terms international experts from Indonesia, Singapore of elephants. and Germany also participated and interacted with the country experts. Dr. (Ms.) Munmun Sarma, The theme for the symposium was “Elephant Assistant Professor of College of Veterinary ecology, healthcare and management with special Science, Assam Agricultural University was the emphasis on empowerment of its handlers for the Organizing Secretary of the symposium. welfare and conservation of the species.” The plenary session held at the end of the The symposium was held over three days from 19th symposium resolved the following to be sent to 21st of January 2009 with two days of lectures to the Directorate of Project Elephant for its and one day of eld work. The lectures were consideration and necessary action: divided into the following technical sessions: I: Elephant ecology, in situ conservation and 1. Render strict legal protection to the elephants mitigation of human-elephant con ict in the declared Elephant Reserves. II: Captive elephant husbandry 2. Habitat restoration and improvement in the III: Elephant behaviour and social status protected areas. IV: Elephant physiology, anatomy and forensic science V: Elephant healthcare and management VI: Preventive healthcare VII: Elephant anaesthesia, radiology and surgery VIII: Elephant reproduction and nutritional aspects IX: Plenary session
For practical demonstrations on various aspects of elephant healthcare, the participants were taken to Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary and the following practical classes were conducted using Participants exchanging practical tit bits the nine camp elephants there. on elephant healthcare procedures
56 3. Clear elephant corridors from human healthcare and managerial practices, at settlements and farming activities. least once every two years. 4. Empower and educate people for peaceful 15. Continue with the present practice of co-existence with elephants; like alternative organizing refreshers’ courses for the eld cropping, avoiding brewing country liquors vets in the key veterinary to render strict etc. legal protections to the elephants in the 5. Engage trained koonkies with experienced declared Elephant Reserves. mahouts to manage marauding herds. 16. Regular mahout education and training 6. Regular mahout education and training should be carried out with carefully and same to be carried out by carefully designed programmes with due emphasis designed programmes with due emphasis to the role of expert veterinary components to the role of expert veterinary components in conducting these training programmes. in conducting these training programmes. 17. Organize Training of Trainers (TOT) to 7. Work in tandem with Indian Railway train the veterinary college teachers so that authorities and State Electricity Boards to they can then act as resource persons for avoid accidental deaths of elephants. the next generations of veterinary students 8. Healthcare and other forms of support for in terms of elephant healthcare. the mahouts. 18. Encourage international exchange 9. Encourage captive elephants to be provided programmes for upgrading the existing skill with a balanced diet with due consideration of the veterinary experts of the country. to its physiological needs. 19. Induct at least one veterinarian into the 10. Establish mobile elephant healthcare units Project Elephant Steering Committee to in the Veterinary Colleges of important allow the profession to present its view elephant states. in the important policy making body 11. Establish super-specialty disease diagnostic governing the fate of elephants in India. centres dedicated to the elephants in the key 20. Institute national awards for signi cant Veterinary Colleges of the country. contributions in elephant conservation, 12. Encourage and provide funds for the problem healthcare, welfare etc. solving kind of research programmes. 13. Encourage research on the area of forensic science in solving wildlife crimes. Author’s e-mail: [email protected] 14. Organize national symposia on elephant
Trimming of the tusks is one of the managerial practices to prevent poaching by ivory hunters and to reduce the chances of injuries to other elephants
57 Gajah 30 (2009) 58-67
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants
Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini
Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland and Centre for Conservation and Research, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka L.A. Bates, J.H. Poole & R.W. Byrne the tested rhinoceros species and both elephant Elephant cognition species. The lower sorting indices in rhinos Current Biology 18 (2008) 544-546 indicate that sex sorting of spermatozoa from Review article, no abstract available. the rhinoceros will be more challenging than in elephants. © 2008 Blackwell Verlag. B. Behr, D. Rath, T.B. Hildebrandt, F. Goeritz, S. Blottner, T.J. Portas, B.R. Bryant, B. Sieg, A. M.F. Bertelsen, M. Kjelgaard-Hansen, C. Knieriem, S.P. de Graaf, W.M.C. Maxwell & R. Grondahl, P.M.H. Heegaard & S. Jacobsen Hermes Identi cation of acute phase proteins and Germany/Australia index of sperm sex assays applicable in nondomesticated sortability in elephants and rhinoceros mammals Reproduction in Domestic Animals 44 (2009) Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40 (2009) 273-277 199-203 Abstract. Flow cytometric sexing of spermatozoa Abstract. The serum concentration of acute followed by application in arti cial insemination phase proteins (APPs) increases dramatically in or in vitro fertilization provides a unique response to in ammation and tissue injury. APPs opportunity to predetermine the sex of offspring are clinically useful in a range of domesticated and might enhance the conservation management mammals; however, knowledge is limited in of endangered species in captivity such as the nondomesticated mammals. The detective ability elephant and rhinoceros. To obtain an indication of two assays for each of three potential APPs- of the sortability of spermatozoa from these -serum amyloid A (SAA), C-reactive protein species, the relative DNA differences between X (CRP), and haptoglobin (Hp)--was evaluated and Y chromosome bearing spermatozoa (fresh, in eight species. For SAA, a turbidimetric frozen thawed, epididymal) from three rhinoceros immunoassay (TIA) demonstrated signi cant species [white (Ceratotherium simum), black detective abilities in the Asian elephant (Elaphas (Diceros bicornis), Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis)] maximus), impala (Aepyceros melampus), musk and both elephant species, the Asian and the ox (Ovibos moschatus), and chimpanzee (Pan African elephant (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta troglodytes), as did an SAA enzyme-linked Africana), were determined through separation of immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the impala. spermatozoa into X and Y chromosome bearing For CRP, both TIA and ELISA had signi cant populations, using a modi ed high speed ow detective abilities in the chimpanzee. For Hp, cytometer. The head pro le areas of spermatozoa a colorimetric assay demonstrated signi cant from all ve species were measured using light detective abilities in impala, musk ox, sitatunga microscopy. By multiplying the relative DNA (Tragelaphus spekeii), and chimpanzee, as differences and the head pro le areas, the sperm did the Hp ELISA in the impala, musk ox, and sorting indices were calculated to be 47, 48 sitatunga. In conclusion, these results suggest that and 51 for white, black and Indian rhinoceros assays for detection of relevant APPs in several respectively. The calculated sorting index for the nondomesticated animals are available. © 2008 Asian elephant was 66. In the African elephant, by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. we determined the highest sorting index of 76. These results indicate the practicability of ow A. Campos-Arceiz, T.Z. Lin, W. Htun, S. cytometric sex sorting of spermatozoa from Takatsuki & P. Leimgruber
58 Working with mahouts to explore the diet of of elephant geophagic soils in Udawalawe work elephants in Myanmar (Burma) National Park, Sri Lanka Ecological Research 23 (2008) 1057–1064 Environmental Geochemistry Health 31 (2009) Abstract. At an elephant camp in central 391–400 Myanmar (Burma), we interviewed mahouts and Abstract. Geophagy or deliberate ingestion veterinarians to describe the diet of Asian elephants of soils was observed among Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a mixed-deciduous forest. (Elephas maximus) in the Udawalwe National Elephants showed a broad dietary breadth (103 Park, Sri Lanka, for several years. The plant species from 42 families); consumed geochemical and mineralogical composition of mostly browse (94% of plant species); and were the clayey soil layers which are purposefully very selective about plant parts [e.g., many trees selected and eaten by elephants in the park were were eaten exclusively for their bark (22%) or studied, in order to identify the possible reasons fruits (14%)]. The fruits from 29 plant species for elephant geophagy. The concentrations were recorded to be eaten by elephants. Several of major and trace elements were determined of these were found as fruit remains, seeds, or by means of X-ray uorescence spectrometry seedlings in elephant dung, suggesting a role of in 21 soil samples from eight geophagic sites Asian elephants in seed dispersal. Work elephants and six soil samples collected from four non- and their mahouts prove to be a rich source of geophagic sites. The mineralogical composition information to understand wild elephant ecology. of selected soil samples was investigated using © 2008 The Ecological Society of Japan. X-ray diffractometry (XRD). These geochemical analyses revealed that geophagic soils in the M. Chaiklin study areas are deeply weathered and that Ivory in early modern Ceylon: A case study in most of the elements are leached from the soil what documents don’t reveal layers under extreme weathering conditions. International Journal of Asian Studies 6 (2009) The XRD data showed that the soils of the area 37-63 consisted mainly quartz, feldspar, and the clay Abstract. In Sri Lanka elephants are endangered minerals kaolinite, Ferich illite, and smectite. and ivory carving, as an art, is dead. Sri Lanka Although no signi cant geochemical differences was once famous for the number and quality were identi ed between geophagic and non- of its elephants, whose tusks were carved and geophagic soils, a clear difference was observed exported since ancient times. Although Sri Lanka in their clay mineralogical content. Soils eaten became, successively, a pivotal outpost for the by elephants are richer in kaolinite and illite Portuguese, Dutch and English, details about the than non-geophagic soils, which contain a higher Ceylonese ivory trade appear in trade documents amount of smectite. It is suggested that elephants only rarely. And yet, if information is not to be in Udawalawe National Park ingest soils mainly found there, does that mean ivory trade did not not to supplement the mineral contents of their occur? Trade documents, after all, do not tell the forage but to detoxify unpalatable compounds whole story. Smugglers, illegal traders, big game in their diet. © 2008 with kind permission from hunters and plantation owners all played a part in Springer Science+Business Media. the disappearance of elephants and its corollary, the ivory trade. When archival evidence is viewed A. Coleing in combination with physical evidence and the The application of social network theory to anecdotes of visitors and residents, it becomes animal behavior evident that ivory remained an integral part Bioscience Horizons 2 (2009) 32-43 of trade and crafts in Ceylon well into the last Abstract. Social network analysis (SNA) is a century. © 2009 Cambridge University Press. mathematical technique for analysing social relationships and the patterns and implications R. Chandrajith, E. Kudavidanage, H.J. Tobschall of these relationships (Wasserman S, Faust K & C.B. Dissanayake (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and Geochemical and mineralogical characteristics Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University
59 Press). It has only recently been discovered by viral genome. In addition to ascites, widespread behavioural biologists as a useful tool in the visceral edema, petechiae, and capillary study of animal behaviour (Wey T, Blumstein damage previously reported, important ndings DT, Shen W et al. (2008) Social network analysis with EEHV3 infection were the presence of of animal behaviour: a promising tool for the grossly visible renal medullary hemorrhage, a study of sociality. Anim Behav 75: 333–344). tropism for larger veins and arteries in various Video recording over a 2 month period was used tissues, relatively high density of renal herpetic to record the behaviour of the elephant group at inclusions, and involvement of the retinal vessels. Chester Zoo. SNA was applied in an investigation These ndings indicate a less selective organ of the group structure and interactions of the tropism, and this may confer a higher degree of group. Observations of individual and group virulence for EEHV3. © 2009 American College behaviour were based upon 40 h of playback of of Veterinary Pathologists. the social interactions were recorded and analysed using AGNA (2003) and Pajek (2005) packages. R. Greenwald, O. Lyashchenko, J. Esfandiari, The analysis showed that the many facets of M. Miller, S. Mikota, J.H. Olsen, R. Ball, G. individual behaviour could be understood in Dumonceaux, D. Schmitt, T. Moller, J.B. Payeur, terms of social structure of the group. This B. Harris, D. Sofranko, W.R. Waters & K.P. study has demonstrated that SNA is a powerful Lyashchenko approach to understanding group dynamics and Highly accurate antibody assays for early and is particularly applicable to the study of obligate rapid detection of tuberculosis in African and social species. In conclusion, it is suggested Asian elephants that SNA is potentially a useful tool in the Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 16 (2009) management of captive animal populations.© 605-612 2009 The Author. Abstract. Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a reemerging zoonotic disease caused primarily by M.M. Garner, K. Helmick, J. Ochsenreiter, L.K. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current methods Richman, E. Latimer, A.G.Wise , R.K. Maes, for screening and diagnosis rely on trunk wash M. Kiupel, R.W. Nordhausen, J.C. Zong & G.S. culture, which has serious limitations due to Hayward low test sensitivity, slow turnaround time, and Clinico-pathologic features of fatal disease variable sample quality. Innovative and more attributed to new variants of endotheliotropic ef cient diagnostic tools are urgently needed. herpesviruses in two Asian elephants (Elephas We describe three novel serologic techniques, maximus) the ElephantTB Stat-Pak kit, multiantigen print Veterinary Pathology 46 (2009) 97-104 immunoassay, and dual-path platform VetTB test, Abstract. The rst herpesviruses described in for rapid antibody detection in elephants. The association with serious elephant disease were study was performed with serum samples from referred to as endotheliotropic herpesviruses 236 captive African and Asian elephants from (EEHV) because of their ability to infect 53 different locations in the United States and capillary endothelial cells and cause potentially Europe. The elephants were divided into three fatal disease. Two related viruses, EEHV1 groups based on disease status and history of and EEHV2, have been described based on exposure: (i) 26 animals with culture-con rmed genetic composition. This report describes the TB due to M. tuberculosis or Mycobacterium similarities and differences in clinicopathologic bovis, (ii) 63 exposed elephants from known- features of 2 cases of fatal endotheliotropic infected herds that had never produced a culture- herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants caused positive result from trunk wash samples, and by a previously unrecognized virus within the (iii) 147 elephants without clinical symptoms betaherpesvirus subfamily. EEHV3 is markedly suggestive of TB, with consistently negative divergent from the 2 previously studied fatal trunk wash culture results, and with no history probosciviruses, based on polymerase chain of potential exposure to TB in the past 5 years. reaction sequence analysis of 2 segments of the Elephants with culture-con rmed TB and a
60 proportion of exposed but trunk wash culture- Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 292 (2009) negative elephants produced robust antibody 242-248 responses to multiple antigens of M. tuberculosis, Abstract. Von Economo neurons (VENs), with seroconversions detectable years before previously found in humans, all of the great ape TB-positive cultures were obtained from trunk species, and four cetacean species, are also present wash specimens. ESAT-6 and CFP10 proteins in African and Indian elephants. The VENs in the were immunodominant antigens recognized elephant are primarily found in similar locations by elephant antibodies during disease. The to those in the other species. They are most serologic assays demonstrated 100% sensitivity abundant in the frontoinsular cortex (area FI) and and 95 to 100% speci city. Rapid and accurate are also present at lower density in the anterior antibody tests to identify infected elephants will cingulate cortex. Additionally, they are found in likely allow earlier and more ef cient treatment, a dorsolateral prefrontal area and less abundantly thus limiting transmission of infection to other in the region of the frontal pole. The VEN susceptible animals and to humans. © 2009 morphology appears to have arisen independently American Society for Microbiology. in hominids, cetaceans, and elephants, and may re ect a specialization for the rapid transmission J.E. Haakonsson & S. Semple of crucial social information in very large brains. Lateralisation of trunk movements in captive Von Economo neurons (VENs), previously found Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in humans, all of the great ape species, and four Laterality 14 (2009) 413-422 cetacean species, are also present in African and Abstract. Behavioural lateralisation has been Indian elephants. The VENs in the elephant are widely investigated in vertebrates. Most studies primarily found in similar locations to those in in this area have focused on laterality in paired the other species. They are most abundant in the organs such as hands, limbs, and eyes. Fewer frontoinsular cortex (area FI) and are also present studies have explored side preferences in unpaired at lower density in the anterior cingulate cortex. organs such as tails or trunks. We investigated Additionally, they are found in a dorsolateral laterality of trunk use among captive Asian prefrontal area and less abundantly in the region elephants (Elephas maximus), quantifying side of the frontal pole. The VEN morphology appears preference in four different trunk movements: to have arisen independently in hominids, feeding, sand spraying, self-touching, and cetaceans, and elephants, and may re ect a swinging. We found evidence for signi cant specialization for the rapid transmission of side preference in all four movement categories. crucial social information in very large brains. © Variation in the occurrence and direction of side 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. preference was seen both within and between individuals but no overall population-level R. Hermes, B. Behr, T.B. Hildebrandt, S. Blottner, side bias was seen for any of the four trunk B. Sieg, A. Frenzel, A. Knieriem, J. Saragusty & movements. The strength of side preference in D. Rath trunk use was signi cantly higher for feeding Sperm sex-sorting in the Asian elephant than for self-touching and swinging. This study (Elephas maximus) adds to the very limited data on laterality in Animal Reproduction Science 112 (2009) 390– unpaired organs generally, and elephants’ trunks 396 more speci cally. In addition it provides novel Abstract. In captive Asian elephants, there is a information about directional lateralisation in strong need for production of female offspring trunk use across a range of functionally distinct to enhance reproduction, counter premature contexts. © 2009 Psychology Press. aging processes in female animals and reduce challenging management situations derived from A.Y. Hakeem, C.C. Sherwood, C.J. Bonar, C. husbandry of several bulls in one institution. Butti, P.R. Hof & J.M. Allman Arti cial insemination of ow cytometrically Von Economo neurons in the elephant brain sex-sorted spermatozoa offers the possibility The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative to predetermine the sex of offspring with high
61 accuracy. The aims of this study were to determine inconsistent with the previous reports of RQJ a suitable semen extender and basic parameters in other animals, suggesting that elephants may for ow cytometrical sex-sorting of Asian be using a different mechanism to compare and elephant spermatozoa. In total 18 semen samples represent quantities than previously suggested were collected by manual rectal stimulation for other species. © 2008 with kind permission from one bull. Sperm quality parameters and sex from Springer Science+Business Media. sortability of spermatozoa were evaluated after dilution in three semen extenders (MES-HEPES- M. Jaynes skim milk, MES-HEPES, TRIS–citric acid) and From war elephants to circus elephants: DNA staining. MES-HEPES-skim milk was Humanity’s abuse of elephants the only semen extender found suitable to sex Journal for Critical Animal Studies 7 (2009) 74- Asian elephant spermatozoa. From 18 ejaculates 106 collected, 12 were successfully sorted with a Abstract. This paper examines the historical purity of 94.5 ± 0.7% at an average sort rate of human use and abuse of elephants in an attempt 1945.5 ± 187.5 spermatozoa per second. Sperm to connect the contemporary use of performing integrity, progressive and total motility were 42.6 elephants with the ancient use of war elephants ± 3.9%, 48.1 ± 3.3%, 59.4 ± 3.8% after DNA and also examines two opposing opinions labelling, and 64.8 ± 3.2%, 58.0 ± 5.0%, 70.8 regarding elephant conservation. Beginning ± 4.4% after sorting, respectively. After liquid in ancient times, the now unheard of but once storage of sorted spermatozoa for 12 h at 4 °C, ubiquitous war elephants used by Julius Caesar, sperm integrity, progressive and total motility Alexander the Great, Hannibal and other were 46.4 ± 5.2%, 32.2 ± 4.2% and 58.2 ± 3.9%, Asian cultures is revisited and the abuse of respectively. The obtained results provide a war elephants is traced into modern warfare. promising base to inseminate Asian elephants Contemporary “elephant crushing” in Thailand with sexed semen. © 2008 with permission from and the use of elephants to execute human beings Elsevier. will be examined. The argument is posited that western acceptance of the use of performing N. Irie-Sugimoto, T. Kobayashi, T. Sato & T. elephants is equally as reprehensible as the Hasegawa ancient use of the war elephant. The ivory trade Relative quantity judgment by Asian elephants is also examined along with elephant cognition (Elephas maximus) and social behaviors including death rituals. Animal Cognition 12 (2009) 193-199 The paper suggests the alternative of elephant Abstract. This study investigated whether Asian sanctuaries. Statistics are provided regarding the elephants can make relative quantity judgment highly endangered Asian and African elephants‘ (RQJ), a dichotomous judgment of unequal declining total populations. The paper: connects quantities ordered in magnitude. In Experiment contemporary western elephant abuse with the 1, elephants were simultaneously shown two use of elephants in war; urges the reader to never baskets with differing quantities of bait (up attend or promote elephant circuses, buy ivory, to 6 items). In Experiment 2, elephants were or support the exploitation of the elephant in any sequentially presented with baits, which could way; and argues intrinsic valuing of elephants not be seen by elephants in their total quantities. in lieu of other conservation approaches such The task of elephants was to choose the larger as Sustainable Use. © 2009 Institute for Critical quantity in both experiments. Results showed Animal Studies. that the elephants chose the larger quantity with signi cantly greater frequency. Interestingly, the R. Joshi & R. Singh elephants did not exhibit disparity or magnitude Feeding behaviour of wild Asian elephants effects, in which performance declines with a (Elephas maximus) in the Rajaji National smaller difference between quantities in a two- Park choice task, or the total quantity increases, Journal of American Science 4 (2008) 34-48 respectively. These ndings appear to be Abstract. The Asian elephant’s (Elephas
62 maximus) feeding behaviour with food preferences Abstract. Two human enzyme immunoassays was studied in Rajaji National Park area between (EIA) and one radioimmunoassay (RIA) were 1999-2006. The major objective of the present validated and used to measure osteocalcin study is to document the fodder plant species and (OC), bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP), and their seasonal consumption by elephants. Though the cross-linked telopeptide domain of type I elephants consume a variety of plant species in collagen (ICTP), in serum from Asian elephants the study area, but their diet mainly consisted (Elephas maximus). Sera from four adult females of fty (50) plant species, which are available sampled on 7 consecutive days were also to them alternately round the year. Alteration analyzed to assess the existence and magnitude between a predominantly browse diet throughout of intraindividual day-to-day variability of the the year with a grass diet during the early dry serum concentration of these markers. Sample season was related to the seasonally changing dilution curves were parallel with assay standard mineral content of grasses. Consumption of curves, which demonstrated that excellent cross tree species (74%) was highest as compared to reactivity existed between assay antibodies and grasses (14%) and shrubs (8%) but their diet was elephants marker antigens. Statistically signi cant mainly dependent on availability of seasonal food inverse correlations were found between age and round the year and on their migration. Elephants concentrations of all three markers: BAP, r=-0.862 extensively feed on Mallotus phillipinensis, (P<0.01); OC, r=-0.788 (P<0.002); and ICTP, r=- Acacia catechu, Lagerstroemia parvi ora, 0.848 (P<0.01). Strong positive correlations were Ehretia laevis, Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona found between BAP and OC (r=0.797, P<0.01), grandis, Zizyphus mauritiana, Aegle marmelos OC and ICTP (r=0.860, P<0.01), and between and Ficus bengalensis besides, elephants also BAP and ICTP (r=0.958, P<0.01). No statistically utilized various grasses and shrubs as their food, signi cant intraindividual variability was found which mainly included Dendrocalamus strictus, over 7 days in the four adult females for any Helicteres isora, Saccharum munja, Saccharum of the markers assessed (OC: P = 0.089; ICTP: spontaneum, Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachya P=0.642; BAP: P=0.146; n = 4 in each case). The bipinnata and Neyraudia arundinacea. Elephants overall coef cient of variability observed in this sometimes spent long time to feed on some group of animals was 10.3%, 7.4%, and 5.5% for particular plant species like Dendrocalamus OC, BAP, and ICTP, respectively. These results strictus, Mallotus phillipinensis and Tectona suggest a potential role for biochemical markers grandis. Eastern populations of elephants were of bone turnover in monitoring skeletal health subjected to feed extremely on Tectona grandis and bone disease in Asian elephants. © 2008 by and Holophramitis spp. whereas currently south- American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. western populations of elephants were not utilizing these species as their food. Crop raiding, which J.C. Lee, H.M. Hsieh, L.H. Huang, Y.C. Kuo, was sporadic during the wet season, gradually J.H. Wu, S.C. Chin, A.H. Lee, A. Linacre & L.C. increased with more area being cultivated with Tsai the onset of monsoon. We propose that this is the Ivory identi cation by DNA pro ling of rst documented study, which has developed a cytochrome b gene database about the fodder plant species for Asian International Journal of Legal Medicine 123 elephant’s survival in north-west India. © 2008 (2009) 117–121 AmericanScience.org. Abstract. Ivory can be visually identi ed in its native form as coming from an elephant species; C. Kilgallon, E. Flach, W. Boardman, A. Routh, however, determining from which of the three T. Strike & B. Jackson extant elephant species a section of ivory originates Analysis of biochemical markers of bone is more problematic. We report on a method that metabolism in Asian elephants (Elephas will identify and distinguish the protected and maximus) endangered elephant species, Elephas maximus Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 39 (2008) or Loxodonta sp. To identify the species of 527-536 elephant from ivory products, we developed three
63 groups of nested PCR ampli cations within the more likely to prefer that the village take cytochrome b gene that generate ampli cation leadership, and less willing to participate in a products using highly degraded DNA isolated cooperative management institution. The study from con scated ivory samples dating from illustrates the value of mixed-method research, 1995. DNA from a total of 382 out of 453 ivory and suggests a number of speci c entry points samples were successfully isolated and ampli ed for action. © 2008 with kind permission from leading to species identi cation. All sequences Springer Science+Business Media. were searched against GenBank and found to match with E. maximus and Loxodonta sp. with P.A. Rees at least 99% similarity. The samples that were The sizes of elephant groups in zoos: tested came from eight Asian elephants, 14 Implications for elephant welfare African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis), Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 12 and 360 African savannah elephants (Loxodonta (2009) 44-60 africana). This study demonstrates a high success Abstract. This study examined the distribution rate in species identi cation of ivory by a nested of 495 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and PCR approach within the cytochrome b gene 336 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in which provides the necessary information for the 194 zoos, most of which were located in Europe protection of endangered species conservation. (49.1%) and North America (32.6%). Cows © 2008 with kind permission from Springer outnumbered bulls 4 to 1 (Loxodonta) and 3 to Science+Business Media. 1 (Elephas). Groups contained 7 or fewer: mean, 4.28 (s = 5.73). One fth of elephants lived alone M. Ogra or with one conspeci c. Forty-six elephants Attitudes toward resolution of human– (5.5%) had no conspeci c. Many zoos ignore wildlife con ict among Forest-Dependent minimum group sizes of regional zoo association agriculturalists Near Rajaji National Park, guidelines. The American Zoo and Aquarium India Association recommends that breeding facilities Human Ecology 37 (2009) 161-177 keep herds of 6 to 12 elephants. The British Abstract. Understanding local attitudes and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums towards human–wildlife con ict (HWC) is key recommends keeping together at least 4 cows to developing successful con ict mitigation over 2 years old. Over 69% Asian and 80% strategies. In this paper, in-depth interview and African cow groups—including those under 2 questionnaire data about resolution of HWC years—consisted of fewer than 4 individuals. in Uttarakhand, India are examined from both Recently, Europe and North America have made qualitative and quantitative approaches (n=70). progress with some zoos no longer keeping Responses are differentiated between and elephants and with others investing in improved within three subgroups: gender, literacy status, facilities and forming larger herds. The welfare and relative wealth. Overall, the plurality of of individual elephants should outweigh all other respondents said that fencing is the best solution, considerations; zoos should urgently seek to that the Forest Department should take leadership, integrate small groups into larger herds. © Taylor and that villagers would be willing to participate in & Francis Group, LLC a cooperative management institution. However, cooperative action was only actively supported N. Thongtip, J. Saikhun, S. Mahasawangkul, by 27.4% of respondents, suggesting that K. Kornkaewrat, P. Suthanmapinanh & A. comanagement of this protected area will require Pinyopummin signi cant capacity building and trust building Effect of pentoxifylline on the motility activities. Intragroup differences show that all characteristics and viability of spermatozoa in three factors are signi cant, and underscore the Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with low importance of addressing gender differences in semen quality attitudes about HWC in particular. Women were Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 38 #3 (2008) less likely than men to support compensation, 37-45
64 Abstract. To investigate the effects of studies lacked data from India and Myanmar, pentoxifylline (PTX) to enhance the motility and which host approximately 70 per cent of all fertilization capacity of semen samples with the extant Asian elephants. In this paper, we analyse low-motile sperm in Asian elephants, fourteen mtDNA sequence data from 534 Asian elephants semen collection attempts in 9 elephant bulls by across the species’s range to explain the current manual stimulation were undertaken and eleven distribution of the two divergent clades. Based on ejaculates tted the criteria of investigation (0- phylogenetic reconstructions, estimates of times 30% motility). They were divided into two groups: of origin of clades, probable ancestral areas of poor-motile (0-9% motility) and low-motile origin inferred from dispersal-vicariance analyses (10-30% motility) sperm groups. Fresh semen and the available fossil record, we believe both samples were divided as a control group and 3 clades originated from Elephas hysudricus. This experimental groups that were supplemented probably occurred allopatrically in different with PTX at a nal concentration of 0.5, 1.0 and glacial refugia, the alpha clade in the Myanmar 2.0 mg/ml, respectively. The semen samples were region and the beta clade possibly in southern incubated at 37ºC for 15 and 30 mins and stained India-Sri Lanka, 1.6-2.1 Myr ago. Results from with VIADENT media for viability assessment. nested clade and dispersal-vicariance analyses Sperm motility and viability were tested using indicate a subsequent isolation and independent computer-assisted semen analysis. PTX added diversi cation of the beta clade in both Sri Lanka to the semen did not signi cantly improve the and the Sunda region, followed by northward percentage of the total and progressive motility, expansion of the clade. We also nd more recent motility characteristics and viability of sperm in population expansions in both clades based on either the poor-or low-motile groups. However, mismatch distributions. We therefore suggest a at 30 min, in the low-motile sperm group, PTX contraction-expansion scenario during severe treatment could maintain the percentage of climatic oscillations of the Quaternary, with range total and progressive motility, path velocity expansions from different refugia during warmer and progressive velocity at a higher level than interglacials leading to the varying geographical the control group. The present study indicated overlaps of the two mtDNA clades. We also that PTX added to low motility semen did not demonstrate that trade in Asian elephants has increase elephant semen quality. However, it not substantially altered the species’s mtDNA may partially have a tendency to maintain sperm population genetic structure. © 2008 The Royal motility and sperm movement characteristics. © Society. 2008 Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine. J.F.X. Wellehan, A.J. Johnson, A.L. Childress, T.N.C. Vidya, R. Sukumar & D.J. Melnick K.E. Harr & R. Isaza Range-wide mtDNA phylogeography yields Six novel gammaherpesviruses of Afrotheria insights into the origins of Asian elephants provide insight into the early divergence of Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276 (2009) the Gammaherpesvirinae 893–902 Veterinary Microbiology 127 (2008) 249-257 Abstract. Recent phylogeographic studies of the Abstract. The Afrotheria represent an early endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) branching of placental mammals. Only two reveal two highly divergent mitochondrial DNA herpesviruses from Afrotheria have been (mtDNA) lineages, an elucidation of which is previously identi ed, and the genus Proboscivirus central to understanding the species’s evolution. in the subfamily Betaherpesvirinae has been Previous explanations for the divergent clades proposed for them. Six novel gammaherpesviruses include introgression of mtDNA haplotypes were identi ed in four species in the superorder between ancestral species, allopatric divergence Afrotheria by detection and analysis of their of the clades between Sri Lanka or the Sunda DNA polymerase genes. Elephantid herpesvirus region and the mainland, historical trade of 3 (ElHV3) and Elephantid herpesvirus 4 (ElHV4) elephants, and retention of divergent lineages were identi ed from conjunctival swabs from due to large population sizes. However, these Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). ElHV3 was
65 also found in a vaginal swab from one elephant available CD of classical music. Each condition with vaginitis. Elephantid herpesvirus 5 (ElHV5) lasted for ve days, with an interim period of was identi ed from vaginal swabs of two Asian two days between each condition (Study 1). The elephants with vaginal plaques. Elephantid elephants’ behaviour was recorded every minute herpesvirus 6 was discovered in a conjunctival for four hours a day for the full ve days of each swab from an African elephant (Loxodonta condition using instantaneous scan-sampling. africana). Procavid herpesvirus 1 (PrHV1) was The procedure was repeated four months later found in spleen and conjunctival swabs of rock (Study 2), for a shorter period of time (one day hyrax (Procavia capensis). Trichechid herpesvirus per condition, again using an ABA design) to 1 (TrHV1) was identi ed from skin and buffy assess whether the results are generalisable. coats of Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus Analysis of both studies revealed that the latirostris). ElHV3 and ElHV4 form a distinct elephants spent signi cantly less of their time cluster, and ElHV5, ElHV6, TrHV1, and PrHV1 stereotyping during the experimental conditions form a second cluster. These viruses may have than the control. None of the other behaviours codiverged with their host species. Phylogenetic recorded were in uenced signi cantly by analysis of these novel herpesviruses suggests auditory stimulation. Overall, the ndings from that two separate groups of gammaherpesviruses this study suggest that auditory stimulation, may have codiverged with the Afrotheria. © 2007 in the form of classical music, may be a useful with permission from Elsevier. method of reducing stereotypic behaviour in zoo- housed Asian elephants, although more long-term D.L. Wells & R.M. Irwin work with a larger number of animals is needed Auditory stimulation as enrichment for zoo- before rm conclusions can be drawn. © 2008 housed Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with permission from Universities Federation for Animal Welfare 17 (2008) 335-340 Animal Welfare. Abstract. This study explored the effect of auditory stimulation on the behaviour and welfare of four zoo-housed, female Asian elephants If you need additional information on any of the (Elephas maximus). All animals were exposed, articles in the above section, please feel free to in an ABA design, to two conditions of auditory contact me. You can also let me know about new stimulation: a ‘control’ (no auditory stimulation), (2009) publications on Asian elephants. and an ‘experimental’ condition, during which the animals were presented with a commercially- E-mail: [email protected]
Collared elephant in southern Sri Lanka. Her movements can be followed on the internet via “facebook” in the group “Sapumali the Elephant”. Photo by Jennifer Pastorini
66 Gajah 30 (2009) 67
Book Review
“Poisons and the Pachyderm - Responding to Poisoning in Asian Elephants - A Field Guide” by Jacob Cheeran
Reviewed by Jayantha Jayewardene The ongoing human-elephant con icts in many different types of poisoning – some accidental, of the range states of the wild elephant in Asia some intentional and some due to the accumulation bring about, not only the deaths of man and of poison in the body. elephant, but also many from both parties to the con ict are also injured in different ways. Dr. Cheeran then goes on to discuss, step by Injured elephants put a lot of pressure on the step, procedures that should be adopted by the veterinarians who have to treat them. Poisoning veterinarian when poisoning is suspected. The elephants is a relatively new phenomenon and next chapter describes the poisons that can affect needs sharp skills on the part of the veterinarians an elephant – arsenic, lead, mercury, selenium, to treat poisoned elephants. copper, molybdenum cadmium, iron, zinc, etc.
Dr. Cheeran who is a leading elephant veterinarian It is fortunate for elephant conservation, especially in India, has written this book, which will be a elephant veterinarians that Dr. Cheeran decided to great help to veterinarians. Dr. Cheeran has a very write this book. His long and practical experience wide experience in treating elephants for many with elephants re ected in this book has made it years all over India. He is considered the father a must for all elephant veterinarians. of drug immobilisation in India. This invaluable book, which is a guide to all those interested in Poisons and the Pachyderm - Responding to poisoning in elephants, is especially very useful Poisoning in Asian Elephants - A Field Guide to practicing veterinarians. Jacob Cheeran (2007) Conservation Reference Series No. 4. Dr Cheeran mentions that he had decided to V. Menon, N.V.K. Ashraf, P.P. Panda & N. provide six objectives in this guide. They are: Gureja Analytical data on elephants that have been Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi poisoned in the past ve years in India; A basis 185 pages, no ISBN number for the identi cation of the source of poisoning; Guidelines to forest staff, biologists and veterinarians to help identify and differentiate cases of poisoning by looking at the clinical symptoms; Guidelines for the clinical management of conditions that arise from the exposure to poison, in an elephant; Guidelines to the forest staff and veterinarians in taking necessary steps on seeing a dead elephant; and Information on steps to be taken to prevent poisoning.
Dr. Cheeran gives a step by step guide on what should be done when dealing with a poisoned elephant either dead or alive. He details out the Female crossing a road in southern Sri Lanka Photo by H. K. Janaka
67 Gajah 30 (2009) 68-72
News Briefs
Compiled by the Editor 1. Police complete probe into wild elephant leading to an increase in the number of unnatural smugglers (Vietnam) deaths of elephants. Explaining the situation, the CCF north Bengal Mr S Patel said that the forest Vietnam News areas are not increasing in ratio with the elephant December 29, 2008 population growth. “Earlier we extended the area of the Garumara National Park a few square HCM CITY - The HCM City Environmental kilometres. But such expansion is not possible Police Department said last week that it had everywhere as controversies regarding land completed its investigation into the illegal would crop up. trading, transporting and maintenance of two wild elephants in Cu Chi District. Lieutenant Total 68 elephants died unnaturally in the past Colonel Lam Hieu Nghia of the department said two years in the forests of the Dooars. “At present the two elephants were being kept by the Dang there are around 350 elephants in our forests. Vinh Construction, Trading and Services Ltd Co, The number of elephant herds have increased in Phuoc Vinh An Commune, Cu Chi District. drastically and their raids in the adjoining villages and in the tea plantations also increased Investigations showed that the two elephants were this year,” Dr Patel said. captured by H’Mong ethnic people in the forests of southern Binh Phuoc Province in 1971-1972. Food has become scarce for the elephants, as the The elephants were then kept by Dieu Cuoc, a herbivore population has increased in the forests resident of Binh Phuoc’s Bu Dang District. In in general. Other animals like deer, rhino, bison 2004, Dang Vinh Co bought the pachyderms for consume a share of the vegetation, which forces VND160 million ($9,411) and used a truck to the elephants to stray out of jungle ultimately illegally transport the animals at night to Cu Chi. leading to unnatural deaths. A contract had been signed to effect the illegal transaction, the police said, adding that due action 3. Elephant problem solvable if illegal logging would be taken against the culprits. stopped (Indonesia)
2. Rise in jumbo count worries dept (India) Bernama January 3, 2009 The Statesman January 2, 2008 BANDA ACEH - Wild elephant incursions into human settlements in Aceh will continue if JALPAIGURI - An increase in the elephant nothing is done to stop illegal logging in forest population in the forests of Jalpaiguri district in areas, Antara news agency reported quoting a particular, is soon becoming a matter of concern local nature conservation of cial. “The problem for the forest department of cials. To add to their will persist unless illegal logging is stopped,” problems, there is little or no scope to expand the Andi Basrul, head of the Nanggroe Aceh forest areas, which is possibly the only solution to Darussalam Natural Resources Conservation prevent them from venturing outside the forests Agency (BKSDA), said here Saturday. and add to the growing number of man-animal con ict incidents. During December 2008, wild elephants had invaded a number of villages in Aceh, damaged a According to the state forest minister Mr Anata few houses and injured several people. Basrul said Roy, the increasing number of elephants is also his agency could not do much to stop the animals’
68 incursions because they were merely reacting to Researchers were unsure of how many elephants the damage being done to their habitat. lived in the park before this survey, although there were good reasons to think that the population Villagers were known to have tried to ght the was substantial, said Melvin Gumal, director of elephants by poisoning them but Basrul said the the WCS’s conservation programs in Malaysia. villagers’ actions would not be effective and only The park, which contains one of the world’s cause the elephant population to shrink. The root oldest rainforests, dating back 130 million years, cause of the present con ict between elephants also supports tigers, leopards, dholes, numerous and humans was the damage done to the animals’ monkey species and 350 types of birds. habitats by illegal logging, he said. The only way to solve the problem, according to Basrul, was the 5. Borneo pygmy elephants, planters battle for consistent implementation of the Aceh provincial land (Malaysia) government’s moratorium on forest logging. Reuters 4. New survey nds more than 600 Asian February 23, 2009 elephants (Malaysia) SUKAU - Deprived of access to his favourite LiveScience food, a pygmy elephant trumpets furiously and January 14, 2009 charges at wildlife of cials, a manifestation of this rare species’ battle against Malaysia’s key palm A new survey of dung has revealed a population oil industry. Some herds of pygmy elephants, an of hundreds of endangered Asian elephants endangered species according to conservation living in a Malaysian park. The animals could body the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), are be the largest-known set of these pachyderms in thriving on the fruit of palm oil plantations that Southeast Asia. encroach on their domains on Borneo island.
The researchers counted dung piles to estimate This has intensi ed the challenges to a mainstay that there are 631 Asian elephants living in of the economy in this South East Asian country Taman Negara National Park — a 4343 km2 of 27 million people, and the aggression the (1676 square mile) protected area in the center elephants show against humans. “He’s angry of Peninsular Malaysia. This result con rms the because they have been chased away from a largest-known population of elephants remaining plantation. They want to eat more oil palm in this part of the world, according to the New hearts,” said Sabah wildlife department of cial York-based Wildlife Conservation Society Hussien Muin who has tracked elephants for (WCS) and Malaysia’s Department of Wildlife nearly 11 years. and National Parks (DWNP), which partnered to study the elephants. The Kinabatangan River, the largest in northeast Sabah state, opens out into a oodplain, which Counts of elephant dung piles to estimate totals 4000 km2 (1544 square miles), an area population size are a scienti cally proven around seven times the size of New York City. technique that produces accurate gures. There The WWF estimates Sabah is home to 1500 were no previous scienti c population surveys pygmy elephants, who were once seen as the for Asian elephants in Taman Negara National descendents of a private zoo kept by the Sultan Park, the researchers said. “The surveys reveal of Sulu but are now viewed as a subspecies of the importance of Taman Negara in protecting larger Asian elephants. wildlife especially those species that need large home ranges. DWNP will continue to safeguard Male pygmy elephants grow as tall as 2.5 this national park, which is the crown jewel of metres (8.2 feet), half a metre shorter than Asian Malaysia’s protected areas system. elephants. They have babyish faces, larger ears and are tubbier and less aggressive than their
69 cousins. They journey 1-2 km a day and eat The trend has put elephants in Indochina under about 200 kg of grass, palms and bananas but as increasing threat, it said, adding that wild elephant their feeding ranges get cut off by villages, roads numbers in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia dropped and plantations, traveling distances can triple, a from an estimated 6250 in the late 1980s to 1510 WWF study using satellite tracking showed. in 2000. Vietnam outlawed the ivory trade in 1992 but shops can still sell ivory dating from To protect their oil palms, planters have worked before the ban. This allows some to restock with wildlife bodies to erect low-voltage illegally with recently-made carved items, the electric fences and bamboo cannons laced with organisation said. gunpowder that scare the elephants away without harming them, minimising direct con ict. In 7. Fresh steps to curb elephant deaths (India) some parts of the lower Kinabatangan, poisoning and shooting still goes on. Even as humans use Deccan Herald new methods to protect their crops, elephants March 13, 2009 show that they too can learn. “These elephants are very cunning. Just few days ago, this male The proposed measures, including habitat elephant pushed another one through the electric management & awareness programmes, were fence and broke it,” said Don-don, an Indonesian based on recommendations to mitigate the problem worker guarding a plantation. of elephants raiding crop elds and their brutal killings. Stung by reports that over 250 elephants 6. Tonnes of elephant tusks smuggled into had died in the State’s jungle in just two years, the Vietnam forest department is nally ready with an action plan. Its recipe for conservation: exclusive ying Agence France Presse squads, translocation of pachyderm populations, March 7, 2009 elephant prevention trenches, and many more short and long-term measures. HANOI - Vietnam customs of cials have uncovered up to ve tonnes of elephant tusks The proposed measures, include habitat smuggled in from Tanzania, state media said management and awareness programmes. After Saturday. The tusks were found hidden in around all, about 700 elephants had died between 2001 114 boxes of plastic waste after being transported and 2007, a shocking state of affairs that only from Africa through Malaysia to Vietnam’s aggravated in the last two years. To prevent the northern Hai Phong port, said the Tuoi Tre outbreak of diseases like foot-and-mouth and newspaper. anthrax, the department plans to immunise cattle with the help of the veterinary department. Also It was not yet clear if the tusks were for selling in on the agenda are an elephant prevention trench, Vietnam or if they were smuggled in for onward solar fencing, and scaring camps during harvest movement, the papers said, but of cials were seasons. chasing the owner of the goods. Ivory and ivory- based products sell well in Vietnam, with the main For the rst time, the department will establish buyers including Chinese, Thai and local and ying squads to drive away elephants from the overseas Vietnamese, wildlife trade monitoring elds. These squads, to be set up on experimental organisation Traf c said last month. basis, will be stationed initially at Mysore, Chamarajnagar and Bandipur forest areas at According to a Traf c survey, ivory prices in strategic locations. Equipped with dedicated Vietnam could be the world’s highest, with tusks jeeps and communication devices, these squads reportedly selling for up to 1500 dollars per headed by a forester will be dispatched to the kilogram and small, cut pieces selling for up to affected areas on the receipt of information on 1863 dollars per kilogram. elephant movement or any damage.
70 8. Elephants’ future truncated (Thailand) forest department to chase a herd of elephants rampaging coffee estates around Maragodu. A Bangkok Post team of about forty forest staff and public set out March 13, 2009 to chase the herd in the morning. The herd was successfully pushed to a high position of a peak The plight of Thailand’s elephants has reached from where they had to be led in the direction a crisis point with the current herd of captive of Dubare elephant camp. After treading dif cult beasts expected to disappear in the next 14 years, terrains for kilometers the herd misled the chasing conservationists say. But the national committee team, escaped in the thick jungle and came down in charge of protecting the welfare of elephants to the original point where it had been camping has not met since 2003 and is badly in need of since days. reform. The team decided to return as it was nearing Thailand is one of 13 countries where Asian dark and it started raining. However, they were elephants are born in the wild. It is thought to shocked as a rogue elephant from the herd have a population of 3000 animals. Huai Kha charged at them. The people ran helter skelter. Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary Park in Uthai Thani Then the elephant charged at Harsha and Vikram. is home to the biggest population, with 700. Harsha, known as the nation’s best ghter, who Permanent secretary for natural resources and can handle any kind of wild elephant with ease, the environment Saksit Tridech said the birthrate along with its companion Vikram pulled the iron among captive elephants had plummeted and chain from its back and began to attack the wild their survival rate was diminishing. elephant. Crackers and hoax guns were red and the wild elephant rushed back to its herd. “We expect captive elephants to disappear within the next 14 years, which means wild elephants 10. 40,000-year-old elephant footprint found will again be under threat from hunters to serve in Kathmandu (Nepal) the high demand in the market,” Mr Saksit said. Department biologist Mattana Srikrachang said The Hindu the birthrate among beasts born in the wild was April 1, 2009 about 10% a year, compared with less than 7% for domesticated elephants. “The possibility of KATHMANDU - A team of experts from the extinction of wild elephants is very low,” Japan and Nepal here have discovered 40,000 she said. But the challenge is to educate people. and 24,000-year-old footprints of elephants “Elephants should live in the forest, not on a respectively, which suggest that the largest animal farm or on the streets. In Bangkok, over 200 on the land lived in the Kathmandu Valley tens of stray elephants have been found, especially in the thousands years ago. drought season.” Geologists and sedimentologists from Japan and 9. Wild elephant attacks two tamed elephants Tribhuvan University, Nepal have discovered (India) 40,000 and 24,000 years old footprints of elephants from two separate soil samples in The Times of India Kathmandu, Kathmandu Post said. March 16, 2009 “To our knowledge, nobody has found such MADIKERI - A rogue elephant attacked a team imprints on soil sediments that old anywhere of two tamed elephants during a chase in an else in the world,” said Mr. Tetsuya Sakai, estate at Maragodu on Sunday, creating tension sedimentologist from Shimane University in for sometime. Japan, said. The discovery suggests that elephants lived in the Kathmandu Valley tens of thousands Harsha and Vikram had been engaged by the years ago, experts said.
71 They reached the conclusion after measuring the the DNA analysis reveals the 100 samples come age of the footprints and sediments with carbon from 85 different elephants, then the population dating, an international instrument for measuring is likely much larger than 85. the age of materials. The experts, however, added that they needed animal fossils for more evidence WCS collected 255 dung samples from 81 for further con rmation of their interpretation. elephants, allowing them to estimate a population of 116 elephants, making it one of the largest 11. Conservationists look to CSI for elephant populations in the region. It was stressed that these counts (Cambodia) rst elephant censuses were only the beginning, and later counts would reveal if the population Phnom Penh Post was increasing or decreasing. April 7, 2009 12. Elephants attack cyclone-hit areas A technique allowing scientists to ‘ ngerprint’ (Myanmar) elephant DNA from dung samples has revolutionised animal censuses. Wildlife The Associated Press conservationists have no idea how many March 23, 2009 wild elephants there are in Cambodia, but as DNA analysis becomes more affordable, YANGON - Local media says wild elephants conservationists are turning to the same that lost their habitats in last year’s devastating techniques used by crime laboratories, to cyclone are destroying farmlands and attacking determine Cambodia’s wild elephant population. villagers as they forage for food. The privately The main difference from forensic detectives is owned Weekly Eleven journal said that wild that conservationists gather their evidence from elephants lost a swath of their habitat as Cyclone fresh elephant dung. Nargis destroyed forests of the Rakhine mountain range in the southern tip of the Irrawaddy River The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), WWF delta. and Fauna and Flora International (FFI) are all using “fecal DNA capture-recapture surveys”, The journal did not say whether villagers had been a simple and accurate method to calculate the killed or injured in the attacks or if authorities elephant population that avoids the need to were taking any preventive measures. The area disturb elephants or put humans at risk. was the rst hit by the cyclone on May 2, which left nearly 140,000 people dead or missing in the The Forestry Administration and conservation delta and other areas. groups send trackers to places where elephants are thought to congregate, but instead of looking for the animals themselves, they collect 1-cubic- centimetre samples of elephant dung and place them in a preservative, which are then sent to labs in Australia or the US.
After the elephants’ DNA is revealed by a lab, a statistical model is used to estimate the number of total elephants based on the amount of individual elephants “captured” multiple times in the samples.
For example, if there are 100 dung samples, but they are all from just two elephants, then there Coconut plantation destroyed by elephants are probably only two elephants in the area, but if Photo by B. M. A. O. Perera
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