DOCUMENT RESUME RC 005 778 ED 056 822 Malan, Vernon D.; Jesser, ClintonJ. AUTHOR Study of Conflict in TITLE The Dakota Indian Religion. A Values. INSTITUTION south Dakota State Coll., Brookings. SPONS AGENCY Department of Agriculture,Washington, D.C. REPORT NO Bull-473 PUB DATE Feb 59 NOTE 64p. MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 EDRS PRICE Cultural Background; DESCFIPTORS *American Indians; Christianity; *Culture Conflict; Moral Values;*Personality Development; 0.uestionnaires;*Religious Differences; Research; Reservations (Indian);*Social Values; Socioeconomic Influences IDENTIFIERS South Dakota ABSTRACT It was the purpose ofthis study to describe and analyze the differences invalue systems of the DakotaIndians and Western Civilization, and tosuggest a probableexplanation for the religious practices of present-day(1958) Pine Ridge Reservation result of the conflict invalues between residents (28 Families) as a based on the the 2 societies. The methodused to accomplish this was assumption that the Pine RidgeIndians would express theirprimary of questions based onideas commonly values in response to a series culture. In held in either the traditionalDakota or modern American this attempt to describe thevalue system of the DakotaIndians and to suggest an explanationfor reservation religiouspractices, a traditicnal Dakota values tothe modern shift was noted from the Dakota values of Western Civilization.This study revealed that the Indians had, to a large extent,lost the old system of socialvalues which gave purpose and directionto their live _ons to this state of affairs varied witheach individual ,orn to rejection of all Dakotavalues maintenance of traditional values of positions and full acceptance ofnon-Indian values. The assumption at either extreme mayprovide a relatively stablepersonality adjustment, but the individual whovacillates between the 2 value systems is likely to searchfor some sources of meaningin group-approved and recognition-givingactivities, such as are available in marginal religions. (LS) 4B ii'fjr4 .7.7;:: Feb, 1959 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. RITAL SOCIOLOGY DEPARTMENT EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION V-4 THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OFI ORGANIZATION ORIG- SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE, BROOKINGb INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY Introductici REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY Traditiona] Myths an Ceremoit Emotic N91 THE DAKOTA Practic_ 0\110 Ceren1 010 AStudy o7 LNDIAN RELIGION Purpose Values ir '44171 ft>"/ P --:// Cener_ /-, ., V./47'°47i- '''''''/ // Integr %A /,//9-/..';1. ''' 'V7./'/. ..: V/ ' '776>V.- /" />,,'.7 .4...../- // // . Cour& ///7/,/.../////:, ',V,/%.,//'.2//./,,/-.Z/VW. ./,,, . /-'.../0-' Social; // Kinsh :'///V z,''',.. / /-/ ,/%.'/' / ''.'7': .4; -'. V . Wisdc .- /...// ' ' -- / , .,/V Values .-.././;:e'%.,/ 'Vi'?: Vl/ /7 V The Z # The .,!,//i'- .i",... ',, . Phasc- ,.....V, ',. ,/,;. j, <-'/V', Ris Cii /'-',;,". ' Fa

..z.cc.,;/1,;(<4,,,;:;:-,1::' Margin .4://, ' ..; Thou 2>'* '/- i''' - The ! :,*-0..-2, . / .',/,-.;;;;%:.:"'':'/ ./,A:°?;:- Pew. / ';,//7 , Yuw: 4- : // ,.,.' lf Conter -;,.-..,,,,,,P-' vv';::- Rehi Acce Implicati ,,- Append: ,-,,47/."---,//7-z.,...,,,),,,,,-;.5,, - ,----.71;,-.r..-----;:,-.--":;,-,'::;-: Appendi: -- --/-, Appendi Liters tui A9- U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS SEEP REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVLO FROM ConEents THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- 3 IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY Introduction .. 4 REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- Religion CATION POSITION OR POLICY. Traditional Dakota Indian 4 Myths and Legends 8 Ceremonial Religion 8 Emotional Responses 14 Practices and Beliefs 17 [(TA Ceremony- and Ritual - . 21 Values A Study of Dakota 29 E Li GI ON Purpose of the Study .23 _____ Values in Dakota Society ______28 Generosity 24 ;7--;:.,,,/ 'z -,,,z.; Integrity 25 Courage -,r'< ., 06 Sociability 26 Kinship 28 z ."/-,/., ..,,,/,,,,,,, Self-control 29 4;., Wisdom : ": ;:,- -,...-2,,,..%/4- ,,,,,,,,: -..: i" Values in Western Civilization ,,,.- / The Technic-Order 31 /// '' .j- r The. Moral Order e, Phases of Culture Contact 32 Rising Action ( 1700-1851) %. ;.. ''';;'./ /..4", ,/,, / 'I vs'. ;C.!, ./..1, Crisis ( 1851-1878) "'" z / , / ''J;;. 38 ..*>; Falling Action ( 1878 topresent) 42 Marginal Religious Practices 42 Religions Theory of Transitional 44 The Ghost Dance 47 Peyote Cult 49 Yuwipi Cult ______50 Contemporary Values inTwo Pine RidgeCommtinities ______52 ______Religious Participation 5:3 and Western Value Systems ______Acceptance of Dakota 58 i-,../.-,,,--:,.::-;:.;:,:Arz,,i,-;-,0/,---. 4' Implications of Study /-, .. Appendix I __ 61 Appendix II 61 Appendix HI 62 .-,., Literature Cited _ '-'--7-4-' 2 1 2 II. Traditionalt About 250 years ago,the 1 Dakota Indiansarrived on Great Plains afterbeim,' driven the MinneArtawoodlands b Chippewas. Theygradrially Ion The DakotaIndian Religion west of the MissouriRiver, alth( they moved throughoutthe n AStudy of Conflict inValues ern plainsin pursuitof NI While in Miimesota,they had agriculturalists, but upon acy Vernon D. Malan andClinton J. jesser' horses they changedfrom an a an way ofiife to that of the rum hunter. The Tetonstraveledin bands, all united bykinship: 1 I. Introduction Sans Arc, Blackfoot,Minnect Two Kettle,flunkpapa, and t Those living on thePine llidg ervation today arcdescended have exertedis designed toprovide a systematic Religious beliefs religiousback- ly from the Oglalaand Brule substantial influence onthe valuesanalysiaofthe, perThd ietweal Indians, In earlierground of the Datc of the Dakota ,ids, and 1650 :heTeton Pakor folkloreinfusedare some ofthe iny,11,, ad 1.4 traits wh daysreligious and ritual quired most of the every area oftheir daily lives. Whenand the beliefs, practices, consider typicalof plaias introduced Chris-which dominated.Dakota thinking Sold the missionaries with culturekinship bands, tianity to the tribes onthe Great/at the timeof initial contact ciety, Sun Dance,geometri began tothe Christian missionaries.In Part and travo Plains, important changes changes in Da- rative art. horse take place. Valueswhich conflictedIII the subsequent and econorniedependence, were inter-kota values arediscussed and ana- these trait with customary beliefs perspective and bulfalo,2 All of posed, but many ofthe traditionallysed in historical bound together intheir life In somein terms of thevalue conflicts which in th valueswere retained. the contact of which they symbolized cases,accommodation ofconflictinghave resulted from circle, the stagefor their in marginalthese two differentculture patterns. to dose values was attempted from a study of drama. Any attempt religious activitieswbieh combinedStatistical evidence Tetons which failsto cons old and newtwo communities onthe Pine Ridge culture oin elements of both the to support unity of their religions. In other cases,the con-Reservation is presented completely accurate. insurmountable,the cultural conflictthesis. Implica- half of flicts appeared suggested in During the first and some individualssought escapetions of the study are century theDakota Indians or succumbedto apathy. Part IV. tensive contactswith rais A study of the presentday values 'Associate Rural Sociologistand Gradw frontiersmen, government requires some un- ate Assistant.mpectively, South Dakota exolorers; of these (people Asricultural Faveriment travelers, and derstanding of theirtraditional reli- State College. these people recordedthei gion. 'thin, Part IIof this bulleidn Station. sions anddescriptions of t 3 3 Dakota IndianReligion II. Traditional used the Tetonway of life.These accounts are About 250 years ago, in this section,describing the tradi- DakotaIndiansarrived on the the Dakotas,hut beina; driven fromtional religion of in Great Plains afterwoodlands by theare modifiedand systematized the Minnesota accordance with morerecent an- gradually located This Chippewas. They thropologicalinvestigations. west of theMissouri River,althoughdescription serves asbackground they movedthroughout the north- of culturalvalues buffalo.data for the study ern plainsM pursuit of which will follow.It is fromthis While in Minnesota,they had been and practicesthat acquiringmatrix of beliefs agriculturalists, but upon the values of theDakota Indians horses they changedfrom an agrari- and whichprovided the mountedwere derived an wayof lifeto that of sacred sanctionsfor their value sys- hunter. tem.3 The Tetonstraveled in seven bands, all unitedby kinship: Brule, Sans Arc,Blackfoot, Mirmeconjou,Myths andLegends Hunkpapa, and Oglala. , - Two Kettle, ries_ aickgr( ;ior Those living onthe pine -Ridge d main-no) of 1.0.0n valm lez., a systematic erva . bedisoovered in thestories Oglala and Brulebands.tem can eligiousback- ly fnink the told by thegrandfathers to tbeir Here During the periodbetween 1700 traditi, vial a indians. Teton Dakotas ac-grandchildren.These tis and legends, and 1.850 the myths and legendsof the olde:,en- quired most ofthe traits which we ate tices, and ritual of plains Indianeration wem used toindoct )alsota thinking consider typical generation witi_ culturekinship bands,Soldier So-the younger 'al contact with deco-basic values ofDakota societ ciety, SunDance, geometric Dak a df=.- onaries. In Part horse and travois,tipi,way inwhich the young changes in Da- rative art, dependence, on therived moral lessonsfrom this myt. ,,:ussed and ana- and economic illustrated by52ve-:al bnifalo,2 Ail ofthese traits werematerial is perspective and their life pattern,typical storie.s. conflicts which bound together in story -a:: ng which theysymbolized irk the camp A popular didactic ithe contact of for their culturalthe Dakotas concernsthe aluise cultore patterns. circle, the stage beans for-eir drama. Any Attemptto describethepeople who stored 1from a study of thewinter use. It wasconsidere vihu- Tetous whitirfails to consider teal tn the Pine liklge unity of theirculture cannotbemane, wicked,and unjust ' ented to support N. ithoutputtin iack col npl -kccu7ate. the beans ,.t thesis. impliec.- half of the 19thsome corn orother food, so r.:-.atthe ore suggestedin Durrmg ti_e first centur, theDakota Indians had ex-'Clark Wissler, NorthAmerica:Indians with m:ssionaries, of the p. 169. tensiv_ cow:acts with- c)logist and Gracia- fronti,:Tsmen, governmentofficials,6It iS possible tounderstand Pan All of section if onealready --celv, South Dakota travele-zs, andexplorers; many out reading tbis ,:ultilral Experiment familiar with traditionalDakot-eligious these peoplerecorded their impres- descriptions of theIndian beliefs. sions and 4 4 from hurt- ownchildren shall cry 6 South a ger." the woman told NeXt morning he A story onceheard her husband ofthis vision, and Dakotas concerned an o said, better do as Hunka went out alone;mrl stoi "You would tit tells you to do." bluffoverlooking But the woman washard-hearted fiver Prom his locati( and would notmake deur of the prairie,ln and perverse, had restitution forthe wrong she mysterious river conld At t done. afterward a great to the far horizon. A short time 5pot the old manhad (- prairie fire came,driven by a strong Wisdom and spiritual g wind, and swept overthe place where the unjustwoman andher The fire con- As the old man thu, family were camping. it and considering sumed her tipiand everything festations of life an barely contained, andthe people lystery of earthand s escaped with thcirlives. They had out uponthe prairie wandered i no food norshelter; they wolws trotting towar destitute on theprairie, and the I \VII= they reached th children cried fromhunger.' plunged in and swam and other side, ail but one \ The pipe,symbolic of peace important place inthe too enfeebledby age 1, truth, held an Dako- strength against the s mythology andritual of the erful current ,Df the riv who touchedthe pipe to theft would nottas. A filcin that his victims of the his lips wastaking an oath This old wolf sat di starve. be trusted.a Inthe Sun bank of the river and word could ritual the spiri- companions as they A certain womanplundered the Dance preparation and trotted away out o storehouse of someHintunka peo- tual leadersaid to the scouts: other side. When th ple (bean mice).She robbed them the holy pipe. peared from sight, food supplywithout You have zaken up of their entire and so you must nowtell us with muzzle, toward tbe sk giving anything inreturn. The next fully sang in a man's heard a woman truth all that youhave seen. You night this woman the lowing song: crying and saying. know thatrunning through in the woods pipe there is a littlehole stem of the All o'er the earth 1. "Oh, what will mypoor children leading straight tothe center and let your mindsbe I've journeyed far do now'r heart of the pipe; yonr My spirit haste and of the Hintunka as straight asthis Way. May It was the voirLe be forked. Youhave i'm nothing, nothi woman crying overher hungry chil- tongues not I'm nothing, nothi been sent out tofind a tree thatwill dren. benefit to thepeople, Missouri River, fin the unjust wom- be of great what you The same night had a so nowtell us truthfully Thou sacred watt an whohad done the wrong My spirit haste an dream, Hunka,the. have found." dream. In her Prairie Smoke., pp. I'm nothing, nothi spirit of kinshipof all life, appeared 'Melvin R. Gilmore, nothing,-noth. to her andsaid: 127-129. Reli- 'James Mooney,"The Ghost Dance After the old wolf "You should nothave taken the Sioux Outbreakof 1890," gion and theEthnology, XIV, p.1,063. song, he wearily rn food from theHintunka people, V. S. Bureau of food to them, or The Sacred Pipe, p.73. the top of a hill and Take back the else your °Joseph E. Brown, warm sunshine, in some otherin its place, or 5 'all cry from bun- - South Dakota ExperimentStation Bulletin 473 until his ; the womantold heard among the rock, and there waited ;his vision, andhe A story once spirit went away.. Dakotas concerned anold man who and stood on a high When the old men ofthe Dakotas .,ctter do asflunka went out alone ebbing with bluffoverlookingtheMissourifound their strength m washatd-hearted River. From hislocation the gran-age, and feltthat they could no ad would notmake deur of the prairie,hills, and thelonger follow the pathof the war- I he wrongshe had mysterious river couldbe viewedrior, they wouldoften go alone to At this beautiful wisdom of their attuward a great to the far horizon, contemplate on the 5pot the old manhad cmne to seekancestors, andmethods of teaching ;e. drivenby-a strong wisdom and spiritualguidance. children. Sit-- rept overthe place these values to their and her tint; there in solitudethey mused on ,ust woman As the old It-Ian thus satmeditat- recalled ping. The hre con- the mani- brave deeds of the past, it ing and considering all who had gone and everything festations of life and powerand their companions kl the peoplebarely sky, he spied from them, and intheir loneliness had mystery of earth and this "Song of dieir lives. They out 11pOn theprairie a group of they wook' sadly sing tielter; theywanderod the river. and the wolves trotting toward the Old Wolf." .the prairie, When they reached the river,they As we all know,animals fre- I from hunger.' plunged its and swain across tothe essential part who was now quently played an Ymbolic of peaceand other side, all but one in Dakota legends.Helpfulness and in the too enfeebledhy age to (tare try his values ,important place strength against the swiftand pow- consideration of others were id ritual ofthe Dako- frequently stressed inthese stories. pipe to erful current of the river. ko touched the handsome :;:xing an oaththat his This old wolf sat down uponthe There was once a bank of the river andwatched his young Teton,whose wife's father )e trusted.5In the Sun against the spiri- companions as they swam across disliked him and plotted :ration ritual and trotted away out ofsighz on the him. He dug a pit withinhis lodge, lid to the scouts: had disap- covering it with skins.Then he in- other side. When they feast. The taken up the holypipe . peared from sight, heraised his vited his son-in-law to a tell us with muzzle toward the sky and mourn- son-in-law met awolf, whom he must now the fol- him the way to the sat youhave seen. You fully sani; in a man's voice salmed, akh running throughthe lowing song: village. The young man was per- little hole suaded toreclirle on the skins. pipe there is a roamed, him :aight to the centerand All o'er the earth I've which gave way, precipitating minds be I've journeyed far andwide; into the pit. Thefather-in-law and' pipe; let your My spirit haste and go, covered as thisWay. May yobr his two single daughters forked. You have I'm nothing. nothing now, the skins with earth,and removed ot be I'm nothing, nothing now. their tent elsewhere onthe morrow, ()tato find 4.1 treethat will started on a bene.En to thepeople, Missouri River, flow, when all the people what you journey. After souse days,the Wolf il us truthfully Thou sacred water flow; who had met the man went tothe My spirit haste and go, in search I'm nothing. nothing now, deserted camping place Llmote, PrairieSmoke, pp. of food. On reachingthe place nothingj-nothing now. where the accident (3 ) had.hap- hey, -The GhostDance Bell- this So he of ISM," After the old wolf had sung pened, he heard a human cry. he Sioux Outbreak song. he wearilymade his way to dug away the earth,removed the ;u of Ethnology,XIV, p. 1,063. in the Sacred Pipe, p. 7. the top of a hill and lay down 7Gi1more, op. cit., pp.136438. iciwn, The warm sunshine, inthe shelter of a 8 Soo The Dakora Indian Religion 7 badlands was that skins, and found the man whom distance away up the trail on ing over fertile !at he recognized. The wolf pitied him, other side, she had drawn a meadow by the Great Spirit and said, "As you did not kill me lark on the wing as it it were up in when we met, you shall now be the sky. A faint cirde was drawn lands to roll and sl saved." So he howled, and very about the. figure of the bird. From Spirit liad taken soon many wolves appeared. They the center uf the circle of tipis a zig- that had caused wa found a lariat, which they lowered zag line was drawn to the meadow children and had I into the pir, and by grasping the lark in the sky. spared the evident. other end with their teeth, they pulled the man up. He was very The little girl was teaching her and His punisluth grateful, promising never to harm companionstherelationshipof these stories, as we a wolf. Just then a weeping woman lis ing things inthis world. She myths and legends appeared. gazing in surprise at the said: "The bird of promise is our friend.It likes to be around our frequent admonitio man, as he was very thin, looking the youth to work like a ghost. SF:.,as his wife, and dwellings, and likestosee our people happy. While it has been fly- ly and honestly, her heart was soon made glad when ing about over theprairie and and be- brave. Th hc told her of his rescue.s about the camps of our people, it the chief values en Many pleasant stoties were told has been observing us and all living kota society." regarding the cheery meadow lark things on the earth. At daydawn it flies circling upward into the sky, which the Tetons liked to call "the Ceremonial Re bird of promise." Children took when the light of the rising sun great delight in birds, insects, and lights up the earth and sparkles on Eyeiy religion it the dewdrops on the grass and the sential elements: ( all living creatures with which they flowers. So itgoes up and tells were naturally familiar. It was not Wakantanka what is needed by our tional responses; unusual for them to use hying crea- people, and by the animals and the tices and beliefs, at tures for subjects of talk and play. trees and the flowers and all living and ritualassocia things. And it comes back singing responses. These One little girl of the group was songs to tell each one of all these religion may be re talking to the other children, her living beings what Wakantanka is ing an inseparable companions, aboutthe meadow going to do for that one on that element in religion lark. As is quite common with Indi- day, whether tree or flower or hu- emotional respons ans, even children, she made some man being, and even all living be- natural. A person a drawings to illustrate her talk. On a ings. If I have been well-behaving, wide bare place in the trail which 1 am glad and eager to hear whal have personal or wound its way across the prairie, the bird of promise will sing to me ences which rause she had drawn these pictures in the when he comes back. But if I have he should be bon dust. In a circle about four feet in been ill-behaving, I am afraid to feeling is reflected diameter she had drawn a repre- hear what he will sing to me."9 honesty and avoida sentation of a camp circle of tipis. practices in his groi Among the tipis she had drawn the The Dakota myths and kgends belief and practic figures of dogs, as they would be frequently dwelt on the origin of usually he shared seen usually in an Indian camp. their homeland. A typical explana- Outside the circle she had drawn bees of the group the figures of ponies, just as ordi- tion given for the formation of the forced by religiou. narily they would I/e found grazing 'James 0. Dorsey, "A Study of Siouan order for these c outside the camp circle. Cults," U. S. Buivau of Ethnology, X, p. meaningfu7, somi Farther away she had drawn 478. should be designe some figures of buffaloes. And some °Gilmore, op. cit.. pp. 148-150. Ii 8 South Dakota EAperiment Station Bulletin 47.3 7 badlands was that two tribes fight-of honesty. In other words, the con- tnail on the ing over fertile land were rebukedditioning of ceremonial ritual rein- Nn a ineaclow by the Great Spirit who caused theforces the belief and practices of it were up in honesty, and belief and practice are e was drawn lands to roll and shake. "The Great Spirit had taken away the landsin turn based on the profound feel- Cbird. From ing that hone-;ty is good and right.'2 Of tipis a Zig- that had caused warring among His ) the meadow children and had left to those He Emotional Responses spared the evidence of His power The religion of the Dakotas was teaching her !I and Juis prmishment."1" In all ofbased on an emotional response to azionshipof these stories, as well as m all other world. She agreat power or spirit which inhab- romise is our myths and legends of tir? Dakotas,ited everything in nature, th;r'ir vis- around our frequent admonitions wen_ given toible as well as their invisible world. tosee our the youth to work hard, speak wise-Consequently,almosteverything r has been fly- ly and honestly, never complain,could become an object of worship. prairie and and be- brave. these were amongSpecial homage was rendered to the ,or people, it the chief 1;alnes emphasized in Da-sun and the earth and the four car- and all living kota society." dinal directions, but under proper At daydawn circumstances sacrifices were made I into the sky, Ceremonial Rehgion toalmost any material object." lc rising sun There is some doubt concerning the (I sparkles on Every religion includes three es- gra and the Dakota belief in a supreme Great up and lens sential elements: (1) specific emo-Spirit or all-powerful superhuman qeeded by our tional responses; (2) certain prac-being, although this character is imals and the tices and beliefs, and (3) ceremonyoftenattributedtotheDakota and all living and ritualassociated with theseWakan Tanka. But the idea of a su- hack singing responses. These cornponentsofpreme spirit may have been intro- le of all these religion may be regarded as form-duced by early missionaries in an at- 'akantanka is ing an inseparable whole. The basictempt to accommodate the beliefs one on that element in religion seems to be anof the Dakota and Christian reli- flower or hu- emotional response to the super-gions. For example, such may have , all living be- natural. A person may, for example, we1l-behaving, been Lynd's purpose in describing have personal or intuitive experi-the Dakota Great Spirit: to hear what ences which cause him to feel tbat ill sing to me Their ideas concerning the Great . But if Ihave he should be honest. This specific am afraid to feeling is reflected in his belief in Spirit appear to be that He is the to me." honesty and avoidance of dishonest'M. E. Gridley, Indian Legends of Amer- practices in his group activities. The ican Scenes, pp. 100-101_ .s and legends belief and practice of honesty will"Marie L. McLaughlin, Myths and Leg- the origin of usually be shared with other mem- ends of the Sioux, pp. 11-200. explana- bers of the group and will be rein-'2Frank Boas,et.al.,Anthropology in rmation of the North America, p. 259. forced by religious ceremonies. In'Tau! Beckwith, "Notes on Customs of Study of Siouan order for these ceremonies to be the Dakotas," Annual Report of the Ethnology, X, p. meaningful, some oftheritual Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In- should be designed to teach habits Stitution, 1886, p. 253. 8-150. The Dakota Indian Religion .9 South Da creator of the world, and has existed Lion of this wonderful power, and dellad over the eartha from all time. But after crearing the the beliefs that grow out of it, are th world and all that is in it. He sank religion. They are elaborated by ness and destroying into silence. and since thenhas specifically religious techniques.'" OM' such spirit, the Tla failed to take any interest in the af- governed simply by th fairs of this our planet. They never The essential meaning of ttekan create misery, couldst pray to Him, for they deem Him was not definitely "sacred" or-holy" airvone. at any timewith too far away to hear them, or as but "wonderful." Knowledge of-the could even destroy the not being concerned in their affairs. language supports this statement. kota nation. Other evil s No sacrifices are made to Him, nor 1Vekantja,anoft-usedadverb, travelersto obscure dani.:es in lbs honor. Of all die spir- meant "wonderfully"; andwaken strangled them and ton its, I Ic ja the Great Spirit: hut His dowa power is only latent or negative.'.1 scusIttcya \vas the usnal was, of ex- ers until they lay pressingthesuperlative.3TLike and died; caused the bit The Simian word waken is appar-Christians, the Dakotas recognized seized by pante "and ! ently related to the widespread be-spirits representing both good and with their noses to tile liefin some invisible force thatevil. The divinities of good, how- dering it impossible to animates the universe.. Waken was tortured the Dakotas II ever, were not necessarilydeemed herds not stable, but could shift its focussuperiur objects of worship. In fact, ger by bringing near the camp,which t from object to object, animate orthere was skepticism regarding the th inanimate. Under certain circum-power of certain beneficent spirits. er started to pursue stances sacred places, equipmentThey were often considered weak drove the herds away."' used in ceremonies, or human be-and pretentious because of their in- The beliefs regardin ings were for a short time endowedability to control the activities in man were based ontle with siipernatural power." the world. On the other hand, there of the hnman body. was much greater respectaccorded A stick or a stone is waken and is The first is supposed the power of evil divinities whose of the body, and dies WI used as an amulet; a place, and is special delight was to extermfnate used as a sacred grove; a formula, The second is a spirit Vt. and by faithful repetition it will ace man or to make him miserable. remains with or near tl These demons of the darkness wan- other is the soul which complish what is inaceessible to the the deeds of the body, techniques of everyday routine. Or w. Lynd, "Ilistory of the Dakotas." it may be persons of particular at- AlinneNota Historical Colter:4(ms, II, pp. posed by some to go to others, to the west, after tainments or in particular circum- 145-148. the body. The fourth al stances that are waken: A seer who 'Ruth Underhill, "Religion Among Amer- can foretell events or bring about ican Indians," Annal, CCC XI t May, with the small bundle r wonderful cures, a warrior who has deceased, kept by the r 1957) p. 128. it becomes a roving, r killed an enemy, a menstruating "Roth Bonedict, "Religion," in General woman, the dead. Different civiliza- bringing death and d Anthropology Franz Boas (ed.), In 629. enemy whose country tions regard as waken different ob- "Boas, Ibid., p. WA. The reference eon- jects or aspects of life, sometimes in tinkles: "The most important things the The place of alio& narrowly limiteddesignated ob- White man brought were all compound- of men apparently w jects, sometimes very unsystemat. ed by the use cf this adjective; Miwakait, established. They bell ically, almost pantheistically. They a sword;literally,'Wonderfulknife.' areatoneonlyintheuni- Shunwa /can, horse; literally. 'wonderful third soul was immort versalrecognitionoftheexis7-. dog.' Mazareakan, a gun; :a.!:rally 'won- concern themselves g tence of thiswonderful power. derful iron.' Miniwakan, whiskey: liter- final place of residen Always, moreover, the manipula- ally, 'wonderful water.' some Dakota alsob 3 9 Station Bulletin 473 . South Dakota Experinsent 10 with the spirits power, and dered ove the earth causingsick-power to converse or of it. are of the &ad.'!" Lynd claimsthat they dionned by ness and destroyingthe unwary. to these Thunder Bird,frequently made feasts chniq One such spirit, the spirits in order to elicitinformation governed simply by thedesire to lig of trakon about distant relativesand friends. create misery. couldstrike down"Assenthling at night in thelodge, ed" or "liolv" anyone- at any timewith his fire. Ilethey smoke, put out thefire, and ,ledge of-the could even destroy the wholeDa-then, drawing theirblankets over is statement. kota nation. Other evil spiritsluredtheir heads, remain singingin uni- edad wrb, travelerstoobscure places andson in a lowkey until the spirit and wokan strangled them and tormentedoth-gives them a pietrire."2' I way of ex- ers until they laydown in despair from buffaloes to be If it can be reconstmeted Ative.17 Like and died; caused the our fragmentaryknowledge of their s recognized seized by panic "and runfor daysreligion, the Dakota a fterworld was with their tioties to the wind, ren- shadowy )th good and follow; andprobably a poorly defined good, how- dering it impossible to place much like the OldTestament tortnred the Dakotas in theirhun- It was certainly notthe arily deemed herds of buffaloesSheol. rship. In fact, ger by bringing "happy hunting grounds," appar- near the camp,which they no soon- for an In- i.eoardincr the than the spiritently the Christian ideal !heent spirits. er started to pursue dian heaven. As the souldeparted 5idered weak drove the herds away."8 on its last journeyinto the unknown, se of their in- The beliefs regarding thesoul ofthe mourners suppliedfood and activities in man were based onthe four spiritsgoods for it. The Tetons,likewise, er hand, there of the human body. kept the forelock of thedeceased's hair, which permitted his"ghost" ieet accorded The first is supposed to be a spirit place in the inities whose of the body, and dies withthe body. to retain his usual o exterminate he second is a spirit whichalways household circle. The following ex- in miserable. remains with or near the body. An- planation of Teton burial practices darkness wan- other is the soul which accountsfor was given byDorsey: the deeds of the body, and is sup- ,f the Dakotas," by Long ago the people buried some ,Ilections, 11, pp. posed by sonic to go to the south, others, to the west, after the deathof men on a hill andthen removed the body. The fourth alwayslingers camp to another place.Many ,.vin- )11 Am(Lng Anyer- the ters afterwards a manvisited this with the small bundle of hair of the CCC XI (May, deceased, kept by the relativesuntil burial place, but all traces of it becomes a roving, restlessspirit, graves had disappeared.So many on,- in General the men came and dugfar down into bringing death and disease to "A as (ed.). p. 629. enemy whose countryit is in." the hill. By and by one said, e reference con- road lies here." So they dug inthe )rtant things the The place of abode ofthe souls direction and made a fire under- all compound- of men apparently was notclearly ground. And there they found a Miwaka.n, established. They believed thatthe"Lynd, op. cit., pp. 153-156. ---onderfulknife: but did not ally, 'wonderful third soul was immortal, Wbid., pp. 155-156. n; literally Von- concern themselvesgreatly with its a, whiskey; liter- final rlace of residence.Evidently,wDorsey, op. cit., pp. 484-485. some Dakotaalso believed in the .31....ynd, op. cit., p. 156.

1 0 11 12 South Dakota El The. DakotaIndian Religion tattooed either inthe son atone for hismisdeed. If he his life to beforehead or onthe tunnel largeenough for men to middle of the ceeded in appeasingthe yen walk in bystooping, with many wrists. lri that eventhis spirit will and ones. Theyfol- the "ManyLodges." relatives of the victim, similar intersecting and finally go directly to road is said tobe made sacrifices to thespirits. lowed the main one The other spirit who retire came to aplace whither astrange short, and thefoolish one murderer was considered the Walianksica,had reaches the "Many aml could once, againeat, anima I, travels it never sits in the dragged the corpses.For this reason Lodges." An old woman and speak in thefollowshir hecanw unwilling tolay examines eachghost the Lakota they road and she find the people.26 their dead inthe ground. so that passes. Ifshe can not scaffolds which ontheforehead. The circle was asacred began to bury on of tattoo marks ghost could not be.reached by beasts wrists, or chin,the unhappy among the peopleof the Dakot the present daythe Teton cloud or cliff and natureth prey. At is pushed from a the lot tion. Everything in gives three reasonsfor not burying falls to hisworld. Such is the earth, the moon,the sky, ( I) animals orper- that wandero'er the in the ground: of the ghosts the plants, and the humanboth sons mightwalk over the graves; earth. They cannever travel might lie in mudand they go about round except stone,and ston (2) the dead (3) spirit road again; so afterrainor snow; whistling. with nofixed abode." the implement ofdestruction, Water the bodies and wolves might dig up The Starry Land acrossthe heav- is a c: die "Milky The edge of the world devour them.22 ens, known toits as hence the circle is a symbolof be- by the Indian,"The There was nosharp division Way," is called is world and of the winds w spirits of humanbeings Way of Svls."The long branch travel to us from all points no tween the believed to be thepath along which plants, andnatural to theWakan edge of the world, The sun and of animals, All the good pass on the moon, which markthe dal phenomena inDakota beliefs. Tanka, but theshorter one isthe circles a life or givinglife along the night, travel in things possessing path for thewicked, fleeing circle thoughtless haste the sky; therefore the were treatedwith equal respect. which, in their symbol of these divisionsof hunter whokilled an and arc precipitated The Dakota the they fall over, and of the year, and so o animal for foodfelt that only into a frightfulabyss. There the spirit find themselvesin time.27 outward formof the immortal helpless beings consumed; and ifthe remains torture such as cannot bedescribed, The Dakotas believedth was according to the ae- and are made toendure the suffer- circle of nature wascreated were disposed then ings of a still worse,and "second supernatural to be usedby t cepted ritual,the spirit would dress to servehim death."25 their daily lives;theirti1 return in new spir- in camping again. It wasbelieved that the These versionsof the afterlife made round; things couldhelp or harm in be- lodges are set in acircular its in all thealso illustratethe differences their the individual,depending on liefs found from oneLakota band ceremonial activities, obseration of properbehavior to- sit in a circle and movein to another. synth( ward them.2" Since the circle was a literature on the The commissionof a serious tipi, it suggestedthe shel Reported in the the killing ofanother comfort of home and the sec is a widevariety ofcrime such as F;i1.- Teton Dakotas relatingDakota requiredthat the guilty the family. Indecorative art, other religiousconceptions th Several additionalexam-'Dorsey, op. cit., p.486. divided circle stood for to death. cit., pp. 129-130. world; the circle filledwith ples may becited: I.Jnderbill,op. blue, it op. cit.,p. 486. the sun; filled with the ghost may "Dorse,, Once Their Home,p. sky; and divided intofour In order that it is *Frances Halley, travel the ghostroad in safety, 224. was the fourwinds.20 neeessary for eachLakota during 11 South Dakota ExperimentStation Bulletin 473 be- cr in the Those individuals who were son atone forhis misdeed. If he suc- special pow- r on the vengefullieved to have received pirit will ceeded in appeasingt' supernatural were the iif heers from the relatives of the vi tm. shamen or medic. :le menof the Da- lid to be made sacrifices to srits, thekotas. There wassharp distinction nc who murderer was comered ideeinedbetween the sharean possesshigsu- tC"Nlany and could once. agai e, smoke,pernatural powe: ; for treatmentof sits in the and speak in thefoll p of histhe sick and ccetrollingthe ele- .ach ghost ments and the of ,erlay membere of t findthe people.2° the forehead, The circle, was a sacid symbolthe band. Most important was inspiration received bythe "holy" ppy ghost among the peopleof the Dakota na- r cliffand man fromvision quest and or- tion. Everything innaturethe sun, might also is the lot the sky, trees,deal. The average Indian er o'erthe the earth, the moon, hope for the visitationof spiritual travel the plants, and the humanbodywaspower, but hisexperience with the v go about round except stone,and stone wassupernatural was less intenseand :d abode.24 the implement ofdestruction. prolonged. Moreover, theshaman ss the heav- is a circle; was usuallyprovided with several the "Milky The edge of the world from contact with hence the circle is asymhol of the powers resulting t dian,"The more than onespirit, and he might is world and of thewinds which ig branch travel to us from all points onthe also have learned somesleight of along which edge of the world. The sunand hand with which to accompanyex- the Wakan the day and Al- r one isthc the moon, which mark hibitionsof spiritual power. the night. travel incircles above though the medicine mandid not lceing along circleis a inheritance or ditless haste the sky; therefore- the obtain this role by symbol of these divisionsof time, memorized ritual, the son orrela- precipitated and of the year, and soof all likely to .There the time.27 tive of a shaman was more hemselves in be inclined tospecialize in such be described, The Dakotas believedthat thespiritual activities thanother mem- rc thesuffer- created by thebers of his band.2° and "second circle of nature was supernatural to be usedby thee in The vision played animportant their daily lives:theirtipis arepart in the conceptof disease cure, the afterlife made round;incamping,theirespecially in the case of some pow- erences inbe- lodges are set in acircular line:. inerful ailment that refusedto yield Lakota band ceremonial activities, theirpeopleto simple treatment.The Dakota sit in a circle and movein a circle.medicine man made no attemptto Since the circle was asymbol of the unless he had ofaserious the shelter andtreat a severe sickness tipi, it suggested The Adven- ling of another comfort of home andthe security ofnIenry H. Sibley, Ironface: t the guilty per- ture.s of Jack Frazier,Frontier Warrior, the family. In decorative art,the un- Scout and Hunter, eds. T. C.Bleyen and , divided circle stood forthe whole S. Davidson, p. 200. red was f.,129-130. world; the circle filled with 'Gilmore, op. cit., p. 52. the sun; filled with blue, it wasthe 6. 'Ibid., pp. 53-54. Ie TheirHome,P. sky; and divided intofour parts, it was the fourwinds.28 Plinderhill, op. cit., p. 132.

1 2 1..);il'- ea In -es keligi9a 13 enemies. firstreceivedtherein s a work was founded upun and :n-o- his moted the Indian ideal of er- tenev, ti dream; but, once he re, hood, and all service rziukrt to vision he felt Obligated to at- violate a fellow beings was for the gocrl of when act meta with medicinal het-.)s. ?at :he tribe. Such wisdom and "ir:Igic bath, and ceremony." One of..ce 'lower- as Ile had achieved --.ust any idio practitionersis quoted by 'lc shared, as were food and ,:lnh- might be more. ing, with his fellow inan. He made Me of th to charge for his helpfulness in In tile In the old days die. Indi..w oinisteringtotlit!sick.forthe spiritual few diseases, and so there wo, .omforting songs he sang, nor for warrior 1-hestrength he gave them; and demand for a large variety o n ln A medicine-manusually when a medicine-man was called, eines. couldh treated one special disease and treat- he never was known to refuse die ed it successhilly. He did this in sumnnsoiis.8 ' whom Ii accordancewithhisdream. A guidanc medicine-mon would not tryto The other memhers of the Dako- bad a dream of all herbs and treat all ta nation, those not specializing in with na diseases, for then he could not ex- the treatment of illness, were still eaptu iv( pect to succeed in all nor to fulfill quite concerned with obtaining the historim properly the dream of any one herb influence of a guardian spirit to or animal. He would depend on too watch over and guide their health Amon many and fail in all. That is one and destinies. Generally, young men wildl reason why our medicine-men lost sought supernatural aid through a singin their power when so many diseases might came among us with the advent of vision, and it was possible for any- or giv the white men." one to have a spirit appear in a Store t dream, promising him help in emer- world The shaman's chief function wasgencies in return for a special offer- astrolo curing illness thought to result froming, prayer, or observance of taboos. closely the malign influence of a foreignFor example, the devotee received guardi body whkh had entered the patient.instructions from the spirit to com- ereatio The therapeutic value of his treat-pose a secret "medicine" song or to bodie ment largely depended upon reliev-gather articles in a sacred bundle thing serpen ing the patient of the fear causedknown only to himself and his guar- old jii bv the supposedly evil influence.dian spirit. A man's "medicine" was enshri Thus the shaman used rubbing,guarded with his life, for it was con- tector blowing, smoking, and other cere-sidered a very powerful aid against monies and occasional trickery in"William T. Corletit, The Medicine Man order to convince the patient that of the American Indian and Ills Cul- The the evil spirit had been dispelled.32 tural Background, p. 121. kota re Clearly, modern scientific medical"Frances Densmore, Teton Sioux Music, definite skill was lacking, but the procedure pp. 244-245. fore, %vi around the sick had a sensible ra-'Underhill, op. cit., p. 132. contact eJd tha:: tionale.33 Thus it may bt- **Halley, op. cit., p. 204. he mils human The medicine-man was true uLuther Standing Bear, Land of the Spot- benefactor of his people in that his ted Eagle, p. 203. bodily

12 1.3 14 South Dakota _Experiment Station Bulletin 4, ided upon and pro- enemies. In order to maintain its po-protect uninitiatet members of the ian ideal of brother- terscv. the favored man could notgronp from possible danger, since it service rendered to violate any of the obligations madewas believed that his powermight was for the good of when acquiring the "medicine," andinjure the unblessed. Partiodarly, wisdom and "magic seclusion for the purpose of avoid- had achieved must any idiosynerasvinhis behavior spiritualcontamirtationwas ,xere food and cloth- alight be attributed to the displens-most importinit during the life criscs ( How man. Fie made ore of the guardian spirit.' of birth, puberty, and death. It was rhis helpfulness in In time of danger or despair, thethought that when these unce:itrol- ) thesick.forthe spiritual well-being of the Dakota eventsoUctlyred, ngs he sang ,. nor for lablebiological Ise gave them; and warrior depended on his guardianthe Indian was subject to an un- :ine-inan was called, spirit. In all of nature, the Dakotausual power from which all most he known to refuse the couldfindmysticinfluencesonsafegt larded.31 whom he might rely for succor and For esample, arm eweetant moth- guidance. As n result, the Indianer retired to a prepred lodge where lemnbers of the Dako- had a profound spirittmlaffinityshe was attended by skilled female -e not specializing in with nature, a feeling accuratelyrelatives who had ceremonially pro- of illness, were still captured by Francis Parlanan, thetected themsdves. Even before the .:d with obtaining the historian. birth, songs were composed and. a i guardian spirit to pole with eagles' down attached to d guide their health Among those mountains nota the top was dedicated in the infant's :enerally, young men wild beast was prowling, a bird future home. Shortly after the birth, :aural aid through a singing, or a leaf fluttering, that might not tend to direct his destiny themother brought theinfant %vas possible for any- or give warning of what was in home, and then the transfer of char- ispirit appear in a store for him: and he watches the acter,naming,andoar-piercing ing him help in emer- world of nature around him as the ceremonies were beld.as urn for a special offer- astrologer watches thestars.So Occasionally, young children observance of taboos. closely is he linked with it that his were selected for the Hanka cere- time devotee received guardianspirit,no unsubstantial om the spirit to corn- creation of the fancy, is usually em- "DeCost Smith, Indian Experiences, p. 'medicine" song or to bodied in thc form of- some living 131. s in a sacred bundle thinga bear, a wolf, an eagle, or a 'Frances Parkman, The Oregon Trail, p, himself and his guar- serpent; as he gazed intently on the old pine tree, might believe it to "Underhill, op. cit., p. 128, omn's "medicine" was enshrine the fancied guide and pro- "Dorsey, op. cit., p. 482.. "The ceremony Isis life, for it was con- tector of his life." transferring character was usually as fol- powerful aid against lows: Should the infant be a boy; a bnive Practices and Beliefs and good-tempered man, choseli before- riot, The Medicine Man hand, takes the infant in his arms and n Indian and Hi-s Ca- The emotional responses in Da- breathes into his mouth, thereby com- ul, p. 121. kota religion were associated with municating his own disposition to the lore, Teton Sioux Music, definite practices and beliefs. There- infant, who will grow np to be a brave fore, whenever anyone had been in and good-naturerf man. It is thought that such an infant will not ery as much as p. 132. contact with supernatural power. hifants that have not been thus favored. . p. 204. he must voluntarily withdraw from Should the infant be a girl, it is put into g Bear, Land of the Spot- human society and refrain from the arms of a good woman, who breathes 03. bodily activities, so that he might into its mouth."

1 4 ..614/101... r 4 The Dakota ltldian Religion 15' South D influ- believed to bethat the strong supernatural guide the people by his c loony, if they were endanget the men in sinless. Singing and praying, a coun-ence might not protect them fromthe r solemnitytbe eanip." r:wri feuds anddisy.nsi cil of great formality and were to gain renownby its ceremonials, the At puberty, the young men were gathered. In initiated into enemy; bot greatness spirits invoked were tokeep thelikewise ready to be kind was in store for h ehild pure, free from the vicesofadult society. and had toseek super- men, in order thathis saintly lifenatural aid to guide their careers The seclusion and fa might pro.vide a perfect exampletoand ensure success.Parkman's de- numerous ordeals we of living ascription of the vision questof a gions practices that TM his people. The necessity from a family re- life of unquestioned moralityis em-young Dakota unstinted the youth's phasized in the advice to thechildnowned for their warlikeexploits also helped gain the sj. elected for LI unka. The honor ac-is vivid. The vision, as Parlin suggests, usually folio corded the child allows no one"to young man he the slightest, When 3 very ard form: an animal up presume upon him in submitted to the singular riteto this g much le.. to offer an insult tohim." which most of the tribesubject man guise, and of the gave instructionsin In order that "this person themselves before entering upon where feti elect, may be distinguishedfrom life. He painted his facebl2ck ; then songs, told others of the tribe, he wearshis seeking out a cavern in a seques- fonnd or how they co and taught -the nee paintinnarrow,perpendicular, tered part of the BlackHills, he lay even stripes."If one were chal- for several days, fastingand pray- holy man provided gi he ing to the GreatSpirit. In the suppbeant, interprete lenged regarding his position, by his would ask: "How many timeshave dreams and visions produced nation, and warned Hunka, and by weakeoed and excited state,he fan- propriate or false spit you been made a cied, like all Indians. thathe saw bow many horses?" At each Hanka supernatural revelations. Againand The guardian spin ceremony, horses werepresented again, the form of anantelope ap.. ferred great power and given to the unfortunate as an peared before him. The antelopeis warrior, permitting I act of mercy." Giving awaygoods the graceful peace spirit of theQgol- from the enemy by in honor of othersprovided both the lalla, but seldom is itthar such a fArength or even by 1 giver and receiver withadditional gentle visitor presents itselfduring visible like a ghost oi prestige. As in our culture,the most the initiatory tasts oftheir young spirit also helpedth disinterested type of charity was ex- men. Theterrible grizzly bear, the rior to obtain imple divinity of war, usually appears to hilaited by giving to someonewho ardor and constructed accordM fire them with martial scription and charge( clearly was not evected to give an- thirst for renown. Atlength the other gift in return. Thecharity gift antelope spoke. He toldthe young power, andprovide( was most suitably givenin honor of dreamer that he was not tofollow cial paints for the p children who wereinvolvedin the path of war; that alife of peace body. These favors Hunka, or in naming and ear-pierc- and tranquillity was marked outfor upon the proper p ing ceremonies as well.") him; that henceforwardhe was to several rituals: vap ings, chants, and ur When the young Dakotafemale""I talky, op. cit., pp.218-219. reached the age of puberty,she was 'Jeannette Mirsky, "TheDakota" in Co- Throughont adult considered ready for marriageand operation and CoinpetitionAnwng Prim- other practices, tai childbirth, another importantlife iticePeoples,"EditedbyMargaret scriptions of a religi crisis. Thus she had toseclude 'her- Mead, p. 412. tinned to govern tb self from the camp circlein order"Underhill, op. cit., p. 128. gion permeated e

1 5 South Dakota ExperimentStation Bulletin 473 16 art ng supernaturalindu- guide the people by his counselsand Dakota life, including lt endangerthe men in protect them from theevils of their The drawings usu_ally dissensions. Others personal history Oi the41.--tist's ex- own feuds and and, of the young men were were to gain renownby fighting the ploits and accomplishments. , enemy; but greatness of adifferent course,many picturesdepicted dv to be initiated into kind was in store for him.42 some sopernaturalexpe- 'a,- ce or .and had to seek super- , t. such and theforce.45 In conjunction to guide their careers The seclusion and fasting, essential activities astha aunt the success. Parkman'sde- numermis ordeals werevital reli- r surpli- only dem-divinities were thanked the vision quest of a gions practices that not cated by proper sacrifice a more >ta from a family re- onstrated the youth's couragebut as the interest.important occasions, so their warlike exploits also helped gain the spirits Sun Dance, religiousCremonies The vision, as Parkman'saccount incinded stand-lasted several days and suggests, usually followed a purification in the steambath, fast- veryyoung manhe in hu- rite to ard form: an animal appeared ing, silence andseclusion, self-tor- to the singular man guise, andthis guardian spirit st of the tribesubject gave instructions inthe form ofture, and sacrifice.'" before entering upon fetishes could be The Tetons wereconstantly faced lined his face black; then songs, told where found or how they couldbe found,wth the possibility ofsudden death it a cavern in a segues- of a dead war- of the Black Hills, he lay and taught The necessaryritual. Ain warfare. Members days, fasting and pray- holy man provided guidance totherior's family reactedcharacteristi- In the supplicant, interpreted thehalluci-cally to his death. Themourning c Great Spirit. deceased s ci visions produced byhis nation, and warnedagainst inap-family distributed the and excited state, he fan- propriate or false spirits.4" weapons and horses torelatives and all Indians, that he saw friends, and they mightpublicly and The guardian spiritusually con- ral revelations. Again his favoritehonor him by giving awaytheir own form of an antelope ap- ferred great power on u»tiltheir lodge re- is warrior, permitting him to escapebelongings 'ore him. The antelope skill ormained almost bare. Thefemales in ul peace spirit of the Ogal- from the enenw by great their grief by seldom is it that such a strength or even by beingmade in-the family indicated wind. The.pathetic wailing, cuttingtheir hair, nor presents itself during visible like a ghost or the clothing, tory fasts oftheir young spirit also helped theDakota war-wearing old and ragged hear, the of war,and even gashingthemselves with c terrible grizzly rior to obtain implements dead war- )1 war, usually appearsto constructed accordMg todivine pre-knives. The body of the wIth martial ardor and spiritualrior was painted,dress,A in his hest length the scription and charged with inrobes,and renown. At power, and providedhim with spe-clothing,draped spoke. He told the young of hisplaced on a scaffold forburial.47 that he was not tofollow cial paints for the protection al war; that a life of peace body. These favors weredependent"Parkrnan, op. cit., pp. 127-128. niElity was marked out for upon the properperformance of'Underhill, op. cit., p. 131. it henceforwardhe was to several rituals: vaporbaths, fast-"Dorsey, op. cit., p. 444. prayers.44 cit., pp. 218-219. ings, chants, and "Smith, op. cit., p. 109. Mirsky, -The Dakota" in Co- Throughout adult life, numerous "Dorsey, op. cit., pp. 435-437. al& Competition Among Prim- other practices, taboos,and pro-"Paul Beckwith, "Note onthe Customs pies,"Editedby Margaret scriptions of a religiousnature con- of the Dakotas," AnmalReport of the -112. tinued to govern theDakota. Reli- Board of Regents of Smithsonian In- op. cit., 128. gion permeated everyaspect of stitution, 1886, p. 16 :17x, Dakota Thdian Religion .17 South Dakota Expertr were composed in visionsin accord- of beha- The death of a relati,ce wasfol- of a to the candidate on rules lowed by a ceremony designed toance with the instructions vior.55 retain his ghost. Somethingthat be-guardian spirit?' The Sun Dance proper, acollec longed to the deceased, such as a The rites and ceremonies of this timi of disjointed but yetspiritual! \ lock of hair, was placed in an elabo-annual slimmer convocation cohni- unified ceremonies of devotion ti) ratelydecoratedreceptacle andnated in the elaborate Sim Dance, deities, was divided into two peri- heng from a frame outsidetheeoosisting of a series of preparatory ods, each usually requiringfor, theand devotional rites merged into th lodge. Then for a few months the semblance af a unified wbok,f,2 days. During the first period, relatives prepared for a great feast, camp was organized;each tipi wa denying theinselves necessities,andThe prehmi»ary rites included the assigned its traditional place inth, avoiding nll evil. in order to pre-choice of a mentor to prepare the camp circle, andthe heralds an( vent sickness or sufferingwhich thecandidate, the vitrification of the marshals were appointed.Oh spirits may use as retributionforcandidate in the sweat lodge,53 the friends and relatives were reunite( non-compliance with the religiouslament or cry for a vision,." the erec- ittharmonv and communionb ruleS. Food and "feast lodges" weretion of the altar and the installation smoking the pipe. Selection wa prepared, long sticks were placedof the buffalo skull, the meditation made of the children who were t in the ground to representtheand consecration of the candidate, participateintire"carpiercirig ghest, and gifts contributed byrel-and finally, the mentor's instructions ceremony or in the processionto th atives were exhibited aroundthe op. cit., pp. 214-210. sacredtree.The females wh poles. After the feast bad been cere-"Underhill, op. cit., p. 133. wished to serve as attendants to th monially carried out, the ghostde-"Densmore, ap. cit., p. 22. candidates or to chop the sacre parted in luxury needing the care'Ibid., p. 59, tree were also chosen.Towards Or of his bereaved relatives no longer.'""Paul Radin, The Story of the American end of the first phase, the worm Indian, p. 316. selected for these honors were pe Ceremony and Ritual "Brown, op. cit., p. 31. This rite is ex-. mitted a feast in the dance lodg plained as follows: "The rite of the oni- Finally, the mentors of the cand Many Dakota ceremonies were kare (sweat lodge) utilizes all the Pow- dates went to a nearby hill tosin held at appointed times when a ers of the universe: earth,and the things and pray to the spirits of the for number of hands could come to- which grow from the earth, water, lire, gether for the common purposeof and air. The water represents the Thun- winds." seeking the aid of the supereatural der-beings who came fearfully but bring At sunrise on the first dayof tl goodness, for the steam wh;ch conies -0 spirits. These gatherings were usu- from the rocks, within which is the fire, second four-day periodcalled ally held in the late smnmerwhen is frightening, hut it purifies as sothat holy timea symbolic charge of eir- we mav live as Wakan-Tankawills, and warriors against the evil spirits food was plentiful in the camp if we eks.40 Much of the time was spent Tie may even send in os a vision the site of the ceremonial camp, a in ceremonial dancing andsinging. become very pure." companied by war cries and sho( The meaning of the ceremonial was'Ibid., p. 44. "Every man can cry for a ing of arrows, freed the grounds vision, or "lament' : and in the old days evil gods, in order that the sacr denoted by the content of the songs we allmen andwomenlamented" all and the form of the dance.Although the time, What is received through the lodges could be erected in the ce many songs weresocial or recrea- "lamenting" is determined in part by the monial camp. The older men, tional, such as those devoted to character of the person who does thi:, lected for their knowledge of tra for it is only those people who are very tonal ritual, supervised the lo fighting, hunting, praise, brother- qualified who receive the great visions, and tr hood, or love, they usually pos- Which arc interpreted by our holy man, tion of the sacred lodges sessed some supernatural or"inspi- and which give -trength and health to Scouts s,arehed out a. special c rational" elements.a° The best songs our nation." tonwood tree and marked it w

1 7 Stali9n Bulletin 473 . 17 IS South Dakota Experiment dancing visions in accord- to thc candidate onrules of beha-red spots on four sides. A iistructionsof a area was built in acircle of forked vior.55 poles in the ground andcovered The Sun Dance proper, acollec-with pine boughs, andwhen this ercnrionies of this tion of disjointed but vetspiritually feast awocation cohni- work was completed a buffalo unified ceremoniesof' devotion tocompleted the day's activitiesP orate Su» Dance. peri- deities, was divided into two the 'les of preparatory ods, each usually requiringfour The ceremonies relati,g to ites merged into the capture and trimmingof the sacred days. Diffing the first period, dav of the a tingledwhole:4 camp was organized;each tipi wastree occupied the second rites included the in thcholy time. The capture ofthe tree assigned its traditional place followed by or to prepare the camp circle,and the heralds andby the warriors was nrification of the Oldbinding sweet grass, sage, andbuf- marshals were appointed. chokecherry sweat lodge,53 the friends and relatives werereunitedfalo hair wrapped in vision,54 the crec- in harmony and conummionbysticks to the fork at its top. The pro- lid the installation cession to bring the tree tothe cere- smoking the pipe. Selection was while the the meditation made of the children who weretomonial camp was formed of the candidate, warriors counted coup on the tree; participatein tl me "ca rp ierci down, entor's instructions ceremony or inthe procession to thethe purest female then cut it The females whoand ritually declared it sacred,thus . 21.1-216. sacredtree. wished to serve as attendants totheenabling the processsion to carry p. 133. the sacred tree into the ceremonial p. 22. candidates or to chop thesacred chosen. Towards thecamp where it wasthen trimmed tree were also and painted." tory of the .-tinerican end of the, first phase, the women selected for these honors were per- The next step -was the raisingof 31. This rite isex... mitted a feast in the dancelodge.the sacred tree and thevicteiry : -The rite of the (Mi- Finally, the mentors of thecandi-dance, which leveled theground for 1 utilizes all the Pow- dates went to a nearby hill tosingthe great dance to the sun.In the : earth, and thethings and pray to the spirits ofthe fourmeantime, the candidates assem- the earth, water, fire, smoke, r represents the'nom- winds.56 bled in the sacred lodge to iCarfully but bring At sunrise on the first clayof theburn sweet grass, composetheir Q. steam which conies second four-day periodcalledtheown songs, andpurify themselves -Rhin which is the fire, of thewith prayers and sweat baths. On itit purifies us so that holy timea symbolic charge time, .'nkaii-Tanko wills, and warriors against the evil spirits onthe fourth morning of the holy at to ns a vision if we the site of the ceremonial camp, ac-the whole camp dressed intheir most beautiful costumesand greet- companied by war tries and shoot- hill top ery man ean cry for a ing of arrows, freed thegrounds ofed the rising sun from a t": and in the old days evil gods, in order that thesacredclose by. The young warriorstben women"himented"all raced their ponies clown the hill s received throughthe lodges could be erected in the cere- terinined in part by the monial camp. The older men, se-'Tata liadin, The World of Prhnitive per5On who does this. lected for their knowledge oftradi- Man, p. 176. Se people who are very tional ritual, supervised theloca- "Ibid., pp. 176-177. ceive the great visions, and tree. reted by our holy man, tion of the sacred lodges "Embree, op. cif., pp. 150-151. strengs:h and health to Scouts searched out a special cot- 5Tadin, The World of Primitive Man, op. tonwood tree and marked it with cit., p. 178.

18 .....,12.1fort1WIA941111.14.2.1

I ' I

20 South Da4 thus attached to his breas till it seemed to drawthc three inches, and finally nearly his whole might n the sewn. One, painted black, ropes attached at once.Ti out is done inthe dance, ti carried on in the timeof by jerk, jerk, jerk, and tb(- and front all facing the !- form of supplication. On setons attached tofour d head hones. These were and suspended to his fles that raised each head s feet off the ground. He d to tear them out,hut nothreak the skin. One c weights (each at least potinds weight), not tea their own weight or devotee gave a comradc

.47: Lt take hold of the rope a Dakota ritual, and they are the sctons. While these The sweat lodge played anessential part in traditional still occasionally seen on thePine Ridge reservation. thus tortured, their fern came in and hadpieces

lodge. They three men stood over thedevotee and around the sun with needle and knife, verycluietly were followedby the women and performing penance. according to children who thereupongathered the customs of all thesesacerdotal to watch the processionof warriors rites, as follows; First,they cut the carrying lie buffalo headfrom the arrns in severalplaces by sticking sacred lodge to the dancingarea." an awl inthe skin, raising ir and The children chosen forthe "ear cutting out about half an inch;this piercing" ceremony were called out, is done on both arms, and 3 omc- and this rite was performed.The times on the breast and back,Then ordeal of wooden setons( sticks about the final rite was the climatic thickness of a common leadpencil) the can:!idatestheir captivity,tor- hole in the they danced are inserted through a ture, anci escapeas skin and flesh. Tn cords or ropes gazing %t the sun."' Thisordeal was are attached to ..se sticks by one descrined by General Curtis, Com- end, and to the j.e at the other end, mander at Fort Sully in the1880's the victim pulhng on the ropestill in these words: the sewn sticks tear out theflesh and skin. I saw one with two setons On yesterday, June Ist, the c'anc- z°Embree, op. cit., pp. 151-152. ing was delayed at intervals toallow tortures to be inflicted.Two or 67tadin, op. cit., p. 179. 19 19 1' Station Bulletin 473 20 South Dakota Experiment the victim pulling their men. Still as soon as thus attached to his breast, could be prepared, the music was till it seemed to draw theskin out dance went requiring renewed, and the dismal three inches, and finally on, victims'bodies now mingled nearly his whole might to tear out with blood, paint and setons.al the seton. had four The Sun Dance as awhole fuses One, painted black, of pres- ropes attached at once.The pulling the vision quest and a series out is done in thedance, the pulling tige-gettingpatternswhichap- carried on in the time of themusic pealed greatly to theDakota peo- by jerk. jerk, jerk, and the eye,head ple. The cooperativeactivities of and front all facing the sunin the warfare, hunting, andsharing were form of supplication. Onehad four symbolized in all the ceremonies; scums attached to fourdry buffalo and the role of the provenvirgin head bones. These were all strung coold by ropes suggesting that women, too, an-1 suspended to his flesh achieve high status, wasof great that raised each head somethree the feet off the ground. He dancedhard significance."2 The religion of to tear them out,but they would Dakotas was epitomized inthese not break the skin.One came off the collectivesymbolsofthe Sam weights (each at leasttwenty-five Dance: the variousdances and pounds weight), not tearing outby taboos, the regalia, andelaborate their own weight or motion,the ritual.° devotee gave a comrade ahorse to take hold of the rope and tear out ihPond, op. cit., pp. 237-238. "Mirsky, op. cit., p, 408. ota riMal, and they are the setons. While these werebeing and relations "Edward Sapir, Culture, Language va don. thus tortured, their female Personality, pp. 127-128. came in and hadpieces cut out of od over the devotee id knife, very quietly nance, according to t all these sacerdotal s: First, they cutthe LI places by sticking skin, raising it and out half an inch;this >th arms. and some- reast and back.Then IN ( sticks about the common lead pencil) hrough a hole in the .Then cords or ropes to these sticks by one pole at the other end, -fling on the ropes till c-ks tear out the flesh w one with two setons pp. 151-152. p. 179, 20 Ill. A Study of Dakota Values Sol Civilization ofv, It is an axiom in modern sociolo- The anthropologist .. seescol- were differentfren gy that the integration of human cureasagoal-orientedsystem. kotas. These whi societies is a product of the thinking These goalsare expressed,pat- terned, lived out by people in their group demolish-a, of man; that is to say. it is not the re- behaviors and aspirations in the is:consistency of sult of man's physical or biologieal form of valuesobjects or posses- were convincedtb traits. Man's thinking has produced sions, conditions of existence, per- justifiedin aggr interests, purposes, and goals, and sonality or characterologicalfea- their value systen acceptablemeansofachieving tures, and states of mind, that are result, thu Dakot, them. Whenthesevaluesare conceived as desirable, and act as only forcibly expo shared by a group of people, consist- motivating determinants of beha- tory value-systein. ent and predictable behavior is pos- vior." to intense value sible, and the individuals are psy- A value system may then be de- chologically bound together in aufined as an established cluster of association of "like-thinking" mem-acceptedbehaviorpatternsfor Purpose of Eh bers. It is this common and uuiformachieving the goals which the com- thinking and behavior of a group ofmunity has prescribed as constitut- It is the purist- people that enables us to identify aing the "good way of life." A con- deseri be and anal "culture." in the value syst sistent value system facilitates the Indians and Wes The shared behavior in the cul-smoot e. functioning of group activi- ture of any group of people is sup-ties, and asit decreases friction and to suggest a ported by a governing moral code.among group members creates a tion for the reli The code comprises a number ofsense of well-being in their minds. present day Pine values which embody the expected Each society has a unique value residents as a re and desirable ways of achieving thesystem. Thus when an individual in in values betwee sociallyestablishedgoals. Theseany society says that he is doing the The method use( moral values consciously or uncon-"right" thing, he simply means that porpose is based sciously govern much or the beha-he is conforming to the value sys- that the Pine Bit vior of the members of the associa-tem of his group. The Dakota In- pess their pri tion. Some values, considered moredians, for example, fought to pre- sponse to a serie important than others, are rigidlyserve their homeland from intruders on ideas comm enforced and the sanctions imposedbecause this was the only "right" the traditional upon violators are strict and harsh.action consistent with the values of American cultu These core values make up the these questiou the society to which they belonged. tend to approv moral code or value system of aWhen they were forced to surrender cultures, the hy people. But as we know, valuesto the Army of the United States, often express ideals, which makethey were faced with a new value are more likely clear what the behavior of the indi- of marginal rel system incompatible and irreconcil- a result of the sr vidual ought to be; thus they mayable with their own. not always be consistent with actual The frontiersmen expressed the flict behavior. Yet, despite such incon-culture of 19th century Western Thus, restat sistency, observable behavior is usu this study may "George D. Spindler, "Education in a lows: The res ally a reasonable reflection of the Transforming American Culture" Har- accepted value system, especially vard Educational Review, XXV (Sum- residents. to a in well-integrated societies. mer 1955) p. 145. based on tradit 21 Soy& Dakota ExperimentStation Bulletin 473 22 culture, the valuesand modernAmerican Civilization of which reveal conflicts inthose values ex- . eul- Da- . sees were differentfrOm those of time pressive of marginalreligious par- cotedsystem. kotas. These white men,a varied indicating ap- .\ pressed,pat- demonstrating the vigorousticipation. Answers people in their group proval of both value systemssuggest rations in the inconsistency ofWestern culture,greater participationinreligious ects or posses- were convincedthat they were fullyactivities, but thoseindicating ap- justified in aggressivelyimposing suggest existence, per- others. As aproval of one value. system Tologicalfea- their value system on lesser participation.This thesis can mind, that are result, the Dakotapeople were notbe suminarized in aformula: lc, and act as only forcibly exposed to acontradic- Vaiurs-4VaIue tants of beha.. but also subjected DakotaValues-I-Americas tory value-system, Coralirt-4Marginal Religions Partdpoionc'7 to intense vahieconflicts. iay then be ac- The rest of thisbulletin is organ- hed cluster of ized on the. basis ofthis hypothesis. for Purpose of theSthdy The next sections dealwith the tra- patterns tbe effect of which the coin- of this study toditional value system, It is the purpose American values onDakota society, ed as cons titut- describe and analyze,thediffererices adjustment to of life." A con- of the Dakotaand the forms of in the value systems value conflict found inmarginal re- facilitates the Indians and WesternCivilization,G5 findings re- of group activi- ligions. A report of the and to suggest aprobable explana-garding the valuechoicesand creases friction tion for thereligious practicesof ofPine ibers creates a Ridge Reservationreligiousparticipation present day Pine Ridge residentsfollows and the n their ininds. residents as a resultof the conflict social im- a Unique value the two societies.last section suggests some -In values between plications of this study. an individual in The method used toaccomplish this t he is doing the purpose isbased on the assumption uply means that that the Pine RidgeIndians will ex- the value svs- press theirprimary values in re- The Dakota fn- sponse to a seriesof questions based .fought to pre- commonly held ineither d from intruders on ideas the traditionalDakota or modern'Western Civilization inthis study refers he only "right" If in answering culture possessed by the American cultures. to the form of Great ith the values of these questions,the respondents frontiersmen on the American i they belonged. values of both Plains. tend to approve the 'Marginal religious activityrefers to any ced to surrender cultures, the hypothesisis that they which com- e United States, form spiritual belief or practice are morelikely to exhibit some bines elements oftraditional and Chris- tco:ith a new value of marginal religiousbehavior" as tian religions. e and irreconcii= of the unresolvedvalue con-"This formulation is not atrue mathe- a result rather a descrip- 1. flict. matical equation, but ri expressed the hypothesis of tion of logicalrelationships. American ntury Western Thus, restated, the values are regarded asdominant and this study may beexpressed as fol- Dakota values subordinate.Marginal re- of Pine Ridge ligious participation is oneof many pos- , "Education in a tows: The responses .to value an Culture" Har- 'residents, to a seriesof questions sible- methods of adjustment view, XXV (Sum- based on traditionalDakota culture, conflict. The Dakota hulian Religion 24 Song, highly valued, and appeared to be Values in Dakota Society based oo the fact that the benefitof noun usedto expres, implied a The religion of the Dakotas, ap-the group was unconditionally val- "my horse" rathertla parent in every functionof theirued above that of any individual.71 foritism daily lifein their literature andThis communal principle may have These attitudes sugi arisen from necessity. Since migra- guistie expression art, as well as their wholesocio-eco- ated by behavior.Sly established pat-tory people negded a safe minimum nomic complex of property, but not more. than they in need, thosewith rt terns of expected ethicalbehavior. not have tobe remin could carry with thei a, these people t Thus it would be impossible to dis-who engaged in the buffalo chase of their obligation entangle religious behavior fromwere dependent upon thegenerosi- to sharewould hay the setting of Dakota society. Espe-ty of the luckiest and mostable as "not a trueDakot cially during the periods of alifehunters. Generosity thus became The trait of gene crisis, such as birth, puberty,sick-such an important focus of training apparent in the prae ness, or death, religiousrites con-and prestige that the most despised ity. Everycaller w tributed to social stability, as theyman was he whodeviated even evercourtesy-food served the functional purposeofslightly from the ideal sharing pat- even if hehad just integrating the total culture pat-tern.72 wasgraciously acce tern." Such integration is suggested During times of general abun- Rol., 011d what was by the concept of wakan, which rep-dance in the Dakota camps, there diately was taken resents the power ofthe spirits:were no eases of individualpriva- consumption. This "Every object in the world has ation. The weak, the aged, and even wateal wastaken I spirit and that spirit is wakan."Thisthe indolent were all permitted to wasreturned witi force is greater than mortal man-share in the spoils of the buffalo phrase ofthanks kind; immortal, it binds and unifieshunt, and as long as there waS any and shelter was,of the whole world into a completefood in the camp even tbe helpless of the hospitality circle." old woman would not perish from to all relatives.S starvation. The idea that the. food ships werewidel This religious view of the worldbelonged to a single individual ship included no exerted considerable influence uponcould not even be expressed in tho circle, but the whe the individual in Dakota society,Dakotan language. It was not pos- Therefore, as a re shaping his ethical beliefs and be-sible to say "my meat" or "my buffa- elusive "coden havior into a common pattern andlo"; rather one said, "the meat that things were mutu permitting only slight deviationsis in my tipi." The possessive pro- between ideals and practices. Thus into the seven behavioral norms which "J.H.Steward,Theory ofCulture are described inthis section repre- Change, pp. 139-141. The DAotastl of"Raclin, The World of Primitive Man, op. esty of anykind sent the ideal values and action cit., pp. 53-54 the Tcton Dakota society. "Henry R. Schoolcraft, Narrative Journal, graceful. Moreo edited by Mentor L. Williams, p. 202. tempted to liaise Generosity 7'llobert J. Havighurst and Bernice L. if he imnmdestb Neugarten, American Indian and White gered, he was As early as 1820 the Dakotas were Children, p. 111. attempt to misr characterized by Schoolcraft as "a"Erick H. Erickson, "Observations on tance withthe brave, spirited, and generous peo- Sioux Education," The Journal of Psy- dead." chology, VII (January, 1939), p. 117. cover is ple.'" The ideal of generosity was indicated mod 23 Bulletin 473 Sonar DakotaExperinunt Station to be 24 face in a robe orby using some to express"my tipi" or this cover was the benefit of noun used of fa-"cover" of reticence, ditionally val- my horseimplied an-object considered "dead"and ineffective rather thanownership. had passed away. e individual." foritism suggested by lin-when modesty highly nmy have These attitudes Truth wasdeemed such a guistic expressionweresubstanti- a young man .Since migra- bevalued norm that even ated by behavior.Should anyone who boasted ofhis successful ex- safe miniumm with a surpluswould !lore than they in need, those ploits was guiltyof an extremely un- be reminded veryoften indiscretion." A personre- I. these people not have to Refusalwise of theirobligation to give. garded as unreliableand deceitful buffalo chase branded one question: the generosi- to sharewould have was referredto in this as "not atrue Dakota."77 "Did you not seehis palate?"The n(1 most able also striped palate of thus became The trait ofgenerosity was reference is to the cus of training apparent in thepractice ofhospital-the trickster inDakota mythology." caller was givenwhat- of the unques- most despised ity. Every available Some essentials deviated even evercourtesy-food was behavior of the be had just eaten.The foodtionably honorable by al sharing pat- even if by the vis-Dakotas havebeen described wasgraciously accepted Miles, a promi- what was not eatenimme-General Nelson A. stated that general abun- itor, and for laternentfrontiersman. He a camps, there diately wastake» home there were no meansof securing val- This courtesy-foodor prized personal dividual priva- consumptio». whichuables or highly aged, and even wateca wastaken in a bowl, for one Indian to conventionalequipment, 'but 11 permitted to wasreturned with a enter the lodgeof anotherwithout thanks.'" Sharingfood welcomed would of the buffalo phrase. of basisbeing bidden or there wa§ any and shelter was,of course, the highly dishonor- patternextendingbe regarded as a that 'en the helpless of the hospitality able act, andfor one to take tot perish from to allrelatives. Sinceall relation- another of the widely extended,kin-which belongs to a that the food ships were the campsame tribewould be looked on as tgle individual ship includednot only of death."78 whole Dakotanation.crime deserving xpressed in tho circle, bat the opinion wasthat Therefore, as aresult of thisall-in- The Dakota it was not pos- most dishonesty in t or "my bulb.- clusive "codeof kinship," there must be no mutually shared.ma achieving recognitionor status. ."the meat that things were indi- possessive pro- Any positiongained by an integrity vidual in his band wasdue solely to coryofCulture thought thatdishon-"Boas, op. cit,, p.340. The Dakotas extremely dis- 47. Primitive Man, op. esty of anykind was "Ella Deloria,Speaking of Indians, p. Department of PublicIn- graceful. Moreover,if a man at-"South Dakota .Narrative Journal, of South Dakota, p. tempted to misusehis authority, or struction, Indians Villiams, p. 202. boasted or swag- if he immodestly 45. the t and Bernice L. ridiculed forthis"Luther StandingBear, Land of Indian and White gered, he was 159-160. misrepresent hisimpor- Spotted Eagle, pp. attempt to 596. "Observations on the saying,"His face"Boas, op. cit., p. tance with "Nelson A. Miles,Personal Recollections he Journal of Pry- dead." Sincethe Dakotas 311-312. 1939), p. 117, cover is the and Observations, pp. , indicated modestyby hiding

2 4. 40:o

O`b 25. Indian Religion South The Dakota protectors of to the poorand needy, Sociability nd efforts.No at- andchildren,and his own abilities a coukl thewomen gal- In Dakota soeiaty, orrelationship politeness and tachment or givethem trained in true joking. and envero placeindividuals particularly desirable luster couldbe borrowed lantry.' rioiLi achievethe power; no crawled into bybow- aaig men the oh ler people. Grou and no circle Th. by engagingin paying homage.Every greate a.i:T'nors only relating to men fl-arplentla t them ing and from scout tochief, activities honor gair,ed, the dari.;::,aus best train- Click :n the evening who tookthe cere- interta aawarfare. The in sin'rig and eonvei and by those Sun Da nee, virtues of 7asuccessful mony ofCorn Dana. 9r ing reseraand dignity e%presstl willing- .,urage,euraling, and pa- wasgained on the war- in theexpedi- served council were ness to servethe members al tiencas obtained an attitude of light mei drive off theITcn-ses of the tribe.7'? tions thus an idol-ma:Ay; ;Ind, as Courage enee-"itealMg horses was noted, in this social circ occupation,particularly of braveryand forti-honor_ ale since it en- was not much wit, there The traits veryas a .aaasureof reprisal, a great deal of laughter tude in theDakota mal were and de- andriched thosewho excelled Sociability was an Mit much admired.Similar respect of propertyindis- accorded thefemalesprived the enemysafety.83 These of sublimation of the fii esteem were pensable tohis sion that typified the yo for theirchastity.8°Aggressiveness of suchparamount predominantly amale charac-virtues were that, even warriors, And the patri was prestigeimportancein warfare, their years of strenuous teristic, sincetrophies and youthful warriors of performingin time ofpeace, the hunting and fighting, werethe rewards pranks on bravery againstthe foe, ac-played dangerous their pro- primarily as peacemake feats of aid,enemy inorder to develop vented intergroup con quiring potentsupernatural less than to testthe vigi- property, orinflictingficiency no Theii older men, peaceful a giving away forlance oftheopposition." lent, were respected fo self-torture. Thepowerful drive skill inconcealment . of courageousactsstealth and and exe- ture judgment and abi the recognition Dakotastheir warinessin preparing causedoverly-brave at- mote better social relat even carefullycuting plans,their courageous the cainp eirele.87 occasionallytodisrupt defense, theirsharp hear- ambushes orbuffalo huntstack and sight, their expert In each group there planned unusual feating andunerring in order toperform an and theirfear- elderly Dakotas who mastery ofthe horse, the respect of their pen of valor.81 of made theDakotas un- Naturally, thegreatest deeds lessnesswarriors andtherefore, of their authentic: pers performed bytheequaled ties. These people migh courage were depended ondreaded enemies. youngerwarriors who sessed a nNn:nal ant and skill todefend"Standing Bear, op.cit., p. 161. their position depende their strength harm to (Editor), SocialAnthro themselves andprevent "Fred B. E cran Trthes, "Tb. thehonorstheyIna "braves" werephysi- Worth American others. These pology ofSanctions ofPlains India' through their courage withstand thetorture Underlying p. 359. prise on the warpath cally able to quickly Culture," byJohn 11. Provinse. of ihe enemyand to move Reality andDream mendiership in a numer long distancesin a'George Devereus, spectedfamily.They and quietly over able top. "- short timeif they were 'Densmore, op.cit., p. 176. treated with -the dignity The Dakotas re- 93. but they assumed none escape theenemy. medieval'Smith, op. cit., p. oarded them aswe do 91alley, op. cit., p.190. ward signs of rank or h According tothe Dakota respected men did not knights. be kind"Ibid. code of honor,they had to 25 25 26 South Dakom Experiment Station Bulletin 47.3 1:ieedy, protectorsof Sociability possess the most property, and in children,and some cases they even impoverished linC and gal- In Dakota society, friendly visit- politeness Mg, joking, and conversation werethemselves in order to ingratiate particularly desirable activities ofthemselv?s with other people 73v achieve the giving them presents. No sanctions 01en could the older people. Groups of older engaging in permitted the leadersto enforce l; only 1- to !nen frequently sat themselves in a [ aL .witi r.latiug circle in the evening and engagedtheir authority; therefore it was nec- &are. THebest train- in smoking and conversition. Theessary for them to seek their fol- lies Oflie successful lowing through the devotion and and pa- reserve and dignityusually ob- lge,cunning, served in council were replaced byreviectt or the other members of the )tained in theexpedi- an attitude of light merriment andband. A pleasar relationship off the horsesof the with friends and descendants was was thus an informality; and, as Parkman has ng horses noted, in this social circle, "if thereone of the chief means of achieving particularly and maintaining this influence:98 .cupation,since it en- was not much wit, there was at least Of reprisal, a great deal of laughter."" Kinship who excelledand de- indis- Sociability was an important form kemy ofproperty The character of the extended These of sublimation of the fierce aggres-family in Dakota society was an es- ) hissafety.93 paramotmt sion that typified the young Dakotasential factor determining the posi- of such warriors. Auld the patriarchs, after in warfare,that, even tion that an individual held in the youthful warriors their years of strenuous activities ofband. The success of a man's pros- ieace, the hunting and fighting, functioned gerouspranks on pects depended in large part on a develop theirpro. primarily as peacemakers and pre-powerful family that could assist der to vigi- vented intergroup conflict. These less than totest the him in an expedition or help him " Then older men, peaceful mud benevo-settle his quarrels. Moreover, by the die opposition lent, were respected for their ma- a skill inconcealment. mechanism of adoption and cere- and exe- ture judgment and ability to pro-monial brotherhood, relationships ess inpreparing mote better social relations within courageousat- which resembled a vital kinship us, their the camp circle.81 lefense, theirsharp hear- might be established between two sight, theirexpert In each group there were a fewindividuals who were unrelated or netring elderly Dakotas who connnanded t the. horse,aria their fear- very distantly related. This exten- made theDakotasun- the respect of their people becausesion of kinship made the two almost andtherefore, of their authentic personal quali-inseparable: "they ate, slept, and warriors ties. These peopk might have pos-hunted together, and shared with enemies." sesseda nominalauthority, butone another almost all that they Bear, op.cit., P. 161. their position depended more ,on Social Aritbro p0sses5ed."59 *can(Editor),Tribes, "Tb. thehonorstheyhadobtained The affection of one member of a oral American of PlainsIndia. through their courage and enter-Dakota fai oily for another was per- ng Sanctions 359. by John II.Provinse. p. prise on the warpath and theirhaps best expresssed in -the indul- Reality andDream membership in a numerous and re-gent and watchful care of a mother Devereux, spectedfamily.They might be , for her child. Love of kindred was p. 176. treated with -the dignity of leaders, re, op. cit., "Parkman,op. cit.,pp. 205-236. op. cit.,p. but they assumed none of the Out-"Deyereux, op. cit., p. 57. op. cit., p.196. ward signs of rank or honor. These'Parkman, op. cit., pp. 124-K5. respected men did not necessarily p. 220. kallaiMI asayagasewass...... ,

27 The Dakota mdi -11 Religiou 28 Soo& Dak sickness en- whose long locks I can never more The .;rienc:ly and lovn also app.,rent when braid: whose cheeks I can never melds of the family unit tered thu lodge. Thefamily would vermilion. I will skill to aid again tinge with with only slightly lessr devote a ' their arts and cast off mytangled hair, for my the whole band. There theira: ng kinsman.They also grief is great. Mechoonkshee! me quarreimg over property, sought t.treatment of theshaman choonkshee! thee? How very little greed; equaliti and his..nernaturai powers. Final- How can I survive Hee were primary traits o ly, a ei .e relative might",alier can I hehappy and you a ho:nciess How relationships. indeed, th blanker .bout him, andwithout a wanderer to the spirit-land? functioning of their mope .iound pass out of thelodge, can I eat if you arehungry? I will word with food fur your ship system was thought 1) and g. away up into somemoun- go to the grave, kotas to be the very basi, for days spirit. Your bowl and spu,il are tain cr hill, and there stay placed in your coffin, for use onthe their wav of life." alone, where he wouldappeal to play- journey. The feast for your Self-control the spirits 'without eating ordrink- mates has beenmade at the place ing, but with mostsorrowful moan- of your burial. Knowestthou of Although the Dakotas ing and wailing," to sparethe sick their presnce? Mydaughter! My ally characterized by the member of his family."The death daughter! men as fierce and unma of a child had an effectfar more When spring returns,the choic- the evidence indicates th poignant than that of anyother est of ducksshall he your portion, their experience with the tragedy that might befallDakota sugar andberries alsoshallbe tactics of the United State placed near your grave.Neither parents.91 shall be allowed .forces in the West they w has para- grass nor flowers table and dignified in thei: Mrs. Stephen B. Riggs to grow thereon.Affection for thee phased a lainent of aDakota moth- will keep the little mounddesolate, or towards not only friend er whichisafine example of like the heart fromwhich thou art strangers.94 For instance, parental tenderness anddevotion: turn. My daughter,I come, I come Carver, one of the explo I bring youparched corn; oh, bad first observed them,s Me choonkshee! Mechoonkshee! how long will you sleep? the Dakota Indians were (My daughter, my daughter)alas, The wintry windswailyour ly circitmspect and deli alas, my comfort has departed, my requiem. The cold earthis your every word and action," heart is very sad. My joy isturned bed, and the colder snow your to sorrow, and my song towailing. nothing hurried "them int covering.I would that they were temperate warmth." He w ShallInever behold thy sunny mine. I will lie downby your side, smile? Shall I never hear themusic I will sleep once morewith you. remark that they were "re of thy voice? The Great Spirithas I shall soon cautious, taking care not and If no one discovers me, entered my lodge in anger, be cold as thou art, andtogether v:e on any account whatever t taken thee from rne, my firstborn, will sleep that long longsleep from tions."95 and my only child. I amcomfort- which I can not wake." Also, the requirements c grief. less and must wail out my hap- litional Dakota religion The 1-xile faces repress their sorrow, When anything important grieve out pened to her children,the mothel Ted the individual to rra. but we children of nature lotions carefully, except di our anguish. was alwayspresent to share their The light of my eyes isextin- pain or pleasure.That is one meas- tainceremonialactiviti guished; all is dark.I have castfrom ure of thecloseness of the Dakota some emotional release wa mc all comfortableclothing, and mother to her family. ly expected. True, religioC robed myself in skins, for nocloth- ences usually occurred in ing, no fire, can warm thee, my 'Halley, op. cit., p. 197. impressionistic dream-fan andUn- "Kunigunde Duncan, Blue Star, p.182. daughter.Unwashed '214alley, op. cit., pp. 198-199, the instructions received combed 1 will mourn for thee, 27 woomentcsmanpurnmsereno...F.JaWdzeWisiaa.drOlaktalifmr44.56..,,V4Z, 6,d06,41

27 28 Swab Dakota Experiment Station Bulleti,473 :ever more Me friendly and loving attach-visionary were ilways designed to

I can never ments of the family unit were founddiscipline his behavior in his con- olion. I will with only slightly less intensityin scious life. Ritna- itself, as in all reli- formy thewhole band. There was littlegion, is a system of routinizing and 'kshee! me quarreling over property, and alsocontrolling beta: -.1or, and such very little greed; equality and jus-the view that c:t a be. taken of th-F- thee? How tice were primary traits of all socialDakota religion. ou a 1.10111CICSS relationships. Indeed, the smooth 1 t-I and ? How ficappears to deem the senses iffigry?I will functioning of their cooperative kin- ship system was thought by the Da- everything, the ideal nothing; and toed for your though there is no more imagina- lid spoon are kotas to be the very basic value in tive being in existence than the for use on the their way of life°" Indian, yetit seems an essential or yourplay- Self-control idealism, having reference only to c at theplace reality. He will play with ideas in .)west thouof Although the Dakotas were usu- a practical formfollow the most daughter! My ally characterized by the frontiers- fantastic trains of thought with a men as fierce and unmanageable, ready vigor and strong originality; ms, the choic- the evidence indicates that before but thetrainvanishes, and the . your portion, their experience with the aggressive amusement is over. Express as truth alsoshallbe tactics of the United States military a single thought beyond his reason, ilrave. Neither forces in the West they were hospi- or in apparent conflict with the evi- tall he allowed dences of his senses or his own icction for thee table and dignified in their demean- or towards not only friends but also hereditary beliefs and a stereotyped iound desolate, expression of incredcnce willin- which thou art strangers." For instance, 'Jonathan variably pass over him." I comc, I come Carver, one of the explorers who ched corn; oh, had first observed them, stated that The practical nature of the Da- leep? the Dakota Indians were "extreme-kotareligion,suggestedinthe nds wailyour ly circumspect and deliberate inabove remarks by a missionary, was I earthis your every word and action," and thatalso to be seen in their reasons for ler snow your nothing hurried "them into any in-worship. The reason for sacrifice or that thcy were prayer was always a real life situa- vn by yourside, temperate warmth." He went on to remark that they were "remarkablytion or crisis. A warrior desiring more with you. success on the warpath approached inc. I shall soon cautious, taking care not to betray and together we on any account whatever their emo-the proper deities by self-sacrifice, long sleep from tions."95 preceded by fasting, penance, and ake."' Also, the requirements of the tra-purification. Or if death appeared in important hap. litional Dakota religion encour-his family, he propitiated the spirits A'hen, the motile] Aged the individual to manage hisof darkness by fasting and sacri- It to share thth Actions carefully, except during cer-fice." -hat is one meas . tainceremonialActivitieswhen'Duncan, op. cit., p. 193. ss of theDakota some emotional release was normal-'Miles, op. cit., p. 88. ly. ly expected. True, religious experi-"Jonathan Carver,Travels Throughthe ences usually occurred in a highly Interior Parts. of North America, pp. 237- 97. impressionistic dream-fantasy, but 238. ,Blue Star,p. 182. "Lynd, op. cit., pp.150-151. 198-199. the instructions received by the p. 170. I 28 . Swab 03 The Dakota Indian Religion 29 3 0 ncy of values maylikev Wisdom ing in Dakota society were well de- Ti signed to keep individual conflict a t Ively unimportant. Knowledge of the world in which between Dakota andW -hey lived was an all-inclusive Da-a minimum, but this did not mean the vai that strict conformity was demand- ety is evident in -eta value, refiectino their rever- suffered by those Dake aier for everything in nature. Theyed in all areas of human life. There are certain areas, such as warfare, marginal to the two cult -egarded all living plants and ani- In this section, the r( mals "as partners in the wonderfulthe vision quest, and the formatiou of friendship societies,in which contact between the"te, and mysterious quality of life." A ef Western society fled major portion of their ehildren'sindividualinitiativewas dead; stressed. Thus the warriors wen( rder" of Dakota societ, Kettion was devoted to the world einined.w1 A brief ana ce living things. They were taughtable to achieve a degree of spiritua echnic-order in very g botany, zoology, geography, andfreedom which would not have been possible in a society entirely be followed lw a conservation of resources in a prac- the moral order. The tical way suited to Great Plains liv-dominated by stereotyped formulas d of group living.'"° this section will be ing. The preservation of the balance study of the contacts e of nature, rather than the exploita- The behavioral norms and social and religious values of the Dakota moral order with the t tion of a species of plant or animal of Western civilization for temporary gain, was a majorIndians were intricately bound to- goal in Dakota values." gether in their total value system. The Technie-O Mythological and ceremonial de- The. characteristics \ Their enlightened ideas concern-inentsreinforcedbasic ing propriety in social relationships beliefs ,rishWesterneivili which, in turn, were internalized by earlier societies are mm might be considered additional evi-the individual members of Dakota dence of Dakota wisdom. The fore- established, and it is d society. When thesebeliefsap- terme at exactlys\ sight and discretion of the older tri-peared in the attitudes and actions bal members, to which the young 5imple society is transf of the majority of these people, they civilization. For the pa warriors deferred, frequently pre-could be regarded as the behavioral vented trouble from arisingbe- study the distinction tween rival bands and even be-norms and values. simple and complex so tweenthe Dakotas and hostile on the attachmentof groups. Schooleraft recorded an oc-Values in of a civilization to int casion on which he was warned of ritorial groups rather approaching danger by an elderlyWestern Civilization merit to smallkinshi leader. The old man gave School- The value system of the Dakota civilization the main craft his gun and accoutrementsIndians described in the preceding -Crolis the overall st and said, "Take my gnn also, as Ipages isconsistent and function- other controls mav op( perceive you have none of your ownally integrated. But the value sys- ited local basis. The s and depart with it to the land oftems of Western civilization, on the tiol is thc teclinie-ort your countrymen, but linger notcontrary, are only loosely associ- .dfiehl here, lest some of my young menated and vary greatly from ork. The bonds that co who are panting for the blood ofgroup to another. Internal consist- activities o men in their enemies, shonld discover your order do not rest on "Gilmore, O. cit., p. foo;: :,,eps in our country, and fall to the good life;they "Schoolcraft, op. cit., p. 204. upon you."99 acterized by a founda "Raclin, The Story of the American In- aiments; they Ca The patterns of cooperative liv- dian, op. cit., pp. 307-309. F

.coutb Dakota ExperimentStation Bulletin 473 29 30 of those likewise be rcla- without the knowledge jety were well de- my of values may bound together that they arebound fvely unimportant,The contrast together. The technicalorderis dividual conflict at Western soci- from the this did not mean between Dakota and that order which results ety is evidentin the value conflicts mere utilizationof the same means. Initv was demand- suffered by thoseDakotas who are In the technicalorder men are , human life. There morainal to the twocultures. hound by things, or arethemselves soch as warfare. the results of the things. They arc organizedby ne- and the formation In this section, eAntact betweenthe "technic-order" cessity or expedieney."2 acieties,in which Westero society andthe 'moral Members of the moralorder are itivcwas dearh I order" of Dakota societywill be ex-bound primarilyby common and [he warriors wen r ! comined."'l A briefanalysis of theshared vahics, but inthe technic-. degree of spiritua general terms be different r would not have oclmic-order in very order their values may be followed by adiscussion ofas a resultof their varied associa- a society entirely -the moral order.The final part oftions in society.Thus, for example, retitypeci formulas this section will hedevoted to abusiness values mayconflict with study of the contactsof the Dakotareligious values, familyvalues may I norms and social the technic-order with communityvalues, oes of the Dakota moral order with conflict of Western political values mayconflict with ricately bound to- 'friendship, and The Technic-Order values of personal otal yahie system. so on. Thesevalue conflicts, end d ceremonial ele- The characteristicsvvhieh distin- forces of fromproducts -of the dynamic basicbeliefs LanishWest CM dtvi liz.ation complicateWestern ere internalized by earlier societies are notdefinitelycivilization, de-civilization borticasurably.1c* embers of Dakota established, and it is difficult to The transitionfrom a simple these beliefsap- termine at exactlywhat point a technic-order transformed into amoral to a complex itudes and actions 5irnpIe society is has resulted in a changefrom a well- f-or the purposes of this these people, they knit social system to"a multitude of I as the behavioral stody the distinctionbetween a interests, society is basedsocial groups, competitive siniple and Complex poorly defined socialrelationships, on theattachment of the memberssocial anonymity, aconfusion of of a civilization tointerestsld ter-norms, and a vastextension of im- ritorial groups ratherthan attach- designed kinship groups. inpersonal control agencies Ization ment to small to enforce ruleswhich increasingly civilization the mainfocus of con- which rules 1.ern of the Dakota althoughlack the moral force d in the preceding trol is the overall state. receive only whenthey grow out other controls may operateon a lim- f elt community ent and function- The system of con-of emotionally ited local basis. needs,"1" The technic-orderis fin- Rut the value sys- technie-order. explained civilization, on do:, trol is the borrowed from Rob- by Redfield asfollows 'This terminology is dy loosely associ- ert Redfield, ThePrimitive World and greatly from one The bonds that co-orciinatethe Its Transformatiwis, p. 15. the technical p. 21. r. biternal consist- activities of men in Govern- order do not rest onconvictions as Robert Maclver, The Web of ). 31. .dent, p. 430. to the goodlife; they are notchar- Conflict and p. 204. acterized by a foundationin human ""Tborsten Saha, Culture of the American In- sentiments; they cane.,:isteven Crinte, pp. 59-60. 307-z309. :"7,e46,.....4.11.0.114eMs..M.114.14111a...4.1.M1.1161..21a< . Me Dakota huliatt Religion 31 32 South Dakota Expert basis for ther characterized by waysthat areship was typically the. teate religion merely as one area o rational, expedient, and utilitarian;social organization in such groups. Through the intimacy andwarmth Dakota life, since religious ritual purposive change andindividual the and beliefs had permeatedfir gain arc considered moreimportantof their primery relationships, internalizethemoral whole range of their social activi than hewing to tradition. Sincerela-nlembers ties. Thus in their overall value sys the tech-values and the individualstrains tionships are impersonal in toward consistency in all areasof tem there was a delicateinterde nic-order. Inws are necessaryinstru- pendence which demanded stric mentsformaintaining0 r ci e r.life. adherence to all subordinate values Changefroma predominantly One cannoz but admire the well- One value could not be laid asid moral order to a technic-orderis rounded life of the average partici- of a typical in lieu of another, because bot' rarely pleasant. Most of thecultural pant in the civilization were harmoniouslysynthesized contacts suggest thedifficulty of American Indian tribe; the firm- ness with which every partof that the unified moral order. assimilation, because extermination life--economie, social, religious and or eviction orsubjugation is the rule aestheticis bound together into a Phases of Culture Contact and conversion the exception." significantwhole inrespectto In his analysis of technic an The Moral Order which he is far from a passive moral orders, Redfield describes d The moral order is the primary pawn.1°8 logic of historicalchange fro The highly integrated and con- sourceofunityinsmallearly early to modern societies. Meke groups. In folk ortribal societies,sistent value system is asignificant has described the historical contac theessential orderisbased onfactor in the apparent lack of indi- between the moral order of the D. "the organization of humansenti-vidnal deviation in early societies kota Indians and the technic- ord ments into judgments as towhat isThe individual knows that thesingle of Western civilization. From tl right."'" set of norms sharedby all member non-Indian point of view,thre The moral order is the foundationof his society guides him tothe only periods of such contacts are inc of all societies and remainsin com-acceptable ways of behaving. He is cated. (a"flisirl action" from 171 mand as long as the value systemisnot faced with analternative value to 1650 was devoted tothe ft based on sentiments, such aslove ofsystem or with contradictory norms -trade, but relations between tl tradition, respect for family,andtherefore deviation would require Tetons and frontiersmen becai communion with nature.Throughradical change from traditionand more and more strainedbecause the process of socialinteraction,serious consequences for theindi- immigration. ( b) The "crisis" fro common understandingof what isvidual. 1851 to 1878 was one of warfare be- It is difficult to distinguishbe- sulting from the conflict over co right develops and expectations other activities come structured. Thesevalues com-tween religious and -troiof Dakota hunting groan prise a moral order, andadherencein a society dominated bythe mora a n d destruction of game.( c ) TI to the norms of thisorder tends toorder. In such a society, religion falling action" from 1878 to t coordinate men's activities. Sinceinextricably interwoven with ever 1)resentfoundtheDakotas man is greatlydependent on otherpattern of individualbehavior. atricted to reservations and for( men for his existence, abreach offact, it may be inaccurate to ind to begin the process of organiz the moral code isconsidered a"'Redfield, op. cit., p. 28. assimilation." grievous wrornr a threat to thewel- p. 20. Rising Action (1700-1851). 'I fare of the whole group."' 'William G. Sumner, Folkways, p.60. culture of the Dakota Indians h The moral order is usuallyfound''''Edward Sapir, "Culture, Genuine c been evolving for many generati non-specialized, cul- Spurious," American Journal of Sociol in preliterate, 1924), p. 414. beforetheirfirstcontacts w turally homogeneous groups.Kin- ogy, XXIX (January, Western civilization. Their cult :',...... r.twearover..44...1.2.16.4...aaasrsZerSet.4.4.1..aearliScrlokutexWoliesftecnstaasybamMKratao

.3/ Bulktin 47.3 32 South Dakota Experiment Station ically the basis for leate religion merely as one areaofwas geared to thesoil and climate rtion in such groups. of the upper Midwest, andthe eco- ntimacy and warmth Dakota life, since religious rituals and beliefs had permeatedthenomic conditions of their wayof iry relationships,the life. They had worked out waysof themoral whole range of their social activi- ernalize value sys-meeting emergencies, andcould c individualstrains ties. Thus in their overall easily adapt themselves to a new tencv in all areasof tem there was a delicateinterde- pendence which demanded strictenvironment on the Great Plains or adherence to all subordinate values.to a new pattern ofhorsemanship Dakota . but admiie the well- One value could not be laidasideand buffalo hunting."° The of the average partici- in lieu of another, becausebothhunter aspired to perfection in or- ivihizatioii ot a rypical synthesized inder to be assured of the health, ulian tribe; the firm- were hantioniously the unified moral order. courage, and goodfortnne which he ich every part of that needed to face his dangerous tasks. le, social, religiousand bound together into a Phases of Culture Contact Thus the Dakota religion was neat- vhoie inrespectto ly tailored to provide the spirit In his analysis of technic andwith the power that enabled one to far from a passive moral orders, Redfield describes the logic ofhistorical change frombecome a man among his people.11' integrated and con- Mekeel The introduction of an alien re- early to modern societies. ligion such as Christianity was cer- system is a significant has described the historical contacts apparent lack of indi- tain to create confusion for'both the between the moral order of the Da-Dakota Indians and the Christian tion in early societies kota Indians and the technic-ordermissionaries. The latter were suspi- al knows that the single of Western civilization. Fromthe and shared bY all member non-Indian point of view, threecious of their "red brothers" guides him to the mill were highlydoubtful of their own periods of such contacts are indi-safety. Before he rested easily in a ays of behaving.He is cated. (I) "Rising action" from 1700 the furDakota village Reverend John Wil- th an alternative value to 1850 was devoted to liamson had to he assured thatthe th contradictory norms trade, but relations betweenthe of ,viation would require becameDakotas never broke "the laws Tetons and frontiersmen bykillingafellow Fre fromtradition and more and morestrained because ofhospitality equences for theindi- guest."112 immigration. (b) The 'crisis" from The lack of understanding result- 1851 to 1878 was one of warfare re- language, re- 'tiltto distinguish he- sulting from the conflict over con-ing from differences in ous and otheractivities Irol of Dakota hrmtinggroundsligious beliefs, and social practices lominated by the mora was partially overcomeby the Da- and destruction of game. ( c)The all eh a society, religion 'falling action' from 1878 to thekota regard for the sacredness of interwoven with ever re-religions. They listened reverently present found theDakotas when men of God preached in an ndividual behavior. I stricted to reservations and forced or sangtheir be inaccurate to ind to begin the process oforganizedunknown tongue assimilation." Seudclor Mekeel, A Short History of cit., p. 28. the Teton-Dakota, p. 140. Rising Action (17004851). The'Stanley Vestal, New Sources ofIndian 'Sumner, Folkways, p. 60. culture of the Dakota Indianshad History, p. 3L5. pir,"Culture, Cenuine c been evolving for many generations'Underhill, op. cit., p. 131. Anwrican Journal of Sociol "zWinifred W. Barton, John P. William- (January, 1924), p. 414. beforetheirfirstcontacts with Western civilization, Their culture son: A Brother tothe Sioux, pp. 88-89. 32 wil3.1...a.aiiiiiataiidaiguataa'ArnankaaMegatiazwatitautase7 r

33: Tbe Dakota Indian Religion 34 South Dalzot counting them he strange,mournful old-ti rn e a bunch. Upon ment ofillnessbya found that there were sixteen men medicine man. The missim hyrrms.'" Father De Smet gives an and fifteen women. It took some interesting example of theDakota time to get them paired off so he garded the "medicine" or. regardforthelittle understood tas as mereheathen sup:. k; could tell which was thc odd man. Lel Christian religion. He asked the man, "Where is your The "hely man" of the wife?" He replied, "She is not here. derstood the medicinal Then he invited me to speak She is in the teat. She does not want of various herbs which N again to thc Great Spirit, (to say to get married, but Ido." The man for their therapeuticvain grace), I began in the name of the was quite disappointed tolearn missionaries were unwillit Father and of the Son, etc., and im- that it. took more than one to con- ognize their elfeetivenes mediatelyallpresentliftedup summate a marriage ceremony. their hands toward heaven; when I the favorable testimony The other couples were happily surgeons andothers tha had concluded they all struck the married."6 ground. I asked the chief what they cases abandoned ashopel meant by this ceremony."When The actions of the fur traders, medicalauthorities,de we lift up our hands,"said he, "we often a cause of considerable con- medicine man mightef signify that all our dependence is cern to the earlymissionaries, cre- markable cure) 2 on the Great Spirit, andthat he in ated further difficulties. The traders E must be admittedtl-a his fatherly care provides for all frequently married 'Indian women misunderstanding but hi the ground to our wants: we strike according to tribal traditions, but tenapparentinthe signify that we are only worms and the miserable creeping beings in his they failed to obtain the sanction of ranks. For example, sighcm the church. They were unlikely to ies disapproved the mou promote a stable family, moving tices which followedthe The success of early missionaryabout the vast territory and using Dakota warrior. The old activities among the Dakotas wasliquor as a means of promoting Dakotas chided themft limited by cultural and physical dif-their trade)." In this latter practice tolerance:"The dneks ficulties which caused these devot-the trader has been described as go- geese andthe .deer," ed ministers no end of misery. Rev-ing to the Indian camp, and giving "when trne is killed, mt erend Stephen Riggs recorded thatthe liquor gratis; and "after making cry about it,and the sot .! his request to the Dakota warriorsthe Indians drunk, he trades with by. The Dakotas, too, to join his church wasrejected inthem, dilutes the rum with water, wild animals, make a gi these words: "Your church is madeand ends by getting all they have over a deadfriendHa up of wemere., if youhad gotten usfor very little."'" their sorrow, and it beco in first, it would have amounted to Another source of great difficulty but you keep your so something, but now there are onlybetween the missionaries and the brood over it, and it bee women. Who wouldfollow afterIndians was the continued treat- er."111 Another examph women?" ° Another difficulty arose tolerance is found inth the Chris-""Bernard De Voto, Across the Wide Mis- over the conflict between souri, p. 225. superior to a requestf tian and Dakota marriage practices."Reuben G. Thwaites, Early Western from a missionary. Trauels, Vol. XXVII, p. 152. Shortly after the arrival of these "'Stephen R. Riggs, Mary and I: Forty Since you went ro t men, Mr. Williamsonpreached a Years with the Sioux, p. 89. present at the soperstni strong sermon on theduty of ""Barton, op, cit., pp. 104-105. the Indii,as in their atte Christian marriage. At the close, he "Grace L. Note ( ed.) Documents Relat- a sick child,it would called upon all who ready to ing to Northwest Missions,1815-1827, better and it would ha come forward and beunited in mar- p. 156. better with your past riage. A munber ,.7am7 forwardin p. 170. to have inveighed aga 33 33 South Dalrota ExperimentStation Bulletin 473 34 formance and tohave enlightened m countingthem he ment ofillne_ssby a nati ve by some argu- missionaries re- those poor blind ones cre were sixteen men medicine man. The ment withintheir comprehension, omen. It took some garded the "medicine"of the Dako- rather than to haverefused coldly hem paired off so he heathen superstition.'" the end. A miraculous -b was the odd man. tas as mere to remain to The "holy man"of the Dakotas un- healing performedby a holy mis- man, "Where is your properties been astill tlied, "She is not here. derstood the medicinal sionary would have which were used better argument.Why did you not eta. She does not want of various herbs uproar? Why did you but I do." The man for their therapeuticvaine. But the stop all the unwilling to rec- not throwyourself on .our knees? sappointed tolearn missionaries were Why did you not with tearscall the iore than one to con- ognize theireffectiveness, despite of army name of theLord for this child? marriage ceremony. the favorable testfinony Instances are not lackingwhen God ouples were happily surgeons andothers that even in listened to His faithfulministers in cases abandonedas hopelessby the such cases for theredemption a s of the furtraders, medicalauthorities,theDakota tho savages.'" of considerable. con- rnedici»e man mighteffect a re- As a supplement totheir religious arly missionaries, cre- markable cu re.' 2" proselytizing, the missionariesusu- ifficulties. The traders It must be admittedthat not only of-ally conducted schoolsfor the Da- uried Indian women misunderstanding but bias was cases, the tribal traditions, but in the missionarykota children. bl some tenapparent Indian parents resistedattempts to obtain the sanction of ranks. For example,the missionar- the schools; 'hey were unlikely to the mourning prac-take the children to ies disapproved they ridiculed orreproached those table family, moving tices whichfollowed the death of a they asked Si territory and using old men of thewho learned to read; or Dakota warrior. The that their childrenhe paid for at- means of promoting Dakotas chided themfor their in- apparently oc- 7 In this latter practice "The ducks andthetending. This idea tolerance: said,curred to themwhen they' learned s been described as go- geese andthe deer," they rewarding students dian camp, and giving "when one is kilted,make an out-of the custom of and the sorrow passesfor regular attendance."3 atis; and "after making cry about it, of the trader drunk, he trades with by. The Dakotas, too,like these The material values great wailingand missionaries weresources of s the rumwith water, wild animals, make a the Da- getting all they have over a deadfriendthey wail outadditional distrust among becomes lighter;kotas, who wereunaccusoined to their sorrow, and it for mere pos- urce of greatdifficulty but you keep your sorrow youaectnmtlatiri,..,' goods becomes heavi-sessio». To theDakota, accumula- missionaries and the brood over it, and it selfishness and lack of the confirm-xi treat- er."111 Another exampleof such in-tion stood for this reply of aself-restraint, since allgoods were vow, Across the Wide Mis- tolerance is found in distribution to superior to a requestfor guidancetacitly available for any memberof the band whoneed- Thwaites. Early Western from a missionary. values, on the XXVII, p. 152. far as to be ed them. Non-Indian Higgs, Mary and 1: Forty Since you Went so present at thesuperstitious rites of 'Biuton, op. cit., pp.111-112. le Sioux, p. 89. to heal 'Beckwith, op. cit., pp.245-2-sji. pp. 104-105. the Indians in their attemrt Belot- it would have been 'Riggs, op. c.a., p. 109. ite (ed.) Documents a sick child, 'Grace L. Nute, DocumentsRelating to hwest Mssions, 1815-M27, br:tter and it. wouldhave accorded 2.39. pastoral dignity Northwest Missions, 1815-1827, p. better with your "Biggs, op. cit., p. 121. to haveinveighed against the per-

- :34 . :"WWWV7-k7CW. .471,707,177gO:7;777t5,t-j .36 The Great Pla ground betwecr their frontier al the settlers titre . hunting ground game. Then Oa kota warriors la' fp!, a righteouscc their way of hi tion as fighting ing their efforts . extinction.' 29 131 community themselves, thr The small churches or missions located in nearly every individuals. Fe\ serve as a reminder of the work ofthe early missionaries. tive enough to p other hand, made it possible for aas John Williamson, whoheld on sustained camp beyond anyfor over 4 years, although at times my. True, tlici man to accinnulate brought them V foreseeable needs, and even to covet.he was reduced to hauling firewood and destroy land held by the Indi-with milk cows.125 tles, honor amo Da- and the respecI. ans: such greed, writes one Crisis (1851-1878 ). Contrary to but in the long kota, "fathered the cruelty whichmuch that has been written about tiye against th the Indian suffered. Yet, the amaz-them, the Dakotas did not fight to ence of the L. ing thing is that the Indian is thegain territory or conqoer other peo- being movingUnit( one who bears the charge of ples. In fact, as has been indicated, cavalry.i29 cniel."124 their ideological goals being social Further, when the Dakotas dis-harmony and peace, all the warriors The leader covered that Christianity was anrespected the symbols of peace, lacked real ant exclusive religion, requiring them todespite their anxiety to prove their large groups of relinquish the practices of their an-bravery in battle.'26 They fought instead on his cestral faith, they steadfastly op-not for wealth or power, butonly attract a small posed it. At first. thee showed theirfor prestige and glory. Like any who would ride opposition lw refusing to send theirproud people, if they were ridi- expeditions ag children to school, distrusting anyculed, treated with condescension leader who lost missionary enterprise, or resistingor disrespect, theDakotas would was not. himsel passively. Later, their hostility crys-fight to mainta5n their honor. On the was discreditc( tallized and became an organizedother hand, if they were approached he "should be determination to drive the niission-as friends and equals, they were un- fight." When aries out of their territory. Gener-surpassed in courtesy a»d hospital- killed in fight ally, however, they attempted to comrades prais discm rage the missienaries by steal- because "they ing their horses and killing their"Standing Bear, op. cit., pp, 168-169. him" simply N cattle. Bnt this line of treatment'Riggs, op. cit., pp. 127-128. him, or vindi failed to dislodge the more persist-mStanding Bear, op. cit., pp. 40-41. some brave de ent and devoted missionariez:, such "Vestal; op. cit., p. 124. tion of an all-p

35 Station Bulletin 473 .36 South Dakota Experiment non-Indian idea, The Great Plains became abattle-chief was largely a andbased on the fact that government ground between the Dakotas officers and traders wished totrans- their frontier antagonistsonly after the clans through theiract business with the settlers threatened to seize one person. But,according to the hunting grounds and destroytheirDakota culture, the only person game. Then the causeof the Da-who might exert anytlenglike coer- kota warriors became intheir mindscive leadership wasthe "holy man," a righteouscrusade to preserveand even his powers werelimited to their way of life; and their reputa-certain special areasof liffelai tion as fighting crp?,n wasmade dur- During this period ofwarfare, a ing their &oils to preventtheir ownfew outstanding nom did appear as extinetion.'2s Bet, urfortunatelyfor temporary symbols ofresistance. thernselwe the warriors fought asTheir authorM, increasedby virtue cry community individuals. Few leaders wereeffec- and, occa- ssionarics. of their ability to resist tive enough to perfect aplanned andsionally, by the recognitionaccord- ;sustained campaign against the ene-ed them be the government com- amson, whoheld on skid as warriors times my. True, their missions w'ho needed someoneto us, although at brought them victory in manybat- later, by to hauling ftrewood sip a treaty, or, somewhae tles, honor among their ownpeople,the Indian agents whowanted the and the respect of theopposition;youngee brave.skept metier control. 1-1878 ). Contrary to but in the long run it wasineffec-At the same time, anvDukota who s been writtenabout tive agaiust thestubborn persist-was so arrogant asto assume lead- Lotus did net fight- to ence of theharrassed, and slow-ership in order to promotehimself or congaio4.her peo- movingUnitedStatesfrontierwith the American army. or so cow- As has beenindicated, cavalry."29 ardly as to refuse to fight forhis /cal goals being social The leader in Dakotawarfarepeople in the Thattle of treatywrit- peace, all thewarriors lacked real authority tocommanding,might lose not only his posi- e symbolsof peace, large j-oups of men. Iledependedtion hut his life at thehands of one anxiety to provetheir insteaa on his courage. andskill toof the Dakota warriorsocieties.12 )o.tt1e.'2° They fought attract a small numberof followers One of the Dakotaleaders who di or power, butonly who would ride with him onlimitedbecame a symbol of resistancedur- and glory. Like any expeditions against the enemy.Aing this critical period wasSitting le,if they wore ridi- leader who lost sonic of his menandBull. He "never lost an opportimity ,d with emideseension was not_ himselfwounded or killedto impress hishearers with the idea the Dakotas would was discredited,for it was felt thatthat they all owed a duty totheir tain their honor. Onthe he "should be in thethick of thechildrenthat of preserving the hi- they were approached fight." When a brave leader was'Standing Bear, op. cit., p. 41. )(I equals, they were un- killed in fighting the enemy,his'Vestal, op. cit., p. 135. courtesy and hospital- comrades praised his bravery,and,"Stanley Vestal. Warpath, p.261. "'Gideon14.Pond, "Dakota Supersti- because "they came homewitbout Collec- "revenge tions,"MinnesotaHistorical =fa, op. cit., pp.168-1(39, him" simply wished to tions, 11 (1890), p. 216. him, or vindicate themselvesby"'Barton, op. cit., pp. 172-173, andVes- it,, pp. 127-128. History, pp. 40-41. some brave deeds."'"The concep- tal, Nett; Sources of Indian ar, op. cit., pp. 201-202. cit., p. 124. tion of an all-powerful and supreme 36 South Dakota EA The Dakota Indian Religion .38 tween the bands who settled at dian lands for the peace and enjoy- the tattoo marks on the meat! Per- haps this is the-flesh of some white agencies and acceptedminti ment in the years to come."'" His from the government and the in man they have given you. Do not shrewdness and perseverance and independent hunting bands dealing with his antagonists became touch The persisted in their refusal to stir a legend among the Dal:aros. Throughout this period of crisis, der. The "agency folks" were following anecdote is typical of thethe Plains Indians were recognized trusted and scorned as "captiy stories related about him: by the military officers who op- posed them as among the best cav- the white man." 33 On one occasion the Major (Mc- alrymen in the world. The Indians Falling Action ( 1879 to the Laughlin) told the chief that since According to their he was married to two women, he were excellent horsemen, daring cnt ). would have to get rid of one, as he tighters,andunequaledscouts. standards ( and perhaps even had promised to live like the White They were familiar with all the casian standards ) the culture n. man, with one wife. SittingBull tactics of frontier warfare. They Teton Dakotas was in many said that he could not do that be- were highlyskilledinthe se utopian. They were, as Haberl, cause he liked both of his, wivesand of the bow and arrow, since tney written, "pious without priests would not know which one to give made their living shooting running and honest without laws or up. The Major called his attention buffalo from the bare backs of their wise and eloquent without sell( to the fact that Sitting Bull had ponies."" They had at firstap- Everyone shared equally agreed to liye the ways of a White proached the strangers from the good times and had. Pract Man, and said, "Didn't you agree they were to live like a White man?" "Yes," East as friends rather than hostiles; moderation, said Sitting Bull, "I agreed to do o»ly after it was too late to prevent healthy and contented. By that, and I will do it. I will live just the great tide of migrants from over- own values, we mustconchicle, like a White man: you give me a running the land did they begin to were certainly a veryhappy White wife and you can have both defend home and fireside.537 00" Bot after their defeat my Indian wives." This wassaid Although they fought valiantly, confinement on reservatiens with a twinkle in his eye and with good old life began to slip which left the Dakotas lacked the discipline a slight grin of sarcasm, and organization, as well as the ma- away. Scime of theolder me. the Major without much further serving the trend away from to say.'" terial, of the United States Army. They fought as volunteers, to dis- culture, resisted the pressur Another humorous story has beentinguish themselves by courageous change. The speech of one of recorded regarding Sitting Bull'sacts, and they lost because they patriarchs illustrates their co leadership and advice at the Coun-could not for long sustain a unified for the future: cil at Fort Laramie in MS. Theopposition. Then, again, when the Gad sees you. Guard the B young warriors were feastedwithAni( dean Army failed to do so, in- Hills and also this Reservation. pork that had been marked with aternal strife and the threat of star- not let white men fool you. govenment inspector's stamp in in-vation defeated them. Toward the your head and take careof delible blue ink. The old chiefend of this period, jealousies and ri- people. Be wise, he patient. Tr pointed to the samp and remarked;valries were particularly evident be- get along with the peopleof island (the United States). "it is well known that white men 'Usher L, Burdick, The Last Days of made these people as well as eat each other. This is sirange flesh Sitting Bull, p. 17. selves. We do not wish to they offer us. I have hunted all my "Ihid.,_pp. them. Hold fast what we have life, but I have never seen an animal "Westal, New Sources of Indian History, you. Never forget thesewords. with flesh like that. You can see in op. cit., p. 197. L..ove your people there are this camp how many of the white p. 322. helplessold folks and orp soldiers are uitooed. Well, look at "Standing Bear, op. cit., p. 169. 37 Bulletin 47.3 .38 South Dakota Everintent Station tween tile bands whosettled at the Take care of them. Be goodfriends arks on the meat! Per- to good men: baood men areyour be -flesh of some white agencies and accepted annuities friends. Use allyour mind to look given you. Do not from the government and thefree out for the future of our young re and independent hunting bawlswho folks. Be fair with the Grandfather, persisted in their refusal to surren- t this period of crisis, and try to make a good bargain and der. The "agency folks" weredis- a fair agreementfor both parties. chaps were recognized trusted and scorned as "captivesof Never let the 5acrod Pipe go out, ary ofEcerL who op- the white man." 's and when you pray to Wakan ts tunong the best cav- Tanka withthis peace-pipe, He workl. The Indians Falling Action (1879 to the pres- will hear you. Do not step out of 1sthorsemen, daring ent ).According to their own the Indian road; that is the z-oad 1 unequaledscouts. standards ( and perhaps even Cau- Wakan Tanka made -for us. See familiar with all the casian standards) the cultureof the thatyour childrenlearnthose ontier warfare. They Teton Dakotas was in many ways thingswhichtheGrandfather skilledin the use utopian. They were, as Haberlyhas wishes them to know. Try to secure Ind arrow, since they written, "pious without priests; just a good agent and agood Commis- awl honest without laws orjails; sioner of Indian Affairs. As we live ving shooting running now, everything comesthrough the bare backs of their wise and eloquent withoutschools." during diem;keep themsatisfied.Be hey had at first ap- Everyone shared equally thoughtful, think every day. These e strangersfrom the good times and bad.Practicing are my words."' -is rather than hostiles; moderation, they were relatively 'The missionary schools which was too late to prevent healthy and contented. Bytheirhad been established during an ear- of migrants from over- own values, we mustconclude, theylier period only began to be effec- land did they begin to were certainly a very!sappy peo-tive when the. Dakotas were con- and fireside.'37 ple.1"9 But after their defeat andfined to reservations. Reverend Ste- confinement on reservations,thephen Higgs had by this time pro- hey fought valiantly, good old life began to shp slowly lacked the discipline older men. ob-duced a Dakota-English dictionary tion, as well as the ma- away. Some of the which greatly facilitated the learn- serving the trend away fromtheir United States Army. foring of English in these .sch.00ls.111 as volunteers, to dis- culture, resisted the pressure Obviously, some educational attain- mselves by --,:urageous change. The speech of one of thesements were accompaniedbv the ley lost because they patriarchs illustrates their concernloss of older values whichha'd for- r long sustain aunified for the future: merly served as a basis ofDakota Chen, again, when the God sees you. Guard the Black chavncterstructure. The special rmy failed to do so, in- Hills and also this Reservation.Do vision experience in the lifeof the and the threat of star- not let white men fool you.Use Dakota boy was not replacedby tted them. Toward the your head and take careof your any equivalenteducational prac- peopk. Be wise, be patient. Try to tice or values. and this seriousdefi- reriod, jealousies and ri- of this particularly evident be- get along with the people ciency became an Inportant cause Island (the United States). God ado- .irdiek, The Last Days of made these people as well as our- of demoralization among the 17. selves. We do not wish to fight 'IsVestal, New Sources of IndianHistory, -22. them. Hold fast what we have told op. cit., p. 329. Sources of Indian History, you. Never forgetthese words, ""Haberly, op. cit., p. 64. 97. Love your people there are many "'Vestal, Warpath. op. cit., pp.231-232. "'Riggs, op. cit.. p. 146. .tr, cp. cit., p. 169. helplessold folks and orphans. The Dakota Indian Religion 39 40 lescent school boy5.'4'2 The resultnecessary to compromisewith tradi- tion and place old customs in new (wired that all ii was often similar tothe case cited (riven ill the En by Reverend Williamson; settings. struction in I It e In the early school at Yankton One picturesquefeatttrecon- will not he pen Agency my most promising pupil nected with the school was thc call- protested ap inc was John Owanka. alatl of sixteen, ing of the time for school by an old editorial in the ' man who had been "cli(trapaba" or who soon learned to tead the Da- Time was wli . kota Bible. He was, much interested crier for heathen ceremonies and dances. He was converted and the whole of ct and wanted to prepare for baptism. Indian to wear Thc time came for the annual wanted some Christian work to do. and threats the Mr. Williamson told him he could gifts the Govern sun dance. By taunts be crier for thc school and for tired:.into hie managers induced him tooffer him- couldn't wait fo self as one of two self-immolators church services. He took a pride in to the sun. For threedays and his position and performed 'his du- character and t ties with faithfulness and ability. It bagged its ga nights, without a bite of food or a Ii (*lowed with s, drop of water,with cords run Hc would be on hand early every through the flesh Di' his back and morning and wait until Mr. Wil- next morning's liamson told him it was time for civiliz,ed by-bre pulled up tight to a pole above, he warpath dres7e danced in his tracks until his weari- school. Then he would start around the camp and call on the children breech clouts. ness was so great hewould throw Flew there is his weight on the cords in his back, and young people-to come to school; causing the blood to run down to not always in the same setphrase, (Id in vogue in the ground. When he completed but with remarks varied to suit the "all English" occasion, and all in a sort of rhyth- know. his time, he was so far gone he lay It is iust lik down and in a day or two cJi-d. But mic chant which was more musical 'than any school be11.145 method," ado according to the sun priests, he was result, vahlabl rewarded by having his name her- Bevereoll Williamson, realizing place of spirin alded as a hero in the spirit land."' full well that confinement in school character buil Ninny missionaries, teachers, andwas irksome to Dakotayouth train- come, but not government officials, disturbedbyed for the free life of the hunt, and The work o the persistence of traditional cultur-that eeucational sincess deperteled Dakotas was cl al practices, strongly advocated theon some steadfastnessof effort, had this missionary prohibition of the Sun Dance. This,to Largairt with them to stayin tire Bible wit,: they hoped, would weaken the tra-school for a certain time, even if it language of ditional band organization, destroywas only a few weeks.' " churches were the influence of the older leaders, But the effect of these compro- tivc pastors w and hasten the pacification and an-mises was soon destroyed by a new on the mission. glicization of the Dakotas. In 1881,ruling of the Indian Bureau sent out people."' But they were successful in getting thein 1886: "In all schools conducted tianity, the Da Sun Dance abolished by govern-by missionary organizations it is re- abont some Ch ment decree.m wherever they But it soon became evident that"21Tnderhill, op. cit., p. 131, 'Barton, op. cit., pp 129-130. church custo teachers and pupils would be com-"\Varren Cardwell, An Introduction to tribal pattern pelledtodisregard government the Modern Oglala Sioux, pp. 7-8. church, for ex edicts and regulations. If any :Asting'Barton, op. cit., p. 102. honor of SOITI changes were to be effected, it was p. 134. both this ind J-39 ! 473 South Dakota Experimein' Station Bulletin compromise with tradi- the resulting quired that all instructhmshall beCould participate in cc old customs in new In-prestige that had beencustomary in given in the English language. ceremonies. struction in t h c Dakotalanguagethe earlier "gift-giving" RiggsThe Christian conceptof giving in turcsquefeaturecon- will not he permitted." Dr. heaven or the school was the call- order to acquire merit in protested agoinst this order in an misdeeds was 'roe for school by an old editorial in the Wo?Yi Cerrier: to compensate for past lad been "(Nal:paha" or largely ignored Or simply notunder- eathen ceremonies and Time was when it was colisidercd stood."" LaForge hasnoted h o w t.J the whole cri civilization to get an c was con verted and the Dakotas integratedtheir old do. Indian to wear breeches. Bylarge le Christian work to bun- wisdom with the social activities as- 115011 tad him he could gifts the Government civilized religion: dreds into breeches. Government sociated with the Christian )1- the school and for change of Ices. He took a pridein couldn't wait for the slow gather Ii ideas. The Dakota worked to 1 and performedhis du- character and the growth of goods in order to give them away: It bagged its game inbreeches and Ghost Ceremony in cliithfukess and ability. until the e.g., in the be on hand early every glowed with satisfaction memory of the ... In so doing id wait until Mr. Wil, next morning's sunshowed their prestige was gaineu ormaintained d him it was time for civilized by-breeches Indians onthe in the group. In theteachings of n he would startaround warpath dressed in their ancestral Christ the Dakotas foundparallels breech clotus. with their own ideals. Andsocial md call on the children meth- people-to come to school, Vow there is a new patent prestige was above possessionof in the wine Sn phrase, od in vogue in Washington.It is the goods. The Dakotas broughttheir nnarks varied to suit -the "all English" method,don't you own idea of givinginto the Chris- nd all in a sort of rhyth- know. tian practice (at leas'rideal) of shar- which was more musical It is just like the old"breeches ing. The development orcoming chool bell.11 5 method," adopting an incidental in of the cash wagepractically cur- result, valmble though itbe, in tailed opportunities forreplenish- Williamson, realizing place of spiritual regenerationand ing stocks of goods after aGive it confinement in school character building.Englishwill Away, but the practice ofgiving to c to Dakotayouth train- come, but not inthis way.n7 the church and through thechurch ree life of Ole hunt, and The work ofCirristianizing the remained, and -the practice of re- anal succes. depencled Dakotas was closelyassociated with membering the dead in church serv- ,adfastness of effort,- had this missionary education.The en- ice became firmly axed.151) with them to stay in tire Bible wastranslated into the It is difficult to assess thecultural 1 certain time, evenif it language of the Dakotas, n e weffects of the Dakota conversionto few weeks) churches were established,and na-Christianity. Some evidence sug- effect of these compro- tive pastors weretrni»ed to carrygests that the acceptanceof Chris- m)on destroyed by a new on the missionarywork among theirtian principles did notchange any- e Indian Bureau sent out people."" But in acceptingChris-thing but their superficialcharacter- ki all schools conducted tianity, the Dakotas hadreservationsistics and in no way interferedwith ii), organizations it is re- about some Christian doctrines,and,their basic value orientation.Back- wherever they onrikl, reinterpreted ap. cit., p. 1:31, old id., pp. 154-155. ':'cit., pp. .120-130. church customs -to emphasize 'Riggs, op. elf., p. 340. ardwell, An Introduction to tribal patterns. Donations tothe"'Ralph Linton, The Study ofNan, p. n Oglola Sioux, pp. 7-8. church, for example, weremade in 360. cit., p. 102. honor of someone, in orderthat"%aFarge, The Changing AmericanIn- 14. both this individual and the giver dian, pp. 163-164. l. 40 41 . The DakotaIndian Religion 42 South Do reservation.Perhaps fundamental sliding was common,asindicated Dakota value 5ystem Marginal Religious observe-changes in the but in IleverendWilliamson's entirely perfected, were not appearance Practices : in outward changes gradually habits ariseand werebrought about The astonishing fort Old heathen old efforts of faithfulmis- played by the Dakota Ir draw the peopleback into the through the customsand time wheu in the last ye; ruts.Theirsocial sionaries.' 55 beginning of their amusements arelargely heathenish. From the very ertnnhling resistance aga from these to tlie technieway5of If they turn aside contacts with vol- vaders they were snifferil: seek recreation amongwhite people, the Dakotas -tfie saloon lead the frontiersmen, vation and disorganizatic the ballroom and untarily surrendersome oftheir them into vices moredestructive traits. In theearly pathetic story of sacrili heathen ways.'"' original eutural votion.'67 T h e older re than their old tbesubstitutionof new be cited tophase, technology in the iiefri, which were unified Many examples may equipment andtheir culture i n - Dance, provided a rens( illustrate the persistenceof older re-material area of those individ- strength and expan- tinuing the hopeless str ligious values among creased Dakota Then, uals converted to-Christianity. Aded theircultural influence. desperate situation is Dakota womanmight refuse proceeded to eng,agein war- presented by one of the young School classas they their to teachher Sunday fare with thefrontier soldiers, who had survived the or menstruation forfear of began to disin- during her to her boy pu-tribal organization nation There is a great deal supernatural danger tegrate, andthey became a man believes, and if a man pils. Some older menwere fearful and quarreling goups. female nur-of warriors is changed for the better of hospitalsbecause the The basic themeof the Sun Dance worse he will know it. known not toseclude them- centered around anaggressive ses were per-was dance was our 6rst and selves duringthese dangerous desire to preservethemselves from religion. We believe that pipe might not being con- mysterious power greate iods.'52 The sacred fordisintegration.'5° After be handled bethe uninitiAted quered andconfined to reservations, others, which is represen disaster.'" Theinven- forbidden to prac- tore, one form of repr fear of some the Dakotas were benefs; and being the sun. Thus we n tion of someunusual instrumenttice manyof their old attributed to theef- resistance, fiees -to the sun, and an might even be so theyturned to passive were granted. The Inch ,,.-rnatural vi5itant.15' superficially chang- forts of a sr temporarily or but longer in the old days th changesing their wayswhen coerced, On the outerhend, some many ofthe would not say this chain did occur whichdemonstrated thatretaining underneath to throwing away the ol( religious traditionswasbasic values oftheir traditional cul- there may be other rea:io the mold of the old times the Stin beginning tocrack. Thechildrenture. to speakEnglish, and heki annually and was I were learning the lan- ward to with eagerness . could not beinduced to use White :set- 182. we had true faith at that their parents. 'Barton, op. cit., p. there came a year when guage of moving -to the very"Triderhill, op. cit., p.129. tlements were "A Sioux Medicine died." There was a perio and honestand de-"'Sidney, J. Thomas, nr 55, and from that day door of ,the tipi, B u ii d 1c," AmericanAnthropologist, voted teachersand government em- 608. ligion came to the Indian influential in pointing XLIII (941) v. white man's religion. 1/142 ployees were between the"Boas, op. cit.,.p.246. about it, as we are about out thediscrepancies '513arton, op. cit., pp.189-190. and thecultural val- ways of the white man. material wealth on the lladin, op. cit., p.179. days our faith was stron ues of someof the intruders 41 41 42 South Dakota Evperiment Station Bulletin 473 undamental lives were cared for; now our faith .aluE35ystcrfl Marginal Religious is weaker, and we die.5 8 .fected, but appearance Practices To many Dakotas, the very exis-. t gradually he astonishingfortitudedis-tence of their nation was intimately :aithful mis- played by the Dakota Indians, at aassociated with the preservation of time when in the last years of theirtraditional religions practices. Un- ning of their doubtedly, the introduction of The crumbling resistance against the in-Christian religion produced s o ni e .1:nicway5 of vaders they were suffering from star- Dakotas vol- spiritual conflict; hut generally it n- oftheir vation and disorganization, makes awas felt that -the "faith of their fa- In the early pathetic story of sacrifice and de-thers" could be the only firm basis ionofnew votion.'57 T h e older religious be-for group survival. This feeling de- ology in the liefs, which were unified by the Sunveloped inevitably. At first the tra- culture i n - Dance, provided a reason for con-ditional religious leaders temporari- th and erpan- tinuing the hopeless struggle. Thely inclined toward Christianity; but uence.Then, desperate situationisgraphicallyafter oliserving discord among mis- -:ngage in war- 11 presented by one of the older mensionaries and hypocrisy among lay soldiers, their who had survived the ordeal: Christians, they resolved their con- ,gan to disin- flict by adhering even more strong- came anation There is a great deal in what a ly to their old religion.159 The fam- trreling goups. man believes, and if a man's religion ous chieftain Bed Cloud has been is changed for the better or for the credited with asking the embarras- the. Sun Dance worse he will know it. The Sun I an aggressive sing historic questions at a counci ! dance was our 5rst and our only in the Black Hills with the commis- lernselves from religion. We believc that there is a er beingeon- mysterious power greater than all sioners of the Government, after the \ to reservations, others, which is represented by na- invocation had been given: "Which rbidden to prac- ture, one form of representation God is our brother praying to. now? old beliefs;and being the sun. Thus we madesacri- Is it the same God whom they have issive resistance, fixes -ba the sun, and cur petitions twice deceived, when they made erficially chang- were granted. The Indians lived treaties with us which they after- but longer in the old days than now. I ward broke?""° en coerced, would not sq this change is due lil many of the to throwing away the old religion: 'Theory of Transitional Religion ir tr:..,ditionalmil- there may be other reasons, but in The social organization of the Da- the old times the Sun dance was kota Indians was based on related held annually and was loolced for- kinship groups. This organization ward to with eagerness. I believe began to disintegrate during the res- 82. we had true faith at that time. But ervation period. Some new cultural ). 129. there came a year when "the sun died." There was a period of dark- "T. E. Byrne, The Red Men's Last Stand, "A Sioa:i Medicine p. 208. ;canAnthropologigt, ness, and from that day a new re- ,08. ligion came to the Indians. It is the 'Densmore, op. cit., p. 86. white man's religion. We are timid isWarren K. Moorehead, The American G. about it, as we are about the other Indian in the United States: 18.50-1914, 189-190. ways of the white man. In the old pp. 187-188, 179. days our faith was strong and our l'Halley, op. cit., P. 100. Scr .0140,...10.61.0.10

4'4 South I pernatural means for earlier, in o r e fayora merit; (2) they emph solidarity in ceremonia tional activities; (3) t ted non-vkA acqu icing supernatura the individual vision ; success in life; (4) t e5thet icisrn in their sx) and their art; (5) the \ new ethieal system wh the predominantly nu nes of peacefulness, h and self-support with t havioral norms; (6) ritual cures for conta which, only recentk were taking a great t by the Tent meciirkgs arcoccasionally held in some communities lifc."c3 smaller evangelistic denominations. The Ghog D compatible with Sucli cultural conflicts,imposed In the 1880's the T practices, relatively people, ea pi s e were predisposed to a voluntarily ac-upon a conquered Dakota culture, were them to search tor somesatisfying hgious movement wh cepted; but the Dakotas werealso activitiesthat will provide their them deliverance fro coerced into adopting afew non-In- and distress. Their game sufficient-lives with a degree of meaning dian customs which were security. The theoreticalcontention tbeir cattle were dyin ly incompatible toblock effective marginal relig-. drought and disease, r culture prac-of this study is that responseto their native ions activities haveprovided just were threatened with tices.'" For example,buffalo htvat-such an accommodation tothese r Maim', it must not ing customs. welladjusted to thevalue conflicts with the culture.The that they were a natio, pre-reservation economy, werefor- 1890 ed warriors,the re issuance ofGhost Dance appeared about cibly replaced by the and was followed by th(.: l'eyoteand with die American ar agency rations asthe basic means of in their memory, and however,Yuwipi cults. These attempts at re- subsistence. The Dakotas, ligious accommodation toconflict- eral grave grievances did retain in the eventsof rationing cultures share many common official guardians.'(" day some of the old gregariousandelements: (1) they includetradi- influence of Christi:13 ceremonialactivities which hadtional Dakota rites, or theusual su- superficialandtrai been considered an importantn.ort e:ere was no orgai of the hunt. But shootingslow-mov-"I, S. S1otkin. The reyo& Religion, pp. among the Western from horses! 14-1.3. ing dometicated cattk 'Tarries Mooney, "The Ghost Datfce Re- dians.'" As a result a back or holding ceremonies toat- ligion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1810," tions, the acceptance tract the herd wereclearly unsatis- Annual Beport of the UnitedStates militant doctrineli factory responses to adifficuk situ- Bureau of Ethnology; Vol. 14, pp. 1,06e- Dance was a forego ation.162 1,067. 43 4 3 ialinIIMNi.7.0.,**.evw

44 South DakotaEaperiment Station Bulletin 473 pernatural means for restoring anAs acentral doctrine,thiscult earlier, rn 0 r e favorable, environ-provided supernatural means for ment; (2) they emphasized socialthe salvationof alltheir prob- solidarity in ceremonial and recrea-lems: the coming of a messiah who tional activities; (3) they substitu-would overthrow the domination of ted collective, non-violent means oftheUnitedStatesGovernmen... acquiring supernatural power fordestroy non-Indian society and cal. the individual vision as a basis forture, and renovate the world ac- success in life; (4) they revivedcording to Indian ideas.'" As an estheticism in their wcial activitiesadditional benefit, for the faithful and their art; (5) they developed aperformance of religions duties, the new ethical system which combinedorganizers of the dance promised to the predom:nantly non-Indian val-ward off disease for the whole kin- ues of peacefulness, brotherly love,ship graup."7 and self-supporl with traditional be- Purifcation in the. sweat bath, as havioral norms; (6) they providedJames Mooney has observed, was ritual cures for contagious diseasesan essential preliminary devotional which, onlyrecentlyintroduced,and sanitary ritual of this dance. were taking a great toll of Dakota ides hy the The sweat bathisin frequent use, both as a religious rite of purifi- The Ghost Dance cation and as a hygienic treatment. conflicts, imposed In the 1880's C3Teton Dakotas Like evetythin,2 else in Indian life, c'd people, cause were predisposed to accept any re- even the sanitary application is at- for vme satisfying ligious movement which promised tended with much detail of rdi- provide -their them deliverance from their great gious ceremony. Fresh bundles of \vill the fragrant wild sage arc strewn ree of meaningand distress. Their game animals m-id upon the ground inside of the earetical contention their cattle were dying because of swcathouse, and a fire is kindled that marginal relig- drought and disease, and the ban& outside a shoo distance away. In lave provided just were threatened with starvation. I. thh lire stones are heated by the unodation to these addition, it must not be forgotten medicine-men, and whenallis vith the culture. The that they were a natio:, of imprison- readythepatientordevotee, -ipeared about 1.890 ed warriors,the recent conflicts stripped to the breech-cloth, enters 'd by the Peyote and with the American army still fresh the sweathouse. The stones are then hese attempts at :re- in their memory, and bearing sev- handed in to him by the priests by iodation to conflict-. eral grave grievances againg their means of two forked sticks, cut es- pecially for the purpose, and with lore many common official guardians.'" Moreover, the two othcr forked sti:Is he puts the they include tradi- influence of Christianity was very stones into the hole already men- .ites, or the usual su- superficialandtransitory,since there was no organized church"Slotkin, op. cit., p. 18. he Peyote Religion, pp. among the Western Dakota In-'Robert H. Lowie. Primitive Religk.n, p. --The Ghost Dance Be- dians.'As a result of these condi- 194. low( Outbreak of 1890," tions, the acceptance of a nativisitic'Barton, op. cit., p. 177. of the United State.i- "Slotkin, op. cit., p. 20. logy, Vol. 14, pp. 1,066- militant doctrine like the Ghost Dance was a foregone conclusion.'Mooney,op.cit., pp. 786-787. 44 46 South The Dakota Indian Religion tall into the air towar(1 tioned as having been dug inthe the outside, there is frequently a points four sacred center of the lodge.Water is then sacrifice pole, from the top of which after the old primitiv passed in to him, which he pours are hung strips ofbright-colored boric heads, and dipp until the whole cloth, packages of t 'oacco, or other of a steer before bei pver the hot stones offerings to the deity inVoked by the interioris fined with steam; the the dance. These w, blankets are pulled tight -to close devotee on any particular Deca- cred up and tied to er..,ery opening. andhe sits in this 5ion.1 9 the tr7e, togethec wi aboriginal Turkish hath until his After thpurification ceremony; gaming wheel and naked body is dripping with per- the dancers were painted ly;the fiectiliar staff or wan spiration. During Oiis timethe and Another young oo medicine men: "The design same one. remailied doctors outside are doing their part color varied with, the individual,be- in the way of praying to thegods ing frequently determined by a the tree throughout ti and keeping up the supply of hot sub- ing a sacred rcdstonc- stones and water untilin their esti- previous trance vision of the out toward the weNi mation he has been sufficiently ject,butcircles,crescents and from which the rn purified,physicallyormorally, crosses,reprzsentingrespectively appear. when he emerges and resumes his the sun, the moon, and themorning At the beginning clothing, sometimes first checking star, were alwaysfavorite figures men and women. sat the perspiration and inducing a re- upon forehead,face, and cheeks."7 in a large circle atoi action by a plunge into the neigh- After being painted, -the Tetons pkintive chant was t boring stream.' GS were robed insacred ghost shilits which a vessel of soi bul- was passed around Mooney's chscription continues:decorated to ward off enemy everyone had partak lets. The protective virtue wasbe- signal by the pries Before going into the dance the lieved to reside in bird figureswhich men, or at least thetraders, fasted rose to their feet, jai for twenty-four hours, and then at had been revealed by a supernatu- began to chant the sunrise entered the soPeathousefor ral powerthe eagle, magpie, crow, and move slowly ar the religious rite of purification pre- or saae-bemThis, idea derived from -from right to lefo.r? the de- liminary to painting themselves for the early Dakota belief that As described by the dance. The sweathouv.: isa signs on their shields turned enemy trierly a trader at Pit small circular framewthl of willow arrows aside.171 ey, the. riles confirm branches driven into the ground The actual dancing was preced- and bent over and brought together ed by the planting of a small tree in The dancersfirst at the top in such a waythat when the center of the circle. An Ameri- facing the sun, wh covered with blankets or buffalo floated standing facing diet robes the structure foruts a diminu- can flag or colored streamers er and wated over tive round-top tipi 'lust high enough from the top of the tree, andthe "ghost stick," a stal to enable several persons tosit or priests of the dance sat at itsbase. long, trimmed with in- to stand in a stooping poaure At a great dance at No Water's feathers of the san side. The doorway faces the east, as Pine thus waving the sticl and camp on White river near is the rule in Indian structures, Ridge, shortly before the arrival of faced the sun and at the distance of a fewfeet in front prayer, after which of the troops, a young woman stand- of the doorway is a small mound ing within the circle gave the signal up to form a circle . earth, on which is placed a buffalo and the dance bega skull, with the head iurned asif for the performance by shooting looking into the lodge. The earth of p. 822. The Ghost Dane( which the mound is.formed is taken "Ibid., pp. 822-82.3. ied the dotcrine of z from a hole dug in the center of p. 823. gion with special my the lodge. Near the sweat-house, on 1nLowie, op. cit., p. 195. 4 Sofia; DakoiaExperitaent StationBul letiti 473 45. 46 into the air toward the cardinal ic customs and triodes of life. Moon- requently a tall points four sacred arrows. made ey has translarad several of these e top of which a fr,r the old primitiirefashion with so,gs, the following serving as a bright-colored 1-ioc heads, and dipped in die blood fine example: bacco, or other of a steer bcfon being brought to invoked by the thc dance. These were then gath- The whole world is coming. articularocca- ered up and ttvil to the brandies of A nationis coming. a nationis the twc. togethec with -the bow. a corning. fion ceremony, gaming wh;g1 and stic4. and a The Eagle ha,s brought the message )ainted by the peculiar staff or wand vei.4% horns. to the tribe. Another youn8 skomaa.orthe The father says so, the father says .so. he design and chrwhole earth theyare indivichial, be- same one, remained standing near the tree throughoutthe dancehold- coming. ermined by a ing a sacred redstone pipe st-retcheti The bnaalo are coming. the buffalo on of the sub- out toward the west, the direction are coming. crescents,and frotn which the messiah was -to The Crow has brought the-message igrespectively appear. to the tribe. nil the morning At the beginning the performers, The father says so, the -father says favorite figures men and women. sat on the ground SO. 474 and cheeks."'" in a large circle around. th,.! tree. A This song expresses the hone of -d, the Tetons pkintive chant was then sung, after the Ghost Dancers for the return of .ed ghost shirts which a vessel of some sacred food the Imffalo and the departed dead. off enemy bul- was passed around tthe circle until everyone had partaken, when, at a SuppasediV. the mesSages are virtue was he- signal by the priests, the dancers brought by the eagle and crow, sac- rd figures which rose to their feet, joined hands, and red birds of the religion.il by a supernatti- began to chant the opening song At the climax of the ceremony. magpie, crow, and move slowly Around die circle the participants became ecstatic en lea derived froin from right to left.172 masse. Sonic fell into a trance and chef that the de- As described by J. F. Asay, for-had visions of buffalo herds; others ls turned enemy merly a trader at Pine Ridge Agen- sawscoutirg expeditions and a cy, the rites continued asfollows: happy camp life. These manifesta- ing was preced- tions of the old-er ways of life were of a small tree in The dancersfirststoodinline accompanied by fantaes of ainmal .ircle. An Ameri- facing the sun, while the leader, standing facing them, made a prey- visitants, characteristic co5- the DA- streamers floated er and waved over their heads the kota visions generally experienced ie tree, and the "ghost stick," a staff about six feet by the adolescent vision seeker as e sat at its base. long, trimmed with red cloth and well as by participnt5 in the Sun e at No Water's feathers of the same color. After Dance. Although the tOical doc- river near Pine thus waving the stick over them. he trines of the messianic religion were -ire the arrivai of faced the sun and made another ignored, the Dakota dancers did in. g womanstand- prayer. after which the line closed corporate some of the teachings of le gave the signal up to form a circle amund the tree the missionaries into the philoso- lee by shooting and the dance hegan.r's 'Mooney, op.of..pp. -323-824. The Ghost Dance songs embod-"31bid., p. 915. ied the dotcrine of a messianic reli- p. 953. gion with special mythology, archa- p. 1.672. 95. Tbe Dakota Indian Religion .47 48 Sot natairal assistanc( pliy of the ceremony. Previously,the.Dance and the Peyote cult* may wouldin part be understood asalternative bon was comma crucified Christ,-for example, Cl have been rejected by the conquer-responses to a similarsocio-cultural Dakota and ed Indians: but now Hewould re_constelIation.""3 The reduction of thus the meaning a the wrongsrations,cropfailores,starvation, the spiritual pow turn as an avenger still the vided aid in war which had Peen done/hem, servingand overall frustration were much the Slime purpose astheirbasic problems.'''' not be changed. the Peyotism is named after the part could he used to guardian spirits. In these ways, by Ghost Dance was efkctiveduringplayed in Indian church services in righteous lion this great crisis in unifying somethe mescalirie bean of a cactus then, an Indian c basic Christian beliefs with thoseofplant that grows in Mexico andthe tive yisioll and the. pre-existing Teton systemofSouthwestern United States. The Moreover, this ci communion of the Peyote meeting hesive force wl religion.''' old The conditions responsibleforis the passing of the beans in a so- placedthe the end of the Ghost Dance were:lution prepared from them tothe which, disiategra communicants attheservice. ex effective in co (1) the failure of the messiah to induces a appear and bringabout the antici-Chewing the Peyote bean It opposed the I trance-like condition and provides total abstinence pated world renovativn (and there necessary for pe was no reinterietation of doctrinea temporaryfeehrig of well-being, failure); (2) therelease from anxiety andphysical living. Indeed, 0 to account for this in- prohibition of Ghost Dance rites bypain. The Peyote service also of Peyotism are and crovernment officials concernedwithclodes native rituals, chants, all monotheistic mantaining their control of theDa-practices modified by someChris- The attivities and kota Indians during the years 1890-tian symbols (such as the cross Peyote services 91; and ( 3) the violent suppressionaltar)and the professed recog- the actual corm of a few hostile groups bythenition of Christ. In short, indoc- trine and ritual, the Peyotecult se- nk, the Dakota United States Army at the height lectiyism in so of the disturbances. such asthelectively incorporates Christianand native religious elernents, trasmitted into massacre at WoundedKnee. As a the Peyote Cho the Dakotas becamere- The transitional nature ofthis result, religious movement is evidentin nature of the P, signed to subordination;they ae- the emotional cepted a program of aucornmoda-its provision of a cultural organ- ization to which the Indianscould ticipants, all of tion and gay... op hopeof actively portant functio opposing the superiornon-Indianshow allegiance and of a super- natural means which couldhelp activities and forces.177 them adjusttodifficultexisting their individual Peyote Cult couditions.'" The idea of super- service. In add tion members a The rise of the Peyotecult fol- '7"--b>wie: op. cu., pp. 195-196. lowed upon the failure and su-'"Sfotkin, op. cit., p. 20. each as brother Dance. The'"Bernard Barber, "A Socio-Cultilral In- each other dun pression of the Ghost onomic need o conditions which hadformerly pro- terpretAtion of the Peyote Cult," Amer- ican Anthropologist, XL(December, wise, visiting a duced a militant, nativistic move- 1941), p. 674. couraged.'"" A ment now generated apeaceful''Frank Fiske, The Taming of theSioux, transitional religious program.But, p. 156. these were imi tions in traditi as Barber hasobserved, "The GhostmSlotkin, op. cit., p. 20, 4 7 Station Bulletin 47.3 .47 48 Saud, Dakota Experiment through revela- The total effect ofPcyotism is he Peyote cult* may natural assistance probably greatest onthose suffering dcrstood as alternative tion25 Common toboth native their estab- religions;from .disintegration of a similarsocio-cultural Dakota and Christian lished personality structure, adirect The redliction of thus the meaning anddirection of had pro-result of social isolation.The in- p failures,starvation, the spiritual power that dividual who has sufferedsuch per- rustration were still the vided 3 ict in win' or huntingcould Now, iastead, itsanality disorganization maysatisfy ms.' 7" not be ehanged. in the could be used to enc,airage successhis nevd for gregariousness IS named afterthe. part small, intimate groupswhich con- dian church services lw in righteou.s living.Peyotism was of the Na- le bean of a cactus then, an Indian combinationof na-stitutg the bask:structure ethics.''''tive AmericanChurch. If he be- rows in Mexico andthe tive vision and Christian shows solidar- The Moreover, this cult proyitied a co-haves acceptably and n United States. re-ity with these groaps,he will he of the Perte meeting hesive force whichpartially per- theoldkinshipsystemspirituallyrehabilitatedhis g of the beans in o so- I.Jaceit sonality reorganizationwill receive lved from them to the disintegratiag, was no long- it conforms to ia controllingbehavior.group approyal as its attheservice, er group standards.Thus -this Indian e Peyote beaninduces a a)posed the use of liquor,since believed to beChurch substitutes a ney setof so- condition and provides total abstinence was cial roles for theunattainable tra- v feeling ofwell-being, necessary forpeaceful and upright doctrinesditional statt* system.'" n anxietyend physioal living. Indeed, the ethical Peyotism, as a of Peyotism are muchlike those of As we hare seen, Feyote service also in- iscompatible ve rituals,chants, and all monotheistic religions."2 rnarginalreligion, withtraditional Dakota culture. oded by some Chris- The extivities accompanyingthe attributed to the cross and The curative powers s (such as Peyote services are assignificant asPeyote, the vision-producingeffect the professed recog- For exam- 'hrist. In short, in doe- the actual communion. of its use, the anti-dominant group ple, the Dakota emphasis oncol-theme in the religion, andthe reaf- itual, the Peyote_ cult se- is feelingsin corporates Christian and lectivism in social organization firmation of in-group trasinitted into the organizationofspiritual and aesthetic aeivitiesin- rious -eleinents. nsitional nature of this the Peyote Church. Thecollectivedicate the desire to recapture or nature of the Peyoterite heightensmaintain 'Old ways ofIffe.' But iovement is evident in of the par- few cultural ort-n- the emotional reactions Peyotism has also adapted a in of a ticipants, all of whom aregiven im-Christian religious caaraeteristics. which the Indians could con- ,iance and of a super- portant functions inthe religiousSuch Christian values as open activities and permitted tomii'aefession of sill., brotherly love, careof cans whichcould help to the, isttodifficultexisting their iiidividual contributions op. cit... pp. 131-131 service. In addition,the congrega-"qhid.. pp. 195-136. Peyotismalso per- 11.'8" The idea of super- tion members areexpected to treat mitted the loatans 4o reject thesubordi- .cic.,,pp.1095-196. each as brothers and sisters,helping natestatusu.suali.,accordediridian of crisis, ec- converts to Christianity. ,arber. "A Socio-Cultural In- each other during times 1"S1otkin, op. cit.. p. 42. n of ,the PeyoteCrit," Amer- onomic need or siek»ess;and like- gift-giving are en- p. :iropologist, XL (December, wise, visiting and '1V11141colnu J. Arh- ",A FunctionalView 674. couraged."" As explainedearlier, o Pcyotism inOmaha Cultare.7 Alias ..ke, The Taming of the Sioux, these were importantsocial obliga- Anthropologist. WI (October,1956), p. 25-26. p. cit., p. 20. tions in traditional Dakotasociety. 48 nou Mh3.fl .4

The Dakota Indian Religion 49 South Dt family, self-reliance, and avoidancecasionallyforfindinglostar- that they are suspicion. of alcohol reflect some degree of ac-ticles.""F The power of the "priest," ers. Christian ministers ceptance of the culture of Western ;national church leaden the medicine man, is based on a crvation may disapproy Civilization.'" visioninwhicha ,i!, :I.deity The recreational function of P,ey-appears before him irre Ls him or Yuwipi, but they ca otism serves well as a morale boost-the key to curing illness,finoing their church membeds er. The Peyote meeting is an impor-lost articles; predicting the future, pect for or even to pa tant leisure-time activity for thoseor performing some amazing feat. these native cults. Sew who enjoy visiting. On the day afterCelebrated priests may be called aCiliations may be hei the actual meeting, the time is us-from great distances to work their eously by one indivichi; ually spent in joking,gossiping,miracle cures, and they ore usually family; however, there storytelling, and eating. These ac-well paid in gifts of cash or. more cy for all Ale men-thers tivities provide a reasonable frequcally. -food, clothing, horses, munitv to join thc sau balance to the staid and ritualizedand othei goods."'' churth because (3f the Peyote service)" on common kinship Its reliance on elements of the Sineethe beliefs of all rc The influence of rural life and atraditional Dakota religion suggests lower economic position is seen in are thought to be con that the Yowipi cultirentirely the basic Dakota value the orgaization of the Native Arrie-vestigal;butithtas undergone ican Church. Its pracce of denom- andcoeperation, amalgamatory changes. It has, in churches ,:end to pert, inationalisni and temperance work,fact, -adapted to modern reservation accompanied by a varied assort- values and utilize then, conditions to the point where it mav advantage. They may ment of social activities, is similar tobe thought of as a marginal prac- that of most rural churches in the cial gatherings, which tio, implying a fusion of "pure" members usually atten Great Plains area. Even the use ofDakotareligionwiththenew the term "church," with all its con- served and there are ai needs of people. 'Unlike Peyotism, tunities to visit with fri( notations, signifies an attempt tothe cult has not established itself as put Peyotisin on the same level of atives. The native gift an organized church with officials monies following the d dignity as Christian &nominationsand a polity; rather it functions on and to accommodate to their p4tt- neral of a relative may ; an informal basis t.,;id at irregular ated or even encourag ern of religious organization. Thetimes according to the needs and use of biblical quotations ir the Christian church. Thus desires of the participants." find it easy to maintain Peyote services, likewise borrowed The transitionalcharacterof bershi ps.'" from rural churches with funda--these marginal religious cults, the mentalistdoctrines,reflectstheYuwiri and the Native American sensitivity of a marginal religion toChurch, is indicated by the fact Contemporary Val the opinion of the dominant relig- that the present day reservation 2 Pine Ridge Co ions groups in the area,'" Indians have not 1,, come so fi;mly Yuwipi Cult attached to any one form of rek,ion In order to test the vi hypothesis of this stud, "The only continuing cult of the ''Slotkin, op. cit., p. 45. Dakotareligion is thcYuwipi'Arth, op. cit., p. 2. vestigation was condo 1"Slotkin, op, cit . :',.Y-5£ Pine Ridge Reservatim meeting. . .Thiscultwcrships manifestations of four chief Dakota'Gordon Ma:A": .Varrir,,-,s Without summer ot 1957.193 Tw Weapons, p. 98. gods, andinvokessupernatural ties selected for thisi 'Cardwell], op. cit., p. 30, have been given the ge power for curing the sick and oc-1"Macgregor, op. cit., p. 99,

ego 49 ,...m,.m,,!...... IiiisallkiatbamYYSIZI*

Sonda Dakota Experiment Station Bulktin 47.3 49 that they arc suspicious of all oth-ation of "traditionar and "transpo- mdinglostar- ers. Christian ministers and denom-sitionar.'" A map showing the lo- er of the "priest," inational church leaders on the res-cation of the .37 families in the n is based on a ervation may disapprove of Peyotet w ocommunities i-, tted aanimal ci2ity or Yuwipi, but they cannot forbidin figure 1."5 The faini,' roin in and gives him their church members to show res-wI-Ach no interviews could Lie ob- , illness,finding pect for or even to participate intained for reasons of unavailability icting the future, or uncooperativeness a re indicated Ine amazing feat. these r".-e cults. Several religious affiliati, may be held simultan-in figure 1 by an X. ; may be called eously by one individual or by one The questions on the schedule ces to work their family; however, there is a tenden-were based on the value system of 1 they are usually cy fen. all The members of a com-traditional Dakota society and con- of cash or. more munity to join the same ChristiantemporaryWesternCivilization. clothing, horses, &mat because of the value placedSixteen items concerning beliefs or on common kinshipassociation.modes of action (eight.1.,,uscd on Da- elements of the Since-the beliefs of all religious s'ectskota values, and eight on Western ) religion suggests are thought to be consistent withvalues) were selected and present- isentirely cult the basic Dakota values of sharing"'Cardwell, op. cit., pp. 30-31. hasundergone andcooperadtht,theChristian 'The hypothesis stated in Section 1.i, may anges. It has, in churches tend to perpetuate these be repeated: The responses of Fine '(,dern reservation values and utilize them to their own Ridge residents to a series of questions )(lint where it may advantage. They may promote so- based 011 traditional Dakota culture arid a marginal prae- on modern American culture reveal con- cial gatherings, which sonic non- flicts in those values expressive of mar- fusion of "pure" members usually attend if food is ginalreligiousparticipation. Answers withthe new served and there are ample oppor- indicating approval of both value sys- Unlike Peyotism, tunities to visit with friends and rel- tems suggest greater participationin stablished itself as atives. The native gift giviyig cere- religious activities, hut those indicating irch with officials approval a one value system suggest monies following the death and fu- lesser participation. cr it functions on neral of a relative may also be-toler-'The traditional community has more s and at irregular ated or even encouraged by the traits that are typical of traditional Da- o the needs and Christian church. Thus the Dakota lama Indian culture, and the transposi- tici pants."' tional community mare nearly resembles find it easy to maiutain plural mem- South Dakota rural society although re- .11 characterof bershi ps."2 taining some traits related to reservation .ligious cults, the residence. A more detailed description Of Native American these communities is given in Vernon D. Contemporary Vakes in Malan's The Dakota lw"nn Family, pp. ited by the fact 7-12. day reservation 2 Pine Ridge Communes 'The limited number of eas,s may not be become so firmly estrenwlv meaningful in and of them- te form of religion In ordet to test the validity of the sE.Ivcs, but they tend to lend support. hypothesis of this study, a field in- although not conclusively prove, the hy- 45. ."sti,,!ation was conducted on the pothesis of the st0d4,. For a detailed Pint. ''Ridge Reservation during the discussionofthelimitationsofthe . 57-58. method of the study sec ClintonJ. r, Warriors Without summer of 1957.19:1 Two communi- jesser's The Changing Traditional Value ties selected for this investigation Sysiem of the Dakota Indians, pp. 78- p. 30. have been given the general design- 84. , p. 09. 30 52 tiouth Dakota I FIG. 1 "don't know'a responses or qu replies were-also noted on thc ule. At the same time, adeli information was obtained fr DISTRICT MA respondents regarding their c attendance and participation wipi and Peyote ineetMgs, a so u gh t in t i ms of sick t trouble. An exact copy of th, TRANSPOSITIONAL® tions is given in Appendix I COM M U N ITY The answers elicited from SCHOOL dents have ir 'heated either a TRADING POST al or disapproval of a Duk Western value. Since the si values of the two systems ap be largely contradictory, ap of both value Aystems is ex to be associated with greater ipation in certain marginal re activities. A consistent pat responses would indicate a N of one system to the exclusim other, and a respondent wi pattern of replies w dd be le \,TRADrflONAL ly to engage in the Peyote o 'COMMUNITY pi meetings. Religious Porticipatioi ed in the form of questions which Consideration should krst would elicit a "yes" or "no" answer. en to Dakota participation For example: "Do you give. Away activities of the traditional C gifts in the name of your relatives churches in the study area. or children when something special all the respondents were happens (e.g., when someone tnar- members of either the Cati rie; or dies)r The values of Wes- Episcopal church; table tern society w er e presented in a that most of them were ro similiar form in order to be consis- active in the activities of di tent, as well as to keep the questions churches. fi An being vague and couched in Some possible explanau teims unfamiliar to the respondent. their endlrsernent of these L A translation of the questions into churches are: (1) the res the. Siouan language was used for church has adapted to the those who might have had some dif- people who are in an extre ficultyin understanding English. kited situation; (2) the ch Every qa don was limited to a self has compromised witl yes"or "no" response, although Station Bulletin 473 52 Sottrti: Dakota Experiment "don't know'' respor6es orqualifiedenous Dakotavalues; 3 the In- IG.1 sched-dians have accommodated s o ni e replies werealso noted on the of ule. At the same time,additionalchurch practices to the values iorintson was obtained from thetheir old religion;(4)the church !STRICT MA respondents regarding their churchmeeting provides an opportunity attendance and participation in Yu-for social gathering and visitingand offers spiritual security to individ- Wijli Peyote meetings, and aid sought in times of sickness oruaL who earl identitythemselves trouble. An exact copy of the ques-with ;Inci belong to awell-estab- tions is given in Appendix lished social group; (5) some Chris- The answers elicited from respon-tian values are similar toDakota dents have indicoted either approv-values, e.g.. generosity and chastity; SCHOOL (6) the authorities of the church, TRADING POST al or disapproval of a Dakota or Western value. Since theselectedpriests and ministers, reveal a sin- vakes of the two systems appear tocere and personal concernfor M- be largely contradictory,approvaldividuals. and as they work closely of both value osteins isexpectedwith the _people. demonstrate their to be associated with greatterpartic-devotion to tbe Indians welfare. ipation in certain marginal religious At the same time, reservation In- I activities. A consistent patternofdians seem very little cencerned to responses would indicateapprovalabide by dogmatic demoni»ational of one system to the exclusionof .7ierestrictions. During the course of a other, and a respondent withlisfew mooths, it is not uncommon for pattOrn of replies would beless like-them to attond ehurell meetings of ly to engage in the Peyote orYuwi-the only two reservation denomin- ations, Catholic_ and Episcopal, the NAL pi nieetings. 1TY tent meetinp-s oceasitmallyheld in Reiigioas Participation the community by i; visiting evange- Consideration should fi;rst begv-list of some ottier denomination, and en to Daliotaparticipation in theparticipate in Vuwipi orPevote serv- activities of the traditionalChristianices. Loyalty to a single church does churches in the study area. Nearlynot seem to be so important as th all the respondents werenowiralneed fOrsocial activity provided by members of either the Catholic orattendapve at all of these various Episcopal church; table I indicatesmeetings. Moreover, some individ- that most of them were relativelyuals change their denominational active in the activities of theFe twoaffiliations at frequent intervals. In churches. sonle cases, changingchurches may some possible explanationsforalso be associated with personality their endorsement of these Christiandisintegration. since the disorgan- churches are:( I) the reservationized individual r iy unconsciously of church has adapted to the needs "'A detailed discos5ion of the methodolo- people who are in zin extremely iso- gy of this study is XV ailable attheRural lated situation; (2) the church it- Sociology Departrnent, South Dakota self has compromised with indig- State College, Eric:takings. Q:{7W r...Avb.A14.01+xuaicketsuislais._.2.8,A,gtgaV=_'7.1.

53 Suitt h 'The Dakota Indiatt Religion -- 54 Table 1. Church Attendance, Preference, and Loyalty* Table 2. General Characte

Selected Characteristics Percent 98.0 Attending Church clectc4 Characteristics Frequency oi Auendance: (Adults) - Whenever possible and whenever held 75.7 Education ( Average numbe Once a month or/and sel(lom ...... 21.6 Indian .Anctstry (Per cent 1)o not attend 2.7 Age (Average years) Frequenc of Attendance: (Children) Socic-economic Scorc:,. Children attending 67 6 Average ! 'amber of Expect Children not attending 2 7 Dakota Value System Iiave no children now or never had 24.3 Avera,e Number of Expect No response ..... , 5.4 Western Value Systert Church Preference: Number of RespondentsA Catholic 54 0 Expected on Dakota V 46.0 Episcopal . Number of Respondents At Church Loyalty: as Expected onDakow Changed churches within the last year ...... _6,0 Have not changed within the last year .... 94.0 *37 ropondents in study. ;3-77e-spondents in stliciy. There was a signifi be seeking some means of workingpondonts: and (4) marginal and percentage ofreplies tln out a reasonable adjustment tohisnon marginal mspondents were of .% compared with respect to the nlim- greater acceptance value conflicts. Dakota values. The ay ber of expected responses they gave q0.7%, for Westernvain Acceptance of Dakota ancl Westernto the. Dakota and Westernvalue for Dakota values.Th( Value Systems systems. that th( The answers to the questio»s on The characteristics selected for ages indicate investigation, because they appear- Western society have g- the schedule were analysed and complete acceptance, s compared in the followii.g ways ined to be meaningful to the study of values and were essential to the con- expressed attitudes rel order to observe any possible assoc- timid values of the resc iations that may exist between theditions of Dakota living, were edu- cation, Tndian ancestry, age and dents. At the !;.anit.! tim responses and other relatedrondi- that Dakota values Ina dons: (1) selected characteristics ofsm.:a-economic seores.197 These fac- tors were compared with the aver- ing less acceptancedr, the respondent§ in the two com- few decades ago. Neve munities were compared with the,Ige number of expected responses to the ,Jakota and Western value questio»s relating to .ier of expected responses in generosityreceived thc Dakota and Western value sys-systems a»d the number of respond- ents answering three or less and more acceptance((35. tem; (2) selected characteristics of others (305q)). the respondents answering three orfour or more questions as expected less questions in the Dakota valueon the Dakota value system (see There were sotasi, system as expected were comparedtable 9). ferences between die with those answering four or more"'fased on tilt., short form of Sewen So- pities in regard to edii as expected; (3) selectedcharacter- cioeconomic Status Scale. See William an ancestiy, age,and s H. Sewell, "A Short Form of the Farm K. scores, asindicate( istics of respondents participating in Family Socioeconon Status Sale," marginal religious activities were Rural Sociology VIII (1943), pp.161- The older age and higi ...ompared with non-marginal res- 170. Indian ancestry in th

53 ONVQIIM.Irodlismrmavvraomsw.

Sution Bulletin 4.7.3 J3 54 Sonth Dakont Experiment the Two Communities Thble 2. GeneralCharacteristics of the Respondents in Corwounny ent 0.0 positionalditional S,electcd Ci. ,racieristir.1 5.3 ...... 7.8 5.7 Education ( Average numberof years) 100.0 full bloods) .. 47.4 1.6 Indian 'Ancestry ( Per ctiit of 50.0 59.0 2/ Age (Average years).. . 53.5 47.8 Socio-economic Scores Evpet i.cd Responses on 7.6 Average Number of 3.26 3.66 Dakota Value System . Expected Responses on -1.3 Average Number of 6.16 6.32 Western Value System Answering 3 or Less Questions as Number of Respondents 12.0 7.0 4.0 Expected on Dakota ValueSystem Answering 4 or MoreQuestions 6.0 Number of Respondents 7.0 11.0 as Expected onDakota Value System ------,- 6.0 4.0 .37 :Q.-s.pontlents in study. be associated There was asignificantly larvcommuinty could marginal and with their lower levelof formal ed- percentage ofreplies that indicateducation. Lack of education,in turn, iondents were of Western than factor in the level 'et to the num- greater acceptance was a significant Dakota values. The averageswereof economic and socialliving. Al' onses they gave values and 49% Western value 90.7% for Western of these generalcharacteristics for Dakota values.These percent-indicative of the degreeof trau that the values oftional culture retained inthe com- 'sselected for ages indicate Western society havegaiued almostmunity. Thus thetraditional com- se they appear- far as the accep- to the study of complete acceptance, so munity exhibited greater expressed attitudesreflect the ac-tance of Dakotavalues than the utial to the eon- reservation resi- ving, were edu- tual values of the tra osper ional community. dents. the same time, itappears The question may still beposed, .stry, age, and be receiv- es."' These foe- that Dakota values may "Is there an associationbetween the ing less acceptancethan they did aresponses to the twovalue systems with the aver- Nevertheless, the ected responses few decades ago. and the two types ofcommunity?" questions relating tosharing andA statistical test ofsignificance was Western value considerable ,.iber of respond- generosityreeeivod employed to determine theproba- more acceptance(65.9%) than thebility W.' such association.'"The re- F-, .e or less and number of ons as expe-Aed others (36.5%). sult indicated that the tie system (see There were somesignificant dif-questions answ'red as expected on ferences between tlie twocominit-'the Western and Dakotavalue sys- education, Indi-tems was not directlyassociated TT'of Sewell's So- nities in regard to eale. See William an ancestry, age,and socio-econom- Cln-square test of significance was 'orm of the Farm ic scores, as indicated intable 2. used. For an eNplanation of this test, see icStatusScale," The older age andhigher degree of Lillian Cohen. StatisticalMethods for (1943), pp. 181- Indian ancestry in thetraditional Social Scientists. pp, 120-128. t .- 56 South The Dakota Indian Religion curred as chance pl with the particular community.'"may have occurred by chance.2" The statistical trends The association between the re- These same selected characteris- show somewhat grea spondents answering three or lesstics were then compared with those tion in marginal relig or four or more questions as expect-respondents who .stated that they among those who ha,. ed on the Dakota value system andhad part. :ipated in either Peyote or eighth grade educati the c.anmuMty was greater, but notYuwipi meetings, Cie evidence used bloods, were over 50 sufficient to provide confiden,,n thatto pleasure participation in margin- and scored less than 51 thir association was not a ma, _et- ofal religions activities (see table 4). economic scale. Thes, chance.2" Statisticaltestsofsirmificance in agreement with HI( T h e selected characteristics ofwere appliedtodeterminethe en in table 3 eoncernis these two communities, presentedprobability of association between of Dakota values. in table 2, wera then analysed indi-each characteristic and those who Those respondents vidually and compared with thehad participated in marginal activ- pitted in marginal re number of respondents answeringities.In each case the statistical ties( Peyote or Yuwi th:ee or less or four or more ques-test did not reveal scores below the the Dakota value syste tions as expected on the Dakota val-3% significance association;there- erably greater extent ue system (see table 3 ). fore the indication was that the ob- There was greater acceptance ofse::ved association could have oc- Table 4. Dakota values ammig those who 1' "The chi-square(x2)value was .164 had less than eight- (Trades of edu- with one degree of freedom, far below cation, were classified as full bloods, the 5`; level of probability. Selected ChQracter were over 50 years of age, and 2°°C1si-square Education (Av scored less than 50 points on the'The chi-square values were .598 for 8ch Grade or socio-econoiMescale.But when education differences, .076 for Indian ith Grade or tests of statistical significance were ancestry, 2.6440 for 'age, and .669 for Indian Ancestr applied to each of these character- socio - economicscalescores.These Number of values indicate that there was the great- isticsindependently.theresults est diange of association between age Number of were inconclusive. The association and acceptance of Dakota values. Age (Average 50 Years of ; Table 3. General Characteristics of the Respondents Answering Three or Less and 49 Years of Four or More Questions as Expected on the Dakota Value System* Socio-economic 50 Points or Selected Characteristics 3 or Less 4 or More 49 Points or Education (,A verTigc Number of Years)7.7 6.3 respondents in study. Sthrade and More 10.0 7.0 Less than Eth Grade 9.0 11.0 Table 5. Responses to th Indian Ancestry: Number of Full Bloods 13.0 14.0 Number of Mixed Bloods ...... 6.0 4,0 Age (Average Years) 49.7 60.2 50 Years of Age and More 9.0 14.0 49 Years of Age and Less 10.0 4.0 Socio-economic Scores (Average) .....51.5 51.2 Marginal Respondents . 50 Points and More 11.0 8.0 Non-Marginal Responde 49 Points and Less 8.0 10.0 ------°37 respondents in srucly.

;-) 56 South Dakota Experiment Station Bulletin 473 55 cutred as chance phenomenon.="2marginal respondents. In table 5, it chance.2°1 The statistical trem table 4 didwill be noted that the aceeptance of ed characteris- show sornewhat great12r participa-'Western values is extremely high a red with those tion in marginal religious activitiesfor both marginal and non-margin- ated that they among those who had less than anal respondents. and that the former ,it her Peyote or eighth grade education, wcrL fullindicated a slightly higher percen- i evidence us'?el bloods, were over 50 Years of age,tage of acceptance than the latter. tion in inargiii- and scored less than 50 on the socio-The majordistinction,however, ( see table 4 ). economic scale. These results werewas in the percentaize of marginal in agreement with the findings giv- ifsignificance respondents -who accepted four or determinethe en in table 3 concerning acceptancemore of the Dakota values. i ition between of Dakota values. The association between margin- ind those who Those respondents who partici-ality and total expected responses marginal activ- pated in marginal religious activi- ties( Peyote or Yuwipi )accepted'For education and participation in mar- the statistical ginal religious activitiesN.1.-=---.020; for ores below the the Dakota value system to a consid- Indian ances.ay V=.019; and for socio- iciation;there- erably greater extent than the non- economic scale scores X.234. as that the ob- mild have oe- Table 4. General Characteristics of the Respondents Participating in Marginal Activities* vAie was .164 cedorn, far below Marginal Non-marginal ility. Selected Characteristics RespondentsRespondents Education (Average Nurnfler of Years) 7_C 7.4 were .598 for 8th Grade or More._-_. ______-...... _ 3.0 14.0 .076 for Indian 7th Grade or Less 5.0 15.0 oge, and .669 for Indian Ancestry: scores.These Number of Full Bloods 7.0 20.0 ere was the great- Number of Mixed Bloods 1.0 9.0 tion between age 52.5 kota v.;11, s. Age (Average Years) 63.0 50 Years of Age or More 6.0 19.0 49 Years of Age or Less 2.0 10.0 Ince or -_,ess and Socio-econon-i:c Scores (Average) 47.8 53.0 System- 50 Points or More 3.0 16.0 49 Points or Less ...... ____. ______. 5.0 13.0 r More ^ 6.3 37 respondents in study. 7.0 1.0 Tab!!! 5. Resq . .a the ValueSystems and Participating in Marginal Activities, Respondents Respz.,odents 14.0 Answering 3 or Answering 1.0 Less Questions as4 or More Questions ,0.7 WesternDakotaExpected for Dakou2S Expected 35 ler 4.0 Value Value Value System Dakota Value Syf,tem 4.0 System system No. No. ;1.2 Respondents 52 33 1 11 7 87.5 8.0 Non-Marginal Respondents 179 95 18 r>1.-0 11 38.0 10.0 57, The Dakota Indian Religion system was found tobut only an averageacceptance to the value Assoca- Iv. statistical mea- (4970)of Dakota values. lack confidence on a Indian an- In this attempt sure ofsignificance.2"3 On the ques-tion between education, age,and socio-economic value system of the tion of associationbetween margin-cestry, ..liggest a» number of expectedscores and thetraditional and tram- and to ality and the reservationreligio, responses tothe Dakota valae sys-positional communities was appar- those shift was noted froi tem, the.differences between ent but notstatistically significant. Dakota values to th who participatedand those who there wasinsufficient found toLikewise, of Western Civiliz did not participete were statistical evidence to supportthe ent, most of the v have astatist:calsignificance2alconclusion that these selectedchar- conclud- culture are still infi Consequently, it could be acteristics were associatedwith par- Dakota practices ed that thenumber of questionsticipation in marginalreligious ac- pletely vanished. B answered as expected onthe Dako- significant asso- related to mar-tivities. However, ues are accepted v ta value system was ciation was discoveredbetween sensuf than Dakm ginality: the greaterthe amount of d to, tein a rgin al religious participation ing to the expressec Dakota values adhe r e and the degree of acceptanceof the behavior which wi greater the attractionof marginalDakota value system. Such an asso- activities. This result isespecially schedule questions ciation indicates thatthe more the Actual adherenc applicable to an areaundergoing aindividual accepts the valuesof Da- transition in values, onein which with Western these values could values arekota society along by observation et non-indigenous Western values, the more likely be isto de- period of time, Ru more readilyaccepted than indi-velop value conflictswhich be at- values. not feasible, nor d genous Dakota tempts to resolve inmarE,..ial re- in the scope of tl In summary, thestatistical meas- in this chapterligious activities. ing that the respoi urements reported cording to their er indicated a high degreeof accep- 2"90--z1.104. of Western values is likely that theii tance (90.7%) be somewhat coat ample, it is impos ous in theold a to conform attl these. norms of dealing with econ and accumulation we canspeculau reservation Comm ier to profess vah accordance with If a Dakota )3 with the problem basis of conflictia ior, he may beco develop attitud apathy. The sari tional culture m 57 Pi lv an averageacceptance I V.Implications of theStudy Dakota values.Assoca- tegrate underthe influence of the Iedian an- In this attempt todescribe the the new value sys- vecn education, Dakota Indianscoercive force of socio-economic value system of the replace the old, age, and and to suggest anexplanation fortem can entirely id the traditionaland trans- a the individual mayfind the old reservationreligiouspractices, will tad communities wasappar- the traditamalvaluesdestroyed. Thus he shift was noted from flounder without theregulation of t statisticallysignificant. Dakota values to themodern values insufficient either society. Thiscondition of e,there was of WesternCivilization. At pros- been indicated, support the the values of Dakotahick of values, as has ical evidence to ent, most of is accompanied by abreakdown of ision that theseselected_ char- culture are stillinfluential, and old of attachment with par- not com-the individual's sense tics were associated 1 Dakota practices have When this mar- religious ac- pletely vanished. ButWester» val-to his own society. on in marginal ginal positionis found among a e However,significant asso- ues are-accepted with greater con- of similar cultural between Dakota values, accord-group of people ) was discovered sensus than becomes participation attitudes to thetraditions, the society itself inal religious ing to the expressed normless and marginal. c degree ofacceptance of the behavior whichwould follow from Such an asso- This study has revealedthat the a value system. schedule questions. large ex- that the morethe Actual adherence to the normsofDakota Indians have, to a n indicates tent, lost the old systemof social nal accepts thevalues of Da- these values couldonly be checked and di- society alongwith Western by observation over anextendedvalues which gave purpose likely he is to de- rection to their lives.Reactions to -s the more period of time. Butthis check was for each value conflictswhich he at- did it come with-this state of affairs will vary not feasible, nor individualfrom stubborn main- to resolve inmarginal re- in the scope ofthis study. Assum- values to re- respondents did act ac-tenance of traditional ns activities. ing that the jection of all Dakotavalues and full cording to theirexpressed vahies, it values. 1.164. their behavior wouldacceptance of non-Indian 4.3W. is likely that The assumption of positions_at ei- be somewhat contradictory.For ex- be gener-ther extreme may provide arelative- ample, it is impossible to adjustment. ous in theold Dakota fashionandly stable personality the same time toBut the individualwho vacillates to conform at between the two values systemsis these norms of Westernsociety of competitionlikely to search for some sources dealing with economic meaning in group-approvedand rec- and accumulationof wealth. Thus, such as speculate, these peopleinognition-giving activities, we can are available inmarginal religions. reservation communitiesfind it eas- values than to act in No attempt has beenmade to re- ier to profess veal the extent of lossof values in accordance with thesebeliefs. their society as individual isfacedthe respondents or If a Dakota action on thea whole. Ithas been suggested that with the problem of a transitionhas been taking place basis of conflicting normsof behav- vital to the discouraged andin the values which are ior, he may become continuation of the reservationcom- develop attitudesof malaise or of his tradi-munities. The deeline ininfluence apathy. The sanctions of old Dakota rules andbeliefs has tional culture maybegin to disin- 58 5,- .8 TheDakota Indian Religion invited disintegration of a formerlygram indicating tbetheoretical re7 I. Do yon feel that you stable culture pattern. Because thelationships between the two sets of ey or food or help u values of generosity, integrity, cour=values. Acceptance of Western val- 2. If you were badly1L1 un- age, sociability,kinship, self-controlues ( x )remainsrelatively own need, would y and wisdomall integral elementschanged no matter how many Da- 3. Do you give a way gi in the old social structurenolong-kota values are accepted. But ac- special happens expression in theceptance of Dakota values ( y)in- 4. Do you believe in pi er find complete creases markedly with only aslight the church? present-day reservation culture, life 5. Would you say tha for the Dakota people has lost mean-decrease in the number of Western your wife andchi! ing. But some remnants of theoldvalues accepted.Value conflicts, value system still persist in the shar-measured by participation in_ mar- 6. Do you believe in :Mg and sociability patterns oftheginal religious activities. bad sig- 7. Do you think it she marginal religions. nificantly greater probability of oc- to touch an enemy curring When the individual ac- 8. Do you think a m: Since the Dakota people havecepted four or more Dakota values. who supplies those been eut off from their traditionalThis result, obtained from a limited 9. Do you feel that a religion, they have not been able tosample in two communities on the the rest of his life replace thislossin conventionalPine Ridge Reservation, supported 10. If someone harmei Christian denominations. The prin-time hypothesis of this study. trying to get even cipal difficulty has been the relative- II. Do you think it is ly firm insistence of the churches on Present studies of social values fore he asks for hcl the virtues of the value system ofare likely to belimited in scope, one's flesh in the S significance, and validity because of 12. Do you think that Western civilization, To the Dako- ditions, lack of fo tas, however, Western valueslackthe difficulties inherent in the meas- urement of elusive attitudes, and so your strength or the vitality and meaning necessary 13. Do you feel that a values.additional research would be highly to replace their traditional desirable. Some areas which require possible? Superficial acceptance of non-In-study are: (1 ) value integration 14. Do you think it is diamii ideas of correct behavior is not of trouble? strong enough to motivate them torelating more integrally ideational 15. If you wanted w phenomena;i.e., pur5Me these norms inpractice. n d oehavioral you? Yes Moreover, it is not uncommon forsynthesizing what is believed with 16. if your child wei the older residents of reservationwhat is done: ( 2) value quantifiea- Yes, communities to reflect nostalgicallytionindicating some measurement 17. Which church d on "better times" in the past.Theyof degree to which respondents ad- 18. Have you chan here to Dakota and Western values; 19. Do you attend: feel that conditions have been get- Sunday mor ting worse for their people instead( 3 ) value changediscovering the principles of culture which are di- Mass - of better. Undoubtedly, this ten-rectly related to change in values. Prayer meet dency to glorify the values of the Sunday Sch old culture makes them reluctant to Special 5er v Figure 2. Theoretical relationship accept new values which seem to between acceptance of western Pmnrcs, sui lack vitality in comparison with r and Dakota values Benevolent those which guided their lives in E6 Cuilds.orc 0 1M1C:ociud Instruction times past. probability of Woo 20. Do your cluldrc Tbe statistical findings of this LIconflict Bible sum] study can be summarized in a dia- Instruction 21. Have you men Yuwmpi me Peyote me 59 22. Who would, y 23hc u Appendix I. Indiflo Religion 5 9 Old and New Moral Code gram indicating the theoretical re- ethers when you give mon- helationships between the two sets of L Do you feel that you shoukl receive recognition from ey or food or help to those who needit? . .Yes,... . No. values. Acceptance of Western val- 2.1f you were badly in need ot food and someone gave youenough food for your mlues( x)remainsrelativelyun- own need, would you share it withother needy relatives? _ . .. Yes. . No. itschanged no matter how many Da- 3. Do you giveaway gifts in the name of your relatives orchildren when something . Yes, No. :77 kota valises are accepted, But ac- special happens (c.g., when one marries ordies)? heceptance of Dakota values ( y) in- 4. Do you believe in pledging a part of yourincome to the church and the work of recreases markedly with only a slight die church? ...... Yes. Nu. decrease in the number of Western 5. Would you say that your first responsibilityis to see that your own Family (i.e., values accepted.Value conflicts, your wife and ,:hildren) is adequatelyclothed, fed and houscd' Yes, II-measured by participation in mar- _ 6. Do you believe in saving money foremergencies? _ Yes,. No. iC ginal religious activities, had sig- 7. Do you think it shows a man's braverywhen in battle a man becomes so bold as nificantly greater probability of oc- to touch an enemy (count coup)? .... Yes, - No yecurring when the individual ac- S. Do you think a man is braver if he fights inthe front lines in war rather than one alcepted four or more Dakota values. who supplies those in the thickest fight? ...... No. toThis result, obtained from a limited 9. Do you feel that a person who lies about youshould have it held against him for alsample in two communities on the the rest of his life? ..... No. Pine Ridge Reservation, supported 10. If someone harmedmember of yaur family, would you forgive them without the hypothesis of this study. trying to get even? . ._No. e- Do you think it is necessary for a man to bear pain himself aslong as he can be- Ill Present studies of social values fore hc asks for help or relief from someone else (e.g, dancing with thethongs in ofare likely to be limited in scope, one's flesh in the Sun Dance)?....._Yes, . No. significance, and validity because of 12. Do you think that the "hard times" on the reservation(such as poor living con- ekthe difficulties inherent in the meas- ditions, lack of food, or sickness) are something that must come to you totest ryurement of elusive attitudes, and so your strength or endurance? ___...Yes, No. !s. additional research would be highly 13. Do you feel that an able-bodied man should maintain aregular job if it is at all desirable. Some areas which require possible? _ ....Yes, study are:( 1 ) value integration 14. Do you think it is the parents' responsibility tokeep their children busy and out relating more integrally, ideational of trouble? .... __No. to) 15.11 you wanted wisdom woukl you fast and pray inorder that it would come to e. n d behavioral phenomena; ie., synthesizing what is believed with you. =Yes,..... _==No. or 16. If your child went against your wishes,would it help if you reasoned with him? Sn what is done; ( 2) value quantifica- Yes. ..No. tionindicating some measurement ...... ly 17.W hich church do you go to? _= _ ... of degree to which respondents ad- 18. Have you changed churches within the lastyear. .Yes,.... No. t-here to Dakota and Western values; 19. Do you attend: Frequency ( 3 ) value changediscovering the Sunday morning services principles of culture which are di- Mass - - - - - rectly related to change in values. Prayer meetings to Sunday School - - - - Special Services (e.g., Easter. Christmas, We dings) ____.____ ...... to Figure 2. Theoretical relationship between acceptance of western Picnics, suppers, parties, etc...... _ .. and Dakota values Benevolent drives by your church in Guilds, circles, brotherhoods, youth groups inerear.ed probability Instruction classes - - c4 value Conflict 20. Do your children attend? a- Bible summer schools and camps Instruction classes - .... 21. Have you attended a: Yuwipi meeting? ..Yes, _ __No. - Peyote meeting? _ ...... _ Yes, ______-No. - 22. Who would, you go to forhelp when you are sick?___ _ _ -- 3 4 3 6 7 problem, who do you turn to for advice?__40 n nnkfifti nahjoi fiEnAnndIA% 23. When you arc in trouble or have a Appendix I Questions Ba ed on Dakota Indian Value System ARTH, Is.4Atern_nt I. "A Fu Number of Respondents of Peyotisin in Omaha No Quettion Yes No Response Plains Anthropologist, 1956) 25-29. Do you feel that you should receive recognition from others when you give money or food or help to those who need BARRER, BIANARD. "A Soci it 18 terpretationofthe If you were badly in need of food and someone gave you A mcrican A nthropol enough food for your own need, would you share it with (October 1941) 673-6`,-; other needy relatives' 26 10 1 Do you give away gifts in the name of your relatives or BARTON, WINIFRED WILL children when something special happens (e.g., when P.Williamson: A Br Sioux. New York: Flew one marries or dies)? ...... _ 30 0 Do you think it shows a man's bravery when in battle a man Company, 1919. becomes so hold as to touch an enemy (count coup)? _ 13 14 Do you think a man is braver if he fights in thc front lines in BECKWITH, PAUL. "Notes war rather than one who supplies those in the thickest the Dakotas." Annuai . Board of Regents of th fight? ___ ...... ______1$ 11 Do you think it is necessary for a man to bear pain himself as Institution (1886). long as he can before he asks for help or relief from BOAS, Faaw, and others. someone else (c.g, dancing with the thongs in one's in North America. Ne flesh in the Sun Dance) 10 22 5 Stechert and Company, If you wanted wisdom would you fast and pray in order that it would come to you? 13 22 2 BOAS, FRANZ, editor. GT pology. New York: 1938. Appendix III. 13tto1'N, fosePst. The Sac? man: University of Ok Questions Based on Western Value Systems 1953. Number of Respondents BURDICK, USHER L. The No Sitting Bull, Sioux M. Question Yes No Response Baltimore: Wirth Brot Do you believe in pledging a part of your income to the BYRNE, P. E. The Red Mei church and the work of [he church? ______35 1 London; A. M. Philpot Would you say that your first responsibility is to sec that your own family (i.e., your wife and children) is adequately CARDWLLL, WARREN j, to the Model n Oglala ___ _ 35 0 2 clothed, fed and housed? merit of Health, Educa Do you believe in saving money for emergencies? ______36 0 Do you feel that a person who lies about you should have it fare, Public Health Se of Indian Health, 1958. held against him for the rest of his life? __ 8 26 3 If someone harmed a member of your family, would you RVER, JONATHAN, Tra forgive them without trying to get even? 31 4 2 Me Interior Parts of N Do you feel that an able bodied man should maintain a Minneapolis: Ross and regular job if it is at all possible? 36 0 Do you think it is the parent? responsibility to keep their CORLETT, WILLIAM THOM children busy and out of trouble? 32 o A cine Man of the elmeric

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