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University Microfilms International 300 N.Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - Order Number 1334060

The appoggiatura as an improvised ornament: A comparison between vocal and instrumental instructions as presented in Italian methods of the eighteenth century

Camunas-C6rdova, Sandra T., M.A. The American University, 1988

U-M-I 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Aibor, MI 48106

THE APPOGGIATURA AS AN IMPROVISED ORNAMENT:

A COMPARISON BETWEEN VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL

INSTRUCTIONS AS PRESENTED IN ITALIAN

METHODS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

by

Sandra T . Camunas-Cdrdova

submitted to the

Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences

of The American University

in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree

of

Master of Arts

in

Music

Signatures of^ Committee:

Chairman:

(Lu j a j UX College

April 27, 1988 Date

1988

The American University Washington, D.C. 20016

THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE APPOGGIATURA AS AN IMPROVISED ORNAMENT:

A COMPARISON BETWEEN VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL

INSTRUCTIONS AS PRESENTED IN ITALIAN

METHODS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

by

Sandra T . Camunas-Cdrdova

ABSTRACT

In eighteenth-century music there were national varia­ tions in style pertaining to the practice of improvised ornamentation. One of these, the Italian practice of embel­ lishing, employed a mixture of essential and arbitrary ornaments. However, there seem to be differences in the treatment of the appoggiatura as an improvised ornament in

Italian vocal and instrumental treatises.

The main difficulties presented by the appoggiatura relate to the way in which it was written, its length, and its use in different pieces. Vocal and instrumental instruc­ tions as presented in Italian methods of the eighteenth century are compared in order to provide evidence and conclu­ sions regarding this practice.

Vocal treatises mention the appoggiatura as an essen­ tial part of music. It was seldom written and had to be supplied by singers at sight. Instrumental treatises consis­ tently define the appoggiatura as a written ornament. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... ii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...... iv

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

PART ONE: VOCAL METHODS

Chapter I. PIETRO praNCESCO TOSI: OPINIONI DE' CANTORI ANTICHI E MODERNI, O SIENO OSSERVAZIONI SOPRA IL CANTO F I G U R A T O ...... 6

Johann Friedrich Agri c o l a ...... 11

II. GIOVANNI BATTISTA MANCINI: PENSIERI E RIFLESSIONI PRATICHE SOPRA IL CANTO FIGURATO...... 17

III. VINCENZO MANFREDINI: REGOLE ARMONICHE, O SIENO PRECETTI RAGIONATI PER APPRENDER LA MUSICA .... 22

PART TWO: INSTRUMENTAL METHODS

IV. GIUSEPPE TARTINI: TRAIT£ DES AGRliMENTS DE LA M U S I Q U E ...... 27

Rules for Descending Appoggiaturas...... 29 Rules for Ascending A p p o g g i a t u r a s ...... 33

V. ANTONIO LORENZONI: SAGGIO PER BEN SUONARE IL FLAUTOTRAVERSO...... 35

Rules for Duration of the Appoggiatura...... 35

VI. FRANCESCO GALEAZZI: ELEMENTI TEORICO-PRATICI DI MUSICA, CON UN SAGGIO SOPRA L'ARTE DI SUONARE IL VIOLINO ANALIZZATA...... 40

CONCLUSIONS ...... 45

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 49 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Tosi's Examples of Appoggiatura...... 9

2. Tosi's Use of Inferior C a d e n c e s ...... 12

3. Agricola's Ornaments in R e c i t a t i v e ...... 14

4. Mancini's Use of Appoggiatura in Recitative.... 21

5. Manfredini's Use of the Appoggiatura ...... 24

6 . Tartini's Examples of Descending Appoggiaturas . . 30

7.. Tartini's Use of the Appoggiatura...... 34

8 . Tartini's Use of Descending M o r d e n t s ...... 34

9. Lorenzoni's Examples of Gruppetto and Appoggiatura 38

10. Galeazzi's Use of Ascending A p p o g g i a t u r a...... 43 INTRODUCTION

For contemporary musicians, it is a common practice to

play music exactly as written. The precision of modern nota­

tion supports this attitude. The wide variety of musical

vocabulary available for the contemporary composer makes it

possible to be specific in matters of tempo, rhythm, dynam­

ics, instrumentation, pitch, and note duration. At the same

time, it is natural to expect the performer to interpret

precisely what he sees. This precision and fidelity to

written music is taken for granted. But it was not so for

music of earlier periods.

While composers use notation according to the conven­

tions and expectations of their time, we cannot pretend those

expectations to be the same for different periods in the

history of music; and if these conventions and expectations

are ignored, twentieth-century performers have a chance of

misinterpreting music of earlier periods.

One of these conventions was the art of improvisation, which occurred at varying levels, from the adding of single notes to the embellishing of entire movements. Adding orna­ ments to written music was a natural and common way of performing. Since the notated melody was often considered an outline, the interpreter not only was privileged, but most of the time was expected, to add the appropriate embellishments,

1 2

even if the composer left no written indications for doing so.

In the early eighteenth century, improvised ornamenta­ tion was considered an art. According to many treatises, composers wrote simple melodies so that performers could develop them, making them recipients of added ornaments.

Directions for this practice are to be found in contemporary methods.

Two main kinds of ornaments are the arbitrary ornaments and the essential ornaments or agrdments. The arbitrary ornaments (e.g. , diminutions) were freer in form and had a wider range. Because of their unprescribed nature, there was no standard way of indicating them.

On the other hand, the essential ornaments (e.g., trill, appoggiatura) had a fixed form and a small melodic range. Some ways of indicating them were by means of small notes, stenographic signs, or integrating them into the music in regular note values. In some cases, the composer did not indicate them, but gave the performer the freedom to impro­ vise them as needed.

There were significant national variations in style pertaining to this practice that presented different atti­ tudes regarding the performer's role, as well as the degree, frequency, and types of ornaments to be used.

The French view employed mostly ornaments of the fixed form, generally indicated by stenographic signs or small 3

notes, thus reducing the number of embellishments that could be improvised. Freer ornaments were not favored in this style. The German practice was moderate, avoiding overindul- gence. The English view was mostly influenced by the Italian practice.

The Italian practice of embellishing employed a mixture of the essential and arbitrary ornaments. This allowed performers to improvise both agr6ments and diminutions.

However, there seem to be differences in the treatment of the appoggiatura as an improvised ornament in Italian vocal and instrumental treatises of the eighteenth century.

The main difficulties presented by the appoggiatura relate to the way in which it was written, its length, and its use in different pieces. It could be written in two different ways, as a small note, and integrated into music.

Its length, which was seldom specified by notation, was determined by musical conventions. The time value could vary from a fraction of the note to which it was attached to the entire value of that note. In certain cases, the appoggia­ tura was regarded as obligatory, depending on the type of piece and the affect or sentiment to be expressed.

Various prerequisites and limitations will be reviewed to provide evidence and conclusions concerning the practice of the appoggiatura in eighteenth-century Italy.

By examining ornamentation instructions in instrumental and vocal Italian methods of the eighteenth century, this 4

study attempts to determine to what extent the treatment of the appoggiatura as an improvised ornament was widespread in eighteenth-century Italy. It will compare instructions for this practice for both singers and instrumentalists and consider differences in attitude, frequency of use, and the value of the appoggiatura as an added embellishment.

An understanding of how musicians of the eighteenth century treated the appoggiatura in various types of music will benefit the modern performer who wishes to incorporate appropriate improvised ornamentation into everyday interpre­ tation. PART ONE: VOCAL METHODS CHAPTER I

PIETRO FRANCESCO TOSI: OPINIONI DE' CANTORI

ANTICHI E MODERNI, O SIENO OSSERVAZIONI

SOPRA IL CANTO FIGURATO

Tosi (ca. 1635-1732) was an Italian composer, vocal teacher, and writer on music. In 1692, the eminent castrato gave a series of weekly concerts in London and taught vocal music. Between 1705 and 1711 he became composer at the

Viennese court. In 1723 he went to Bologna, where his treatise on singing was published.

Today Tosi is remembered mostly for his work Oninioni de' n a n t o r i antichi e r^nH^T-ni o sieno osservazioni sopra 11 canto fjcurato. written in Bologna in 1723. Its contents remain a valuable source of information for Baroque perfor­ mance practices, specifically in the area of ornamentation and the interpretation of trills, appoggiaturas, and other vocal ornaments.

Tosi criticizes the new style of singing that was beginning to supersede the older, bel canto style. The fact that his treatise was translated several times indicates that it was an authoritative source, widely used throughout the eighteenth century, it was translated into Dutch in 1731 as

6 7

Korte Aanmerkinaen over de ZanaKonst.1 into English in 1742 as Observations on the Florid Song; or Sentiments on the

Ancient and Modern singers.2 and into German in 1757 as

Anleituna zur Sinakunst.3 The first chapter of the treatise deals with instruc­ tions for vocal teachers, while the second explains varied aspects concerning the appoggiatura. Tosi emphasizes that only after the student has made "remarkable progress," and mastered solfdge, may the teacher "acquaint him with the first embellishment of the art," the appoggiatura, applying them to vowels. The appoggiatura is considered the easiest ornament for the master to teach and the least difficult for the student to learn, being "unique" in the sense that it can be used

frequently without overwhelming the listener.

Unfortunately, Tosi did not include written examples on the use of the appoggiatura. However, Tosi's English trans­

lator, John Ernest Galliard, included valuable examples,

^Leiden: Florus schouten, 1731.

2Trans. John Ernest Galliard (London: J. Wilcox, 1742). The English quotations in this paper are from Galliard's translation, cited henceforth as Tosi, Observations.

3With Commentary and Appendixes by Johann Friedrich Agricola (Berlin: George Ludwig Winter, 1757; reprint, edited with Preface and Appendix by Erwin R. Jacobi, Celle: Hermann Moeck, 1966). 8 which are based on Tosi's verbal instructions (see Fig. 1).

The appoggiatura could be added to ascend or descend gradu­ ally as passing major and minor tones4 (Fig. la), as well as major semitones (Fig. lb), as shown in Fig. lc.

After the first lessons the singer will know precisely when to add the appoggiatura, and therefore composers have no need to write it down. Tosi's strong attack against those who indicate it reveals his preference that the appoggiatura be treated as an improvised ornament:

The appoggiatura will become so familiar to him by con­ tinual practice, that by the time he [i.e., castrato] is come out of his first lessons he will laugh at those composers that mark them, with a design either to be thought modern, or to shew that they understand the art of singing better than the singers. If they have this superiority over them, why do they not write down even the graces, which are more difficult, and more essential than the appoggiatura's? 5

Le Appoggiature gli divsnteranno dal continuo esercizio cosi famigliari, che uscito appeaa dalle lezioni si riderA di que' Compositori, che le marcano, o per esser creduti Moderni, o per dar ad intendere, che fanno cantar meglio de' Vocalisti. Se hanno questo bellissimo talento di piCi, perche non iscrivono anche i Passi, che sono pifi difficili, e molto piil essenziali, che le Appoggiature? 6

4According to David Boyden in his article "Prelleur, Geminiani, and Just Intonation," Journal of the American Musicological Society 4 (Fall 1951): 202-19, the system of tuning suggested by Tosi indicates just intonation for the following reasons: First, Tosi makes clear that the major semitone is greater than the minor semitone (by a comma of about 22 cents). This difference is close to the one between two semitones in just intonation. Second, the distinction between two kinds of whole tones denotes just intonation.

5Tosi, Observations. p. 38.

6Tosi, opinion!, p. 2 2 . TMajS.XMaj. T.Maj. T. Min.

(b)

Semitones Major N ? I

(C)

N9 2

^ a-■> J _ o 3 g JjJ1 ..I /J i Jjjj £

8 p N P 5

- # e ■J)J ||ai^ || '| || IjJ JjfJ H-E

Fig. l. Tosi's examples of appoggiatura. Reprinted from Tosi, Observations. plate II-III. 10

This statement is accompanied by the following commen­ tary by Galliard, Tosi's translator: "In all the modern

Italian compositions the appoggiatura's are mark'd, supposing the singers to be ignorant where to place them.”7

Tosi argues vigorously against foreign influences, one of which probably was the French style, which was much more restrictive in the area of extemporization. His statement suggests that it is becoming a common practice among Italians not to improvise the appoggiatura:

Poor Italy! pray tell me; do not the singers now-a-days know where the appoggiatura's are to be made, unless they are pointed with a finger? . . . Eternal shame to him who first introduced these foreign purities into our nation renowned for teaching others the greater part of the polite arts; particularly, that of singing! Oh how great a weakness in those that follow the example! Oh, injurious insult to you modern singers, who submit to instructions fit for children! Let us imitate the foreigners in those things only, wherein they excel.8

Povera Italia! Ma mi si dica di grazia! Non fanno forse i Cantori d'oggi di dove vadano fatte le Appoggiature se non gli si mostrano a dito? . . . O eterno biasimo di chi primo introdusse gueste puerilitA forastiere nella nostra Nazione, che ha il vanto d'insegnar all'altre la maggior parte dell' Arti pid belle, particolarmente il canto! O gran debolezza di chi ne siegue l'esempio! O ingiurioso insulto a voi Cantanti moderni, che soffrite documenti da fanciulli. Gli Oltramontani meritano d'esser imitati, e stimati ma in quelle cose perd dove sono eccellenti.

7In Tosi, Observations. p. 38. Galliard defines the appoggiatura as a note added by the singer (italics mine) for arriving more gracefully to the note, either rising or fall­ ing, that is, ascending or descending. You lean longer on the preparation to arrive to the intended note. It cannot be made at the beginning of a piece: "There must be a note preceding from whence it leads!”

8Tosi, Observations. p. 39. 9Tosi, Qpinioni. p. 23. 11

In the art of embellishing/ performers were able to combine different kinds of ornaments. On the chapter on the shake, the singer is advised not to use the appoggiatura before the "trillo mordente," which is a shake with a beat, performed faster than other shakes.

At the same time, embellishments that either could or could not be improvised are mentioned in the chapter on recitative. According to Tosi, the amount and type of orna­ ments to be added depend on the three different categories of recitative: church, theater, and chamber.

For one of these ornaments/ the appoggiatura, its appropriateness is related to the place in which recitative was performed and to the "affect" of the piece. In church recitative, messa d-i voce and many appoggiaturas should be sung since it is in accordance with the "sanctity of the place."

Church recitative permits more freedom to the singers, on the other hand, Tosi comments that multiple excesses are often heard in theatrical recitative. He advises that no appoggiatura should b© made in the penultimate syllable of

"inferior cadences" (from below) in theatrical recitative

(Fig. 2).

johami-Eriedrich Aqricola Agricola (1720-74) was a German organist, composer, and vocal teacher. He studied music with Johann Sebastian Bach and later with Johann Quanta, in 1751 he was appointed court Q -e— TJ — — M i f Cadence ------H- La Sol Fa I nferior * i-r,— - e — TF C adcnce ------— H- Fa me Fa It--- u ------

Fig. 2. Tosi's use of inferior cadences. Reprinted from Tosi, Observations. plate V. 13

composer the Frederick the Great, and was later the director

of the Royal Chapel.

Agricola's supplementary material to Tosi's translation

in his Anleitunq zur Sinakunst10 indicates a different atti­ tude toward improvised ornamentation, specifically in the conventions on adding appoggiaturas in recitative. He advo­ cated the Italian style of improvisation, but was in favor of writing out embellishments for the sake of a more authentic performance.

His explanation on the use of the appoggiatura is found also in other treatises of this period. If the last two notes of a cadence (which are in the same pitch) form a two- syllable weak ending, the penultimate note should be per­ formed as shown in Fig. 3a. He also included an example using the appoggiatura in a strong final syllable (Fig. 3b).

As illustrated in Fig. 3, many cadences accept appog­ giaturas from a fourth above.

In contrast to Tosi's views, Agricola states that rules on adding and performing appoggiaturas have to be explained in order to avoid mistakes and excesses by singers who lack experience. Agricola's footnote to Tosi's remark on advising

10Agricola, commentary and appendixes to Anleitunq zur Sinqkunst by Pietro Francesco Tosi (Berlin: George Ludwig Winter, 1757; reprint, edited with Preface and Appendix by Erwin R. Jacobi, Celle: Hermann Moeck, 1966). The English translations for Agricola's Anleitunq quoted in this paper are cited from Joan E. Smiles, "Improvised Ornamentation in Late Eighteenth Century: An Examination of Contemporary Evi­ dence" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1976), pp. 143-44. (a ) Feminine endings

As written: As performed:

e non a-no-re.

(b) Masculine endings PCO

caa-biato ancor sa-rb, sa-rb.

Fig. 3. Agricola's ornaments in recita­ tive. Reprinted from Smiles, p. 138. 15 composers not to write the appoggiatura, since educated singers will laugh at them, shows a contrasting view:

It would seem almost necessary to invent warning signs to show where not to place appoggiaturas in order to check the appoggiatura craze of our newest Italian singers and instrumentalists who try to imitate each other for purposes of rivalry.11

Beynahe ndthig schiene, Warnungszeichen zu erfinden wo kein Vorschlag gemacht werden soil, urn der Vorschlags- sucht der neuesten w&lschen S&nger und Instrumentisten, welche hierinn, urn die Wette, einander nachzuahmen suchen, Einhalt zu thun?12

This statement by Agricola shows not only the differ­ ences regarding improvised ornamentation style among Germans and Italians, but how the performance of added embellish­ ments, especially the appoggiatura, was widespread and abused. Clearly, vocal and instrumental performers were using the appoggiatura excessively to display virtuosity.

Agricola states that gifted singers in matters of harmony and creativity "certainly do not need the help of the composer" to know well where to add ornaments. He believes it will be an advantage to the less fortunate singer who

"either does not comprehend the prevailing affect in the aria or sacrifices the expression of the affect for his own craze to vary," if composers not only indicated the placement of ornaments, but also the actual length:

One may judge whether it would not be better if a com­ poser not only indicated the most necessary appoggia­ turas, but also indicated them in small notes according

1 Quoted in Smiles, p. 143.

12Agricola, p. 58. 16 to their real value. . . . I have said above that the appoggiaturas serve to fill in an apparent emptiness in the movement of a melody. If there were a real empti­ ness, then it would be a mistake of the composer. Only, since in forming the melody, the composer, if he other­ wise possesses good taste, already has in mind the neces­ sary appoggiaturas as well as other essential embellish­ ments and must have conceived of the entire performance of the melody. One cannot, therefore, blame him for trying to indicate his thoughts as clearly as possible.13

Urtheile man, ob es nicht wohlgethan ist, wenn ein Componist die nothwendigsten Vorschl&ge nicht allein andeutet sondern sie auch nacht ihrer wahren Gel turn durch eigene kleine N&tchen andeutet. . . . Ich habe oben gesaget, dass die VorschlSge dieneten etwas scheinbar Leeres in der Bewegung der Melodie auszufiillen. ware es etwas wirklich Leeres; so wtirde es ein Fehler des Ton- setzers seyn. Allein, da der Componist, wenn er anders einen guten Geschmack besitzet, schon die nothwendigen VorschlSge, so wie andere wesentliche Auszierungen, bey Verfertigung seines Gesanges mitgedacht, und sich die ganze Ausfiihrung desselben im Geiste vorgestellet haben muss: so ist es ihm nicht zu verdenken, wenn er seine Gedanken so deutlich auszudriicken suchet, als es ihm moglich ist.14

13Quoted in Smiles, p. 144.

14Agricola, p. 74. CHAPTER II

GIOVANNI BATTISTA MANCINI: PENSIERI E RIFLESSIONI

PRATICHE SOPRA IL CANTO FIGURATO

Mancini was a famous teacher and Italian castrato,

representing the vocal tradition of the Bolognese school of

singing. Among his teachers were Bernacchi and Padre

Martini. In 1757 he was invited to Vienna and in 1758 he was

honored with the position of royal singing master to the

Imperial Court.

His treatise Pensieri e_r.iflesRioni pratiche sopra il

canto fiaurato1 was published in Vienna in 1774. It was

translated twice into French as L'Art- dn chant figure in 1776

and Reflexions pratiques sm- le figure, in 1796. a

second Italian edition (Milan, 1777), like the 1774 edition,

was prepared under Mancini's supervision. The work was

further revised in 1807 as Metodo per hen inseanare d'appren- dere l'arte del cantare. ossiano osservazioni pratiche su

questa nobile e difficile arte. Later, parts of the treatise were incorporated into Johann Hiller's frnweisung zum

^■Vienna: Ghelen,, 1774. The following English transla­ tion has been used and quoted for the present study: Giovanni Battista Mancini, pgastical Reflections on Figured Singing bv Giambattista Mancini? The Editions of 1774 and 1777 compared. Translated, and. Edited hY Edward Foreman, Masterworks on Singing Series, vol. 7 (Champaign, IL: Pro Musica Press, 1967).

17 18 musikalish-zierlichen Gesana (1780).

Mancini's Pensieri is the most important treatise on

Italian singing of the eighteenth century after Tosi's

Opinion!. Like Tosi, he was a moderate, opposed to current changes in singing style. Both believed that improvising embellishments was an art in which performers enjoyed complete freedom.

Article VIII of the Pensieri discusses the portamento and the appoggiatura. The portamento is done "passing from one not to the next with perfect proportion and union." It could be ascending or descending, and was performed in one breath.

The appoggiatura should be learned after mastering the portamento, since both ornaments are often joined and used together. The general definition for the appoggiatura is

"one or more notes held back." It is classified into simple and double (or aruppetto).

The value of the simple appoggiatura should be half of the note to which it is added. If the note is dotted, the appoggiatura is worth two-thirds of the value. The simple appoggiatura is further classified as descending, or from above, which should always be by a whole tone; and ascending, or from below, which should always be by a semitone.

Mancini is an advocate of the Italian style of impro­ vising embellishments. He states that the graces of singing, among them the appoggiatura, "are those ornaments without 19 which every song remains weak and tasteless."

Hancini states some limitations. The singer is advised to avoid the overuse of the appoggiatura in serious song:

To execute them [i.e., single appoggiaturas] to perfec­ tion is truly not easy, because if they become overloaded in order to distinguish them, they escape the good order of proportion, and become in consequence crude and disgusting. The appoggiatura, the trill and the mordent are in reality only embellishments of song; but withal so necessary, that without them it becomes insipid and imperfect, since from these along it acquires its highest prominence.2

L'eseguirla a perfezzione non d veramente facile, perchd se mai, forse per distinguerla viene troppo caricata, esce allora dal buon ordine della proporzione, e riesce in conseguenza cruda, e dissgustevole. L'appoggiatura, il Trillo, ed il Mordente non sono in realtd che abbelli- menti del canto; ma per6 si necessari, che senza questi egli farebbe insipido, ed imperfetto, poichd da questi soli ne acquista esso il suo maggior risalto.

Mancini limits the use of these ornaments, especially the appoggiatura:

With all of this the scholar is advised not to use these except in cantilena and in suitable expressions, since these embellishments do not have a place everywhere; and far too many [performers], ignoring these precepts, abuse them. To prove me right it is enough to go into the theater to hear a man or a woman, for example, in an area of invective, accompanying with an appoggiatura such words as Tyrant, Cruel, Implacable, and so forth, and ruining therewith the good order of the exclamation. I Con tuttocid awerta bene lo scolare di non servirsene che nelle Cantilene, e nelle espressioni convenevoli, giacchd anche questi abbellimenti non hanno luogo da per tutto: E pur troppo taluni, che ignorano questa regola, ne fanno abuso. Che io dica il vero, basta andare in Teatro per sentire, che un Cantante, una cantatrice, per

2Mancini, "Practical Reflections," p. 42.

3Mancini, Pensieri e Riflessioni. p. 96.

4Mancini, "Practical Reflections," p. 43. 20

ragion d'esempio, in un Aria d'inventtiva, candando nel maggior fervore dell'azione, accompagna con la sua sensi- bile appoggiatura tutte le parole di Tiranno, Crudele, Spietato, e simili, e guasta cosi il buon ordine della esclamazione.5

Mancini clarifies that the above rule is not a general one, but it "restricted solely to serious song." In fact, if the singer emphasizes it when singing in the buffo style,

"not only does he not commit an error, but he earns applause; because this same overemphasis, which results in laughter in serious song, reaps approbation in Buffo style."6

Mancini states that the quality of the recitative depends on knowing well how to place the appoggiatura:

This precious accent which is all the pleasing quality of a beautiful cantilena, consists in a note a tone above that which is written, and this should only be used on those singular occasions when every syllable making up a word is written with notes of the same pitch. Here for greater clarity is an example7 [see Fig. 4]:

Questo accento prezioso, che 6 tutto l'amabile d'una bella Cantilena, consiste in somma in una nota d'un tuono piO alto di quello, che sta scritto, e questo suol prac- ticarsi singolarmente in occasione, che alcune sillable componenti una parola si ritrovino con note dell'istesso tuono. Eccovene per maggior chiarezza l'essempio.

5Mancini, Pensieri e Riflessionl. p. 96.

6Mancini, "Practical Reflections," p. 43. In Pensieri e Riflessioni: "La regola, che ho data, di non doversi caricare 1 'appoggiatura, non 6e generale, ma si ristringe solo al canto serio. Se la carica chi canta nel Buffo, non sola- mente, non commette errore, ma ne fatta da un serio ne caver- ebbe le risa, fatta da un Buffo ne riporta le approvazioni" (p. 97).

7Mancin.i, "Practical Reflections," p. 73.

8Mancini, Pensieri e Riflessioni. p. 168. onde mai tu vedesti

Fig. 4. Mancini's use of appoggiatura in recitative. Reprinted from Pensieri e Riflessioni. p. 168. CHAPTER III

VINCENZO MANFREDINI: REGOLE ARMONICHE, O SIENO

PRECETTI RAGIONATI PER APPRENDER LA MUSICA

Manfredini was an Italian composer and theorist. He studied music with his father, Francesco Manfredini, and later with Perti and Fioroni. In 1758, Manfredini traveled to Russia where he became "maestro" of the Italian opera company to Fedorovich's court in 1762. While there he composed opera and ballet, and taught harpsichord to Paul

Petrovich. In 1769 he returned to Italy and lived in Bologna and Venice, and in 1798 he was invited Russia by his former harpsichord student, Czar Paul I, back to Russia, where he died a year later.

His treatise Reaole armoniche. o sieno pr-ecetti raaio- nati per apprender la musica was published in Venice in 1775.

It is divided into two parts; the first deals with elements of music and the second with keyboard accompaniment. His work aroused controversy regarding the teaching of singers, and was severely criticized by Mancini. The first edition was revised in 1785 and incorporated new sections on singing and counterpoint. Nevertheless, both editions express the

Italian view that performers were free to add ornaments to written music.

22 23

Manfredini states that ornaments such as the appoggia­ tura, trill, and mordent (among others) could be either improvised or written out:

The ornaments of the melody consist of some sounds, which the singer and player adds from his own will, or are written down with small notes or other signs to demon­ strate that they do not belong to the bass of this melody.

Gli ornamenti della melodia consistono in alcuni suoni, che il cantante, e il sonatore esguisce di sua propria volontA, oppure gli scrive ancor essi, ma con note pia piccolo, o con altri segni, per dimostrare che non appar- tengono al basso di questa melodia.

Manfredini clearly defines the appoggiatura as adding a note to a written one, at either the distance of a half tone or whole tone. However, he is not clear when specifying its duration, which could take either half the value of the main note, "more or less, according to the case"2 (see Fig.

5). in contrast to other Italian treatises of the time, there is no further information explaining the time value of the appoggiatura.

A later statement regarding different approaches between singers and instrumentalists when adding appoggia- turas demonstrates that one of the factors affecting its frequency as an added ornament was the medium of performance:

Vincenzo Manfredini, Reaoie armoniche, o sieno precetti r-aaionati per apprender la musica. 2nd ed. (Venice: Adolfo Cesare, 1797), pp. 21-22.

2Ibid., p. 22: "Tenendola la metA del valor di detta nota, o pitii o meno, secondo il caso." 24

1C----1 Example. - r fk)- b - • f ^ f f —fr F ■— i------v & y j J I ------L , . ^ / - J ------1— — 4 ------‘L- p r * J J - r

j Expression. / — i==i------?—? — — 4 - = — i . = ; _W J L T 1

Fig. 5. Manfredini's use of the appoggiatura. copied from Manfredini, Reoole armoniche. p. 27. 25

The instrumentalist is not strictly required to perform an appoggiatura that is not indicated by the composer. It is not the same for the singer, who (especially in recitative) should consider the first of two notes of equal value and pitch as an appoggiatura, above all when it is on a strong beat. [The singer] should perform it a tone or a semitone higher, according to the key of the scale in which it is written.

II sonatore non & rigorosamente obbligato di eseguire un'appoggiatura, che non & indicata dal compositore, non e lo stesso del cantate, il quale (specialmente nel recitativo) vedendo due note uguali di valore, e di suono, la prima di esse, soprattutto quando £ posta in un tempo forte, deve considerarla come un'appoggiatura all'insu, ciod eseguirla un tono, o un mezzo tono piti alta, confforme la natura della scala in cui sono scritte.3

Where to add appoggiatura also depends on the nature of the words:

Words that consist of one consonant and two vowels, for example, mai, fai, sai, Dei, etc., are sometimes treated by poets as monosyllables; consequently, composers write them to a single note. However, singers must always consider them bisyllables, and perform them with an appoggiatura from above, as already described.

Le parole composte di una consonante, e due vocali, quali sono per esempio, mai, fai, sai, Dei ec. che tavolta i poeti le fanno monosillabe, e per conseguenza, i maestri le pongono sopra una sola nota; tanto e tanto, il cantante deve considerarle sempre come bisillabe, e fare ad esse 1'appoggiatura all'insd nel modo suddetto.

3Ibid., p. 65.

4Ibid. PART TWO: INSTRUMENTAL METHODS CHAPTER IV

GUISEPPE TARTINI: TRAIT*! DES

AGREMENTS DE LA MUSIQUE

Tartini was an eminent Italian violinist who contrib­ uted- to the sonata literature for his instrument, to the virtuoso concerto, and to the northern Italian version of the galant style, which was in vogue during the middle of the eighteenth century. He was a composer and a scholar, but mostly an influential teacher, the head of the School of

Nations at Padua, which became the most important center for violin teaching in Europe. His pupils included famous composers and performers such as Nardini, Paganelli,

Pasgualino, and La Houssaye.

Tartini's treatise influenced composers and performers of his time.1 It is mainly devoted to the subject of orna­ mentation, and is therefore an authoritative source for analyzing Italian performance practices on adding embellish­ ments. The original Italian manuscript was never published; three handwritten copies that circulated among his students

1Leopold Mozart had access to one of the copies. Sec­ tions of Tartini's Trait6 were incorporated into his Violin- schule of 1756. See David Boyden, "The Missing Italian Manu­ script of Tartini' s Traits des aar6ments.11 Musical Quarterly 46 (July 1960), p. 317.

27 28 survive.2 The first printed source is a French translation by Sig. Pietro Denis of Paris, published under the title

Trait6 des aar6ments de la musiaue.3

Recently, two Italian manuscript copies were discov­ ered. The first is titled Libro de regnie. ed e s e ^ j neces- sari per ben suonare dal Siar. Gioseppa Tartini. it was acquired by the University of California at Berkeley in 1958.

This copy is incomplete and written by an unknown hand.

Soon thereafter, a more complete copy of the Italian text, titled Reaole per arrivare a sap?y hen suongy jl violino. came to light.4 This time the name of the copyist is known: Giovanni Francesco Nicolai, a student of Tartini.

The treatise, in two parts, contains a complete description, with examples, of vocal and instrumental per­ formance practices and the proper use of embellishments in

According to Erwin R. Jacobi, editor of Tartini's Trait6 des aar6ments de la musiaue. (Celle: Hermann Moeck, 1961), p. 50. Probably an autographed copy never existed, but the contents were a compilation of Tartini's lectures by his students.

3See the article on Tartini by F. j. F6tis, Rj oaraphie Universelle des musiciens. 2nd ed. (Paris: n.p., 1870), p. 188. According to F6tis, Tartini's French pupil La Houssaye had taken a copy of the manuscript to Paris, from which Pietro Denis made the French translation: "La Houssaye, dldve de Tartini, avait apport§ A Paris une copie de cet ouvrage, d'aprds laquelle Pietro Denis en a donne une traduc­ tion Frangaise."

4For a detailed description of the history of Tartini's treatise and a facsimile of the manuscript by Nicolai/ see Trait6. See also Boyden, "The Missing Italian Manuscript," and Erwin R. Jacobi, "J. F. Nicolai's Manuscript of Tartini's Reaole per ben suonar il violino." Musi^;i Quarter]y 47 (April 1961), pp. 207-23. 29

the Italian style * The first part covers the essential ornaments, such as the appoggiatura, trill, tremolo

(vibrato), a n d mordent.

Tartini defines the appoggiatura as a note written smaller than the others, a grace note added to a main note and placed in front of it. Regarding its performance, he says that both the main note and appoggiatura are played in the same bow or breath.

There a r e two kinds of appoggiaturas, which are classi­ fied according to tlle direction in relation to the main note: one that a s c e n d s and one that descends.

£ iiles_ for Descending Appoggiaturas

The descending appoggiatura is regarded as the most

"natural and pleasing," and is further subdivided according to duration: l°n9 °r sustained, and short passing grace note.

The long or sustained appoggiatura takes half the value of the main n o t e ; therefore its time value equals the value of the note to which it is added. It can be written in two different ways; as a small note or as a main note (see Fig. 6a). in kQth ways the value remains the same; however, when written as a mai*1 n°te, there is "difference in expression"— the bowing stroKe or vocal attack changes. This description fits the definition of "messa di voce" applied in bei canto singing, It w as adopted from the vocal style to be used as 30

(a)

(b)

Fig- 6. Tartini's examples of descending appoggiaturas. Re­ printed from Tartini, Trait6f p. 6 6 . 31

an instrumental ornament, and described by Christopher

Simpson in 1659 for brass, by Johann J. Quantz in 1752 for

woodwinds, and by Frangois Couperin in 1717 for keyboard

instruments (see Fig. 6b).

The bow or voice must begin softly, increase it gradually until half way through its length, and decrease it again till it falls onto the main note to which it is joined. This latter needs a short trill to give it more force.

L /archet ou le grosier doivent la commencer avec doun- ceur, en augmenter par gradation le son jusqu'a la moitie de sa valeur, et le diminuer de meme en venant tomber su la grosse note a la quelle elle est jointe. Cette grosse note demande une petite cadence qui la fasse entendre avec plus de force.

When the appoggiatura is in front of a dotted note, the

main note is worth one-third of its value, while the appog­

giatura is worth two-thirds.

The time signature determines where the long appoggia­

tura should be placed. In common time, it is placed on

strong beats, that is, on the first and third beats; like­

wise, in triple time, it is placed on the first beat. The

note to which the appoggiatura is attached should be longer

than the next note, because the long appoggiatura "does not

sound well with notes of equal length," and has to be suit­

able to the composer's intended affect or sentiment. This definition is similar to that of the "port de voix," a vocal

ornament that was performed when a shorter note was followed by a longer one on the strong part of the beat. The main note had to be emphasized more than the ornamental one, which

5Tartini, Traits. p. 70. 32

had to be slurred.

The second type of descending grace note is the short,

or passing, appoggiatura, which fills in descending leaps of

a third, creating a scale with the main notes; it also occurs

in other places, such as in descending runs. "To sound well," the main notes should be accented more than the grace notes, by playing the appoggiatura as short as possible. In contrast to the long grace notes, the short or passing appoggiatura can be used in any tempo, and in common or triple time.

The composer's style and the affect of the piece should be taken into consideration by performers when adding appog­ giaturas and other ornaments:

The effect of short, passing grace notes is to sharpen and brighten the expression, it is very different from that of long grace notes, which merely make it sing more. Short, passing grace notes should therefore not be used in slow mournful pieces, but only in allegros, or at most in those marked andante cantabile.

L'&ffet de petites notes breves et de passage est de rendre 1'expression vive et brillante. II est bien different de celui des petites notes longues, gui la rendent seulement chantante. II ne faut pas par conse­ quent mettre les petites notes breves et de passage dans le morceaux graves et melancoliques, mais seulement dans les allegro, ou tout au plus dans les andante cantabile.6

Short grace notes can also be placed in ascending and descending scales, the effect being that of an anticipation.

6Ibid. 33

Rules for Ascending Appoggiaturas

The second kind of appoggiatura is the single grace note. It cannot be used as an ascending ornament because it

leaves unresolved dissonances. If so, it should be combined with other grace notes, so they first ascend but then resolve the dissonance descending. However, there are other grace notes that seem to be different from the ones described before:

There exist nevertheless grace notes that proceed by leaps, some rising, some falling, and that always sound well, especially in cantabile, grave and patetico pieces, as in the next example [see Fig. 7]. Their rules ar the same as for the long, sustained grace notes which are used in descending scales.

II y a n6anmoins de petites notes qui procedent par sauts, les unes en montant et les autres en descendant, et qui font toujours un bon 6ffet, sur tout dans le cantabile, dans le grave et dans le patetique, comme l'on voit dans 1'example suivant. Leurs regies sont les memes que celle des petites notes longues et sostenues qu'on employe dans les £chelles en descendant.7

All these rules on the correct placement of the appog­ giatura can be applied whenever performing cadences. Also, it is mentioned in relation to other ornapents, specifically the trill and mordent. The short or passing appoggiatura can be added to trills on imperfect and interrupted cadences.

The mordent consists of three small notes, either ascending or descending. Tartini makes clear that the descending mordent is the preferred form, because "an appoggiatura sounds better falling than rising" (see Fig. 8).

7Ibid., p. 88. 34

valtur dtt pttilii notti

Fig. 7. Tartini's use of the appoggiatura. Reprinted from Tartini, Trait6f p. 73.

p p [JSf Sp iBpj|

Fig. 8. Tartini's use of descending mordents. Reprinted from Tartini, Traits. p. 88. 35

CHAPTER V

ANTONIO LORENZONI: SAGGIO PER

BEN SUONARE IL FLAUTOTRAVERSO

Lorenzoni's (1755-1840) instrumental treatise shows

that he was not only versed in musical practices of Italy,

but in those of other countries as well. His Saaaio per ben

suonare il flautotravor-so was published in Vicenza in 1799.

Although the work contains original material, some of its

sections are a rewording of Quantz's Versuch. It was also

influenced by the writings of Rousseau, D'Alembert, and

Tartini.

The appoggiatura is defined by Lorenzoni as a sound

indicated by a small quaver or eighth-note.1 Its duration is not explicitly notated; it takes part of the value of the note to which it is attached.

Rules., for Duration of the Appoggiatura2

The appoggiatura will take half the value of the note to which it is attached if it is

1,,piccola croma."

2Antonio Lorenzoni, Saaaio per ben suonare il fiauto- traverso (Vicenza: Francesco Modena, 1799, pp. 59-60.

35 36

— in front of a note that is not dotted, or — in front of a dotted whole note in 12/8 or 6/4 tempi, or — in front of a dotted half note in 12/8, 6/8, 9/8.

Se se trova un' appoggiatura avanti una nota non puntata, oppure nelli tempi 12/8, e 6/4 avanti una semibreve puntata; e nelli tempi 12/8, 6/8, 9/8 avanti una minima puntata; si fa durare il suono dell'appoggiatura la met& della nota seguente.

The appoggiatura will take two-thirds of the value of the note to which it is attached if

— it is in front of a dotted note (which has not been included in the explanation above).

Se si trova un'appoggiatura avanti una nota puntata, che non sia delle sopramentovate (n.° 1); si fa durare il suono dell'appoggiatura due terze parti della nota seguente.

The appoggiatura will last the time of the dotted note

— it is used in 12/8, 6/4, 6/8, 9/8 and it is in front of a dotted note whose value is prolonged by a slur to another note of the same pitch that is not dotted.

Se nelli tempi 12/8, 6/4, 6/8, 9/8 si trova un'appoggia- tura avanti una nota puntata, e che questa nota puntata sia unita con una legatura ad'un altra dello stesso suono non puntata; allora all'appoggiatura si da il tempo della nota puntata.

If the appoggiatura is in front of a note that is fol­ lowed by a silence, the appoggiatura will last the value of the note, and the note will last the time of the silence.

The last rule states that the appoggiatura has to be per­ formed as precisely as possible and that all the above rules should be observed.

The "gruppetto" is described as two or three 37 appoggiaturas performed successively (see Fig. 9a). It is indicated by a sign and should always be performed in the value of the following note. Both the appoggiatura and the

"gruppetto" should be performed with the same tonguing or attack of the preceding note, and the appropriate alterations such as #, if , or b should be added as needed.

In the rules for introducing essential ornaments,

Lorenzoni states:

One should attempt to embellish and enrich the melody with ornaments such as appoggiaturas, gruppetti, mordents, and trills, as much as the piece allows.

Si deve procurare di adornare, ed arrichire la melodia con delle appoggiatura, gruppetti, mordenti, e trilli per quanto il pezzo lo comporta.

Continuing, he states that they should be added keeping in mind the affect of the piece:

Trills incite liveliness, the appoggiatura softness; this is a fact proven by experience. Therefore, one should not frequently add trills in sad pieces, nor appoggia­ turas in happy places.

I trilli eccitano alia vivacity, le appoggiatura alia mollezza, questo e un fatto provato dalla esperienza. Bisogna dunque osservare di non aggiugnere con frequenza de'trilli ad un pezzo mesto, delle appoggiatura ad un pezzo allegro.4

Appoggiaturas could also be added in slow movements in which there are abundant leaps of thirds either ascending or descending diatonically (see Fig. 9b).

3Ibid.

4Ibid. (a) Gruppetto

(b) Appoggiatura using leaps of thirds

i aatflM *

(c) Appoggiaturas in triplets

Fig. 9. Examples of Lorenzoni's gruppetto and appoggiatura. Reprinted from Lorenzoni: (a) example 97, table III; (b) example 120, table IV; (S) example 121, table IV. 39

According to Lorenzoni, the appoggiatura has a special place whenever one perforins triplets. In a slow movement with ascending or descending triplets, the appoggiatura could be inserted between the third and first note of two triplets,

in which both notes are a unison. If there is no unison between the last and first notes, the appoggiatura could be added as in Fig. 9c. CHAPTER VI

FRANCESCO GALEAZZI: ELEMENTI TEORICO-PRATICI

DI MUSICA, CON UN SAGGIO SOPRA L'ARTE

DI SUONARE IL VIOLINO ANALIZZATA

Galeazzi (1758-1819) was an Italian theorist, composer,

and violinist. He studied violin in Turin, one of the lead­

ing centers for violin playing in eighteenth-century Europe.

According to F^tis,1 Galeazzi relocated in Rome, where he was

a renowned violin teacher, composer of instrumental music, and the musical director of the Teatro Valle.

Few of his compositions are preserved today. His two- volume treatise, titled Elementi teorico-pratici di musica. con UP saaaio sopra l'arte di suonare il violino analizzata. was published in Rome (1791-96). An enlarged edition of the

first volume was published in 1817. Galeazzi's treatise is of particular importance, not only to study the Italian view of ornamenting instrumental music, but also to trace the state of the art of adding embellishments toward the end of the century and to understand the Classical style and is trends. Galeazzi emphasizes throughout the treatise that one of the most important requirements for a player to be called a

^-F6tis, p. 383.

40 41

virtuoso is to possess style, which is divided into two main

parts: ornaments and expression. Since music is written in

such a complicated manner, the composer cannot write down

everything that is in his mind; thus, plenty of things,

including ornamentation, are left to the arbitrary judgment

of the performer. Ornaments should be added in accordance with the composer's intended expression and the general rule

is not to "fill# oppress, or alter" the melody with too many

of them. The subject of adding embellishments is regarded as a capricious subject because it depends on fashion and on the taste of different nations. Nevertheless, rules are mentioned for some embellishments, starting with the appog­ giatura.

The appog9iatu^a is regarded as one note that takes part of the next note value, but does not alter the beat. It should be p l a c e d at the distance of a tone or a half-tone

2 , from the main note, and it is considered a dissonance.

There are two kind of appoggiaturas, one from above or

»di sopra" (descending), and the other from below or "di sotto" (ascending)* In both cases, Galeazzi's rules are as follows: They are a*ways worth half the value of the main note. If the main note is dotted, the appoggiatura is worth one-third and the main note is worth two-thirds. When lean­ ing into notes of other values, the appoggiatura should be

2"Nota app°9giata," the note to which the appoggiatura is attached. 42 performed in a more flexible way, that is without insisting on taking half of the value. The reason is that the appog­ giatura is a dissonant note and if prolonged will produce a poor effect. Also, it is indispensable for the appoggiatura to be slurred to the main note.

The ascending appoggiatura should always be a half tone of distance from the main note; if not, the appropriate alterations (such as #,^ , and b ) should be added to conform to this rule. This distinction is not mentioned for the descending appoggiatura, which can be performed at a distance of either a half or a whole tone (see Fig. 10).

After the appoggiatura has been discussed, other orna­ ments such as the mordent and trill are mentioned by

Galeazzi. The relationship of these ornaments to the appog­ giatura is of particular interest. In fact, Galeazzi states that these ornaments consist of a combination of the two different types of appoggiaturas.

The mordent is a combination of four notes, combining both the ascending and descending appoggiatura. The ascend­ ing mordent3 consists of first the descending appoggiatura, followed by the ascending one. The descending mordent4 consists of the reverse; the ascending appoggiatura is performed first and then the descending one. Appoggiaturas are seldom added before notes of long values; instead of the

3A1so called "mordente ascendente."

4A1so called "mordente descendente o reverso." 43

Fig. 10. Galeazzi's use of ascending appoggiatura. Reprinted from Galeazzi, Elementi teorico. vol. 1, example 9, table XI. 44 appoggiatura, mordents are performed.

There are two different kinds of trills, the "mezzo trillo" and the "trillo." Both trills should always start with the appoggiatura.5 The mezzo trillo is defined as a

"battimento," a replica of the appoggiatura, performed quite fast, and always starting with the appoggiatura. The trillo is the combination of the mezzo trillo with the mordent. It should always start with the ascending mordent and end with the descending.

5Francesco Galeazzi, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica. con un saaqio sopra l'arte di suonare il violino analizzata. vol. 1 (Rome: Pilucchi Cracas, 1791-96), p. 194: "Non si faccia dunque il trillo senza far sentir prima 1 'appoggiatura." CONCLUSIONS

According to the instructions of Italian methods for both vocal and instrumental music in the eighteenth century, the rules on the use of the appoggiatura vary. Thus a strict pronouncement on its correct performance would only misrepre­ sent the truth and produce an artificial musical product.

Regarding vocal appoggiaturas, all authors share the same opinion. They are an essential part of music. Vocal appoggiaturas were seldom written and had to be supplied by the singer who, at sight, replaced a written note with a different one. This particular case can be observed in rules

for cadences in recitative, in which the first of two notes with the same pitch and length was performed a fourth above

or below. The performer was not substituting or distorting

the composer's intent with his own, but doing what was

expected and allowed.

Definitions of the appoggiatura that appear in several

important vocal treatises of the eighteenth century have been

cited and discussed. All of them agreed that the appoggia­

tura is a note added by the singer, according to different

conventions.

To summarize, Tosi believes that the appoggiatura is a

pleasant ornament that can be used frequently without over­

whelming or tiring the listener. He clearly points out that

45 46

composers have no need to write it down* opposition is so strong that he considers its writing an ^n®ult. Galliard, translator of Tosi's Opinion^, defines the appoggiatura as a note added by the singer. Mancini descrimes it as one or more notes held back. The fact that it was 'held back" is an obvious indication that the appoggiatura was added at sight by singers.

Of all the vocal instruction methods that have been used for this study, Manfredini's treatAse is the only one suggesting that the appoggiatura could *> e added by both singers and instrumentalists. He makes clear that the appoggiatura could also be written with small notes or other signs to demonstrate that it does not t>el°ng to the harmony.

Nevertheless, Manfredini specifies that instrumental­ ists are not "strictly required" to per f ° rin aPpoggiaturas that are not written down t>y compose*^. It Was not so for singers, who had to add them, especially ;*'n recitative.

All vocal treatises mention the apP°99iatura in rela­ tionship to recitative. An abundance o f aPP°9giaturas are suitable in church recitative, accordin'? to Tosi. Mancini states that the quality of recitative performance depends on knowing well where to add them, while M^hfredini believes that singers should add appc^iaturas eSPec^aH y in recitative.

All treatises agree that the affect of the piece and the composer' s intended sentiment were important factors 47

that, in addition to the text itself, determined where to add

appoggiaturas. Examples on specific words are given to

illustrate this view.

Except for Tosi's Opinion!, which assumed that singers

were well trained and prepared to add appoggiaturas with

taste and judgment, all the other vocal treatises suggest

that one should know the conventions concerning appoggiaturas

and that this will benefit music in the sense that overuse

and excesses will be avoided.

All vocal writers gave instructions and were mostly concerned with the correct placement of the appoggiatura.

This, together with the continuous complaints about its overuse and above all the call for moderation, may indicate that the appoggiatura was indeed added frequently as an improvised ornament. It was not an optional ornament, but an essential part of vocal music in the eighteenth century, particularly in recitative.

If instructions for vocal and instrumental appoggia­ turas are compared, it should be concluded that this ornament was much more often indicated or written down for instru­ ments, and that the performer had mostly to recognize it in order to interpret it properly- This is explained by the fact that all the instrumental treatises covered in this study were mainly concerned with the duration of the appog­ giatura rather than with its placement, which may indicate that the appoggiatura was already written and the main 48

problem of the instrumentalist was to decipher its length,

rather than where to add it.

Instrumental treatises consistently define the appcg-

giatura as a written ornament or as a note indicated by the

composer. Tartini says that it is a note written smaller

than others. He even explains two different ways of writing

it. Lorenzoni defines it as a small quaver, and Galeazzi in

terms of its length. All of the instrumental treatises

explain the appoggiatura in detail with relation to tempo,

time signature, its location in relation to other notes, and

the affect of the piece. Also, there is much said about

performing the appoggiatura as precisely as possible.

There are particular places in which the use of the

appoggiatura as an added ornament is permitted in instru­ mental music. Leaps of thirds in slow movements as well as

in combination with other ornaments are appropriate places, but as a general rule its addition in instrumental music is much more restricted than in vocal music. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agricola, Johann Friedrich. Commentary and Appendixes to Anleitunq zur Sinakunst. by Pietro Francesco Tosi. Berlin: George Ludwig Winter, 1757; reprint, edited with a Preface and an Appendix by Erwin R. Jacobi, Celle: Hermann Moeck, 1966.

Arteaga, Stefano. Le rivoluzioni del teatro musicale italiano dal la sua oriaine fino al presente. 3 vols. Bologna: Carlo Trenti, 1783-85.

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. Versuch liber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen. Berlin: G. L. Winter, 1759.

______. Essav on the True Art of Playing Keyboard. Trans­ lated and edited by William J. Mitchell. New York: Norton, 1949.

Boyden, David. "Prelleur, Geminiani and Just Intonation." Journal of the American Musicoloaical Society. 4 (Fall 1951): 202-19.

______. "The Missing Italian Manuscript of Tartini's Trait6 des aar6ments." Musical Quarterly 46 (July 1960): 315-27.

Burney, Charles. A General History of Music from the Earli­ est Ages to the Present Period. Edited by Frank Mercer. 2 vols. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1935; reprint, New York: Dover, 1957.

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