Instability in Security: a Comparative Analysis of Cooperation in International Security
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Are Enhanced Warfighters Weapons, Means, Or Methods of Warfare?
Are Enhanced Warfighters Weapons, Means, or Methods of Warfare? Rain Liivoja and Luke Chircop 94 INT’L L. STUD. 161 (2018) Volume 94 2018 Published by the Stockton Center for the Study of International Law ISSN 2375-2831 Enhanced Warfighters: Weapons, Means, or Methods? Vol. 94 Are Enhanced Warfighters Weapons, Means, or Methods of Warfare? Rain Liivoja and Luke Chircop CONTENTS I. Introduction ............................................................................................. 162 II. Biological Weapons ................................................................................ 164 A. Defining Biological Agents ........................................................ 166 B. Enhanced Warfighters as Biological Agents ............................ 166 C. Enhancements as Biological Agents ......................................... 170 D. Enhancements as Chemical Weapons ...................................... 172 III. Weapons ................................................................................................... 173 A. Defining Weapons....................................................................... 173 B. Enhanced Warfighters as Weapons .......................................... 176 IV. Means of Warfare ................................................................................... 178 A. Defining Means of Warfare ....................................................... 178 B. Enhanced Warfighters as Means of Warfare ........................... 179 V. Methods of Warfare .............................................................................. -
The Ethics of Cyberwarfare Randall R
This article was downloaded by: [University of Pennsylvania] On: 28 February 2013, At: 08:22 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Military Ethics Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/smil20 The Ethics of Cyberwarfare Randall R. Dipert a a SUNY (State University of New York) at Buffalo, NY, USA Version of record first published: 16 Dec 2010. To cite this article: Randall R. Dipert (2010): The Ethics of Cyberwarfare, Journal of Military Ethics, 9:4, 384-410 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2010.536404 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and- conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Journal of Military Ethics, Vol. 9, No. 4, 384Á410, 2010 The Ethics of Cyberwarfare RANDALL R. -
Strategic Analysis of Cyber Weapons
Comparing Cyber Weapons to Traditional Weapons Through the Lens of Business Strategy Frameworks by Nicola Bates Supervisor: Professor Konstantinos Markantonakis Information Security Group Royal Holloway, University of London 1 Acknowledgements My thanks go to Professor Konstantinos Markantonakis for supervision on this project. Also to Dr Raja Naeem Akram for advice on where to focus analysis, Dr Michelle Bentley for discussion on weapon categorisation, Dr Nicholas Griffin for casting an eye over strategy framework use within this context, Dr Robert Bates for help on strategic framework analysis and Neil Ashdown for proof reading and feedback. 2 Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements…………………..……………………….…………………………….2 List of figures and tables…………………..………………………………………………..6 Executive summary…………….……………………………………………………………8 1. Introduction and background…………………………………………………………..10 1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..10 1.2 What is a cyber weapon?…………………………………………………………..11 1.3 Cyber weapons considered for analysis……………………………………….…13 1.4 Actors in cyberspace………………………….…………………………………….14 1.5 Overview of strategic frameworks.…….…………………………………………...16 1.5.1 PESTLE………………..………….…………….……………………………….16 1.5.2 Porter’s Five Forces………………………….…………………………………18 1.5.3 SWOT……………………………….……….…………………………………..19 1.6 Summary and methodology………….……….……………………………………20 2. Comparisons of cyber and conventional weapons….….…….……………………..21 2.1 Introduction….……….………………………….…………….……………………..21 2.2 The fifth domain of warfare………………………….…………….……………….21 2.3 The battlefield………….……………………………….……………………………22 -
Chapter 29 Cyber Attacks by Terrorists and Other Malevolent Actors
Chapter 29 Cyber Attacks by Terrorists and other Malevolent Actors: Prevention and Preparedness With Three Case Studies on Estonia, Singapore, and the United States Shashi Jayakumar The field of cyberterrorism has existed for as a long as it has been possible to interdict or compromise computer systems. While contributions of scholars, researchers, and practitioners have enriched discussions, there are longstanding and unresolved issues of definition which can give rise to confusion. Does cyberterrorism mean attacks only by individuals groups that fall within widely accepted definitions of “terrorist” or “terrorist organizations?” To what degree does the aim or intention of the malicious actor matter? For the purposes of the present volume, this study (without sidestepping these questions) examines attacks against computer infrastructure and Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) by all actors with capability, and not just groups such as Al-Qaeda or ISIS. As the author notes and establishes early in his discussion, this is necessary given that while conventional terrorist groups might have intent, they have not to date acquired the capability to carry out a genuinely destructive cyber-attack of the type that might lead to major loss of life or infrastructural damage. It is (for the most part) states which have this capability. Cyber prevention and preparedness covers a wide range. This three-part chapter includes technical aspects of cyber protection, systems (and people) resilience, risk mitigation, as well as nurturing talent within -
Article 36 Reviews: Dealing with the Challenges Posed
ARTICLE 36 REVIEWS Dealing with the challenges posed by emerging technologies vincent boulanin and maaike verbruggen ARTICLE 36 REVIEWS Dealing with the challenges posed by emerging technologies vincent boulanin and maaike verbruggen December 2017 STOCKHOLM INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE SIPRI is an independent international institute dedicated to research into conflict, armaments, arms control and disarmament. Established in 1966, SIPRI provides data, analysis and recommendations, based on open sources, to policymakers, researchers, media and the interested public. The Governing Board is not responsible for the views expressed in the publications of the Institute. GOVERNING BOARD Ambassador Jan Eliasson, Chair (Sweden) Dr Dewi Fortuna Anwar (Indonesia) Dr Vladimir Baranovsky (Russia) Ambassador Lakhdar Brahimi (Algeria) Espen Barth Eide (Norway) Ambassador Wolfgang Ischinger (Germany) Dr Radha Kumar (India) The Director DIRECTOR Dan Smith (United Kingdom) Signalistgatan 9 SE-169 72 Solna, Sweden Telephone: +46 8 655 97 00 Email: [email protected] Internet: www.sipri.org © SIPRI 2017 Contents Acknowledgements v About the authors v Executive summary vii Abbreviations xi 1. Introduction 1 2. Article 36 reviews: what they are and why they matter 3 I. Article 36 and its requirements 3 II. Why Article 36 matters: technological changes and the conduct of warfare 6 3. Reviewing the legality of cyber weapons, means and methods of warfare 7 I. Cyberwarfare toolbox 7 II. Determining the lawfulness of cyber weapons, means and methods of warfare 9 Box. 3.1. Defining ‘cyberweapons’ 10 Box 3.2. Legal definition of ‘cyberattack’ 11 4. Reviewing the legality of weapons, means and methods of warfare 17 with autonomous capabilities I. -
“Reducing Systemic Cybersecurity Risk”
IFP/WKP/FGS(2011)3 MULTI-DISCIPLINARY ISSUES INTERNATIONAL FUTURES PROGRAMME OECD/IFP Project on “Future Global Shocks” “Reducing Systemic Cybersecurity Risk” Peter Sommer, Information Systems and Innovation Group, London School of Economics Ian Brown, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University This report was written by Peter Sommer and Ian Brown as a contribution to the OECD project ―Future Global Shocks‖. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the OECD or of the governments of its member countries. Contact persons: Pierre-Alain Schieb: +33 (0)1 45 24 82 70, [email protected] Anita Gibson: +33 (0)1 45 24 96 27, [email protected] 14th January 2011 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................... 5 SYSTEMIC CYBER SECURITY RISK .......................................................................... 9 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT ......................................................... 15 Early days of business and government computing ..................................................... 15 1970s and 1980s: changing patterns of risk ................................................................. 15 Routes to democratisation ............................................................................................ 16 The emergence of the Internet ...................................................................................... 17 -
Addressing Cyber Threats to Oil and Gas Suppliers
ENERGY BRIEF Addressing Cyber Threats to Oil and Gas Suppliers Blake Clayton and Adam Segal June 2013 This brief is made possible through the generous support of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is an independent, nonpartisan membership organization, think tank, and publisher dedicated to being a resource for its members, government officials, busi- ness executives, journalists, educators and students, civic and religious leaders, and other interested citizens in order to help them better understand the world and the foreign policy choices facing the United States and other countries. Founded in 1921, CFR carries out its mission by maintaining a diverse membership, with special programs to promote interest and develop expertise in the next generation of foreign policy leaders; convening meetings at its headquarters in New York and in Washington, DC, and other cities where senior government officials, members of Congress, global leaders, and prominent thinkers come together with CFR members to discuss and debate major in- ternational issues; supporting a Studies Program that fosters independent research, enabling CFR scholars to produce articles, reports, and books and hold roundtables that analyze foreign policy is- sues and make concrete policy recommendations; publishing Foreign Affairs, the preeminent journal on international affairs and U.S. foreign policy; sponsoring Independent Task Forces that produce reports with both findings and policy prescriptions on the most important foreign policy topics; and providing up-to-date information and analysis about world events and American foreign policy on its website, CFR.org. The Council on Foreign Relations takes no institutional positions on policy issues and has no affilia- tion with the U.S. -
Cyberterrorism How Real Is the Threat?
UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE www.usip.org SPECIAL REPORT 1200 17th Street NW • Washington, DC 20036 • 202.457.1700 • fax 202.429.6063 ABOUT THE REPORT Gabriel Weimann The threat posed by cyberterrorism has grabbed headlines and the attention of politicians, security experts, and the public. But just how real is the threat? Could terrorists cripple critical military, financial, and service computer systems? This Cyberterrorism report charts the rise of cyberangst and examines the evidence cited by those who predict imminent How Real Is the Threat? catastrophe. Many of these fears, the report contends, are exaggerated: not a single case of cyberterrorism has yet been recorded, hackers are regularly mistaken for terrorists, and cyberdefenses are more robust than is commonly supposed. Even so, the potential threat is undeniable and seems likely to increase, making it all the more important to address the danger without inflating or manipulating it. Summary Gabriel Weimann is a senior fellow at the United States Institute of Peace and professor of • The potential threat posed by cyberterrorism has provoked considerable alarm. Numer- communication at the University of Haifa, Israel. ous security experts, politicians, and others have publicized the danger of cyberterror- He has written widely on modern terrorism, political ists hacking into government and private computer systems and crippling the military, campaigns, and the mass media. This report financial, and service sectors of advanced economies. complements a previous report, www.terror.net, issued in March 2004, which examined the variety of uses • The potential threat is, indeed, very alarming. And yet, despite all the gloomy pre- to which terrorists routinely put the Internet. -
Technology, Policy, Law, and Ethics Regarding U.S. Acquisition and Use of Cyberattack Capabilities
PREPUBLICATION COPY – SUBJECT TO FURTHER EDITORIAL CORRECTION Technology, Policy, Law, and Ethics Regarding U.S. Acquisition and Use of Cyberattack Capabilities EMBARGOED FROM PUBLIC RELEASE UNTIL 1:00 p.m., April 29, 2009 except with express permission from the National Research Council. William A. Owens, Kenneth W. Dam, and Herbert S. Lin, editors Committee on Offensive Information Warfare Computer Science and Telecommunications Board Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS Washington, D.C. www.nap.edu THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance. Support for this project was provided by the Macarthur Foundation under award number 04- 80965-000-GSS, the Microsoft Corporation under an unnumbered award, and the NRC Presidents’ Committee under an unnumbered award. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations that provided support for the project. International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-XXXXX-X International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-XXXXX-X Additional copies of this report are available from: The National Academies Press 500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285 Washington, DC 20055 (800) 624-6242 (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) Internet: http://www.nap.edu Copyright 2009 by the National Academy of Sciences. -
Arms Control in Cyberspace?
Wilson Briefs | October 2015 Arms Control in Cyberspace? By Robert Litwak and Meg King SUMMARY U.S. policymakers have compared the challenge of managing threats in the cyber domain to that of controlling nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The United States and China are currently negotiating what would be the first cyber arms control agreement to ban attacks on each other’s critical infrastructure in peacetime. The Obama administration believes such an agreement could lead to a broader “international framework” of norms, treaties, and institutions to govern cyberspace. Arms control and deterrence are longstanding U.S. policy instruments that are being revived and retooled to meet contemporary cyber challenges. But the utility of these Cold War strategies, which constitute necessary but not sufficient measures, will be inherently limited owing to fundamental differences between the nuclear and cyber domains. THE POLICY CONTEXT At the conclusion of President Xi Jinping’s state visit to Washington on September 25, 2015, the United States and China announced a limited agreement “that neither country’s government will conduct or knowingly support cyber-enabled theft of intellectual property, including trade secrets or other confidential business information, with the intent of providing competitive advantages to companies or commercial sectors.”1 Reactions of U.S. cyber experts to the Chinese commitment to forego state-sponsored cyber commercial espionage were mixed—with some characterizing the move as a “sea change” and others viewing it -
Information Operations and Cyberwar: Capabilities and Related Policy Issues
Order Code RL31787 CRS Report for Congress Received through the CRS Web Information Operations and Cyberwar: Capabilities and Related Policy Issues Updated September 14, 2006 Clay Wilson Specialist in Technology and National Security Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress Information Operations and Cyberwar: Capabilities and Related Policy Issues Summary This report describes the emerging areas of information operations in the context of U.S. national security. It assesses known U.S. capabilities and plans, and suggests related policy issues of potential interest to Congress. This report will be updated to accommodate significant changes. For military planners, the control of information is critical to military success, and communications networks and computers are of vital operational importance. The use of technology to both control and disrupt the flow of information has been referred to by several names: information warfare, electronic warfare, cyberwar, netwar, and Information Operations (IO). The U.S. Department of Defense has grouped IO activities into five core capabilities: Psychological Operations, Military Deception, Operational Security, Computer Network Operations, and Electronic Warfare. Doctrine for U.S. IO now places new emphasis on Psychological Operations to influence the decisionmaking of possible adversaries, and on Electronic Warfare to dominate the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Some weapons used for IO are also referred to as “non-kinetic,” and include high power microwave (HPM) or other directed electromagnetic energy weapons that rely on short powerful electromagnetic pulses (EMP), that can overpower and permanently degrade computer circuitry. Several public policy issues that Congress may choose to consider include whether the United States should: ! encourage or discourage international arms control for cyberweapons, as other nations increase their cyber capabilities; ! modify U.S. -
Weapons of Mass Agility: a New Threat Framework for Mass Effects in the 21St Century
BRIEFER No. 18 ⼁May 3, 2021 August 16, 2018 Weapons of Mass Agility: A New Threat Framework for Mass Effects in the 21st Century Natasha E. Bajema Introduction The threat posed by weapons of mass destruction (WMD) continues to serve as a key concept for shaping U.S. national security strategy. For many decades, policymakers and experts alike have assumed that malicious actors will seek WMD for their potential to cause mass casualties and destruction. And yet, the historical record of use cases for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons (CBRN) over the past three decades is not consistent with their designation as weapons of “mass destruction.” While their potential for mass destruction remains catastrophic, most WMD attacks have involved the use of chemical, biological, or radiological materials for targeting individuals (e.g., assassinations) or to produce targeted casualties in specific populations (e.g., tactical use of chemical agents). Additionally, the world has seen significant political, technological, and structural changes since the concept of WMD focused specifically on CBRN in U.S. national security strategy.1 1 See Natasha E. Bajema, Beyond Weapons of Mass Destruction: Time for a New Paradigm? Washington D.C.: The Council on Strategic Risks, 2021; Natasha E. Bajema, Definitions Matter: The Role of WMD in Shaping U.S. National Security Strategy, Washington D.C.: The Council on Strategic Risks, 2021. 1 BRIEFER No. 18 | May 3, 2021 The Council on Strategic Risks The current technological landscape is generating many new scenarios capable of causing mass effects, which arise from the complexities of the digital and modern world.