ON the BRINK of CATASTROPHE the World Is Heading for Meltdown

VOLUME 14 | NUMBER 4 | 2018 ISSN 1729-830X

IPCC 1.5°C report: here’s what the HOW SOUTHERN AFRICA climate science says NEEDS TO MANAGE It’s going to be tough, RISING TEMPERATURES but we can do it

DOES SUNNY SOUTH AFRICA REALLY HAVE AN IDEAL CLIMATE FOR TOURISM? NOT EVERY TOURIST THINKS SO ON THE BRINK OF CATASTROPHE The world is heading for meltdown

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF SOUTH AFRICA Editor EDITOR'S NOTE Dr Bridget Farham

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CEO of Belgium Campus explains the importance of preparing students for the Fourth Industrial Revolution 20 Wetlands – providing ON THE COVER ecosystem services We are living in an era of advanced technology, where mind-blowing To this end, we exceed expectations by deploying a completely unique Alanna Rebelo explains how discoveries are emerging and impacting our lives daily. Across the world, instruction strategy. Firstly, to equip all our students to become true vision- 6 technology has played a critical role in improving people’s lives, as aries in their discipline, because IT people see solutions, connecting the ON THE BRINK OF palmeit wetlands function inventions and innovations continue to drastically change how people dots and making patterns, where others don’t. Secondly, to drive the kind 6 CATASTROPHE as ecosystem engineers live, what they do and how they do it. A new dawn is here, as we steer of innovation that cuts through all industries and make a meaningful con- The world is heading for 24 How we recreated a lost toward the advent of a Fourth Industrial Revolution, an era that builds and tribution to society. meltdown, as the latest extends the impact of digitization in innovative ways. A world involving Africa city with laser technology IPCC special report shows Using laser lights to see entirely new capabilities for people and machines; in which technology The future-proofed learner is one who is a problem solver, who is adaptive becomes embedded within societies and even our human bodies. and creative, and one who possesses great empathy for community. Our IPCC 1.5°C REPORT: the past. By Karim Sadr praxis is holistic – we see our students as individuals whom we engage 8 HERE’S WHAT THE 26 Senamile’s journey to CERN 10 There truly is no end to the extraordinary potential that technology holds with daily to ensure optimal performance and well-being; enriching their CLIMATE SCIENCE SAYS for our world. It keeps us connected, saves lives and moves us forward as Noni Sophe talks to the lives on a professional and personal level through support, counselling and It’s going to be tough, but we a species. In recent years, I have advocated the idea that if our world is first African woman to mentorship. to evolve, technology needs to go ‘glocal’ – integrating global and local can do it. By Keith Shine conduct an experiment at knowledge. This approach is built into our very ethos and educational the nuclear research facility Our Participatory Development Model WHAT SOUTHERN AFRICA approach at Belgium Campus, as we present global knowledge within a NEEDS TO DO TO MANAGE at the CERN laboratory local context that respects human rights. Our projects encapsulate the At Belgium Campus, we have created a ground-breaking, truly participa- 10 concept ‘think globally, act locally’ as our lecturers and students work tive education model, where the theoretical knowledge that our students RISING TEMPERATURES 33 Who gets the revolving chair? together with international universities, taking a global issue and making it gain is grounded and rooted in real-world experience. By partnering with The climate situation in By Tsepo Majake meaningful to society at the local level. international universities and local and global businesses, our aim is to southern Africa is already worse transform that knowledge base into practical skills and know-how, so that than in most other regions, 38 How African researchers The every-growing and evolving world of technology breaks through all our students walk straight from the grounds of our campus into the doors reports Robert Scholes are adding to deeper barriers of industry. Global research and data have shown that Informa- of the working world. knowledge about neutrons. tion and Communications Technology (ICT) has become a key enabler By Ntombizikhona of economic growth, by way of improving and instilling new business Through collaborative projects with students from international universities, FEATURES Beaulah Ndlovu agility and reaching new channels. And, if there’s one thing that South Af- through engagement and internships with industry to understand and rican businesses have become acutely aware of in recent years, it is the meet their needs, and by driving innovation to uplift and empower con- importance of ICT in growing their revenues. Now more than ever, with sumers and their communities; through technology we offer the skill set to 12 What the latest assessment NEWS global giants like China and Japan leading the technology innovation take students places. on global warming means front, it is imperative South African companies are active on many fronts for southern Africa of emerging and disruptive technologies and are supplying the market At Belgium Campus, we take a visionary and uncompromising approach For climate change ‘hotspots’ 17 How to grow a dinosaur ear with relevant products and services. to the quality of education we offer our students. We don’t simply comply like Botswana and Namibia, 18 New fossils from north China with world-class principles and standards; we exceed them daily. There- local warming and drying will Addressing the Skills Shortage shed light on the incremental fore we are proud to have a 100 percent employment rate for our stu- be greater than the global It is common knowledge that South Africa has a huge and growing evolution of insect-eating dents and provide no less than 8 percent of all IT graduates in South Africa. average. By Mark New problem with its critical skills shortages in most sectors of the economy. As 28 Jurassic giant of South a nation, we do not have a workforce with the requisite skills to make a 14 As a pioneering IT institution in South Africa, Belgium Campus strives daily Does sunny South Africa dinosaurs difference in our local economy, which is going to set us back if we are to set our graduates apart from other entrants into the workforce; arming Africa really have an ideal to have any chance of competing in the global marketplace. them with exceptional education so that they can make a difference in climate for tourism? 30 Multimedia graphic a skills-scarce South Africa. It is not just about being different – it is about Not every tourist leaves the design – 73 000 years ago The country has, for a number of years, been suffering from a major skills making a difference. country satisfied with the shortage, particularly in technical fields such as ICT and engineering. 34 Shedding a new light on weather they experienced Alarmingly, up to 75 percent of companies admitted they seek interna- optical trapping and tweezing tional talent to fill their skills gaps. Want to know more? explain Jennifer Fitchett and We are looking for future imagineers and corporate partners to employ Gijsbert Hoogendoorn 34 At Belgium Campus, we are aligned to the NDP 2030 goals and pride the workforce of the future. If you are a student or company looking to REGULARS ourselves on being more than just a higher education institution. We be- change the world, then plug into the future now by contacting lieve we are a gateway to the future; a collaborative hub where interna- Michel Rombouts at [email protected] tional and local gamechangers in academia, business and communi- 32 Books ties converge to bring innovation, upliftment and value to all our partners. 40 Back page science Maths puzzle Creating Imagineers | A Student-Centred Approach 41 Subscription At Belgium Campus, we have long abandoned archaic teaching meth- ods that don’t deliver results. We have reimagined a student-centric approach where we reverse engineer our operations to address the learner’s specific talents, needs and capabilities.

We place the philosophy of critical thinking as a key objective in all our curricula and believe that it is imperative that the future generation need a firm grasp in this way of thinking, especially in the way they look at problems and solve them. Critical thinking is fundamental.

The Belgium Campus 1 ITversity NPC, PBO Reference No: 930009313, is registered with the Department of Education as a private higher education institution under the Higher Education Act,1997. Registration certificate no. 2003/HE08/01 to offer the programmes listed thereon. 5 ON THE COVER CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE COVER ##FEATURE

WHAT DIFFERENCE WOULD RESTRICTING WARMING TO 1.5°C MAKE? ON THE BRINK OF The latest IPPC report suggests that this difference of just 0.5°C would make a dramatic difference to the global environment: ■■ By 2100, global sea level rise would CATASTROPHE be 10 cm lower with global warming ° ° The world is of 1.5 C compared with 2 C. ■■ Extreme heat waves will be heading for experienced by 14% of the world’s population at least once every meltdown, five years at 1.5°C, rising to as the latest more than a third of the planet IPCC special if temperatures rise by 2°C. ■■ Arctic sea ice would remain during report shows. most summers if warming is kept to 1.5°C, but at a rise of 2°C, ice free The latest report by the United Nations summers are 10 times more likely, (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on leading to greater habitat losses for Climate Change (IPCC) released on polar bears, whales and sea birds. 8 October 2018 says that urgent and ■■ If warming is kept to 1.5°C, unprecedented changes are needed to coral reefs will still decline by reach the target of restricting global 70-90% but if temperatures rise warming to a maximum of 1.5°C, to 2°C virtually all of the world’s beyond which, even half a degree will coral reefs would be lost. significantly worsen the risk of droughts, floods, extreme heat and poverty for much of the world’s population. This lies at the most ambitious end of the Paris The world is currently °1 C warmer Arctic sea ice reached its annual minimum on 19 September 2018 and again on 23 September 2018, according to satellite data that showed that the agreement pledge to keep temperature than pre-industrial levels. The IPCC Arctic ice cap shrank to 4.59 million square kilometres. Nasa/NSIDC changes between 1.5°C and 2°C. report makes it clear that climate change is already happening – evidenced by devastating hurricanes in the USA, record droughts in Cape Town and California Army and Air National Guardsmen from throughout the state combine efforts to assist with battling the wildfires that are devastating much forest fires in the Arctic. This has led to of California. A California National Guard UH-60 Blackhawk crews drop water the IPCC upgrading its risk warning on the Ponderosa wildfires near Redding, California. from previous reports, warning that Master Sgt. David Loeffler, Wikimedia Commons every fractional additional increase in warming will make the impact worse. At the current level of commitments, the world is on course for a disastrous 3°C of warming. According to the IPCC report, limiting global warming to 1.5°C would require ‘rapid and far-reaching’ transitions in land, energy, industry, buildings, transport and cities. Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide would need to fall by about 45% from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching ‘net zero’ by around 2050. This means that any remaining emissions would need to be balanced by removing carbon dioxide from the air.

Reference: IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ A wildfire in the Bitteroot National Forest, Montana, USA. Theewaterskloof dam outside Cape Town during the 2016-2018 drought. Bridget Farham session48/pr_181008_P48_spm_en.pdf John McColgan, Wikimedia Commons

as ‘unique and threatened ecosystems and cultures’ (such as coral reefs) and IPCC 1.5°C report: ‘extreme weather events’, each of which is rated on a scale from ‘undetectable’ to ‘very high’. The IPCC’s most recent (2014) Fifth Assessment of the scientific here’s what the evidence found that at around 1.5°C warming there was a transition from moderate to high risk for threatened climate science says ecosystems and cultures and for extreme weather events. Thus there is consistency The world’s climate scientists have spoken: if we between the Paris and IPCC assessments. The Paris Agreement asked the IPCC to want to limit human-induced global warming to report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C, and this new publication is 1.5°C we probably can. But it will be tough, given the result. Its tone is not ‘we must avoid where we’re starting from. By Keith Shine. 1.5°C warming’, as you might think from many commentators, but more ‘if we want to avoid 1.5°C warming, That’s the conclusion of a new report by Much was written on what this meant, even more specific: it ‘aims to strengthen this is what must be done’. The report the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel particularly the word ‘dangerous’. the global response to the threat of contrasts the impact of 1.5°C and 2°C on Climate Change (IPCC). The Negative impacts of climate change climate change … by holding the increase warmings, giving information on what focus on 1.5°C is the result of years occur on a continuum, and defining a in … temperature to well below 2°C would be gained by the extra effort of international negotiation. Starting point at which climate change becomes above pre-industrial levels and pursuing needed to limit warming to 1.5°C. in 1994, a central aim of the UN’s dangerous is difficult and contentious. efforts to limit the … increase to 1.5°C’. As the IPCC’s reports are largely climate change efforts (the Framework On the other hand, climate change The IPCC provides scientific advice based on a critical assessment and Convention on Climate Change, or negotiations are difficult without to the UNFCCC, which makes policy, synthesis of published scientific UNFCCC) was to stabilise greenhouse some target to work towards. and the IPCC itself has never stated a papers, many of its latest conclusions gas concentrations at a level that would Fifteen years later, the UNFCCC’s temperature target. It does however list are unsurprising. There are many ‘prevent dangerous anthropogenic Copenhagen Accord introduced a 2°C climate change risks using five ‘reasons well recognised uncertainties in interference with the climate system’. target, and its 2015 Paris Agreement was for concern’. These include impacts such understanding climate change – for instance, even if we set a course aiming to hit 1.5°C (which is mostly determined by future CO₂ emissions), we could A phytoplankton bloom in the South Atlantic Ocean. The aim of ocean iron end up hitting, say, 1°C or 2°C instead. fertilisation is to increase such blooms by adding some iron, which would draw The report provides uncertainty carbon from the atmosphere and fix it on the seabed.NASA ranges in its estimates and confidence levels, based on expert judgement. Many illustrations are given for the solar energy, wind energy and electricity The new report tells us that human difference between 1.5°C and 2°C worlds. storage mechanisms have substantially activity has already caused about 1°C of At 1.5°C, summertime Arctic sea ice is improved over the past few years’. global warming, while at the present rate projected to disappear once per century, The report is sensitive to the fact that of warming (0.2°C per decade) we’ll hit compared to once per decade at 2°C; 8% changes required to meet 1.5°C must be 1.5°C by about 2040. National pledges of plants that have been studied would consistent with the UN’s wider sustainable made as part of the Paris Agreement still lose half their climatically-suitable area, development goals. Limiting climate mean we are on course for warming of compared to 16%; sea level rise would change will help meet goals associated about 3°C by 2100, meaning four of the be 10 cm less (with 10 million fewer with health, clean energy, cities and five ‘reasons for concern’ would then be people impacted at today’s population oceans. But there are potential negative in the high to very-high risk category. levels); and while coral reefs might impacts on others (poverty, hunger, water, Achieving the 1.5°C target will decline by a further 80% at 1.5°C, they energy access) ‘if not carefully managed’. require anthropogenic CO₂ emissions could virtually disappear at 2°C. So where next? Of course, the to decline by 45% by 2030 (relative to The report identifies various routes conclusions will be widely debated at 2010). By 2050, they will need to reach by which emissions cuts would many levels, but eyes will be on the ‘net zero’ – any further CO₂ emissions limit warming to 1.5°C; each makes UNFCCC’s response at its next meeting, due to human activity would then have assumptions about future changes in, for in Katowice, Poland, in early December. to be matched by deliberate removal of example, economic strategy, population CO₂ already in the atmosphere, growth and the rate at which low carbon Keith Shine is Regius Professor of Meteorology and Climate Science, including by planting trees or ocean iron energy is adopted. The IPCC recognises University of Reading, UK. fertilisation. Net zero would have to occur the challenges are ‘unprecedented in scale’ This article was re-printed from The Conversation Aerial view of catastrophic damage in Mexico Beach, Florida, which suffered a direct hit from Hurricane Michael on 10 by around 2075 to meet a 2°C target. but notes, for example, ‘the feasibility of under Creative Commons Licence. October 2018. NOAA

What southern Africa needs to do to manage rising temperatures A windmill on a South African farm. Wikimedia Commons

That target level came from deliberations countries’ economies untenable. Life- FOCUS AREAS punted – mass tree-planting – is a non- The Intergovernmental Panel on in 2010, with countries around the threatening heatwaves would become starter in most of southern Africa, where Climate Change has released a world setting 1.5°C as the preferred more frequent. The productivity of staple Southern African nations must the arable land and water resources are limit for warming. In 2015, the Paris crops such as maize and wheat would encourage the global community needed for food production, and the special report outlining what would Climate Accord settled on 2°C, while be severely impaired. Water resources, to radically reduce climate change marginal land is too dry to grow forests. leaving the door open to the ideas already at their limit throughout to lower the risks to particularly need to be done to keep the THE CHALLENGE that the goal might later be revised southern Africa, would be dramatically vulnerable social and ecological systems. Coral reefs are one example. world from warming up by more on the basis of new evidence. reduced in both quality and quantity. The challenge for the world is that the The panel’s report concludes that Countries predicted to be highly Dairy and livestock farming would not effort – and money – required to keep than 1.5°C. By Robert Scholes. warming the world by 2°C would lead vulnerable to climate change, including be viable over much of the subcontinent. the rise in temperature below 1.5°C is to the loss of nearly all coral reefs from low-lying island states and many There is no sudden failure when exponentially larger than what would their current locations. Limiting the African countries, called for the the 1.5°C limit is crossed. But the be needed to keep it below 2°C. warming to 1.5°C would save about panel’s special report because they risks of a whole range of undesirable The IPCC Special Report estimates 30% of coral reefs. Other examples insisted that the options for reaching consequences become progressively the ‘marginal cost of climate abatement’ are the melting of ice caps and the 1.5°C be evaluated, along with the greater the further we stray from the – that is how much less climate change further drying of semi-arid lands. consequences of not doing so. climate under which our complex, you get per unit of money you spend – at Renewable energy is another area The climate situation is already worse interdependent world developed. three to four times higher to stay below that needs serious focus. For its part, in southern Africa than in most other The problem is that we don’t know 1.5°C globally than it is to stay below 2°C. South Africa needs to take urgent regions. While the global average air exactly where the thresholds-of-no- Meeting the more stringent target action to reduce its dependency on temperature has risen by nearly 1°C since return lie, and probably won’t know would require spending an unprecedented coal. The country has pursued an accurate weather records began a little until it is too late to avoid crossing amount of global financial resources aggressive renewable energy drive. But, over a century ago, in southern Africa them. The sanest response is to stay as on new energy, transport and urban at the same time, it has built two large, temperatures have risen on average close to our comfort range as possible. systems over the next decade. The long-lived coal-fired power stations, by twice this amount. This means that Staying below 1.5°C will require urgent, investment needed to stay within the and is contemplating building more. southern Africa crossed the 1.5°C deep and radical changes in almost every 2 °C limit is less because it can take This is not consistent with the goal of warming level some years ago. These aspect of our lives – from what we eat, greater advantage of the falling price urgent and deep emission reductions. trends don’t bode well for the future. and how we travel to where we get our of renewable energy, without retiring It seems inevitable that the planet will Based on what emissions countries power from and how we build our houses. existing technologies before they overshoot the 1.5°C global mark, and have voluntarily agreed to cut under the Specifically, the world would need to eat have reached their pay-back date. Paris Accord, the world is heading for less meat, commute less and mostly using probably also the 2°C mark. Cooling the atmosphere later in the century an increase of 3°C by the latter half of public transport, generate energy from Professor Bob Scholes is a the century, rather than a 2°C target. renewable resources and build energy- would require the removal of up to a Systems Ecologist at the Global Diverse coral reef systems provide For southern Africa this would translate efficient homes, offices and factories. trillion tonnes of carbon dioxide. The Change Institute (GCI), University abundant niches for many species. to around 5-6°C in the interior. There are also a few things that world doesn’t yet have affordable, proven of the Witwatersrand. This article was originally published in Terry Hughes, Wikimedia Commons Warming of that magnitude would southern Africa can do to try and technology to do this at the required scale. The Conversation and is republished make many aspects of people’s lives and arrest the region’s climate crisis. The approach that is most commonly under Creative Commons Licence.

IMPACT warming and by 13% at 2.0°C, leading early and decisive action will not only to reduced river flows and drier soils. reduce the risks of overshooting the Botswana and Namibia already know Agriculture is particularly vulnerable, Paris temperature targets, but also the challenges of droughts and floods. with potential drops in crop yields and slow down the rates of change, making A few years ago, Botswana’s capital city increased livestock losses. In Botswana, at local adaptation easier to roll out. Gaborone was on the brink of running 1.5°C global warming maize yields could At the same time, highly exposed out of water as the country battled its drop by over 20%. At 2.0°C warming, countries such as Namibia and Botswana worst drought in 30 years. Neighbouring yields could slump by 35%. Rain-fed need to anticipate and plan for quite Namibia has battled with recurrent and agriculture is already marginal across rapid changes in local weather and devastating droughts and floods in recent much of the country, and anticipated climate. They need an acceleration years, especially in its northern regions, climate change may well make current in developing adaptation strategies where most of the population live. agricultural practices unviable at 1.5°C in a way that works for all people Global warming of 1.5°C would and above. In Namibia, productivity and across the economies of these lead to an average temperature rise of cereal crops is expected to drop by countries. The time for pilot adaptation above the pre-industrial baseline in 5% at 1.5°C and by 10% at 2.0°C projects and experiments is over, and Botswana of 2.2°C and Namibia 2.0°C. The impacts of global warming on the moment to start mainstreaming At 2.0°C global warming, Botswana human health are also essential to climate resilience into public, private would experience warming of 2.8°C. consider. Heat stress is projected to and community sectors has arrived. Namibia would warm by 2.7°C. become an increasingly greater threat. In parallel, governments, scientists Changes in rainfall are also projected At 1.5°C of global warming, Namibia and and development practitioners need to shift. At 1.5°C of global warming, Botswana can expect roughly 20 more to think longer term, to consider what Botswana would receive 5% less annual days of heat stress exposure in a year. At overshooting the 1.5°C and 2°C targets rainfall, and Namibia 4% less. At 2.0°C 2.0°C, in Namibia this doubles to around really means for adaptation. At some global warming, annual rainfall in 40 more days of heat stress exposure. stage, adaptation of these systems may not Botswana would drop by 9%, with annual All of these factors become be enough, and complete transformations The Okavango Delta. Wikimedia Commons rainfall in Namibia dropping by 7%. even more severe should the to new livelihoods that are suitable Both countries would also see an 2.0°C threshold be overshot. increase in dry days. At global warming in a 2°C+ world may be needed. of 1.5°C, projections show Botswana URGENT ACTION IS NEEDED Brendon Bosworth, a communications having 10 more dry days per year. That officer with ASSAR, based at the ACDI, number rises to 17 extra dry days at What the latest assessment The progressively serious climate University of Cape Town contributed 2.0°C global warming. For Namibia, impacts at 1.5 and 2.0°C in these to writing this article. Tiro Nkemelang, dry days increase by 12 at global countries demands concerted action, a PhD student at ACDI and Roy warming of 1.5°C, and by 17 at 2.0°C. on global warming means both locally and internationally. Leaders Bouwer, a research assistant at ACDI, The impact of global warming on from countries such as Botswana and contributed to the underlying analysis. extreme events is also evident. Both Namibia cannot let up on the global countries can expect roughly 50 more stage in pushing for nation states to Mark New is Director, African for southern Africa days of heatwaves at 1.5°C global make good on, and further improve, Climate and Development Initiative, warming, and about 75 more heatwave their pledges to cut greenhouse gas University of Cape Town. days at 2.0°C global warming. emissions in line with the Paris This article was originally published in Billed in the media as ‘life changing’, this report The Conversation and is republished illustrates how crossing the ever-nearer threshold of Agreement. As the IPCC report shows, under Creative Commons Licence. VULNERABLE SECTORS 1.5°C warming will affect the planet and how difficult it The effects of higher global and local will be to avoid overshooting this target. By Mark New. temperatures will be felt in various sectors key to the prosperity of people The release recently of the change. For climate change ‘hotspots’ far short of what is needed, with global and economies in both countries. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate – hot, dry and water-stressed countries temperatures on track for a warming Understanding what this will mean Change’s (IPCC) special report on like Botswana and Namibia in southern of 3.2°C by 2100. Under an increasing for sectors like agriculture, health global warming of 1.5°C above pre- Africa – local warming and drying will emissions trajectory, the 1.5°C threshold and water, is crucial for adaptation industrial levels marks a critical point be greater than the global average. could be breached as early as the next planning and thinking about what in climate negotiations. Billed in the The report underscores the urgent decade, and the 2°C mark the decade after. must be done, and by when. media as ‘life changing’, the report need for countries like Botswana and Our analysis of the effect in Botswana In a hotter, drier future there will be illustrates how crossing the ever-nearer Namibia to prepare and adapt – and do and Namibia of 1.5°C, 2.0°C and higher less domestic water available. Runoff threshold of 1.5°C warming will affect so quickly. The Paris Agreement’s goal levels of global warming shows that in Botswana’s Limpopo catchment is the planet, and how difficult it will be of limiting global warming to well below they’re likely to get hotter, drier and more projected to decline by 26% at 1.5°C to avoid overshooting this target. 2°C, ideally 1.5°C, by the turn of the water-stressed. The sooner southern global warming, and by 36% at 2.0°C. The special report takes a worldwide century will be extremely challenging. To African countries prepare and implement In Namibia, evapotranspiration look at the growing impacts of climate date, mitigation pledges by nations fall adaptation strategies the better. rates increase by 10% at 1.5°C global Namibia is mainly a large desert and semi-desert plateau. Wikimedia Commons

South Africa’s climate is perfect for tempting tourists. Sunny skies are common. The average temperature is just right for long days on the beach and early morning game drives. By Jennifer Fitchett and Gijsbert Hoogendoorn.

Even scientific indices that measure the Reviewers from the UK mentioned weather’s suitability for tourism classify the weather most frequently: although the country as ‘ideal’. But that doesn’t they represented only 9% of the 5 898 mean that every tourist leaves satisfied TripAdvisor reviews, a significant with the weather they experienced. number of UK visitors – 14.2% – In a study published in the mentioned the weather. European International Journal of Biometeorology, visitors frequently commented on we looked at how often tourists the hot weather, compared to visitors commented on the weather across from Africa, the Middle East, the a total of 5 898 TripAdvisor reviews Americas and Australasia. of 19 destinations across South This study reveals important nuances Africa. TripAdvisor is an online platform in tourists’ experiences of South where tourists can post reviews of a African weather. Many of these confirm destination. The website is considered common sense assumptions. But data is to be the worlds’ leading information valuable because it allows policymakers platform for travel - related decisions, to develop concrete climate change representing the largest global network strategies that can be implemented of tourists. The reviews considered in different parts of the country. in this study were posted in 2016. Climate change forecasts indicate that We found that only 7.9% of the global temperatures are likely to increase reviews mentioned the weather. Tourists by about 4°C by 2100. This means that visiting Durban in KwaZulu-Natal were extreme weather conditions will be the most satisfied with the weather more frequent and more severe. Tourists The small town of conditions. Belfast, a town in the are likely to feel more dissatisfied by Knysna, Garden Route. Mpumalanga province, and Bethlehem the weather, and online platforms Bridget Farham in the Free State received the most mean that their word-of-mouth frequent complaints about the weather. complaints will be far reaching.

WHAT MUST BE DONE? experience while moderating the indoor from Europe, accounting for 30% of all of temperatures to provide guests with their climatic mentions. Cold conditions Regions that rely heavily on outdoor comfortable sleeping conditions. were mentioned mostly by visitors from How to grow a dinosaur ear tourism must adapt to counter climate The climatic factors mentioned in the Middle East and Australasia. This change threats and survive as tourist TripAdvisor reviews depended heavily can broadly be explained by the climate attraction sites. The study proposes on the quality of the accommodation. that tourists experience in their home novel study provides the ear stops growing early in development. of the Massospondylus skull, and that two ways in which this can be done. Those who stayed in backpackers, bed country, which in turn determines their most in-depth look ever at Clearly dinosaurs are different to most study promoted this investigation. The first strategy is marketing – and breakfasts or guesthouses that thermal sensitivity outside of this range. the growth of the inner ear animals today in how their ears grew’. ‘My PhD student Kimberley recently advertising should better prepare Aof dinosaurs. The research, led by Dr Despite this growth, the shape of used CT scanning to investigate the were either unrated or had a Tourism Mentions of cloud cover and a lack tourists for the weather they’re likely Grading Council of South Africa 1-star of sunshine were more common than James Neenan of the University of the Massospondylus’ inner ear changed anatomy of Massospondylus,’ said Prof to experience during their vacation to rating cited hot and cold conditions reports of rain for visitors from Europe, Witwatersrand (Wits) and the University very little as it got older. The shape of Jonah Choiniere, the supervisor of enhance satisfaction. While marketing more than any other climatic factors. the Middle East and Australia. This of Oxford, is published in the journal the inner ear is related to locomotion, this research, ‘and during that work sunny skies and comfortable temperatures They represented the group that could be because of aggressive marketing Palaeontology recently. This research and the findings of this research my postdoc James became fascinated attracts tourists, misinformation mentioned temperature most often. campaigns targeting these regions could contribute to understanding contradict a long-held idea that with the anatomy of its inner ear. This increases the likelihood of negative This is probably because these service that create an impression of year- how baby dinosaurs walked. Massospondylus walked on all fours as project stemmed from that fascination’. reviews and poor word-of-mouth providers don’t have air conditioners round sunshine across the country. The inner ear is an important organ a juvenile and on two legs as an adult. The Evolutionary Studies Institute at reports when visitors return home. to moderate temperatures and often Research into climate change present in all vertebrates, including ‘We expected to see a clear distinction WITS University and the University of Playacar, in Mexico, faced similar don’t even have fans, electric blankets and tourism in South Africa faces a humans, and plays an essential role in the shape of the inner ear between Oxford have been collaborating for the last challenges in the wake of global climate or effective insulation. Visitors who considerable challenge from a lack of in the maintenance of balance and juveniles and adults’ said lead author five years on research projects involving change where beach erosion resulted stayed in hotels with a 5-star rating data. Models developed in the global head stabilisation. Animals with Dr Neenan, ‘so we were surprised when dinosaurs, including the recent discovery in a very different aesthetic to what mentioned the wind, rain and drought North are often impossible to run as different postures and locomotion we found that almost no shape changes of the giant sauropodomorph Ledumahadi was advertised in travel brochures. most frequently; they very seldom we do not have a sufficient records of have inner ear shapes suited for their occur. This means Massospondylus mafube. Ongoing palaeontological The second is accommodation. had issues with the temperature. the required data. This study reveals movement types. Because the inner babies probably walked on two legs discoveries and ground-breaking research Accommodation establishments must These tourists could likely control the value of TripAdvisor reviews and ear is encased in bone, the researchers as soon as they left the nest’. in South Africa is proudly supported by address the climatic stresses their the temperature of their hotel rooms provides insight into tourists’ experiences utilised cutting-edge CT scanning The team now think that the the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in visitors feel most acutely if they want and the vehicles they were travelling of weather, from which adaptation plans techniques to visualise its anatomy over same approach can be used to study Palaeosciences and the Palaeontological to increase the chances of their return. in but would not have been able to can be successfully implemented. a range of skulls of the early dinosaur movement in other dinosaur and Scientific Trust (PAST). This research Service providers should manage indoor escape the rain and wind while out Massospondylus – from babies to adults. non-dinosaur groups with the aim also received support from the European temperatures, reduce the noise levels and about. They experienced drought Jennifer Fitchett is Senior Lecturer The results showed that the of better understanding how they Synchrotron Radiation Facility, National in Physical Geography, University of wind in the upper floor rooms and conditions more acutely because water inner ear grew substantially moved throughout their growth from Research Foundation African Origins of the Witwatersrand. Gijsbert assist guests in avoiding the rain when during Massospondylus’ lifespan, nestlings into full-grown adults. Platform, Leverhulme Trust and the restrictions mostly affect the use of Hoogendoorn is Associate they arrive at the hotel. Reduced water baths, jacuzzis and swimming pools. Professor in Tourism Geography, nearly doubling in size. Massospondylus was a common plant- University of the Witwatersrand. usage should be managed without Tourists in 1-star accommodation University of Johannesburg. ‘This was surprising to us,’ said Wits eating dinosaur that lived 200 million Issued by: Kimberleigh Tommy, Science Communications Officer, DST-NRF Centre of being a hindrance to the guests. wouldn’t have access to these facilities. This article was re-printed from PhD student Kimberley Chapelle, a co- years ago in southern Africa. Hundreds Excellence in Palaeosciences, Wits University Afriski, one of Africa’s two ski resorts, The Conversation under Creative author on the paper, ‘because in today’s of specimens of the species are known, Interestingly, hot conditions were Commons Licence. successfully managed to provide a ski mentioned most frequently by visitors birds and mammals we think the inner from tiny embryos still within eggs discovered by Jam Kitching to 5 m long adults. Recent work by scientists at the University of the Witwatersrand was Noordhoek beach, Cape Town. able to digitally dissect the anatomy Bridget Farham

Left inner ears from a baby (left) and a large adult (right) Massospondylus. While the ear nearly doubles in size, the shape does not change very much. This means that Top: Juvenile (left) and adult (right) skulls of Massospondylus may have Massospondylus. Bottom: CT scans reveal the walked on two legs all its life, inner ear (displayed in pink), which contains and was not four-legged as a the organ responsible for balance and baby as previously thought. orientation. This makes it an important structure Dr James Neenan, the lead author Wits University to study how animals moved. Wits University of the study. Wits University

transitional steps in the process of alvarezsaurs adapting to new diets. New fossils from north China shed ‘The fossil record is the best source of information about how anatomical features evolve,’ said James Clark, light on the incremental evolution co-author and an Honorary Professor at Wits University ‘and like other of insect-eating dinosaurs classic examples of evolution such as the “horse series”, these dinosaurs show us how a lineage can make a major shift in its ecology over time’. n international research team adaptations thought to be related to with a huge, single claw capable, perhaps, The specimens were discovered during announced the discovery of eating insects that live in colonies. of tearing open rotting logs and anthills. collaborative international fieldwork two new Chinese dinosaurs: ‘Alvarezsaurs are weird animals,’ ‘The new fossils have long arms, and in China. Xiyunykus was discovered in ABannykus and Xiyunykus in August this said Choiniere, ‘with their strong, so show that alvarezsaurs evolved short 2005 in Xinjiang, northwestern China. year. Professor Jonah Choiniere from clawed hands and weak jaws, they arms only later in their evolutionary Bannykus was discovered a few years the University of the Witwatersrand, appear to be the dinosaurian analogue history, in species with small body later in 2009 in Inner Mongolia, north- Johannesburg, South Africa was a to today’s aardvarks and anteaters’. sizes. This is quite different to what central China. Both research trips were leading member of the team and But alvarezsaurs did not originally happens in the classic example of joint expeditions co-led by Profs Xu Xing Field team who helped discover the fossils of Bannykus. Prof. Jonah Choiniere is co-author on the research. eat insects – the earliest members of the tyrannosaurs, which have short arms (Institute for Vertebrate Palaeontology The dinosaurs are both alvarezsaurs, group had more typically meat-eating and giant size,’ said co-author Professor and Palaeoanthropology, Beijing) a puzzling group of theropod (meat- teeth and hands, useful for catching Roger Benson of Oxford University. and James Clark (George Washington eating) dinosaurs which have many small prey. Only later-evolving members Bannykus and Xiyunykus are University, Washington DC). similarities with birds, and which show reduced their teeth and evolved a hand important because they show ‘Our international field teams have been tremendously productive over the years,’ said Professor Xu Xing, leader of the research, ‘and this research showcases just some of our incredible discoveries’. Once the fossils were discovered, their further study was made possible by a joint South Africa/China collaborative grant through South Africa’s National Research Foundation held by Profs Xu and Choiniere ‘The joint research programme has helped in so many ways,’ said Choiniere. ‘China and South Africa have a great deal of overlap in palaeontology, and it has been a privilege to cross-train Co-lead authors Profs Jonah Choiniere (left) and Xu Xing South African MSc student Cebisa Mdekazi (left) students there over the last two years.’ (right) working on an alvarezsaur skull at the IVPP, Beijing, hunting for fossils near Clocolan, Free State province, Issued by: Kimberleigh Tommy, Science The left hand of Bannykus, showing the large first claw on the thumb and the China. Prof. Jonah Choiniere with Prof. Xu Xing (right). Prof. Jonah Choiniere Communications Officer, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences, Wits University smaller second and third finger.Prof. Jonah Choiniere

Artist’s reconstruction of important alvarezsaur species. from left to right, Haplocheirus, Xiyunykus, Bannykus, and Shuvuuia. Note the lengthening of the jaws, Field camp of palaeontological team (co-led by Chinese research Prof. Xu Xing and Prof. James Clark) that discovered reduction of the teeth, and changes in the hand and arm. Chinese team loading a collected fossil into a field truck the fossils of Xiyunykus. Prof. Jonah Choiniere Viktor Radermacher reconstruction for return to the lab, Xinjiang, China. Prof. Jonah Choiniere

wetlands, meaning that they occur only their environment, so we can use them soil, this would result in higher carbon there and nowhere else in the world, to work out things about their immediate sequestration. This is because the organic such as a species of Redfin fish, and the surrounds, both in the present, and matter would be trapped and would not Palmiet Sprite, a damselfly. Palmiet the past. For example, plants with high fully decompose, taking carbon dioxide wetlands are located above several of nutrient concentrations in their leaves, from the atmosphere and storing it in the our important municipal dams: the tell us that it is a highly productive ground, in a substance we call ‘peat’. Theewaterskloof wetland above the ecosystem (response trait), and, in the When trying to relate vegetation to Theewaterskloof Dam (important water presence of oxygen, their presence will the environment, many scientists are in supply for Cape Town and agriculture) encourage high rates of decomposition favour of grouping plants not into species, and the Kromme wetland above the once the leaves die and fall off (effect or genera, or families, which is seen as Churchill and Impofu Dams (supplying trait). Another example is that of plant a rather arbitrary system (in terms of 40% of Port Elizabeth’s water supply). canopy architecture, which may underpin functional differences), but rather based Despite their value, Palmiet wetlands climate and water regulation. To explain, on their functional traits. For example, Wetlands – providing vegetation with high biomass in wetlands scientists have found plant growth are vulnerable and research has shown they are in decline. More than 31% of would first slow the movement of water form (tree, shrub, grass) to be linked to Palmiet wetlands have been lost, and through the system (flood attenuation), gradients of inundation (accumulation they have been found to have become and in cases of peatlands where there is of water), or nutrient supply in wetlands. ecosystem services increasingly fragmented. They are are low levels of oxygen (anoxia) in the These visible characteristics of plants threatened by a host of factors, including Alanna Rebelo explains how Palmiet wetlands agricultural activities, infrastructure through the wetlands (roads, railway function as ecosystem engineers lines), and alien invasive trees (like Black Wattle). One way to ensure the preservation of these wetlands is to A relatively healthy section of the Theewaterskloof wetland, Western Cape (located above the Theewaterskloof Dam, at the bottom of the Franschhoek pass). This section of the wetland is dominated by Palmiet (Prionium serratum), with demonstrate their value to society in Psoraleas as one of the few interstitial species in these highly competitive habitats. Alanna Rebelo terms of the ecosystem services that they provide. This helps to build a case WHAT ARE PALMIET WETLANDS? implies that these wetlands cover the or whether it should be added to the for their protection and restoration. valley-bottom, from mountain wall to Thurniaceae (its current family). Palmiet Palmiet wetlands are composed of Palmiet wetlands are unchannelled valley- wall. Palmiet wetlands are so named, as has been labelled an ecosystem engineer, several different plant communities, bottom wetlands occurring throughout they are dominated by a unique plant as it is thought to be able to shape its most notably that dominated (>80%) the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa. called ‘Palmiet’ (Prionium serratum). environment to suit itself, and thereby by Palmiet, and communities not ‘Unchanelled’ means that there would Because of its unique structure there is other species. Palmiet plants, as a result of dominated by Palmiet, but composed of typically not be a river channel running much debate as to whether Palmeit should their surface roughness (1-3 m high, with many different fynbos species. Different through the wetland, and ‘valley-bottom’ be placed in its own family (Prioniaceae), large and densely clustered leaves) are communities of plants, with different able to slow water moving through these characteristics and functional traits, will valley-bottoms, causing sedimentation play different roles in the ecosystem, and and thereby building up alluvium result in different levels of ecosystem beneath them. This alluvium consists of services being provided. It is important this trapped sediment as well as organic to understand how these ecosystem matter build-up from wetland vegetation. services vary spatially, so that we can As a result of this process, water passing quantify ecosystem service provision in through Palmiet wetlands tends to be these landscapes. One way to do this is cleaned (passing through a pure ‘carbon using remote sensing techniques. This is filter’), slowed down (assisting in flood what we set out to do in this research. attenuation) and allowed to percolate into aquifers (water regulation). In doing WHAT ARE FUNCTIONAL all these things, they provide important TRAITS, AND WHY ARE ecosystem services. Ecosystem services THEY IMPORTANT? are the benefits that society derives from nature. As well as the ecosystem Functional traits are characteristics of, services already mentions, Palmiet in this case wetland plants, that either wetlands also cause sediment deposition influence the way that ecosystems (protecting our dams from silting up), function (effect traits) or respond to the carbon sequestration (the build-up of environment (response traits). These organic matter or ‘peat’ beneath the traits can be morphological, such as wetland vegetation) and provision of plant height, or biochemical, such as Alanna’s two students and a volunteer collecting data in the Theewaterskloof The three wetlands that were sampled in this study: Theewaterskloof, Goukou Palmiet wetland in March 2015: Timothy De Kleyn, Byron-Mahieu van der Linde habitat for biodiversity. There are certain concentration of nitrogen in the leaves. (Western Cape) and the Kromme wetlands. The green colour represents the and Courtney Morris. Alanna Rebelo species that are endemic to Palmiet Functional traits are intimately linked to Cape Floristic Region. Alanna Rebelo

make them easy to group, but importantly also be spectrally similar (similar in terms RESEARCH IN ACTION wetlands throughout the Cape Floristic they also make them easy to discriminate of their reflectance). This creates all kinds – WHAT DID WE DO? Region and asked two main research in terms of the electromagnetic signal of interesting opportunities in terms questions: (1) can plant reflectance that they emit. Species emit a certain of using remote sensing to map plant We set out to test whether mapping be used to predict morphological and electromagnetic signal (reflectance) based functional groups. Once we have plant plant functional groups can provide biochemical plant functional traits in on their properties, chemical composition functional groups mapped, we can say information about the environment wetland vegetation? and (2) are wetland and morphology. So species that look something about the environment, and and the ecosystem services it provides. communities spectrally distinguishable similar, or are functionally similar, should the ecosystem services that they provide. To do this we worked in three Palmiet (by functional groups and by species)? We sampled plant communities in 39 plots throughout the three wetlands, and we recorded all ‘dominant’ species (species making up more than 25% of the plot). We sampled 10 mature individuals from each of the resultant 22 species. We measured 23 traits on each of these species, 16 morphological traits (such as biomass, leaf area, specific leaf area) and seven biochemical traits (such as leaf cellulose or lignin concentration). Many of these needed to be analysed in a lab. We also collected 20 spectral signatures for each species using a An aerial photograph of the relatively pristine Kromme Palmiet wetland in the portable ASD Fieldspec Pro following Eastern Cape of South Africa (near Joubertina). The R62 can be seen to the all protocol. We then analysed the data left of the wetland, crossing the wetland in the distance. The different colours to answer the two research questions and shades indicate patches composed of different vegetation communities using a combination of techniques. which can be clearly seen in this helicopter photograph. Alanna Rebelo

WHAT DID WE FIND? infra-red (NIR) or short-wave infra-red spectra collected from these plant species. (SWIR) part of the spectrum? This is an The next step is to test whether these At least seven of the 23 plant functional interesting question and to hypothesise trends hold at a greater scale: using remote traits measured were found to be about this we need to go back to what sensing imagery, like WorldViewII. There predictable from spectral signatures. Leaf we know about plants and animals and are many exciting possibilities to be area, specific leaf area (one-sided area of UV-A. According to the literature, the explored in the future, at the interface of a leaf divided by its dry mass), leaf mass UV-B part of the spectrum is linked to remote sensing applications and ecology. and leaf length/width ratio were the most flavonoids and sun protection for plants. This article is based on the research easily predicted morphological traits and It may be that some of the waterproof paper: Rebelo AJ, Somers B, Esler KJ, leaf lignin content and concentration, coatings used by plants fluoresce and and Meire P. (2018). Can wetland plant as well as cellulose content were the others do not. But it may just be that functional groups be spectrally most easily predicted of the biochemical apart from evolutionary ‘coincidences’ discriminated? Remote Sensing traits. We also did a redundancy analysis or ‘accidents’, these adaptations aree far of Environment. 210: 25-34. to see how much of the spectrum was more sophisticated than we realise. explained by the 23 plant functional Alanna Rebelo studied Zoology traits that we measured. We found that CONCLUSIONS and Ecology at the University of there is a large percentage (52%) that Cape Town. She recently completed her joint PhD in the Department is not explained by these traits. This Plant functional traits relate to the of Conservation Ecology and suggests that there are many traits that environment, both affecting it and Entomology at Stellenbosch we did not sample that are playing responding to it, and thereby also University, and the Ecosystem an important role in influencing the underpin ecosystem service provision Management Research Group spectrum. From what we know from other (benefits to society). If we can detect at Antwerp University, Belgium. research, these would likely be pigments these plant functional traits using The title of her PhD is: ‘Ecosystem Services of Palmiet Wetlands: The such as chlorophyll and carotenoids. remote sensing techniques, and map Role of Ecosystem Composition and In addition, we looked at whether functional groups in a landscape, then it Function’. She has started a position functional groups, or even species, could may be possible to combine these to map as a postdoctoral researcher at be discriminated using their spectra. ecosystem services across the landscape. Stellenbosch University under Prof. We found that it appears possible to This research in Palmiet wetlands was Karen Esler, funded by Denmark. The research is a transdisciplinary study discriminate both functional groups and the first step towards achieving this, and on the socio-economic benefits of species using the ultraviolet A part of the indeed it does seem possible, both to investment in ecological infrastructure spectrum. But why in the UV-A part of discriminate plant functional groups, and in the Berg, Breede and uMngeni the spectrum and not the visible, near to predict certain functional traits from Catchments in South Africa. Photographs of the 22 dominant palmiet wetland species whose spectral signatures were collected in 2015.

22 www.assaf.org.za | Volume 14 | Number 4 | 2018 www.assaf.org.za | Volume 14 | Number 4 | 2018 23 FEATURE TECHNOLOGY FEATURE TECHNOLOGY How we recreated a lost African city with laser technology There are lost cities all over the world. Some, like the remains of Mayan cities hidden beneath a thick canopy of rainforest in Mesoamerica, are found with the help of laser lights. By Karim Sadr.

Now the same technology which In the 1820s all these Tswana city states But LiDAR, which uses laser located those Mayan cities has been collapsed in what became known as light, allowed my students and I to used to rediscover a southern African the Difeqane civil wars. Some had never create images of the landscape and city that was occupied from the 15th been documented in writing and their virtually strip away the vegetation. This century until about 200 years ago. This oral histories had gone unrecorded. permits unimpeded aerial views of the technology, called LiDAR, was used Four or five decades ago, several ancient buildings and monuments. to ‘redraw’ the remains of the city, ancient Tswana ruins in and around We have given the city a generic along the lower western slopes of the the Suikerbosrand hills, about 60 placeholder name for now – SKBR. Suikerbosrand hills near Johannesburg. kilometres south of Johannesburg, had We hope an appropriate Tswana It is one of several large been excavated by archaeologists from name can eventually be adopted. settlements occupied by Tswana-speakers the University of the Witwatersrand. The ancient homesteads at Suikerbosrand are shown against an aerial photograph from 1961. The two rectangles show the footprint of the LiDAR imagery. Karim Sadr that dotted the northern parts of South But from ground level and on aerial BRINGING THE CITY TO LIFE Africa for generations before the first photos the full extent of this settlement Many features of the built environment have been the bases for grain bins, or they European travellers encountered them could not be appreciated because Judging by the dated architectural MONUMENTS TO WEALTH at SKBR seem to signal the wealth and may mark burials of important people. in the early years of the 19th century. vegetation hides many of the ruins. styles that were common at SKBR, status of the homesteads or suburbs that Among the largest features of the built It will take another decade or two it’s estimated that the builders of the environment at SKBR are artificial of field work to fully understand the stone walled structures occupied they are associated with. For example, parallel pairs of rock alignments mounds composed of masses of ash birth, development and ultimate demise this area from the 15th century AD from cattle dung fires, mixed with mark sections of passageways in of this African city. This will be done until the second half of the 1800s. bones of livestock and broken pottery several different parts of the city. through additional coverage with The evidence we gathered suggests vessels. All this material appears to South African archaeologist LiDAR, intensive ground surveys as well that SKBR was certainly large enough have been deliberately piled up at the Professor Revil Mason, who has carried as excavations in selected localities. to be called a city. The ancient entrance to the larger homesteads. out a great deal of research on stone- Ideally, the descendants of those Mesopotamian city of Ur was less than These are the remains of feasts and the walled ruins around Johannesburg, who built and inhabited this city 2 km in diameter while SKBR is nearly ash heaps’ size publicised the particular called these features cattle drives, should be involved in future research 10 km long and about 2 km wide. homestead’s generosity and wealth. The built to funnel the beasts along at this site. Some of my postgraduate It is difficult to estimate the size use of refuse dumps as landmarks of certain routes through the city. students are already in contact with of its population. Between 750 and wealth and power is known from other representatives of the Bakwena branch 850 homesteads have been counted at If these were cattle drives the width parts of the world, like India, as well. Even of the Tswana who claim parts of the SKBR, but it’s hard to tell how many and location of these passageways would the contemporary gold mine dumps of landscape to the south of Johannesburg. of these were inhabited at the same have signalled the livestock wealth of the Johannesburg can be seen in this light. We hope that they will actively become time, so we cannot easily estimate ward or homestead that constructed them, Other monuments to wealth and power involved in our research project. the city’s population at its peak. even when the cattle were not present. at SKBR include a large number of short Given what we know about more In the central sector of SKBR and squat stone towers – on average 1.8 - Professor Karim Sadr is Professor recent Tswana settlements, each there are two very large stone-walled 2.5 m tall and about 5 m wide at their base. Geography, Archaeology and homestead would have housed an enclosures, with a combined area of The homesteads with the most stone towers Environmental Studies, University extended family with, at the least, the just under 10 000 m2. They may have tend to also have unusually large ash heaps of the Witwatersrand. (male) head of the homestead, one been kraals and if so they could have at their entrance. The practical function The article was republished from LiDAR was used to ‘redraw’ the remains of the city, along the lower western The Conversation under Creative slopes of the Suikerbosrand hills near Johannesburg. Karim Sadr or more wives and their children. held nearly a thousand head of cattle. of the towers isn’t known yet: they may Commons Licence.

seed of education into us, he taught us are not capable or you don’t deserve to Ubuntu and to be generous. I can write be here. I always use this in a positive a whole book about my father and his way. I will work hard and ensure that I teachings. May his soul rest in peace. excel. I am ambitious, I want to break Senamile’s Q: You attended university at the age every barrier and I am not limited. of 16 – how was that experience for you? Q: You established an NGO A: My father was a very strict person, to encourage other women to attending varsity at 16 to me it was enter this field of work. Tell us freedom since I wasn’t allowed at home what inspired this move? journey to visit friends or to do sleepovers. I was A: I am all about women empowerment. not that responsible so I made mistakes, It is important to lobby for more women I ended up failing some of my modules in this field and there are lot of issues and got pregnant. I wouldn’t advise that learners, students and professionals parents to allow their kids to attend experience in this field. I want all to CERN varsity at an early age just like me, rather of those issues to addressed by this they can go for a gap-year programme. NGO. I want other women to be role there’s a unique phenomenon which Q: How has the various struggles in models or mentors out of this NGO. happens only in nuclei. Nuclei can change your life challenged you to keep going? Q: What has kept you shapes with a very small amount of A: Well I’ve been through a lot of motivated over the years? excitation energy. The phenomenon is not struggles, I have tasted it all, what has A: There is no easy way. The road to well understood and may influence the kept me going is my relationship with success is never easy, one step at a time decay properties of the nucleus, which in God, I know he can’t give me what I and always focus on the end result. turn, affects how it decays to stable nuclei can’t handle, He has greater plans for Q: What words of inspiration and, hence, accounts for the abundance of my life. Number two, I always focus on can you give women wanting to elements. In essence, we’re studying how the end results, I don’t care who says make it in this field of work? elements are created in stellar explosions.’ what anyway I am stubborn by nature. A: Work hard always, always have a The experiment was a huge success. Number three, I don’t compare my life willing heart to learn and admit what ‘The experience has really motivated with anyone, we have different journeys you don’t know. Believe in yourself. Senamile in the laboratory. UWC me to do even more,’ Senemile said. and different stories. Number four, when Q: Where do you see yourself ‘We were certainly not observers: we I fail, I accept my failures and learn and your NGO in the future? will teach the youth about science and led this incredibly complex experiment from them. Number five, I have a strong A: Besides being an academic, I have highlight the importance of education. and had amazing support from the support system. Number six, never lose business interests. I want to have my own I see myself travelling the world as a engineers at CERN. We could see that hope. Number seven, be positive always consulting company that will do project motivational speaker. I see myself sitting Senamile Masango we are not at their level yet, because and believe into yourself and work hard. management, engineering and energy in various boards throughout Africa. I see they have spent so much more time at Q: How did you get involved work. I want to launch my own clothing myself in the cover of Forbes magazine. Senamile Masango CERN, using their systems. But what with the experiment at CERN? line to make education fashionable, I want the NGO to become a leading that did was to show us just how much A: My supervisor made a proposal linking fashion and education. Almost centre that encourages students, learners we could achieve in the future.’ in 2012 and I was chosen among 50 everyone follows fashion, they must follow from high school, graduates to develop Senamile Masango, 30, the first said. ‘Going to CERN is the pinnacle and I joined the group this year. education too. I want to write books about and enhance successful careers in science, African woman to conduct an for any physicist, and we are really WHO IS SENAMILE? Q: What was the experience like? my late father, and about myself. I want technology, engineering and mathematics. experiment at HIE-ISOLDE, the nuclear grateful to have had the opportunity.’ A: Wow, what a life-changing to have my own educational show that From: Noni Sophe – Conversations Squared research facility at the European The team used a technique called Q: Tell us about yourself – where experience! It is every scientist’s dream Organization for Nuclear Research Columb Excitation to determine the you grew up, age, family life, etc. to go to CERN. I will be grateful for (CERN) laboratory in Switzerland. shape of Selenium-70 (70Se) at the first A: My name is Senamile Masango, this experience forever. I was part of She was part of a group of University 2+ states. This radioactive element decays I am from a deep rural area called history (first African-led experiment of the Western Cape (UWC) students and very quickly to arsenic-70 and then to Nongoma in Kwazulu-Natal. I was born at CERN). To be at CERN makes one their professor who recently performed germanium. None of the labs in Africa on 23 May 1987, and turned 30 this to be hungry for knowledge and for the first African-led experiment at CERN. has the equipment that can analyse year. I grew up in a polygamy-setup success, nothing is impossible. CERN is the place where the world’s exotic, short-lived nuclei such as this. family. My father had three wives and Q: As a woman in this field, what best physicists and engineers go to find ‘70Se only lives about 41 minutes and my mother is the youngest. My mother has been your greatest challenge? out more about the basic constituents is only produced during X-ray bursts – is a princess from the Zulu royal family A: Number one, is the colour of my of matter – the fundamental particles like the ones found most commonly in and that makes me to be a princess skin, more than being a woman. It has that make up our universe. stellar explosions happening in neutron too. My father was well known from been more than 20 years since freedom, Professor Nico Orce was accompanied stars,’ professor Orce explained. “So far KwaNongoma due to the role he played but this is one of the greatest challenges in by Dineo Mavela, Senamile Masango, we can only accelerate stable beams at in our community and Nongoma this field. No-one believes in you, you have Elijah Akakpo, Kenzo Abrahams, Craig iThemba LABS, so we needed to go to at large. He was a chief inspector at to prove first that you can do it and that Mehl, George O’Neill, Elias Martin CERN to complete these experiments.” KwaNongoma, a leader, principled man you can think, in spite of your skin colour. Montes, and Cebo Ngwetsheni. Why is it relevant? Professor Orce and a good role model. He raised us Number two, if you are a woman they ‘We are living the dream,’ Cebo explains: ‘In terms of nuclear structure, very well and he is the who planted the always look down on you, as though you Senamile at CERN with other members of the team. UWC

gigantic dinosaurs from Argentina that lived at a similar time, which reinforces Jurassic giant of South Africa the idea that the supercontinent of Pangaea was still assembled in the Early Jurassic. ‘It shows how easily dinosaurs new species of a giant dinosaur like modern elephants. Ledumahadi The research team developed a new could have walked from Johannesburg to has been found in South Africa’s evolved its giant size independently method, using measurements from Buenos Aires at that time,’ says Choiniere. Free State Province. The plant- from sauropods, and although it stood the ‘arms’ and ‘legs’ to show that South Africa’s Minister of Science Aeating dinosaur, named Ledumahadi on four legs, its forelimbs would have Ledumahadi walked on all fours, like and Technology, Mmamoloko mafube, weighed 12 tonnes and stood been bent so that the front of the body the later sauropod dinosaurs, but unlike Kubayi-Ngubane, says the discovery about four metres high at the hips. When was closer to the ground than the many other members of its own group of this dinosaur underscores just it lived, nearly 200 million years ago, back. This caused the scientific team to alive at its time such as Massospondylus. how important South African Ledumahadi mafube was the largest land consider Ledumahadi an evolutionary The team also showed that many earlier palaeontology is to the world. animal alive on Earth. It was roughly ‘experiment’ with giant body size. relatives of sauropods stood on all fours, ‘Not only does our country hold the double the size of a large African elephant. Ledumahadi’s fossil tells a fascinating that this body posture evolved more Cradle of Humankind, but we also A team of international scientists, story not only of its individual life than once, and that it appeared earlier have fossils that help us understand led by University of the Witwatersrand history, but also the geographic history than scientists previously thought. the rise of the gigantic dinosaurs. (Wits) palaeontologist Professor Jonah of where it lived, and of the evolutionary ‘Many giant dinosaurs walked on four This is another example of South Choiniere, described the new species history of sauropod dinosaurs. legs but had ancestors that walked on Africa taking the high road and in the journal Current Biology. ‘The first thing that struck me about two legs. Scientists want to know about making scientific breakthroughs The dinosaur’s name is Sesotho for this animal is the incredible robustness this evolutionary change, but amazingly, of international significance on the ‘a giant thunderclap at dawn’. of the limb bones,’ says lead author, Dr no-one came up with a simple method basis of its geographic advantage, as it ‘The name reflects the great size Blair McPhee. ‘It was of similar size to tell how each dinosaur walked, does in astronomy, marine and polar of the animal as well as the fact that to the gigantic sauropod dinosaurs, until now,’ says Dr Roger Benson. research, indigenous knowledge, and its lineage appeared at the origins of but whereas the arms and legs of those By analysing the fossil’s bone tissue biodiversity,’ says Kubayi-Ngubane. sauropod dinosaurs,’ said Choiniere. animals are typically quite slender, through osteohistological analysis, The research team behind ‘It honours both the recent and ancient Ledumahadi’s are incredibly thick. To Dr Jennifer Botha-Brink from the Ledumahadi includes South African- heritage of southern Africa.’ me this indicated that the path towards South African National Museum in based palaeoscientists, Dr Emese Ledumahadi mafube is the first of the giant sauropodomorphs of the Jurassic. Ledumahadi mafube is one of the gigantism in sauropodomorphs was Bloemfontein established the animal’s age. Bordy and Dr Jennifer Botha-Brink, Quadrupedal postures with flexed limbs potentially evolved several times in closest relatives of sauropod dinosaurs. far from straightforward, and that the ‘We can tell by looking at the fossilised from the University of Cape Town and sauropodomorph dinosaurs before the evolution of derived, columnar-limbed Sauropods, weighing up to 60 tonnes, way that these animals solved the usual bone microstructure that the animal grew the South African National Museum postures of Sauropoda. Wits University include well-known species like problems of life, such as eating and rapidly to adulthood. Closely-spaced, in Bloemfontein, respectively. Brontosaurus. All sauropods ate plants moving, was much more dynamic within annually deposited growth rings at the The project also had a strong and stood on four legs, with a posture the group than previously thought.’ periphery show that the growth rate had international component with the decreased substantially by the time it collaboration of Professor Roger BJ died,” says Botha-Brink. This indicates Benson of Oxford University and Dr Blair that the animal had reached adulthood. McPhee, currently residing in Brazil. ‘It was also interesting to see that the ‘South Africa employs some of the bone tissues display aspects of both basal world’s top palaeontologists and it was sauropodomorphs and the more derived a privilege to be able to build a working sauropods, showing that Ledumahadi group with them and leading researchers represents a transitional stage between in the UK,’ says Choiniere, who recently these two major groups of dinosaurs.’ emigrated from the USA to South Africa. Ledumahadi lived in the area around ‘Dinosaurs didn’t observe international Clarens in South Africa’s Free State boundaries and it’s important that Province. This is currently a scenic our research groups don’t either.’ mountainous area, but looked very The artwork that illustrates different at that time, with a flat, Ledumahadi was done by Wits MSc semi-arid landscape and shallow, student (Palaeontology), Viktor intermittently dry streambeds. Radermacher, who is fast becoming ‘We can tell from the properties of recognised as both a palaeoscientist the sedimentary rock layers in which and palaeoartist. His work has been on the bone fossils are preserved that 200 display earlier this year in international million years ago most of South Africa publications on Shartegosuchus as well looked a lot more like the current region as the recent publication on Chinese around Musina in the Limpopo Province alvarezsaurs, another international of South Africa, or South Africa’s collaboration involving Choiniere. The Highland Giant: Artist Viktor Radermacher’s reconstuction of what central Karoo,’ says Dr Emese Bordy. Issued by: Schalk Mouton, Senior Closely spaced growth rings at the periphery showing that the animal is an Ledumahadi mafube may have looked like. Another South African dinosaur, Communications Officer, University adult and that only a little bone tissue was deposited between the annually Ledumahadi is closely related to other of the Witwatersrand Heterodontosaurus tucki, watches in the foreground. Copyright Viktor Radermacher deposited growth rings, showing decreased growth rate. Wits University

first appeared when Homo sapiens entered Blombos Cave drawing Europe, about 40 000 years ago, and with ochre pencil on Multimedia graphic design – silcrete stone. later replaced local Neanderthals,’ says Craig Foster Henshilwood. ‘Recent archaeological discoveries in Africa, Europe and 73 000 years ago Asia, in which members of our team have often participated, support a much earlier emergence for the he earliest evidence of a drawing 70 000 years ago, a time period referred Under the guidance of Professor production and use of symbols.’ made by humans has been to as the Middle Stone Age, as well Francesco d’Errico at the PACEA lab of The earliest known engraving, a zig-zag found in Blombos Cave in the as younger, Later Stone Age material the University of Bordeaux, France (the pattern, incised on a fresh water shell from Tsouthern Cape in South Africa. dating from 2000 – 300 years ago. second author of the paper) the team Trinil, Java, was found in layers dated to The drawing, which consists of Henshilwood holds a Research Chair examined and photographed the piece 540 000 years ago and a recent article has the application of particular clothing, such as shell beads covered with ochre, three red lines cross-hatched with six at the University of Witwatersrand in under a microscope to establish whether proposed that painted representations in ornaments and the way we dress our hair. and, more importantly, pieces of ochre separate lines, was intentionally drawn South Africa, and is the Director of a the lines were part of the stone or whether three caves of the Iberian Peninsula were Language, writing, mathematics, engraved with abstract patterns. Some on a smooth silcrete flake about 73 000 newly granted Centre of Excellence at it was applied to it. To ensure their results, 64 000 years old and therefore produced religion, laws could not possibly exist of these engravings closely resemble years ago. This pre-dates previous the University of Bergen, Centre for they also examined the piece by using by Neanderthals. This makes the drawing without the typically human capacity to the one drawn on the silcrete flake. drawings from Africa, Europe and Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE). RAMAN spectroscopy and an electron on the Blombos silcrete flake the oldest master the creation and transmission of ‘This demonstrates that early Southeast Asia by at least 30 000 years. Van Niekerk is a Principal Investigator microscope. After confirming that the drawing by Homo sapiens ever found. symbols and our ability to embody them Homo sapiens in the southern Cape The drawing on the silcrete flake at SapienCE. The team’s findings on lines were applied to the stone, the team Although abstract and figurative in material culture. Substantial progress used different techniques to produce was a surprising find by archaeologist the 73 000-year-old drawing was experimented with various paint and representations are generally has been made in understanding how our similar signs on different media,’ says Dr Luca Pollarolo, an honorary published in the high impact journal, drawing techniques and found that the considered conclusive indicators brain perceives and processes different Henshilwood. ‘This observation supports research fellow at the University of Nature, on 12 September 2018. drawings were made with an ochre crayon, of the use of symbols, assessing the categories of symbols, but our knowledge the hypothesis that these signs were the Witwatersrand (Wits), while he Realising that the lines on the flake with a tip of between 1 and 3 millimetres symbolic dimension of the earliest on how and when symbols permanently symbolic in nature and represented an painstakingly sifted through thousands were unlike anything that the team had thick. Further, the abrupt termination possible graphisms is tricky. permeated the culture of our ancestors inherent aspect of the behaviourally of similar flakes that were excavated from come across from the cave before, they of the lines at the edge of the flake also Symbols are an inherent part of our is still imprecise and speculative. modern world of these African Homo Blombos Cave at the Wits University set out to answer the questions it posed. suggested that the pattern originally humanity. They can be inscribed on The archaeological layer in which the sapiens, the ancestors of all of us today.’ satellite laboratory in Cape Town. Were these lines natural, or a part of the extended over a larger surface, and may our bodies in the form of tattoos and Blombos drawing was found also yielded Issued by: Schalk Mouton, Senior Blombos Cave has been excavated matrix of the rock? Were they, perhaps, have been more complex in its entirety. scarifications or cover them through other indicators of symbolic thinking, Communications Officer, Wits University by Professor Christopher Henshilwood made by humans living in Blombos Cave ‘Before this discovery, Palaeolithic and Dr Karen van Niekerk since 1991. It 73 000 years ago? If humans made the archaeologists have for a long time been contains material dating from 100 000 – lines, how did they make them, and why? convinced that unambiguous symbols

Professor Chris Henshilwood and his team working behind the scenes in Blombos Cave in South Africa’s southern Cape, where the drawing was found. Ole Frederik Unhammer The outside of Blombos Cave. Magnus Haaland

The Fishy Smiths: A Biography Guide to Seabirds of Southern Stuart’s Field Guide to National of JLN and Margaret Smith. Africa. By Peter Ryan. Struik Parks and Game Reserves the revolving By Mike Bruton. Cape Town. Nature. Cape Town. of East Africa. By Chris and Penguin Books. 2018. Mathilde Stuart. Cape Town. My first love was seabird biology, which Struik Nature. 2018. James Leonard Brierley (JLB) Smith and became my PhD and postdoctoral research Margaret Mary Smith were a remarkable topic until I changed direction. I have East Africa is an extensive area, chair? pair of South African scientists whose spent many happy hours seabird watching encompassing Tanzania, Kenya, working relationship changed the course from beaches and headlands, and some Uganda and Rwanda. This excellent by Tsepo Majake of icthyology – the science of fish – in not-quite-so happy hours at sea (I am small guide covers all the national South Africa. JLB Smith is best known seasick) doing the same, some of them parks and game reserves in the for the discovery of the living coelacanth with the author of this excellent book. area – some of them particularly – one of the greatest biological finds of Seabirds as a group are often less of a famous, such as Serengeti National the 20th century. What is less well known focus among even dedicated birdwatchers Park in Tanzania and the Masai is that for many years JLB Smith was a and will certainly usually be grouped Mara National Reserve in Kenya. chemist, doing research and teaching together as ‘gulls’ by most people. However, This guide covers 58 of the region’s for 24 years, and an icthyologist for they are a fascinating group of diverse diverse conservation areas – home 22 years. In fact his description of the species, adapted for life that takes place to the continent’s most spectacular first coelacanth was done while he was a mainly along our shores or far out to wildlife, all grouped by country, with Senior Lecturer in Chemistry. His wife sea, only returning to land to breed. a good description of each country Margaret, initially aspired to become a This nicely sized book (can fit into a and it’s terrain. Not only are the medical doctor, but sacrificed her own backpack or even the pocket of a jacket) parks described, but there is key career ambitions to work with JLB as an covers all the myriad species seen along background information to help in icthyologist, fish illustrator and general southern African shores and focused planning a visit to each region. The helper for the 30 years of their marriage. exclusively on the 132 species that you book contains detailed descriptions Leadership is a term that’s widely used Bridget contributed her expertise to the magazine that it is today. We wish her the This is the first biography of the might see here. It is authoratitive, lavishly outlining the history, geology, but grossly misunderstood by many who magazine with her first volume in 2008 best in her retirement. In the same vein, two of them, tracing their formative illustrated and detailed. This slim volume climate, vegetation and wildlife of cannot distinguish between management bringing a strong HIV/AIDS focus and an Quest wishes to welcome Prof. Himla years, leading up to the discovery contains that latest information on our each reserve. There are detailed park and leadership. Literature on the topic introduction to invasion biology. I started Soodyall as the new Executive Officer. of the coelacanth. Their work ethic local species, gathered and collated by maps, showing places of interest and differs on what constitutes leadership working with her in 2015 and after our Her energy, wisdom and vision will was described as ‘punative’ and their South Africa’s foremost seabird specialist. the best sites to see key species. Text and management and expectations of first meeting I sensed that she was a take the magazine to greater heights. lifestyle as ‘eccentric’, but astonishingly There are clear identification pointers, panels featuring each park’s highlight, leaders. Amidst the disagreements, strong individual who was determined 2019 will bring new focus in terms productive. Their discoveries in along with excellent photographs, plus facilities and activities are prominent. there is consensus that all leaders need to produce quality at any cost. Quest of content coverage and design. Quest’s remote parts of Africa filled many information on biology and behaviour. A concise photographic gallery vision and should be able to interpret celebrates Bridget and her valuable input science engagement will also be broadened books, magazine articles and radio Distribution maps tell you which species of mammals, birds, amphibians, organisational missions into plans of for the last ten years. We wish her the to cover unexplored areas. Quest will and television interviews and at the you should be looking for and there is a reptiles and trees is included for quick action and strategies for implementation. very best in her future endeavours. engage in gathering information on how same time, promoted awareness of the fascinating introduction, which covers identification of common species. Any organisation suffers setbacks in terms Quest welcomes Sue Matthews, the magazine is being used by different need for marine conservation. This is seabird origins, feeding behaviour, breeding The book is lavishly illustrated with of sustainability when there are changes in the new editor, and congratulates institutions and how it assists as a tool in essential reading for anyone interested biology, conservation and how to watch and colour photographs and detailed leadership and when there is no continuity her on her new position. science literacy, promotion, popularisation in the excitement of science and its photograph these sometimes difficult birds. maps of the areas. A must for of vision and focus. This, however, can Quest is a publication of the Academy of and education. Data collection will importance in our everyday lives. A must for every birder. any traveller to these regions. be seen as an opportunity for new ideas Science of South Africa, published under be done through Quest’s social media towards an upward trajectory and a the auspices of the Scholarly Publishing platforms and through attendance at positive growth path if the institutional Programme. For the past 14 years, Quest popular science-related festivals. vision and mission remains central to the has been producing quality content in line The greatest lesson I learned from practice and interest of the organisation. with the mandate of the Academy and has Bridget was the three Rs of leadership: Quest will be bidding farewell to our supported many programmes nationally. Respect for self, Respect for others and editor this year. Bridget Farham’s name The Academy is bidding farewell to Prof. Responsibility for all your actions. has been associated with the magazine Roseanne Diab as Executive Officer, The great lessons I learned from for a decade and she has worked tirelessly who will be retiring as Executive Officer Prof. Diab are ‘management is doing to compile a quarterly publication that of ASSAf at the end of 2018. Since 2008 things right and leadership is doing the supports the curriculum in classrooms she has been at the helm of the Acdemy. right things’. The message I heard from and is a tool for science promotion, Much has been achieved under her wise her throughout was not ‘you can do it, literacy, popularisation and engagement leadership and Quest in particular grew but you should be doing it because it is both in South Africa and internationally. from a tiny publication to the giant an important contribution to society’.

collaboration and Distinguished Professor worlds, including single cell studies in trapping (capturing the particle) and in the School of Physics where he heads biology and medicine, small volume optical tweezing, moving the particle Shedding a new light on up the Wits Structured Light Laboratory. chemical reactions, fundamental physics as if with tweezers, but in this case ‘What we have done is that we have and for future on-chip devices. tweezers made of light. To make the optical trapping and tweezing demonstrated the first vector holographic Having previously shown that it is control less mechanical, researchers optical trapping and tweezing system. The possible to create hundreds of custom used holograms to control the light. device allows micrometer sized particles, light patterns from one hologram, With spatial light modulators one could such as biological cells, to be captured encode structured light patterns and the research brings together their and manipulated only with light.’ move those patterns around inside the Wits physicists demonstrate a new device for prior work on holographic control The final device could trap multiple trap, so that many particles could be manipulating and moving tiny objects with light of light with the application of particles at once and move them around trapped and moved simultaneously. optical trapping and tweezing. hen you shine a beam of light the University of the Witwatersrand in force of the light – including vector just with vector states of light. The This opened many new exciting fields, on your hand, you don’t feel Johannesburg, South Africa, have found light that was previously unavailable experiments for this study were performed but the final holographic optical traps by Nkosi Bhebhe as part of his doctoral How a holographic (HOTs) were limited to only scalar much, except for a little bit a way to use the full beam of a laser light, for this application. This forms the optical trap works Wof heat generated by the beam. When you to control and manipulate minute objects first vector holographic trap. studies. The work is published in Nature’s beams of light, a tiny fraction of what shine that same light into a world that is such as single cells in a human body, tiny ‘Previously holographic traps were on-line journal, Scientific Reports. In a conventional optical trap, light is was possible. The other class of optical measured on the nano- or micro scale, the particles in small volume chemistry, or limited to particular classes of light In conventional optical trapping and focused very tightly so that it can exert beams, vector states, were considered not tweezing systems, light is focused very possible to control holographically. With light becomes a powerful manipulating working on future on-chip devices. (scalar light), so it is very exciting that we forces on matter. The matter, say a tightly into a small volume that contains the new vector HOT, all states of light tool that you can use to move objects While the specific technique, called can reveal a holistic device that covers small particle, gets trapped in the light. small particles, such as biological cells. can now be used. Time will time what around – trapped securely in the light. holographic optical trapping and all classes of light, including replicating When the light is moved by mirrors or At this small scale (typically micro- or this means for the community at large. Researchers from the Structured Light tweezing, is not new, the Wits Researchers all previous trapping devices,’ Professor mechanical stages, so the particle moves nanometres) the forces that the light can Issue by Schalk Mouton, Senior Communications group from the School of Physics at found a way to optimally use the full Andrew Forbes, team leader of the with it. This is referred to as optical Officer, University of Witwatersrand exert are significant, so particles can be trapped by the light and then controlled. As the light is moved, the particles will move with it. This idea won American scientist Arthur Ashkin the 2018 Nobel prize in Physics. Originally the light was controlled mechanically with stages and mirrors, but the idea was later improved on by moving the light around holographically, that is, by using computer generated holograms to control the light without moving parts, thereby controlling the particles. Until now only special classes of laser beams, called scalar beams, could be used in such holographic traps. In their paper titled: A vector holographic optical trap the Wits researchers showed how to create and control any pattern of light holographically, and then used this to form a new optical trapping and tweezing device. ‘In particular the device could work with both the traditional laser beams (scalar beams) as well as more complex vector beams. Vector beams are highly topical and have found many applications, but no vector holographic trap was possible until now,’ says Forbes. The Wits researchers demonstrate their new trap by holographically controlling Please visit us to take a tour through our facility. both scalar and vector beams in the To book your visit, contact: [email protected] same device, advancing the state-of- the-art and introducing a new device to the community. The group expects the new device to be useful in controlled experiments in the micro- and nano- PhD student Nkosi Bhebhe works on an experiment in the Structured Light Laboratory at Wits University. Wits University.

esearchers from Wits and rock fragments that fell in and around Tracing the history colleagues from the University Benenitra that, fortuitously, appear to of Antananarivo in Madagascar have missed all people and buildings, Assessment of the thin section confirmed Rare on a ‘detective mission’ to describe, and he was able to acquire several that it was, indeed, a meteorite and, more A fragment of the meteorite showing the black classify and trace the history of a small fragments that residents had specifically, a relatively common type fusion crust and thumbprint-like depressions (called meteorite that landed in and around managed to locate. He delivered these called a chondrite, referring to the small regmaglypts) formed by melting during its entry into the atmosphere. The small bumps on the surface Close-up of the meteorite fragment the small town of Benenitra in to Professors Roger Gibson and Lewis spherical chondrules that it contains. are grains of nickel-iron alloy. Wits University showing the fusion crust. Wits University southwestern Madagascar shortly before Ashwal in the School of Geosciences This established that the meteorite the lunar eclipse on 27 July 2018. at Wits and asked them to verify their dates from the formation of our Solar Andry Ramanantsoa of the Laboratory cosmic rays. His measurements showed only melted partially, allowing some News of the event in this remote extra-terrestrial origin. The signs of System about 4.56 billion years ago. of Seismology and Infrasound at the of the chondrules to survive. area was brought to the attention of a dark fusion crust and small spheres At the same time, a news report high levels of cosmogenic nuclides, Institute and Observatory of Geophysics a Wits Geosciences graduate, Tim in the rock matrix that were visible on appeared in the local Triatra Gazette consistent with the meteorite having at the University of Antananarivo to Marais, who was travelling in the area broken surfaces appeared promising and newspaper on 4 August 2018 regarding entered Earth’s protective atmosphere Poor Man’s Space Probe the eyewitness reports and showing investigate if there was any evidence only within the past few months. a few days after the meteorite fall. He the School’s Senior Technician, Caiphas The meteorite also has a thin shock- a large specimen with a similar black that a significant explosion occurred Based on these findings, the team has collected some preliminary eyewitness Majola, was immediately commissioned melt vein that is most likely related in the atmosphere above Madagascar submitted a request to the international accounts that reported a bright meteor to prepare a thin section of one of the fusion crust. To corroborate the event to a collision with another asteroid sometime in the evening of 27 July. Meteoritical Society to officially name fireball, a loud explosion and a rain of fragments for microscopic analysis. scientifically, the team approached Dr that shattered the original body and Ramanantsoa was able to confirm, using and register Africa’s newest meteorite sent the fragment spinning off on its infrasound data from the international – Benenitra - on its database. Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban eventual collision course with Earth. Treaty Infrasound Station IS33 outside ‘Meteorites are commonly called The Classifying Africa’s Poor Man’s Space Probe, because they Antananarivo, that there had, indeed, newest meteorite been an “upper atmosphere energy deliver rocks from Outer Space to our release event” at 5.16 p.m. GMT (7.16 p.m. Ashwal and Gibson have refined door for free, where we can study the local time). Furthermore, he was able to the meteorite classification as an L6 birth and history of other parts of our identify that it occurred in a direction chondrite. The name refers to the Solar System’ says Gibson. The Benenitra south-southwest of Antananarivo fact that it contains a low amount meteorite fragment is being subjected – the exact bearing of Benenitra. of iron (the ‘L’), and that it contains to a range of other tests to establish The next step was to see if the blast recognizable chondrules. Chondrules properties such as its density and wave from the atmospheric detonation are the original building blocks of magnetism, and the team plans to write was sufficiently large to have caused a rocky bodies – such as asteroids and the results up soon in a scientific paper. ground vibration that could be detected the Inner Planets – in Space. As these ‘The Benenitra meteorite is a new by geophysical seismometers. For this bodies grew larger, heat built up inside Space rock, but it is also a witnessed the team turned to Dr Andriamiranto them – partly through gravitational fall, which makes it part of special (Ranto) Raveloson, a Postdoctoral collapse and partly because of radioactive group of meteorites. It is part of our Fellow and Technical Manager of the elements – which caused the metals and collective heritage as a species, planet Africa Array Seismic Network that is chondrules to recrystallise and maybe and Solar System. It fell in a remote co-ordinated from Wits. He was able to even melt. Where temperatures were area that will henceforth be recognised confirm a very faint seismic tremor at sufficiently high to melt the body, the internationally for the event on the 5.17 p.m. GMT on the same night. The denser metals were then able to settle evening of 27 July. Our project provides final confirmation that the fragment towards the core of the body, with the an opportunity to further strengthen was related to a fall on 27 July was less dense silicate melts rising towards scientific collaboration in the SADC obtained from Dr Matthias Laubenstein the surface. Eventually the body would region. Ultimately, one of our goals from the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran have cooled down sufficiently to solidify. is to inform the people of Benenitra Sasso at the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica The Benenitra meteorite appears to have about the significance of what they Nucleare in Italy, who measured the got quite hot (the number ‘6’ refers to witnessed and thus build greater meteorite for rare cosmogenic nuclides the high amount of recrystallisation awareness of science,’ says Gibson. that are created when an asteroid in that occurred within the chondrules Issued by Schalk Mouton, Senior Professors Roger Gibson (left) and Lewis Ashwal (right) discussing their preliminary assessment of the Benenitra Communications Officer, University meteorite with Tim Marais. Wits University Space is bombarded by high-energy owing to this heating process) but of the Witwatersrand

ROOM TO GROW

But there’s much more to be done in understanding neutrons, and particularly creating more space for Africa’s neutron science community to come and conduct research that’s relevant for the continent. More and more countries in Africa are investing in nuclear technology, and so having a facility relatively close to them is really important. As a national facility of South Africa’s National Research Foundation, one of the mandates of iThemba LABS is also The cyclotron at iThemba LABS. to provide support for research and iThemba LABS training to all universities. Scientists working at iThemba LABS provide supervision to MSc and PhD postgraduate neutrons of almost a single energy, which detectors to track how many neutrons students, as well as providing in-service are necessary to develop and test new they’re being exposed to. And also to training. Postgraduates from countries How African researchers theories. One is Osaka University’s Centre figure out at what point that exposure outside South Africa can also come and for Nuclear Physics in Japan. The other is becomes dangerous. These detectors learn more, then go back to their own iThemba LABS. Researchers from around can be adjusted and tested at iThemba countries and share that knowledge. the world, and from the rest of Africa, LABS to ensure they’re accurate. All of this has prompted iThemba are adding to deeper LABS to develop and grow its neutron use the Cape Town facility to conduct And next time you board a flight, research that has global implications. it’s possible that your plane’s electronic beam facility. To do this, it is working It’s important to keep studying components were also tested in our with the University of Cape Town in knowledge about neutrons neutrons to understand both their labs. By exposing such components to South Africa, Germany’s Physikalisch- harmful properties and the ways neutrons before they are installed and Technische Bundesanstalt, the Institute they can be used for good. put to use in the real world, scientists de Radioprotection et Sûreté Nucléaire Matter is all around us. As human beings, we’re made of it. are able to ensure that aircraft can safely in France and the National Physical Laboratory (from the United Kingdom). Matter is the ‘stuff’ that makes up the physical world as we know WHAT WE’VE LEARNED withstand the amount of neutrons that it; a collection of atoms made up of particles called protons, will bombard them in the atmosphere. Over the next two or three years, there Some of the most crucial work that’s It’s also at facilities like ours and will be big changes – and this will allow electrons and neutrons. By Ntombizikhona Beaulah Ndlovu. being done to fill in our knowledge Osaka University’s that research has for even more neutron research to gaps and find new uses for neutrons is started slowly unpacking the effect emerge from the African continent. happening on the African continent. of neutrons on human health. Part of my work, as a postdoctoral that can penetrate through matter, can’t be killed by the usual x-rays Ntombizikhona Beaulah Ndlovu For example, some of this research Scientists at these labs are also researcher at iThemba LABS (Laboratory which means they can be harnessed that are available in hospitals. is a postdoctoral research is being used in outer space. Neutrons responsible for figuring out what for Accelerator Based Sciences) in for all sorts of important work. Neutrons can have negative effects, fellow at iThemba LABS. are found naturally in outer space, so kind of materials efficiently shield Cape Town, South Africa, focuses on For example, high-energy neutrons may too. People who work with nuclear This article was republished from The satellites are installed with devices called people from neutron radiation. Conversation under Creative Commons Licence. neutrons. These are subatomic particles be used to destroy tough tumours that fission reactors, particle accelerators and fast neutron generators, for instance, get exposed to high-energy neutrons. Research has shown that this can be harmful: when neutrons interact with human beings, chromosomes in the blood can be damaged. In really severe cases, cells can become deformed; this can cause cancer and impair organ function. There are facilities around the world where scientists can access neutrons for their work. But these are either slow neutrons or neutrons that come with a combination of all possible energies. In those cases, scientists can’t tell exactly which neutrons – slow or fast – had an effect on their samples. iThemba LABS provides support for research and training to all universities. There are only two facilities in the iThemba LABS world where researchers can access fast An aerial view of the ITemba LABS. iThemba LABS

THE ‘RING RAIN’ AROUND SATURN IS A COCKTAIL OF CHEMICALS

For decades now, scientists have thought The finding is reported in the 5 October carbon monoxide, dinitrogen, ammonia, that Saturn’s rings shower grains of 2018 issue of Science. Understanding carbon dioxide and fragments of organic water ice onto the planet. However, the rain’s composition could help us to nanoparticles. The cause of this may be the some final observations from NASA’s clarify where Saturn’s rings came from. belt of radiation that is tucked away inside Cassini spacecraft provided the first Researchers analysed data collected by Saturn’s rings, which gives out high-energy detailed view of these celestial showers. Cassini’s Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer radiation, which could have blasted away It turns out that ring rain is highly during the spacecraft’s final orbits in 2017. much of the water in the D ring, close to contaminated with organic matter Water made up only about 24% of the Saturn. This would have left behind heavier View of the Amazon basin and other molecules and hits Saturn material falling from the ring system into materials such as organic compounds. at thousands of kilograms per second. Saturn’s atmosphere. The rest was methane, Source: sciencenews.org forest north of Manaus, Brazil.

Wikimedia Commons QUEST MATHS PUZZLE NO. 47 CARBON EMISSIONS FROM AMAZONIAN RAIN FOREST FIRES WORSE THAN FEARED

Carbon losses caused by El Niño forest in a special issue of Philosophical the Amazon has seen in 100 years. 15 N fires in 2015 and 2016 could be up Transactions of the Royal Society B. Uncontrolled wildfires at ground level in 36 X to four times greater than originally The findings are part of a series of humid tropical forests during extreme thought, according to a study of the 6.5 results published by researchers from droughts are a large and poorly quantified 50 Y million hectares of forest in Brazilian Lancaster University, UK, working at source of carbon dioxide emissions. 100 D Amazonia. The study was published the site of one of the worst forest fires Source: Technology.org 101 E

Saturn’s rings display their subtle colours, captured 202 O WIND POWER COULD here on 22 August 2009 by the Cassini spacecraft. 88 T Shepherds Flat wind farm, Oregon, USA. CONTRIBUTE TO NASA/JOL-Caltech/Space Science Institute Wikimedia Commons WARMING THE PLANET 44 ?

Answer to Maths Puzzle no. 46: Giant wind turbines that generate 6210001000 fossil fuel-free power add heat of their own to the planet. In the USA, if there SPECIALIST TOOLS APPEARED EARLY IN AFRICA were enough wind turbines to meet the entire country’s electricity demands, Ancient Africans made pointed knives research published on 3 October 2018 in WIN A PRIZE! the region’s surface air temperature out of animal’s ribs as long as 90 000 years PLOS ONE. This new find supports the Send us your answer would immediately be raised by 0.24°C ago. Before then, bone tools were simple, view that strategic planning for survival general-purpose cutting devices. These and associated changes in toolmaking (fax, e-mail or snail-mail) on average, according to a study together with your name sharp-tipped bone knives were crafted emerged much earlier in human evolution published in Joule. This is not a small and contact details by 15:00 by people in North Africa’s Aterian than previously thought. The knife was amount – current global greenhouse on Friday 25 January 2019. gas emissions are projected to warm the culture, which originated about 145 000 uncovered in the Dar es-Soltan 1 cave, USA by 0.24°C by 2030. The warming years ago, when they started to eat more near Morocco’s Atlantic coast, embedded THE FIRST CORRECT ENTRY effect would be strongest at the centre fish and other seafood, according to in sediment dated to 90 000 years ago. THAT WE OPEN WILL BE THE LUCKY WINNER. WE’LL of an array of wind turbines, raising SEND YOU A COOL TRULY air temperature by as much as 1.0°C. SCIENTIFIC CALCULATOR! Wind turbines alter climate by increasing atmospheric mixing with the ► Mark your answer boundary layer – the layer of atmosphere ‘Quest Maths Puzzle no. 47’ just above the Earth’s surface. The and send it to: Quest turbine’s churning increases temperatures, Maths Puzzle, Living Maths, particularly at night, by pulling warmer P.O. Box 195, Bergvliet, 7864, air from the upper part of the boundary Cape Town, South Africa . Fax: 0866 710 953. level down towards the cooler air just above the land’s surface. Turbines can redistribute moisture as well as heat. A recent study in Science reported that wind farms could increase precipitation, and mail: [email protected]. For more on Living Maths phone (083) 308 3883 so, vegetation, in the Sahara Desert. A – Dar es-Soltan 1 Cave; B and C – El Mnasara Cave. and visit www.livingmaths.com. Source: sciencenews.org Silvia Bello and Mohammed Kamal (Fotokam, Morocco)

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Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf)

Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf), (2018). Quest: Science for South Africa, 14(4). [Online] Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11911/107 http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11911/107 Downloaded from ASSAf Research Repository, Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf)