Historical Knowledge of Sharks: Ancient Science, Earliest American Encounters, and American Science, Fisheries, and Utilization
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Historical Knowledge of Sharks: Ancient Science, Earliest American Encounters, and American Science, Fisheries, and Utilization JOSÉ I. CASTRO Ancient Science and History fi shes acquired by observation. The present in the female. The dogfi shes il- “Historia Animalium” is a compilation lustrate this: it is a difference found in In western civilization, the knowl- of observations on animal anatomy, de- all such fi shes” (Aristotle, 1970:109). edge of the elasmobranch or selachian velopment and behavior. The “Genera- Similarly, Aristotle was the fi rst fi shes (sharks and rays) begins with tion of Animals” is the fi rst systematic to understand that in many elasmo- Aristotle (384–322 B.C.). Two of his treatise on animal reproduction and branchs, the embryos are fi rst nour- extant works, the “Historia Anima- embryology. Aristotle used the names ished by yolk stored in a yolk sac, and lium” (Aristotle, 1970) and the “Gen- of fi shes given to them by fi shermen. afterwards by a placenta formed be- eration of Animals” (Aristotle, 1979), This and the lack of illustrations in his tween mother and offspring. “Selachia both written about 330 B.C., dem- works often make it diffi cult to ascer- and vipers, though they bring forth onstrate knowledge of elasmobranch tain the species involved. their young alive externally, fi rst of all Aristotle was the fi rst to point out, produce eggs internally” (Aristotle, in the “Historia Animalium,” the 1979:31). “The smooth dogfi sh…the main anatomical difference between young are produced with the umbili- José I. Castro is with the Protected Resources Division, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, male and female elasmobranchs, male cal cord attached to the uterus, so that National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 263 claspers: “In some selachia the male as the substance of the egg gets used 13th Ave South, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 differs from the female in having two up the embryo’s condition appears to ([email protected]). appendages hanging down near the be similar to what is found in quadru- doi: dx.doi.org/10.7755/MFR.75.4.1 residual vent, whereas these are not peds” (Aristotle, 1970:261). ABSTRACT—In western civilization, the sance, and the introduction of the Linnaean started to process sea animals (primar- knowledge of the elasmobranch or sela- System of Nomenclature in 1735 marks the ily sharks) into leather, oil, fertilizer, fi ns, chian fi shes (sharks and rays) begins with beginning of modern ichthyology. However, etc. The Ocean Leather Company enjoyed Aristotle (384–322 B.C.). Two of his ex- the fi rst major work on sharks would not a monopoly on the shark leather industry tant works, the “Historia Animalium” and appear until the early nineteenth century. for several decades. In 1937, the liver of the “Generation of Animals,” both written Knowledge acquired about sea animals the Soupfi n Shark, Galeorhinus galeus, was about 330 B.C., demonstrate knowledge of usually follows their economic importance found to be a rich source of vitamin A, and elasmobranch fi shes acquired by observa- and exploitation, and this was also true because the outbreak of World War II in tion. Roman writers of works on natural his- with sharks. The fi rst to learn about sharks 1938 interrupted the shipping of vitamin A tory, such as Aelian and Pliny, who followed in North America were the native fi shermen from European sources, an intensive shark Aristotle, were compilers of available infor- who learned how, when, and where to catch fi shery soon developed along the U.S. West mation. Their contribution was that they them for food or for their oils. The early nat- Coast. By 1939 the American shark leather prevented the Greek knowledge from being uralists in America studied the land animals fi shery had transformed into the shark liver lost, but they added few original observa- and plants; they had little interest in sharks. oil fi shery of the early 1940’s, encompassing tions. The fall of Rome, around 476 A.D., When faunistic works on fi shes started to ap- both coasts. By the late 1940’s, these fi sh- brought a period of economic regression pear, naturalists just enumerated the species eries were depleted because of overfi shing and political chaos. These in turn brought of sharks that they could discern. Through- and fi shing in the nursery areas. Synthetic intellectual thought to a standstill for near- out the U.S. colonial period, sharks were vitamin A appeared on the market in 1950, ly one thousand years, the period known seldom utilized for food, although their liver causing the fi shery to be discontinued. Dur- as the Dark Ages. It would not be until the oil or skins were often utilized. Throughout ing World War II, shark attacks on the sur- middle of the sixteenth century, well into the nineteenth century, the Spiny Dogfi sh, vivors of sunken ships and downed aviators the Renaissance, that knowledge of elasmo- Squalus acanthias, was the only shark spe- engendered the search for a shark repellent. branchs would advance again. The works of cies utilized in a large scale on both coasts. This led to research aimed at understand- Belon, Salviani, Rondelet, and Steno mark It was fi shed for its liver oil, which was used ing shark behavior and the sensory biol- the beginnings of ichthyology, including the as a lubricant, and for lighting and tanning, ogy of sharks. From the late 1950’s to the study of sharks and rays. and for its skin which was used as an abra- 1980’s, funding from the Offi ce of Naval Re- The knowledge of sharks and rays in- sive. During the early part of the twentieth search was responsible for most of what was creased slowly during and after the Renais- century, the Ocean Leather Company was learned about the sensory biology of sharks. 75(4) 1 Aristotle was also the fi rst person to occupied in fi ghting. Most of the time dieval work, “The Etymologies” (Bar- write about what we now call “nurs- they haul gently, but when he gets near ney et al., 2011), was signifi cant in eries” (Castro, 1993; Simpendorfer the boat, unless with a quick heave preserving and transmitting knowledge and Milward, 1993), areas where the they suddenly snatch him out of the from classical times to medieval times. females give birth to their young and water, they have to look on while he This work was an encyclopedia of the where the young fi nd food and safety is made away with.. And often when ancient Greco-Roman and early Chris- during their early life: “The selachia divers have already begun to be hauled tian knowledge, compiled by Isidore come in from the high seas and out of up they are snatched out of their com- (~560–636 A.D.), Bishop of Seville, the deep water towards land and pro- rades’ hands, unless they have them- in the early part of the seventh century. duce their young there; this is for the selves supplemented the aid of those “The Etymologies” was arguably the sake of the warmth and because they hauling by curling up into a ball. Oth- most infl uential book, after the Bible, are concerned for the safety of their ers of the crew of course thrust out in the learned world of the Latin West young” (Aristotle, 1970:265). Nothing harpoons, but the vast beast is crafty for nearly a thousand years (Barney et else would be added to the knowledge enough to go under the vessel and so al., 2011). The work has been referred of elasmobranch nurseries for over two carry on the battle in safety. Conse- to as “the entire Middle Ages as a ba- thousand years. quently divers devote their whole at- sic book” (Curtius, 1953). Roman writers of natural history tention to keeping a watch against this Isidore covered the available knowl- works, such as Aelian and Pliny, who disaster; the most reliable token of edge in grammar, mathematics, followed Aristotle, were compilers of safety is to have seen some fl at-fi sh, medicine, laws and crimes, religion, available information. Their contribu- which are never found where these animals, human anatomy, the cosmos, tion was that they prevented the Greek noxious creatures are—on account of geology, stones and metals, buildings, knowledge from being lost, but they which divers call them the holy fi sh.” rural matters, war, games, ships, and added few original observations. Pliny (Pliny, 1997:Book 9, LXX:265). hundreds of other subjects, also giving the Elder (A.D. 23–79) expanded Ar- The fall of Rome, around 476 A.D., the origins or etymologies of relevant istotle’s comments on the “holy fi sh” brought a period of economic regres- names and words. By the year 800 and fi rst recorded interactions between sion and political chaos; these in turn A.D., copies of “The Etymologies” divers and sharks: brought intellectual thought to a stand- were found in all the cultural centers “The number of dog-fi sh1 special- still. The Dark Ages had begun, and of Europe (Barney et al., 2011). ly swarming round sponges beset the for the next thousand years there was Although many marine and fresh- men that dive for them with grave dan- little intellectual advancement. water fi shes are named in “The Ety- ger…Divers have fi erce fi ghts with The Dark Ages, from the 6th to mologies,” and their names and habits the dog-fi sh; these attack their loins the 14th centuries in Europe, are also explained, there is little mention of and heels and all the white parts of called the Middle Ages, denoting the elasmobranch fi shes.