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Tibetan Buddhism‟S Affect on the Role of Students for a Free Tibet in Resolving the Sino-Tibetan Conflict

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Tibetan Buddhism‟S Affect on the Role of Students for a Free Tibet in Resolving the Sino-Tibetan Conflict A Dharma Dilemma: Tibetan Buddhism‟s affect on the role of Students for a Free Tibet in resolving the Sino-Tibetan conflict Jessica Brock Emory University Tibetan Studies 2009 Brock 2 After a semester of observing and interacting with the Tibetan community in McLeod Ganj, studying the conflict and interviewing/researching organizations involved in it, it became clear that there is a disconnect between Tibetans supporting different solutions: independence or Middle Way. Although an obvious disagreement, the rift impedes the development of a united front against China seems to be downplayed by the community itself. This rift is particularly apparent when observing Students for a Free Tibet (SFT) in McLeod Ganj. Although SFT is one of the most active organizations in McLeod, its message is absorbed in the general anti-China sentiments that pervade this Tibetan settlement. For example, on March 10th, SFT held a pro- independence march to commemorate the 1959 Tibetan uprising against Chinese occupation. However, a pro-Middle Way group organized a rally in the same place, making the beginning of the march a little chaotic and confusing. Furthermore, as acknowledged by SFT leaders, many pro-Middle Way Tibetans participate in these pro-independence marches for other reasons such as to protest human rights violations in China. For this reason, SFT marches are frequently not focused. For example, at this March 10th protest, participants chanted slogans against the UN‟s complacency, China‟s treatment of Tibetans and the kidnapping of the Panchen Lama, in addition to pro-independence slogans. It is necessary to ask what this does to SFT‟s effectiveness in McLeod. Considering that McLeod Ganj is a hub for Tibetan Buddhism and culture as the home of the Tibetan government-in-exile and the Dalai Lama, this community is an important audience for SFT. But what if SFT‟s message becomes compromised for one that is more popular in the community? How effective are their methods if SFT becomes generalized? Another observation after a semester in McLeod is that Tibetan Buddhism largely defines Tibetan culture. This does not mean that all Tibetans are religious, but that Buddhism is deeply engrained into the community. Although it is likely that this is exaggerated by attempts to defend Brock 3 Tibetan culture from Chinese influences, it seems that every Tibetan has a connection to the Dalai Lama, even if it is not a particularly religious one. After all, despite his attempts to decrease his political power by stepping down as ultimate authority, he is the symbolic leader of the Tibetan government-in-exile, and serves as the Tibetan spokesperson to the international community. The importance of the Dalai Lama increases the popularity of his plan for Tibetan autonomy under China. In addition, the independence and Middle Way groups often discuss their political beliefs in terms of their different relationships with Tibetan Buddhism and the Dalai Lama. Thus, it is blatantly clear that religion influences and frames the discussion of the Sino- Tibetan conflict. The purpose of this paper will be two-fold: to discuss the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and religion in international relations, and to analyze the interaction between them in the Sino-Tibetan conflict, specifically regarding SFT. According to international relations theory, NGOs play significant roles in international politics by working with other international actors such as states and intergovernmental organizations to monitor and regulate the stability of the international system and its norms and laws. They also contribute to the resolution of international issues and conflicts. Religion is important to international relations because it provides a set of ethics and morals that guide the actions of the international community. Given the emphasis of Buddhism in Tibetan culture, religion provides a framework from which Tibetans formulate solutions, with or without guidance from the Dalai Lama. NGOs such as SFT must work within this framework and in accordance with Tibetan culture in order to effectively mobilize and communicate with the majority of Tibetans. However, this constrains the methods available to SFT and their ability to freely promote their goals. As a result, SFT‟s Brock 4 long-term goal is often compromised for other issues that are more accepted within the Tibetan community. Main International Relations Theories International relations theories provide a framework that outlines the characteristics of the international system, and how various actors work within this system to resolve problems that affect the international community such as terrorism, wars, and nuclear proliferation. While the academic study of international relations began in the beginning of the 20th century, the field itself dates back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 (“An Overview of the Field of International Relations,” 1 – 2). This treaty made states the most important actor in the international system because it gave them complete sovereignty within their borders, thus protecting them from outside intervention (Haynes, 31). Since then, scholars developed many theories to explain and resolve events in international politics. The two most prominent are Realism and Liberalism. Realism Realism revolves around states, which has led to its decreased popularity since the emergence of other international actors. The theory developed out of the works of Hobbes, Machiavelli, Hans Morgenthau, and the Treaty of Westphalia, and past realist politicians include Henry Kissinger. Realism posits that states are the only actors who matter in the international system. The interaction of states occurs under an anarchical international system. This means that there is no higher power that influences states (Burchill, et al., 32). States are characterized as unitary, selfish, but rational actors who seek to maximize their own power and security (31 – 33). States make decisions out of concern for their relative gains, or how to ensure that they comparatively benefit the most (67). When a state acts rationally, actions that are made in the name of morals and ethics are unfavorable. Thus, realism became less popular when the United Brock 5 States began to intervene in international politics on moral grounds, such as the First Gulf War (50). Realist influence further decreased when the War on Terror planned to defeat terrorism and spread democracy in the Middle East (38). For the purpose of this paper, the realist perspective will not be analyzed because nonstate actors play no role in a realist world, which leaves nongovernmental organizations such as Students for a Free Tibet out of the picture. Liberalism Liberalist theory is realist‟s antithesis. With liberalism emphasizing the role of other actors in balancing state power, it serves as a more appropriate framework to consider in this paper. Developed out of the philosophies of those such as Locke, Voltaire, and Thomas Paine, liberalism posits that international norms and laws influence state decisions (“An Overview of the Field of International Relations,” 5 – 6). Therefore, the anarchical system presented by realism becomes mitigated by institutions and regimes. Regimes are a set of principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures (Burchill, et al., 66). Instead of making decisions based on relative gains, liberal states make them based on absolute gains, or what is in the state‟s best interests (67). When states make these decisions, they consider international cooperation and the repercussions if norms and laws are not followed. In a liberal system, when a state does not follow decision-making procedures, other actors such as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and international courts can step in to maintain the collective security of the international community. Due to this idea of collective security, states cooperate to protect and ensure the survival of the other. Thus, states and other actors are interdependent instead of unitary (“An Overview of the Field of International Relations,” 6). It is important to note that this system Brock 6 structure allows all actors to participate in some aspect of resolving conflicts such as the Sino- Tibetan one. Roles of Actors in a Liberal System Liberal systems leave room for other actors besides states. The important actors in the international system are states, IGOs, NGOs, and individuals. There are other actors including multinational corporations, cartels such as OPEC, and organized crime groups, but they do not have as much influence and power as the formerly mentioned actors. States Even though states are not the only actor, they still remain the central unit to liberal theory because they have the most power due to their military capabilities, economic budgets, and their role as the main component in IGOs that set international norms. To be defined as a state by the international system, the state-in-question must have sovereignty, territorial integrity, a central government and a population. According to this definition, Tibet is not a state because its borders have been absorbed into China, and, therefore, Tibet does not have the first two requirements. States have economic, cultural, and political roles in the international community including mediating and instigating negotiations in conflicts, setting the United Nations‟ agenda, trading with other states, and influencing international policy through domestic laws. The global hegemon is especially
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