Footsteps on the Ice: Visitor Experiences in the Ross Sea Region, Antarctica A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Lincoln University By P. T. Maher Lincoln University 2010 Abstract of a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Footsteps on the Ice: Visitor Experiences in the Ross Sea Region, Antarctica P. T. Maher Antarctica is one of the most beautiful and remote places on the planet. The moniker of being the highest, driest, coldest, iciest, windiest, most remote continent, surrounded by the stormiest ocean is well deserved, yet it also acts as quite a draw for visitors. Despite the fact that visitor numbers have been steadily rising for the past 15 years, very little is empirically known about the experience these visitors have, particularly outside of the Antarctic Peninsula region. This lack of understanding is particularly detrimental from the perspective of visitor management, as is being discovered by agencies worldwide. As such, the aim of this thesis is to report on a study of visitor experiences in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica. Visitors are defined as those who come into physical contact with the continent, and whose primary activity and purpose is simply “being there.” Visitors are a wider population than just commercial tourists aboard cruise ships; visitors are not passengers on commercial overflights, the scientists or base and support staff. Experience is defined as a longitudinal period—looking at visitors well in advance of their visit, throughout their time on site, and following up back at their homes. The Ross Sea region is essentially equivalent to New Zealand’s Ross Dependency, a section of the Antarctic “pie” from the South Pole to 60°S, bounded by approximately 150°E and 150°W. Using a three-phase methodology to examine the cycle of experience, the purpose of this study is to compare groups of visitors with four organisations through this cycle, and analyse for change or transition as a result of their visit. The visitors were participants, to varying degrees, in a number of data-gathering methods during the 2002–2003 or 2003– 2004 seasons. Such methods included: self-administered surveys sent to the respondents’ home (up to three months in advance of the trip); personal narratives and journals while on the trip (regardless of trip length; 4–28 days); in-depth interviews held in Christchurch directly before and after the trip when possible; and email surveys (two to three months following the visit). In 2003–2004, a supplemental season of data was collected that included a researcher familiarisation visit, participant observation, and informal interviews at Scott Base. These supplemental data helped shape the researcher’s own thoughts and thus comments in the Discussion sections. Results indicate both similarities and differences as compared to previous research; key findings include: • scenery was a strong motivator and component of image; • expectations were for a safe and professional learning; • mood was positive throughout all phases; • visitation was both acceptable and problematic; • the environment was important, even in advance of the visit; ii • education was an essential benefit of the visit; • the Ross Sea region was an impressive and awe-inspiring locale; • organisational differences were apparent when discussing people and the role of transportation to the continent; • historic huts were uniformly amazing sites for the feelings they instil; • expectations were virtually always exceeded; • awareness changed over the experience; • sharing of awareness and teaching from one’s learning had occurred; • action may or may not have occurred on various specific issues, but the label of ambassador was respondent-perceived to be acceptable. This study concludes with a number of implications for theory, methods, and logistics, which will hopefully lead to future research that is much wider in scope (geographically), but equally inclusive in terms of methods and ability to utilize and critique theories built outside of purely tourism research. iii Source: Bizarro by Dan Riraro 1997; from Polar Whispers, News of the New Zealand Antarctic Society Issue 20, October 2003. iv Photo: R. Thompson (2002)—Barne Glacier, Ross Island. On the value of exploring: Simply to “increase . human knowledge is enough to justify expeditions.”—Dr. Lincoln Ellsworth (Little America Times #9, 1934, Monday, December 31, E2). Antarctica has always attracted adventurers, romantics and dreamers in equal measure, for it is a place of imagination. It is a place of mystery, a corner of the Earth apart, untamed. In a world that seems grubby by comparison, it promises vastness, simplicity and unsullied grandeur. People from all walks of life are fascinated by it, though only a lucky few find the means to get there.—Mark Jones, Adventure Philosophy (Jones, 2004, p. 112). v Acknowledgements Mom and Dad, thanks for your belief in me all these years and your unwavering emotional support through this project. Throughout my university career, you may not have always had the financial means to help, but I always knew you were there to support me when I needed it. This Ph.D. probably would not have commenced if it were not for some tremendous role models during my undergraduate and honours work at Lakehead University. Margaret, thanks for introducing me to Antarctica and pushing me to make the ‘big move’—jumping into doctoral studies in New Zealand. Tom, thanks for your guidance and example of how one can follow academic and practical careers, hand-in-hand. In New Zealand, my primary thanks goes to the guidance and support of my supervisor. Alison, thanks for always being a supportive voice, encouraging me to teach, publish, and generally become a well-rounded academic. Other staff at Lincoln University who deserve mention are: Evert, thanks for your technical assistance and expert equipment loan; Douglas, thanks for answering my many administrative and budget questions; Jacqui, thanks for the endless supply of letterhead and manila folders, and a few good laughs on the 6th floor or in the Koru lounge; and Jane, after many other scholarships officers, thanks for keeping my payments rolling along till the end. On the ground, none of this research would have been possible without the insight and cooperation of the actual visitors to the Ross Sea region (RSR). Thanks to all the participants, no matter how many phases you were involved in or how much information you gave. I cannot believe how much trust some of you put in me, providing truly intimate details about the way your visit affected you. I would like to thank the organisations that supported and assisted my research, but also took the visitors on their journeys into the RSR. Without you, the project would not have been completed, and so easily at that. In parentheses are those individuals who specifically gave me that extra helping hand: • Heritage Expeditions (Rodney and Shirley Russ, and Karen Duff); • Quark Expeditions (Tim Soper and Werner Stambach); • Antarctica New Zealand (Shulamit Gordon, Natalie Cadenhead and Lou Sanson); • Gateway Antarctica (Bryan Storey, Michelle Rogan-Finnemore and Alan Hemmings). Furthermore, thanks to Shirley Sawtell and Bob Headland for their assistance while I was using the library and archives of the Scott Polar Research Institute. Wow, what an amazing resource, one that shouldn’t be missed! I would like to thank the following organisations that provided valuable assistance for my work: • the Commonwealth Scholarship programme for financially supporting my entire course of study and living in New Zealand (2001–2004); • New Zealand Post for their 2003/2004 Postgraduate Antarctic Research Scholarship, which provided logistical support at Scott Base and financial support throughout that year; • McEwings Mountain Sports and Macpac Wilderness Equipment for their in-kind support through the 2003 Postgraduate Research Scholarship in Recreation Management. vi Another valuable aspect of my doctoral work was the attendance, presentation, and networking done at conferences. The following agencies provided valuable funding to attend and/or present at the following conferences (2001–2004): • Commonwealth Science Council Travel Grant (2001) for the 7th World Wilderness Congress in Port Elizabeth, South Africa; • Royal Society of New Zealand–Canterbury Branch Travel and Research Award (2002) for the 1st Asia-Pacific Forum for Graduate Student Research in Tourism in Macau, SAR, China; • University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences (2002) for the Antarctica New Zealand—Annual Antarctic Conference in Auckland, New Zealand; • Environment, Society and Design Division’s postgraduate conference funding (2003) for the annual Council of Australian University Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE) conference in Coffs Harbour, Australia; • Circumpolar Arctic Environmental Studies (CAES) network and the Nordic Academy for Advanced Study (NorFA) (2003) for the CAES Ph.D. course, “Tourism in the North,” in Reykjavik, Iceland; • Association of Canadian Universities for Northern Studies (ACUNS) (2003) for the 7th National Student Conference on Northern Studies in Edmonton, Canada; • Association for Experiential Education (AEE) (2003) for the 31st Annual AEE conference in Vancouver, Canada; • Royal Commonwealth Society Travel Grant and the Environment, Society and Design Division’s postgraduate conference funding (2003) for the