ARSI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT STREAM

IMPACTS OF RESETTLEMENT ON LAND USE LAND COVER DYNAMICS: THE CASE OF CHEWAQA RESETTLEMENT SITE IN OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE

BY

GETACHEW BERBADA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS, SPECIALIZATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

JUNE, 2016 ADAMA, ETHIOPIA

ARSI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT STREAM

IMPACTS OF RESETTLEMENT ON LAND USE LAND COVER DYNAMICS: THE CASE OF CHEWAQA RESETTLEMENT SITE IN OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE

BY GETACHEW BERBADA

ADVISOR MESSAY MULUGETA (ASS.PROFESSOR)

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS, SPECIALIZATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

JUNE, 2016 ADAMA, ETHIOPIA Approval sheet

Arsi University School of Graduate

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Getachew Berbada, entitled: Impacts of Resettlement on Land use/Land cover dynamics: submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in Environmental Disaster Risk Management, complies with the regulations of the university and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.

Approved by Board of Examiners

______Adviser (Name) Signature Date ______External Examiner (Name) Signature Date

______Internal Examiner (Name) Signature Date

______Chair of Department or Graduate Program coordinator

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Acknowledgment

First and fore most, I would like to thank, ‘Almighty God’ who made possible, not only to begin and finish this work successfully, also for His protection and favor in my entire life. Many thanks to my advisor Dr. Messay Mulugeta, Who patiently edits the manuscript and provides me valuable comments and advices throughout my thesis work. I would like to express my gratitude to candidate Dr. Tesfaye Genamo, for helping me to develop a sense of independent work personality and for his constant help. I am also thankful to administers of Chewaka wereda, particularly, Ato Addisu Geleta who provided me various ancillary data.

I can’t find words powerful enough to express my profound feeling to my family and colleagues for their financial, material support as well as constant encouragement to mold me as what I am on the present state. Without whom my life would not have been successful. Last but not the least, I would like to convey my special thanks to my colleagues, for sharing wisdom and experiences as well as spending smart time in the course of the two years graduate program.

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Table of Contents Approval sheet ...... i Acknowledgment ...... ii List of Figures and Tables...... vii Acronyms and abbreviations...... viii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background of the study ...... 1 1.2. Statement of the problem ...... 2 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 3 1.3.1. General Objective ...... 3 1.3.2. Specific Objectives ...... 4 1.4. Research Questions ...... 4 1.5. Scope and limitation of the study ...... 5 1.6. Significance of the study ...... 5 1.7. Organization of the study ...... 6 CHAPTER II: RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7 2.1. Definitions and concepts of land use and land cover change ...... 7 2.1. The Global impact of Land Use and Land Cover changes ...... 9 2.2. Land Use and Land Cover changes in African context ...... 10 2.3. Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Ethiopia ...... 11 2.4. Population growth, Land degradation and deforestation ...... 12 2.4.1. Population growth versus resource use ...... 12 2.5. Deforestation and Land degradation in Ethiopia...... 14 2.5.1. Deforestation ...... 14 2.6. The Definitions and concepts of resettlement ...... 15 2.7. Resettlement experiences of some countries; an overview of international and national experience...... 17 2.7.1. An overview of the experience of Brazil ...... 17 2.7.2. Resettlement experience of Africa ...... 18 2.8. Impacts of resettlement in Ethiopia ...... 24 2.8.1. Social Impacts of Resettlement ...... 25 2.8.2. Environmental Impact of resettlement ...... 26 2.9. Vegetation and wildlife ...... 27 iii

2.10. Policy issues ...... 28 CHAPTER III: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND THE RESEARCH METHODS ...... 30 3.1. Location ...... 30 3.2. Climate ...... 31 3.3. Vegetation ...... 33 3.3.1. Vegetation cover change study ...... 34 3.4. Soil and Geology ...... 35 3.5. Study design ...... 37 3.6. Population of the study ...... 38 3.7. Sampling techniques ...... 38 3.8. Data types and sources ...... 39 3.9. Tools of data collection ...... 39 3.10. Techniques of data analysis...... 40 3.11. Data validity and reliability ...... 41 3.12. Ethical consideration ...... 41 CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 42 4.1. Vegetation/ forest cover changes ...... 42 4.2. Underlying cause of LU/LC dynamics...... 43 4.3. Analysis of Land use/Land cover dynamics ...... 45 4.3.1. Land use/Land cover class of 1995 ...... 45 4.3.2. Land use/Land cover class of 2005 ...... 46 4.3.3. Land use/Land cover class of 2015 ...... 47 4.3.4. Land cover change between 1995 and 2015 ...... 49 4.4. Change detection matrix of LU/LC ...... 50 4.5. The Rate of Land Use Dynamics in Chewaqa Woreda ...... 52 4.6. Accuracy Assessment ...... 53 CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 54 5.1. Summary ...... 54 5.2. Conclusion ...... 54 5.3. Recommendations ...... 56 REFERENCES ...... 58 APPENDICES ...... 64

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Annex 1. KII GUIDE (Key Informant Interviews) ...... 65 Annex 2:Mean Annual temperature (Minimum and Maximum) and Total Rainfall Chewaqa woreda from 1990-2014…………………………………………………………………67 Annex 3 :False Color Composite Display of the 1995 LandSat Tm7, 1995 Image of Chewaqa Woreda ...... 68 Annex 4 :False Color Composite Display of the 2005 LandSat Tm7, 2005 Image of Chewaqa Woreda………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69 Annex 5 : False Color Composite Display of the 2015 LandSat Tm7, 2015 Image of Chewaqa Woreda ...... 70

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List of Figures and Tabels Pages Figure 3.1: location map of the study area and its administrative kebele………………………..30 Figure 3.2: Soil Map of the Study Area, Chewaqa Woreda…...……………………..……….…36 Figure 3.3: landscape map of the study area………………….……………...... ……….37 Figure 4.1: photo which shows woodland converted in to cultivation land……………...... 42 Figure 4.2: trends of agriculture from 1995- 2015...... …...... 43 Figure 4.3: illegal charcoal and fire wood production in chewaqa district...... 44 Figure 4.4: Land use/Land cover Map of Chewaqa Woreda, 1995...... …...46 Figure 4.5: Land use/Land cover Map of Chewaqa Woreda, 2005...... …...47 Figure 4.6: land use/land cover map of chewaqa woreda, 2015……………………...... ….48

Figure 4.7: Changes on Lu/Lc between 1995 and 2015…………………………...... …….50

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List of Table Pages Table 3.1: Mean Monthly Temperature Minimum and Maximum Temperature and Rainfall ....32 Table 3.2: Tree species recorded in agriculture and settlement area…...... …………………….34 Table 3.3: Top five crops produced in the study area ……………………...……………………36 Table 4.1: Land use changes of Chewaqa Woreda 1995-2015…………………………………..45 Table 4.2: Change detection matrix of Lu/Lc types in chewaqa 1995-2015…………….………51 Table 4.4: change detection Matrix of Lu/Lc types in Chewaqa Woreda 1995-2005……….…..51 Table 4.5: change detection Matrix of Lu/Lc types in Chewaqa Woreda 1995-2015…………...51 Table 4.5: Rate of land use change per hectare per annum in Chewaqa Woreda, 1995-2015...... 52

Table 4.6 : Cross Tabulation of field observed lu/lc categories with office interpreted lu/lc

Categories for accuracy assessment...... …...53.

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Acronyms and abbreviations

ASTU: Adama Science and Technology University CDP: Costal Development Project CSA: Central Stastics Agency EPRDF: Ethiopian People Revolutionary Democratic Front EFAP: Ethiopian Forestry Action Program EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment EMA: Ethiopian Mapping Agency FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization FDRE: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia FGD: Focus Group Discussion GIS: Geographic Information System IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development IGBP: International Geo-sphere and Biosphere Program IHDP: International Human Dimension Program ILO: International Labor Organization LU/LC: Land Use Land Cover MoA: Ministry of Agriculture MoFED: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development MoRD: Ministry of Rural Development NGO: Non-Governmental Organization NMSA: National Meteorological Service Agency NPC: National Planning Commission ONRG: Oromia National Regional Government SDA; Settlement Development Agency SLM: Sustainable Land Management SNNPR; Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region UNHCR: United Nations Higher Commissioner for Refugees UNFAOWD: United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization Water Development Division WADU: Welayita Agricultural Development Unit

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ABSTRACT

Ethiopia is a country characterized by massive internal human displacements taking place either spontaneously or in planned manner. Recently, such displacement experiences are mainly caused by two major driving forces: natural and manmade disasters and development actions. This exerts serious pressure on receiving/destination areas, which in turn results in swift land- use/land-cover (LU/LC) changes. Hence, a systematic analysis of LU/LC change is so crucial to better understand the extent of the change caused by the resettlement schemes. This study, therefore, is carried out to detect and quantify the spatial changes in land use/land cover (LU/LC) dynamics caused by the resettlement schemes of 2003 in Chewaqa resettlement site. The study has made use of three sequential satellite images (1995, 2005, and 2015) and GIS technologies in combination with ground verification. The analysis detected both types of changes (conversion and modification). Key Informant Interview and Focus Group Discussion were used to assess the conservation efforts initiated and the overall change patterns. There is about six major land use types in resettlement sites. Among them, shrub-grassland is found to be the most shrinking land use type in the area. It reduced from 27.6 percent in 1995 to 14.7 percent in 2015, and shrank at the rate of 20.7 and 25.8 %/year from 1995 to 2005 and 2005 to 2015, respectively. A significant conversion from natural vegetation cover to cropland and settlement area was observed more profoundly between 2005 and 2015, where the cultivated land expanded by 14.7 percent. Another major land use type, resettlement site, appeared only in the image of 2005 and 2015. This is attributed to the 2003 intra-regional 'voluntary' resettlement program through which the government relocated over 12390 farm households in the area. The change from vegetated land to agricultural land over the years was found to be insignificant. Appropriate family planning practice to keep the population growth at optimum level and conservation measures compatible with the agro-ecological zone are also important. Continuous impact assessments in the area and throughout resettlement sites in the country to take corrective measures also facilitates the achievement of the objectives of the scheme.

Keywords: Resettlement, land cover, land use, Chewaqa, Oromiya.

By:Getachew Berbada Email. [email protected]

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the study

Minimizing the negative effects of environmental hazards represents a measure of responsibility both to each citizen for individual and the community collectively. Over the past several decades, undesirable environmental, socio-economic and political situations have resulted in numerous population displacements in various parts of the world. The existence of Mankind on the Earth and his modification of the landscape have had a profound effect upon the natural environment. These anthropogenic influences on shifting patterns of land use are a primary component of many current environmental concerns as land use and land cover change is gaining recognition as a key driver of environmental change (Riebsame, et. al., 1994).

Changes in land use and land cover are all-encompassing, increasingly rapid, and can have adverse impacts and implications at local, regional and global scales.LU/LCC can also affect biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, soil fertility, hydrological cycles, energy balance, land productivity, and the sustainability of environmental service provision (Lambin, 1997). Apart from these, it may directly have serious impacts on future food security (Brown and Pearce, 1995). This means LU/LCC affects both environmental quality and the quality of life, which are the two aspects that affect human wellbeing.

The impact of land use change on terrestrial ecosystems, the factors affecting land use must be more fully examined. Growing human populations exert increasing pressure on the landscape as demands multiply for resources such as food, water, shelter, and fuel. These socioeconomic factors often dictate how land is used regionally. Land use practices generally develop over a long period under different environmental, political, demographic, and social conditions. These conditions often vary yet have a direct impact on land use and land cover. The interaction of nature and society and their implications on land use and land cover is a very complex phenomenon that encompasses a wide range of social and natural processes. Hence, LU/LCC is central issue that requires investigation to sustainable development (Lambin, 1997) and represents a vibrant and dynamic area of research.

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Therefore, LU/LC dynamics is a result of complex interactions between several biophysical and socio-economic conditions, which may occur at various temporal and spatial scales (Reid et al., 2000). This kind of information is required in many aspects of land use planning and policy development, as a prerequisite for monitoring, modeling and environmental change, and as a basis for land use statistics at all levels.

The emphasis of this study is to identify factors that have caused changes in the Land use land cover of Chewaqa resettlement scheme in Ilu Abba Bora zone of Oromia region, as a result of the new re-settlers being moved from East Hararge and West Hararge zones of the same region.

1.2. Statement of the problem

In 2003, 31,515 settlers were integrated into 12 sites in Amhara region, and 102, 645 settlers were incorporated in 27 sites in Oromia region. Out of these, 12,390 household resettlers which came from both east and west Hararge Zone of the same region was resettled in Chewaqa resettlement site, but next to the first consecutive 2-3 years of the government resettlement programs, there was more than 5000-10,000 household illegal resettlers settled from both zones of the same region by their own. Prior to implementation of the resettlement program, the area was covered with forests, Shrubs, wooded grasslands and jungle forests. Moreover, it was endowed with different types of wild animals including lions, buffalo, leopard, wild pig, baboons, monkeys and different antelopes. Therefore, the resettlement sites are facing rapid LU/LC changes at present. Enormous extents of vegetated land uses (wooded-grassland and grassland) were converted to farmlands and residential areas recently. Thus, the expansion of farmlands and establishment of settlement sites devastated natural plants accelerating the LU/LC changes in the area. The plants were massively bulldozed due to farmland preparation and construction of over 75,000 thatched houses for the incomers.

The current resettlers' livelihood strategies are found to be crucial driving force for the existing rapid LU/LC changes. Agricultural activities, firewood/charcoal production and wild fires are among such fundamental conversion forces. The farmers are currently alarmingly converting the land into plots of farmlands in order to increase their crop output and also for plantation of Chat plants which is the newly emerging plantation to the area especially after the resettlement.

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Meanwhile, some rural households are increasingly engaged in charcoal preparation and firewood extraction as useful livelihood strategies. Particularly, those economically dejected households are highly dependent on charcoal and firewood sale to fulfill the livelihood requirements of their family.

The combined effect of these factors certainly results in rapid conversion and/or modification of the district's LU/LC. The majority of settlers returned to find the land that they had occupied redistributed. Conflicts therefore often ensued with those who remained. In order to economize on a livelihood, returnees without land often settled on areas reserved for forest or pasture, and became involved in cutting trees and producing fuel wood and charcoal, exacerbating pressure on natural resources.

Landless returnees campaigned for redistributions, but they received less than half a hectare of poor land, making it difficult for them to attain self-sufficiency. As settlers of the 2003 have built their houses, made their farm tools, built their collective buildings like schools, health posts, stores and so on from local wood, trees were cut but not replaced. Land clearing for cultivation and different uses are practiced in the area. Forest areas and reverie belts are affected. In short, the research examines the existing challenges and prospects of resettlement program from the view point of the re-settler population and the local environment.

1.3. Objectives of the Study 1.3.1. General Objective

The overriding objective of this thesis is to detect and quantify the spatial changes in land use/land cover (LU/LC) dynamics in Chewaqa District after a huge resettlement undertaking over the period 2003-2015 and its impact on the sustainable management of the resources in the area.

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1.3.2. Specific Objectives

In specific terms, this study intends to: 1. Assessing the changes in land use/ land cover in pre- and post-resettlement periods in Chewaqa resettlement site. 2. Measure the rate at which one type of land use/land cover is changed to another before and after the resettlement scheme in Chewaqa resettlement site. 3. Assess the overall environmental impacts of resettlement scheme in Chewaqa site. 4. Recommend possible measures to be taken in order to mitigate the environmental impacts of resettlement scheme.

1.4. Research Questions

The following questions are designed to be answered by the study:

1. What the land use/land cover of Chewaqa resettlement site looks like before and after the resettlement scheme in the area? 2. What environmental changes happening on land use/land cover of Chewaqa resettlement site? 3. At what rate one type of land use/land cover is changed to another in pre-and post- resettlement periods in Chewaqa resettlement site? 4. What environmental impacts are being occurred in Chewaqa resettlement site due to the resettlement Scheme? 5. How could the environmental risks of resettlement scheme be mitigated? 6. What is the role of the inhabitants in mitigating the environmental risks of resettlement program in the Chewaqa district?

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1.5. Scope and limitation of the study

Studying the roles and impacts of resettlement is a complex subject that goes far beyond the scope of the study. The spatiotemporal and analytical scope of this study was confined to the analysis of the impact of resettlement on land use land cover dynamics in Chewaqa resettlement site. As also managed under the title of the study, taking time and resource constraint in to account as well as the researcher’s background experience and information gathered from the study area, the research was delimited to the study of 2003/4 settlers and resettlement schemes, with particular reference to ‘Chewaqa resettlement scheme’ in Ilu Abba bora Zone of Oromia Regional State.  Accordingly, the rationales behind for the selection of this site are:  The convenience of the sites to all –weather roads.  The site accommodates both the 2003 and the 2004 batches.  My best work exposure to the site.

1.6. Significance of the study

Resettlement programs suffer from non-detailed pre-resettlement survey, inadequate supplies of inputs, and hasty implementation practices. In connection with this the study supposed to have lots of importance for different bodies. Such as;  For Policy Makers and Planners;  The resettlement requires adequate pre- resettlement survey including socio economic and physical survey, particularly, the planning and evaluation of land situation.  To Fill the knowledge Gap;  The research can also contribute to minimize the knowledge gap between resettlement as a strategy and resettlement as a practice.  For Further Research;  This research is expected to serve as a reference material for researches of similar topics in the future.

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1.7. Organization of the study

The total presentation of the thesis includes five separate but connected chapters including this Introductory chapter which gives background information about the study. The Second chapter introduces the study in the context of existing literature on the impact of land use and cover change and its drivers. It explains how the objectives can be achieved using remote sensing as a tool along with the major procedures and software required. It also includes a review of several studies done in the areas along with important findings and gaps of knowledge that need further research, which further guides us to formulate the purpose of the study and central questions to be answered. The Third chapter describes the biophysical characteristics of the study area, sources and methods in collection of primary and secondary data, major approaches followed during analysis of both spatial and socio-economic data. Chapter Four presents the core findings of the study derived from analysis of all available data and discusses the major findings of the study with reference to existing knowledge, and relates them to the objectives, central questions and overall framework of the study. Finally, chapter Five presents concluding remarks and implications of the major findings in addressing prevailing challenges in the target areas and also presents issues for further research.

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CHAPTER II: RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Definitions and concepts of land use and land cover change

An increasingly common application of remotely sensed data is for change detection. Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh, 1989.). Change detection is an important process in monitoring and managing natural resources and urban development because it provides quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of the population of interest.

Change detection is useful in such diverse applications as land use change analysis, monitoring shifting cultivation, assessment of deforestation, and study of seasonal changes in pasture production, damage assessment, crop stress detection, disaster monitoring, day/night analysis of thermal characteristics as well as other environmental changes (Singh, 1989). The basic premise in using remote sensing data for change detection is that changes in land cover result in changes in radiance values, which can be remotely sensed. Techniques to perform change detection with satellite imagery have become numerous as a result of increasing versatility in manipulating digital data and increasing computing power.

Every bundle of land on the Earth’s surface is unique in the cover it possesses. Land use and land cover are dissimilar yet closely linked characteristics of the Earth’s surface. Land use refers to the human manipulation of land for a variety of purposes such as agriculture, industrial complexes, recreation areas, and human settlement (Vink, 1975). In definition, land use is straightforward: it is the purpose for which land is used. A more detailed description provided by FAO (1995) states that ‘land use concerns the function or purpose for which the land is used by the local human population and can be defined as the human activities which are directly related to land, making use of its resources or having an impact on them’ (FAO, 1995, 21).

Therefore, Land use is the manner in which human beings employ the land and its resources. Examples of land use include agriculture, urban development, grazing, logging, and mining. Management skills, tendencies, preferences, present situation, and economic expectations of

7 individual landowners affect how these factors are evaluated. Other factors that also influence land-use choices are likely to include expectations of future income, level of risk aversion, and age (Daugherty 1997).

Land use change is defined to be any physical, biological or chemical change attributable to management, which may include conversion of grazing to cropping, change in fertilizer use, drainage improvements, installation and use of irrigation, plantations, building farm dams, pollution and land degradation, vegetation removal, changed fire regime, spread of weeds and unusual species, and conversion to non-agricultural uses (Quentin et al., 2006).

In contrast, land cover describes the physical state of the land surface. Land cover categories include cropland, forests, wetlands, pasture, roads, and urban areas. The term land cover originally referred to the kind and state of vegetation, such as forest or grass cover, but it has broadened in subsequent usage to include human structures such as buildings or pavement and other aspects of the natural environment, such as soil type, biodiversity, and surface and groundwater (Meyer et al, 1993).On the other hand, Land cover is defined by the attributes of the earth’s land surface captured in the sharing of vegetation, water, desert and ice and the immediate subsurface, including soil, topography, surface and groundwater, and it also includes those structures created solely by human activities such as mine exposures and settlement (Lambin et al., 2003; Chrysoulakis et al., 2004;).

Therefore Land use affects land cover and changes in land cover affect land use. A change in either, however, is not necessarily the product of the other. Changes in land cover by land use do not necessarily imply a degradation of the land. However, many shifting land use patterns, driven by a variety of social causes, result in land cover changes that affect biodiversity, water and radiation budgets, trace gas emissions and other processes that, cumulatively, affect global climate and biosphere. Therefore, as a result of the above definitions, land cover classification has recently been a hot research topic for a variety of applications (Liang et al., 2002). A great deal of research has been conducted throughout the world in an attempt to understand major shifts in land use and land cover and to describe them to altering environmental conditions.

In general, agriculture is found to be the major driver of land cover change in tropical regions (Lambin et al., 2001 cited in Daniels et al., 2008). Over the past 50-60 years in East Africa, there 8 has been expansion of agriculture at the expense of grazing land (Olson and Maitima, 2006). Before 1950, semi-arid and sub-humid areas were predominantly pastoral with scattered settlement and cultivation but from then onwards, there has been significant transformation of grazing land to mixed crop-livestock agriculture. Understanding the mechanisms leading to land use and land cover changes in the past is crucial to understand the current changes and predict future ones. These changes occurred at different time periods, paces, and degrees of magnitude and with diverse biophysical implications (Baulies and Szejwach, 1998).

Therefore, Land use and land cover change (LULCC) research needs to deal with the identification, qualitative description and parameterization of factors which drive changes in land use and land cover, as well as the integration of their consequences and feedbacks (Baulies and Szejwach, 1998). However, one of the major challenges in LULCC analysis is to link the behavior of people to biophysical information in the appropriate spatial and temporal scales (Codjoe, 2007). But, it is argued that land use and land cover change trends can be easily accessed and linked to population data, if the unit of analysis is the national, regional, district or municipal level.

2.1. The Global impact of Land Use and Land Cover changes

The ultimate goal of global change study was to assess the impacts under each possible scenario and suggest preventive actions against the adverse environmental consequences. The focus was the adverse impact of these global and regional changes on society and environment. Empirical studies by researchers from diverse disciplines found that land use /land cover change had become key to many diverse applications. These applications referred to urban expansion, deforestation, crop land loss, water quality change, soil degradation etc. (Turner, 1995).

Global LU/LC conversions affect global environmental sustainability, which makes the analysis of these changes essential for future well-being of the mankind (Muttitanon et al. 2004). In order to meet the demands of a rising and more affluent global population, agriculture will need to continue to grow. Agriculture and associated land use and land use change contribute about 35 to 40 percent of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Emission sources include agricultural operations (enteric fermentation, manure management, soil, and fertilizer applications), land use change (deforestation and land burning and clearing). Emissions are

9 expected to increase substantially in the coming decades as population and income growth increase global demand for food, especially for meat, dairy products, and other high value products. Much of the increase in agriculture-related emissions will take place in Asia, Latin America and Africa (FAO, 2008).

Based on the co-organized working group of International Geo-sphere and Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and International Human Development Programme (IHDP),they set up research agenda and promote research activity for land use /land cover changes and the working group suggested three core subjects for land use /land cover change research, such as situation assessment, modeling and projecting and conceptual scaling. Land use and land cover changes are driven by: (1) natural processes, such as climate and atmospheric changes, wildfire, and pest infestation; (2) direct effects of human activity, such as deforestation and road-building; and (3) indirect effects of human activity, such as water diversion leading to lowering of the water table.

Natural processes and human activities can both improve or degrade the state of the land, so it is essential to distinguish beneficial from detrimental changes (Turner and Meyer, 1991).Land use practices vary considerably across the world. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization Water Development Division explains that "Land use concerns the products and/or benefits obtained from use of the land as well as the land management actions (activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and benefits.

2.2. Land Use and Land Cover changes in African context

In Africa land use is the result of the direct application of efforts applied in relation to decisions made by farmers regarding the actual use of land. These decisions are based on the appreciation of the available land resources, the response to these resources are conditioned by the knowledge passed from generation to generation and the increase of demand for various agricultural commodities in the market. The cumulative effect of farmer’s decision regarding the choice of crops, the method of tillage and his appreciation of the land resources is reflected in the spatial as well as temporal variation in land use (Gomase, 2010).

Land degradation is a potential threat to half of the world's poor people who live in dry land areas with fragile soils and unreliable rain, especially in Africa. Declining soil fertility has a

10 severe impact in global case, particularly in Africa. Average yield losses are estimated at 8 percent, with up to 50 percent productivity losses in certain areas of Africa. Traditional systems of land use are either breaking down or are no longer appropriate due to population pressure, and the management and technology needed to replace them is often not being applied (FAO, 2000). For instance, in the rainforests of the Congo Basin and Madagascar, the savannah woodlands of southern Africa, and many African coastal per-urban zones, land conversion for agriculture is a major threat to globally and nationally important biodiversity resources (Sara, 2010).

2.3. Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Ethiopia

Examining agriculture as a form of land use includes consideration of both human and biophysical factors. Ethiopian agriculture is still predominantly a traditional farming system defined by uneconomic farmland conditions and size with small holder working on continuously degraded and over grazed farmland. The production is largely for subsistence, and not for commercial purposes (Puhalla, 2009). As households fail to meet the requirement of their household members and get more impoverished, they are faced to strip the land of its resources. They cut trees for firewood, charcoal making and construction poles, leaving the hill slope bare, exposing it to erosion (AESE, 2003).

In Ethiopia, agricultural productions and rural livelihoods are directly dependent on natural environment (Bio-physical and climatic). The production process is characterized as a process of constant human interactions with natural environment. In this process, the manner in which resources are utilized would determine the sustainability of rural livelihood system itself (AESE, 2003). Because of the direct dependency on the natural resources, the proximate causes of land cover change particularly natural vegetation destructions are highly expanding, both through shifting cultivation and the spread of sedentary agriculture; the demand for increasing amounts of construction material, fuel wood and charcoal.

Charcoal production is a common activity in the arid, semi-arid and dry sub humid parts of the country. Using fire to fumigate bees and to facilitate hunting is also very common, which results forest fire and destructs natural forests (Kahsay, 2004). To stop and reverse further land degradation, Sustainable Land Management (SLM) is crucial to minimizing land degradation, rehabilitating degraded areas and ensuring the optimal use of land resources for the benefit of the

11 present and future generations (FAO, 2013). Integrated crop and land management programs should provide short-term and tangible benefits to farmers, such as increased yields and reduced risks. In many countries, security of tenure should be improved to encourage farmers to practice effective land management, and access to land resources should be made more equitable to promote sustainable rural livelihoods. Local institutions should be strengthened to enable rural communities to improve their land use and land tenure arrangements through participatory processes (FAO, 2013).

2.4. Population growth, Land degradation and deforestation 2.4.1. Population growth versus resource use

Some sources argue that increasing population pressure will lead to adjustments in production and hence the quality and productivity of the land improves. They considers the high population as a resource to carry out conservation and rehabilitation activities so that environmental degradation will not occur. Instead it will lead to improvement of productivity of the land. Population growth has an important influence on aggregate consumption of common property resources such as forests, grazing lands, water bodies, atmosphere, etc. Other influences, such as increased per capita income (and hence consumption), government policies and instabilities, technological change, national and international markets for goods and agricultural products, are also likely to play key roles in consumption and depletion of such resources and land use changes (Squire, 2000) .

The direct impact of population growth is increased consumption of resources, which would lead to increased demand for food and other basic needs that necessitates more intensive use of agricultural land. In the Ethiopian highlands for example, increased population has led to more widespread use of marginal land in order to meet the increased demand of human needs. Some other sources, on the other hand, reported that increased population pressures in the high lands of Ethiopia are becoming the major causes of land degradation (EFAP, 1993). In this respect, different land uses compete with one another, and can degrade the future productivity of the land and the quality of the environment in general.

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Therefore based on this assumptions, population growth increases the demand for land and contributes to farming on steep and fragile soils, also leading to erosion problems. It increases demand for biomass as a source of fuel, leading to deforestation and increased burning of dung and crop residues, thus increasing the problems of erosion and nutrient depletion. Population growth increases demand for livestock products and therefore leads to increased livestock numbers, causing overgrazing and consumption of crop residues by animals (Shibru Tefera, 2010).

In Ethiopia, population pressure is inducing, the clearing of forests for agriculture and other purposes, and the attendant accelerated soil erosion, is gradually destroying the soil resource (Hurni, 1990). This is because natural forests are the main sources of wood for fuel, construction and industry, even though plantation forestry is also increasingly becoming important. It is clear that increasing population is causing LU/LCC in the country in general and in the Chewaqa resettlement site in particular.

The trend of shifting from natural vegetation cover in to farmland was considered as a result of resettlement in the study area. This is because of majority of population dependent on agriculture rather than other economic activities or sectors. The most cited causes of land cover change in many literatures are population increase. However, the relation-ship between population and land cover change is debatable issue. Some argues that increase in population has positive effect on resource available.

Contrary to the notion that increase in population will lead to increase in food production, it is generally argued that there is ecological limit to food production (Ehrlich and Holdren, 1971). Several research studies indicate that instead of deteriorating and depleting natural resources population growth results in improved soil and water resources (Tiffen et al., 1994). Increasing population pressure will lead to adjustments in production and hence the quality and productivity of the land improves. This has been true because agricultural production managed to outpace population growth due to green revolution, which allowed for a much increased productivity. Hence, growth in agricultural production exceeded population growth for almost three decades (Squire, 2000). This shows that even though population growth will lead to increased aggregate demand for natural resources it is not possible to merely draw conclusion that population growth

13 will lead to environmental degradation because it depends on the socio-cultural experiences of the community related to natural resource use, exploitation and conservation.

2.5. Deforestation and Land degradation in Ethiopia 2.5.1. Deforestation

Being a tropical country, land use dynamics including forest cover change is one of the major environmental problems in Ethiopia. The vegetation types of Ethiopia are the result of many factors working on different time scales. Of these, geology, topography and climate (rainfall and temperature) have worked for a very long time, while human influence, also a very important factor in Ethiopia, has worked for shorter span of time. Moderate human interference in a landscape works in a way that tends to diversify the vegetation- creating more vegetation types than before the beginning of human activity- while strong and prolonged human interference can totally degrade a range of vegetation types to a badly eroded and denuded landscape with a very little differentiation of vegetation left (Sebsebe et al., 2003).

In relation to this, recent studies showed that LU/LC change is brutal and there has been agricultural land size expansion at the expense of natural vegetation covers and marginal areas without any appropriate conservation measures (Gessesse and Kleman, 2007). In Ethiopia, accelerated deforestation has been taking place since the beginning of the 20th century. Forests were thought to have covered nearly 35 to 40 percent (about 120 million hectares) of the country’s total area at the beginning of 20th century but today’s forest cover is estimated at only 2-3 percent (EFAP, 1993). The same source indicates that the rate of deforestation is calculated to be between 150,000 and 200,000 ha per annum.

The causes of deforestation could be agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fuel wood gathering, commercial logging, infrastructure and industrial development of which agricultural expansion accounts for 60% of the causes (Grainer, 1993). In addition, fire often set by shifting cultivators and other forest dweller is a major cause of deforestation. Market and policy measures failure, population growth, and poverty, state of economy drive these direct causes of deforestation, though their relative importance varies between countries. So solutions based on significant policy reforms are more likely to succeed if measures taken to control population growth and alleviate poverty. (Rowe et al., 1992).

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Ethiopia is also noted by severe environmental degradation of which the most notable ones are soil erosion, water depletion (such as the disappearance of Haramaya Lake, near the town of Harar), and shrinking vegetated lands. Historical documents show that forest and woodlands once covered over 40 percent of the total area of the country (Badege, 2005). The country’s annual deforestation rate is estimated to be about 62,000 hectares, attributed primarily to the increased demand for farmland, fuel wood, and settlement sites (FAO 2009). This has resulted in severe soil degradation (about 2 billion tons per year), alteration of hydrologic regimes, disturbance of local and/or regional climates, loss of biodiversity, and expansion of desert ecological conditions.

Deforestation is a major issue in Ethiopia, since it is one of the main causes of the prevailing land degradation and loss of biodiversity and vegetation cover. The impacts of deforestation from time to time in Chewaqa resettlement village have experiencing a full range of the known deforestation-related problems like shortage of firewood and soil erosion. Firewood and charcoal production deficit will be increasing because of deforestation. This is because of destruction of natural vegetation.

2.6. The Definitions and concepts of resettlement

Different authors define resettlement in different ways. Therefore, in this paper the definition of “Resettlement” is the movement of people from areas where there is no existing factors that are suitable for smooth maintenance of life to areas presumed to be endowed with potentials that could provide opportunities for the same end (Kassahun, 2000). As it is indicated in the same source the destination of resettlement is to areas with under-utilized agricultural potential, and movement could take place either as a result of planned/organized intervention or spontaneously.

Mengistu (2005) defined resettlement as the process by which individuals or group of people leave spontaneously or un spontaneously their original settlement sites to resettle in new areas where they can begin new trends of life by adapting themselves to the biophysical, social and administrative systems of the new environment. Resettlement is becoming attractive as a way out of pressing problems caused by food shortage, land fragmentation, population pressure, rampant unemployment, marginality of land and decline in productivity (Chambers, 1969).

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Therefore, resettlement is a complex process that involves complicated combination of social, economic and political factors that renders the outcomes. The process involves a range of factors with constructing and contradictory view often resulted in tensions and conflict among the resettles and host community on natural resource use. Let alone improving the economic conditions of the displaced population, the past and different sources of literature explained resettlement is costly and risky activity which often fails to restore full social and economic cost of the resettlement (Pankhurst, 2004) .

Resettlement could be classified into four types within two main categories. The first category is non-planned resettlements comprising spontaneous resettlement and emergency or forced resettlement. The second category is planned resettlements which comprises voluntary and involuntary resettlements (Mengistu, 2005). Usually, planned resettlements are those initiated and/or supported by governments and aid agencies.

Planned resettlement projects have been undertaken with aim of relieving population pressure and promoting land consolidation and sound agriculture in areas of high population density (World Bank, 1978 as cited in Dessalegn, 2003a). It may be undertaken as a form of compensation for displaced populations whose lands have been utilized for development projects such as dams, national parks, etc (Colson, 1971 as cited in Dessalegn, 2003a). Similarly, settlements have frequently been planned to rehabilitate populations that have been adversely affected by natural disasters unfavorable climatic conditions and/or political conflict (Dessalegn, 2003a). Others call these displaced people because of natural calamities as environmental refugees.

However, for this study two important types of resettlements were convenient. These are voluntary and induced-voluntary resettlements: Voluntary resettlement: occurs when the migrants have the power to make informed and free relocation decisions and the willingness to leave their original place. Induced-voluntary: movement takes place when people leave their home place to resettle elsewhere due to deliberate acts of inducements coming from outside agencies. Although the migrants may maintain decision-making power, the facts on the basis of which their decisions are made are provided and analyzed by other agencies.

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Spontaneous resettlements are those resettlement types that are accomplished by desperate movement of people from place of origin because of push factors (land scarcity, recurrent drought, loss of productivity due to land degradation) to new settlement areas with better potential to sustain life/pull factors (availability of un colonized and productive land) (Mengistu, 2005).

2.7. Resettlement experiences of some countries; an overview of international and national experience

Around the world, there exist involuntary resettlement processes caused by development projects. They are caused by economic mobility, industrialization and urbanization, or by war, ethnic strife, or natural calamities such as droughts. Often the spatial distribution of people and resources do not coincide. Therefore, much of the impetus for population movements comes from efforts to match the people with the resources they need for sustenance and growth (Bates 2002).

2.7.1. An overview of the experience of Brazil

According to Helena and Henriques (1988:317), “colonization in Brazil has followed many different models, varying from completely private schemes, through a combination of private interests with government support, to purely government sponsored types”. When initiated by private interests, profit had been the main motive. The aims of official colonization in Brazil were to: provide land to the landless, control illegal migration, strengthen national frontier, and reunion abundant resources: land in north and central west, unskilled labor in the north east, and capital and unskilled labor in the south and south east and improve the living conditions for rural workers (Helena and Henriques, 1988:317-319).

Analysis of the Rondonia, a frontier settlement where 500 families were resettled in Brazil, in 1960s, revealed that sites chosen was not based on evaluation, feasibility studies the road that connects the settlement site to urban center (Porto Velho) was badly maintained, schools and qualified teachers were in short supply, public health service supply units were few, storage facilities were inadequate. Regarding the living conditions of settlers in Rondonia, Helena and

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Henriques (1988:333-339) indicated that most of settlers live in wooden houses often constructed with materials obtained by clearing the land. The houses had cracks between the logs and are so poorly built that it was difficult to prevent entry of disease transmitting mosquitoes. Piped water was non-existent. Settlers’ health was found poor; influenza and malaria being the most prevalent diseases. The conclusion made was ‘the implementations of Rondonia settlement in Brazil had not significantly enhanced peoples’ well-being’ (Helena and Heneriques, 1988: 338).

2.7.2. Resettlement experience of Africa

The African continent is the scene of massive population resettlement processes of all types, including painful involuntary displacements of people. Currently, however, Africa's most important forced displacements are not those caused by development programs, but those triggered by social and political causes such as civil wars, ethnic, racial and/or religious persecutions, or by natural causes such as droughts and famines. These result in millions of refugees - either "international refugees" who cross international borders to find protection, shelter and food in another country, or "internal refugees" who still remain within the borders of their countries but have abandoned their houses and lands.

Displaced populations are not only themselves deprived of normal livelihood and pushed to the limits of poverty and starvation, but often represent an enormous burden on the host populations, thus compounding the complexity of the displacement-triggered problems. They may lower the hosts' standards of living and tend to rapidly deplete the natural resources of the areas of refuge (Cernea, 1993). In Africa, planned resettlement has been tried in countries as diverse as Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan, Ghana, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Egypt, and Ethiopia. While several of these schemes did in fact improve the wellbeing of participants, in general terms these efforts have fallen short of expectations. The expectations themselves may have been unrealistically high in many cases, given the resources available.

2.7.2.1. Resettlement experience of Somalia

The 1974 drought resulted in mass exodus of nomads from the rural areas to the towns in search of water and food. Settlement Development Agency (SDA) and Costal Development Project (CDP) planned to resettle 216,000 persons within agricultural sector by 1981 as recommended

18 by ILO in 1977 (Ragsdale and Ali, 1988:224). However, they only managed to resettle 120,000 nomads and only 75,000 (62 percent) remained in SDA/CDP resettlement. The major objectives of Somalia’s resettlement program were to 1) attain redistribution of Somalia’s population so as to increase productive rural enterprise, and 2) provide social services to Somalia’s largely nomadic population (Ragsdale and Ali, 1988:205).

Assessments of the resettlement in 1988 have shown that the program was not successful in economic terms. ‘The values of their produce, whether in fish or grain, have generally been quite modest, while the costs of developing and turning the schemes have been high’ (Ragsdale and Ali, 1988:225). The reasons for failure cited by the same authors include absence of comprehensive planning; in adequate management; inadequacy of social services; desertion from settlement; and low level of incentive to produce. During planning stage, unrealistic and ambitious goals were set without taking the local host communities interest into consideration.

Furthermore, people were moved to resettlement areas before through feasibility studies were undertaken. For example, Dujuma, the largest resettlement scheme in Somalia was abandoned five years after it was established because of the salinity of the soil (Ragsdale and Ali, 1988: 225).However, resettlement programs in Somalia was believed to have created employment for 15,000 settler families; social infrastructure in which improved hygiene, nutrition and educational opportunities were accessed by these families developed and also skills in agricultural production and fishing were acquired by settler nomads which they did not possess previously (Ragsdale and Ali 1988:226).

2.7.2.2. Ethiopian resettlement experience a) Resettlement during the imperial period

As it is the case in different place in the world, people have been gradually and spontaneously drifting from stressful to more congenial areas in Ethiopia in search of better natural resources, security and hospitality. State-sponsored population resettlement schemes have grown in importance in the past forty years in Ethiopia. Resettlement schemes during the Imperial Period involved only 20,000 households (Feleke, 2004). In imperial times, resettlement became part of government planning from 1966 with establishment of the Ministry of Land Reform and Administration (Feleke, 2004).

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Following this event, thousands of settlers were moved to several dozen schemes, mainly set up on the initiative of local governors, missionaries or NGOs. The type of settlers varied, and included urban unemployed, pastoralists, ex-soldiers and famine victims. The projects were set up with ambitious economic, social and political objectives: to deal with famine, provide land to the landless, increase agricultural production, introduce new technologies, establish cooperatives, remove urban unemployed, stop charcoal burning, settle pastoralists and shifting agriculturalists, form defense on the Somali border and repatriate refugees.

Regarding planned resettlement, however, Ethiopia has begun to practice population relocation most notably since 1958 when the Imperial Government (1930-1974) established the first known planned resettlement scheme in the present day SNNP Regional State (Cernea; 2000). The first planned settlement scheme in the country was the Abella and Belle settlements, later on called the Welayita Agricultural Development Unit (WADU), started in 1958, aimed at resettling ‘surplus’ population from overcrowded Welayita high lands and subsequent other similar areas to bring under cultivated lowland area in Sidamo region that were in only marginal use for hunting and grazing and to which there was no strong traditional claims (Cernea, 2000).

It was also designed to achieve specific and limited objectives. At that time, state-sponsored- resettlement was largely undertaken to promote two objectives though failed to meet any. The first of these was to rationalize land use on government owned land and thus raise state revenue. The second was to provide additional resources for the hard pressed northern peasantry by relocating them to the southern regions. However, the results were generally poor. The schemes failed and most settlers left the project. This was because of inadequate planning, inappropriate settler selection, inadequate budgetary support, and inexperienced planning and executive staffs (Pankhurst & Piguet, 2004).

b) Resettlement during the derg regime

It was during the Military Government (Derg) (1974-1991) that intensive and widespread resettlement schemes took place in Ethiopian history. Derg argued that the major objective of the program was to promote economic development and improve the living standards of the rural people. Specifically it aimed to ease the tension of farmland scarcity in central and northern parts of the country, combat drought, avert famine, and increase agricultural productivity. Initially, it 20 insisted the resettlement program as purely voluntary and only a mechanism to organize the haphazardly drifting population in huge quantities from overworked and drought-stricken areas to more fertile and sparsely populated ones. However, practically the implementation of the program seemed to have the characteristics of forced or compulsory-voluntary relocation. Derg implemented it forcefully and even on quota bases without the consent of the potential resettlers (Ofcansky; 2002).

Similarly, the military government of Ethiopia resettled more than half a million settlers because of the incidence of famine in 1984/85 mainly from the North, notably Wello, Tigray and Shewa, to areas to the west, especially Wellega, Kafa, Illubabor and Gojjam. Though the resettlement was intended to be voluntary and a large proportion of settlers were famine-victims, targets were turned into quotas, food-aid was used as a trap, and coercion and victimization became common place. Two kinds of planned settlements were set up: large-scale ‘conventional’ mechanized collectives in the lowlands on the western border, and small-scale ‘integrated’ settlements in the highlands, reliant on ox-plough cultivation. (Ofcansky ; 2002).

Then, the government set in motion a resettlement policy that was initially designed to relocate 1.5 million people from areas in the north most severely affected by drought and famine to areas in the west and south that had experienced adequate rainfall. The government claimed that it was carrying out the program for humanitarian reasons, contending that it would remove the people from exhausted and unproductive land and place them in settlements with rich agricultural potential.

In addition, the government argued that the new settlements would greatly facilitate efforts to provide social services. However, practically the implementation of the program seemed to have the characteristics of forced or compulsory-voluntary relocation. Derg implemented it forcefully and even on quota bases without the consent of the potential resettlers (Ofcansky & LaVerle, 2002).Gebre (2004) clearly indicates the forceful mass dislocation practices to the extent of compelling the potential resettlers from market places and farms and sending them off collectively to the new areas where they had no prior information.

At the new areas, (for example, Beles Resettlement Scheme) they had been deprived of their basic human rights, such as freedom of movement and social gatherings, thinking that the 21 resettlers may get away. The then government viewed resettlement program as a way out of the pressing problem of famine. It was proposed that the food security crisis would be addressed in a durable way through a dual strategy of relieving population pressure in the highlands, which were perceived as chronically drought prone, over populated and environmentally degraded, and, on the other hand, of making lowland areas, which were perceived to be fertile, under-populated, under-exploited and more productive.

Resettlement was also considered as an opportunity to introduce social and economic change and pursue socialist transformation. It has been also suggested that it would be easier to convince or force people to move during the time of famine. The decision to relocate such huge amount of people could also be explained by such factors as the Land Reform Act of 1975 that made public land available to be used for resettlement purposes and famine recurrence at short intervals calling for solutions in the form of embarking on resettlement in the areas with marked agricultural potential.

The 1984/85 famine placed most affected localities in extremely precarious situation. The government responded to the famine by launching large scale resettlement program. Accordingly, it was initially intended to resettle 1.5 million people to address the problem of recurrent food insecurity in risk-prone areas and some 600,000 people were resettled in the lowlands of western, southwestern and southern Ethiopia (Kassahun, 2000; Dessalegn, 2003b).

c) Resettlement during EPRDF government

Regarding the current government-sponsored resettlement situation in Ethiopia, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was initially reluctant to consider resettlement as a viable option for development (Alula, 2009). However, the occurrence of a severe drought in the early 2000s and the resultant food security crises has initiated the government to launch intra- regional resettlement (also known as access to improved land) program.

The EPRDF government also planned for resettlement program to relocate 2.2 million people in response to the drought and famine occurred in 2000/01. The objective of the scheme remains similar to that of the Derg i.e. ensuring food security. The resettlement scheme planned recently

22 by EPRDF government is believed to involve minimum environmental impacts contrary to past resettlement programs. (Alula, 2009).

It seemed that planned resettlement was suspended in the years following the downfall of the Derg regime. However, the EPRDF government appears to be increasingly enthusiastic and in favor of launching planned resettlement schemes during 2002/03. The plan envisages relocating over 2 million people within 3 years’ time. The basic assumptions behind the current resettlement program remain similar to those made during previous periods. But the later program is essentially different from the preceding ones in the following respects (Kassahun, 2003: Feleke, 2004).It would be based on free consent and willingness of resettlers and it would be implemented at intra-regional level there by ruling out possibilities of massive movement from one region to another, resettlers retain their land use rights and other immovable properties in the original home villages for about 3 years after being relocated and resettles can return to their original villages for good whenever they have change of mind.

According to (MORD, 2003), the initiation of the voluntary intra-regional resettlement (access to improved land) rests on four major pillars that are important to avoid problems: those are, the program should be based on voluntary option of the potential settlers, the availability of underutilized land.The survey conducted shows a total of 1.million ha.of land is available in Amahara, Oromia, Tigray and SNNP regions, Consultation with the host communities. The regional governments have to hold discussions with host communities on the necessity of the program and lastly proper preparation before implementation of the program. The minimum infrastructure set in the plan should be in place before moving people.

The document further states the government initiated a pilot resettlement program during 2000/01. This was carried out in response to the disparate movement of people to forests and national parks from hard-hit areas. Accordingly 45,000 households were resettled voluntarily in Amhara, Oromia and Tigray regions in the year 2002/03. This pilot project motivated the government to plan and implement large-scale resettlement program. (Kassahun, 2003; Feleke, 2004).

The main objective of the program at its commencement was to enable up to 440, 000 desperate and chronically, food insecure rural households attain food security in the cost of slightly over 2 23 million US Dollar (FDRE, 2003). It has then become key components of development strategy documents such as the Federal Food Security Strategy (2002), Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (MoFED, 2006), Rural Development Policy and Strategy (MoFED, 2010), New Coalition for Food Security Program (FDRE, 2004), Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty, (MoFED, 2006) and Growth and Transformation Plan (MoFED, 2010).

d) Resettlement in Oromia regional state

Like other regions, chronic and frequent food shortage of varying degree is becoming prevalent at different times and provoked large-scale state-organized resettlements programs. Among the zones found in the region Borena, Eastern and southeastern part of Bale, East and West Hararge, North and Eastern extremes of Arsi, some parts of North Shewa and some pocket areas of Rift valley of Eastern Shewa are affected by food insecurity problems. 44 Woredas found in these areas were identified as severely food insecure areas and nominated for various development interventions, resettlement among others, as part of Regional Food Scurity Program (ONRG, 2001).

The pre-settlement feasibility study identified Illubabor and West Wellega zones of Oromia Regional State as potential areas for resettlement. The two zones have eight potential resettlement sites with total of 23,700 ha. Chewaqa resettlement site is not among the sites for which feasibility study was carried out. According to official reports of MORD, (2003) about 100,000 people were planned to be resettled in the Region to areas where population density is relatively low and unutilized land is available.

2.8. Impacts of resettlement in Ethiopia

The large scale resettlement program during the Derg regime has been criticized for a number of problems. First, consultation between policy makers, implementers, the resettles and the host population was minimal. Second, high handedness in implementing plans entailed resettlements often quelled through coercive methods, which thus undermined possibilities for commitment. Third, the resource and socio-economic support necessary for encouraging the chances of meeting the stated targets were not optimally united and disorganization and confusion was the 24 result (Kassahun, 2003). In general, impact of resettlement could be classified in to two major categories-social and environmental impacts.

2.8.1. Social Impacts of Resettlement

Many studies have been carried out concerning the social impacts of resettlement in Ethiopia. Resettlement can cause many social impacts, especially if the ethnic and cultural composition of the resettlers is heterogeneous. Wolde-selassie (2004) reported that the impacts of resettlement in Metekel carried out in 1980s involved several social impacts. Primarily, the scheme disintegrated the resettlers’ social institutions and organizations, which bind their infinite web of relations and interactions in manifold. The author also stated that resettlement program disrupted the resettlers’ production systems and impoverished their livelihood. As a result uncertainties and confusions may happen until painful adaptive adjustments may occur to the new environment.

Resettlement can also bring about break-up of families. The 1980s resettlement in Ethiopia caused many families to be broken. The schemes were carried out in lowland areas where the climate is completely different from their original homeland. As a result they experienced difficulties since the new climate is less hospitable that led to excessive mortality due to diseases.

They were also suffering from increased control to prevent escape. Village to village travel was only possible through pass letters obtained from village authorities. The scheme has also taken away traditional resources of the indigenous host communities that affected their livelihood because their lives are mainly based on shifting cultivation, hunting, fishing and honey collection, Similarly, Dessalegn (2003b) reported that settlers experienced hardships due to changes in environment and diet. They were also subjected to lowland diseases such as malaria and trypanosomiasis. Therefore, the scheme claimed the lives of many peoples. In larger settlements settlers resented imposed collectivization. Although in some cases partnerships were formed with local people, in many areas settlers faced hostile relations with indigenous inhabitants. Ahmed (2005) reported that the host community particularly the youth started to develop negative attitudes as they view resettles as competitors over the use of natural resources.

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2.8.2. Environmental Impact of resettlement

Planners sought to justify resettlement on the grounds that it would provide lasting solutions to the problem of food insecurity of the affected households. In fact, even if most settlers had remained in the resettlement areas, the removal of an overall average of 3% of the population in 1980s in the north would have had a negligible effect on reducing population pressure because the resettlers abandoned the scheme and returned to their home areas. Resettlement was also claimed to provide a more rational use of available land, by readjusting man-land ratios. However, this assumption rested on the myth of vast underutilized lands. Different source indicate that resettlement schemes in Ethiopia, both planned and spontaneous, involved environmental impacts.

Accordingly, Dessalegn (2003b) reported that government sponsored resettlement programs that were carried out during 1984/85 involved considerable environmental damage by clearing large areas of vegetation to build homesteads, to acquire farmland, and to construct access roads. He also indicated that the scheme failed to adapt farming practices to agro-ecological conditions of the lowlands, and as a consequence the environmental damage involved was quite considerable. Likewise, spontaneous resettlement/migration of people from drought-hit areas of Hararghe and Arsi zones to Bale zone of Oromia Regional State may have also caused environmental damage to the new area. The reasons for their migration first and foremost results from years of cumulative effects and sufferings from gradual and consistent natural resource degradation in their home areas and secondly triggered and initiated by recurrent drought conditions that made their livelihood conditions to be below subsistence which allowed them neither survival nor livelihood improvements.

In other words: for most of the people who decided to leave their homes in Hararghe and Arsi lowlands, the conditions did not leave them with any other alternative or option. The migration was intensified in May 2002 and most of the resettlers have settled in Mana Hangatu, Berbere and Gololcha woredas of Bale Zone. Some parts of these areas fall in Bale mountains National Park and the impact on the wildlife and their habitat was considerable. Until the end of October 2002, 20,093 people were registered by the respective woredas. The number could be more because the flow of people arriving continued despite the regional government trial to stop these

26 migratory movements (Dechassa, 2002). The Government claims that such disparate movement of peoples initiated the pilot resettlement projects after which large scale resettlement schemes were planned to organize such movements.

Likewise, the resettlement program launched during 2002/03 is suspected of environmental damages. Getachew (2005) states the environmental consequences involved in the resettlement program as follows. The smallholder farmers clear the area for house construction and agriculture. Selling of fuel woods by settlers was also on the increase but the woreda officials banned this activity by using the police to enforce the ban. The settlement was experiencing extensive destruction of woody plants. Assefa (2005) reported that the recent resettlement programs conducted in different parts of the country may have involved environmental damages despite differences in scale which includes huge loss of natural forests with great impact on sustainability of the environment contrary to what has been set out in the implementation manual of the scheme.

2.9. Vegetation and wildlife

Woodlands are lands covered by the open stand of trees taller than 5 m but shorter than 20 m and with a canopy cover of more than 20 % (EFAP, 1993).The woodlands are important sources of fuel wood and construction materials for the rural as well as for the urban community. They are also sources of non-timber forest products such as natural gums, myrrh and honey. Woodland provides habitat for large number of plant and animal species. The plant and animal species are adapted to these areas and it may be difficult for them to survive out of these areas that make them important for biodiversity conservation. In addition, they are important for buffering function between arid areas and highland plateau. Unfortunately these areas are rapidly depleting by wildfire, shifting cultivation and growth of human population due to resettlement to these areas and other reasons. Woodlands are characterized by low annual incremental yield (1.2m3/ha) (EFAP, 2004).

The increasing number of human population in these areas may lead to extraction of the resource beyond its annual growth and eventually its disappearance. Constraints and issues concerning the 27 management, conservation/protection of woodlands include lack of knowledge of the location and extent of these resources and the management system of these lands by the local communities. Because of these the establishment of sustainable woodlands is one of the most difficult tasks facing the country at large including the region. (EFAP, 2004).

2.10. Policy issues

The Environmental policy of Ethiopia recognizes control and monitoring tools and ensuring Environmental Impact Assessment in development programs of the country. Other supportive legislations such as Environmental Impact Assessment proclamation no 299/2002 states that ‘... no person shall commence implementation of any project that requires environmental impact assessment as determined in the directive...’ without providing EIA document to the pertinent agency and getting permit. The country also approved CBD (Conservation of Bio-Diversity) to sustainably manage and utilize biological resources.

As the efforts to control deforestation in Ethiopia is concerned, the ‘Forestry Conservation, Development and Utilization Proclamation number 94 of 1994’ is the current policy statement that governs the management and conservation of forests in the country (EFAP, 1993). The proclamation states that “sustainable utilization of the country’s forest resource is possible through the participation of people and benefits sharing by the concerned communities.” The proclamation recognizes three types of ownership: state forests, regional forests and private forests. Additional issues such as formulation of land use and forest policies are also important to consider since the country lacks such policies to enforce the proclamations.

Therefore the effort of conserving and sustainable utilization of the resources is difficult without policy frameworks to enforce the proclamations. According to Environmental Protection Authority-EPA (2004). Development projects or public instruments (policies, programs, and plans) have to be subjected to EIA scrutiny. It means that EIA is a legal requirement for development projects and public instruments to be implemented.

Accordingly, MoRD (2003) Environmental Protection Authority is responsible to carry out Environmental impact Assessment of the recent resettlement program before implementation to minimize the environmental impacts encountered during the last resettlement programs. 28

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the process to identify and evaluate the likely environmental impacts of proposed project, new program, plan or policy taking in to account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and health impacts, both beneficial and adverse. EIA has the ultimate objective of providing decision-makers with an indication of the likely consequences of their decisions. The resettlement programs carried out in 2003 are based on field reports of short-term feasibility studies.

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CHAPTER III: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND THE RESEARCH METHODS

3.1. Location

Chewaqa Woreda is located in Illu-Abbabor Zone of Oromia Reginal State. It is found at a distance of 552 kilometers southwest of Addis Ababa. Previously the area used to be administered as part of Bedele district but recognized as one administrative woreda of the Zone since the establishment of the resettlement in 2003 in the area. It is situated in lowland areas of Dhidhessa Valley, which lies at 500m above sea level. The area is found between Dabena woreda and Dhidhessa Rivers. Dhidhessa River bounds the Woreda from East to North and at the same time it is the boundary between Illu-Abbabor and East Wollega zone. On the other hand Dabena River bounds the area from West to North which joins Dhidhessa and finally leads to Blue Nile (source; CSA, 2007 and ESRI Basemap, 2015).

FIGURE 3.1: LOCATION MAP OF THE STUDY AREA AND ITS ADMINISTRATIVE KEBELES, CHEWAQA WOREDA, ILLU- ABBABORA ZONE, OROMIA REGION (SOURCE CSA, 2007 AND ESRI BASEMAP, 2015):

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According to the 2015 land use land cover dynamics of the area, the woreda is laid on the total land of 61896.2 hectares, out of this, around 23124.9 hectare land is used for farm lands and 7376.1 hectare of land are covered by different kinds of forests (34958.7 hec. of land are covered by different kinds of vegetation) and 3470 hectare of land are bare/grazing and 342 .6 hectare of land used for buildup/settlement purposes. Prior to implementation of the resettlement program, the area was covered with forests and wooded grasslands. Moreover, it was endowed with different types of wild animals including lions, buffalo, leopard, wild pig, baboons, monkeys and different antelopes.

3.2. Climate

The study area is mostly classified as Kolla and to some extent upper and lower Woyinadega Agro-ecological Zone and experiences defined wet and dry seasons. The wet season is between May and October during which high precipitation is recorded.

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TABLE 3.2:MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM TEMPRATURE AND RAINFALL (1990 - 2014)

Minimum Maximum Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC) Precipitation (mm) Months of the year Mean Mean Mean January 12.42 30.05 0.28 February 14.50 32.04 0.36 March 16.10 32.30 1.20 April 16.00 31.01 2.55 May 14.99 29.35 6.20 June 13.46 26.28 9.92 July 12.39 22.84 13.22 August 12.52 22.51 14.20 September 12.05 24.09 9.92 October 11.17 24.99 3.73 November 11.29 26.48 0.98 December 11.52 28.10 0.42 Total 13.19 27.47 5.28 (Source: computed based on the raw data from NMA)

The maximum mean monthly Rainfall is in July and August i.e. 500mm and 700mm respectively. The dry season lasts from November to April, which is marked by high temperature. The minimum mean annual (for the years 1990- 2015) temperature of the area is 13.19 0C and the mean maximum temperature for the same years is 27.47 0 C (figure 3)

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3.3. Vegetation According to Sebsebe et al. (2003) the vegetation of the area falls in Combretum-Terminalia broad-leaved deciduous woodland vegetation type. It is characterized by small to moderately sized trees with large deciduous leaves. Species of Terminalia, Combretum, Lannea, Boswellia papyrifera, Anogeisus leiocarpus and Stereospermum kunthianum are common. The vegetation has been burned annually for such a long time that the plants show clear adaptation to fire and controlled annual fire may be important for maintenance of many species. This vegetation type occurs along the escarpment of western plateau. At the upper limits it abuts with the Afromontane Moist evergreen forest which is one of major coffee growing areas in the country (Tadesse, 2003). Reports from Chewaqa woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office show that there are wild animals found in the study area especially before the settlement was carried out in the area. These include lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pandus), hyena (Crocuta crocuta), African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), common baboon (Papio cynocephalus), warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus), python (Python sebae), porcupine (Hystrix cristata), colobus monkey (colobus guereza (abyssinicus)), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethops) among others. Likewise Dhidhessa River is habitat for crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) and hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), (Source; Chewaqa woreda Agricultural Office).

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TABLE 3.3:TREE SPECIES RECORDED IN AGRICULTURE AND SETTLEMENT AREA

Density Species Family (Stem/ha. Local name Adina microcephala (Del.) Hiern Rubiaceae 7.02

Albizia schimperiana Oliv. Mimosoideae 3.04

Bridelia scleroneura Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae 7.04 Comberatumadenogonium A.Rich. Combretaceae 2.07 Agalo (Am) Comberum molle R. Br. Ex G.Don. Combretaceae 8.02 Wadessa (Oro) Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae 7.04

Ficus dicranostyla Mildbr. Moraceae 5.04 Harbu (Oro) Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae 4.02

Grewia millis Juss. Tiliaceae 7.03

Loncocarpus laxiflorus Guill. & Perr. Papilionoideae 4.02 Dabaqa / Cawaaqa (Oro) Ozoroa insignis Del. Anacardaceae 10.05

Stereospermum kanthianum Cham. Bignoniaceae 8.09 Botoroo (Oro) Syzygium guineense (Wild) DC. Subsp Celastracceae 2.04

Macrocarpum Engl. Mytaceae 7.02 Terminalia brownii Fresen. Combretaceae 6.11 Goosu (Oro) Terminalia laxiflora Engl& Diels. Combretaceae 3.08 Abalo (Am) Terminalia macroptera Guill. &Perr. Combretaceae 0.09

90.82 (Source; Chewaqa woreda Agricultural Office)

3.3.1. Vegetation cover change study

Vegetation cover change (area of woodland recession) following resettlement was assessed using combinations of remotely sensed data and ground-based survey of the study area.Landsat TM 7+ was obtained for pre-settlement site cover assessment, while the image was visually interpreted using ERDAS 2014 as image display software. For post settlement land use/land cover assessment, ground survey was conducted using Global Positioning System (GPS), and fed into 34

ArcView GIS software where it is converted into maps of the area. Maps from the two sets were raster transformed and area difference in the various Land Cover/Land Use of the pre-and post- settlement compiled. The topographic map of the study area obtained from Ethiopian Mapping Agency (EMA) as a base map.

3.4. Soil and Geology

According to TAMS Agricultural Group, (1975) the area forms part of the tertiary trappean lava composed largely of basalts and basaltic tuffs. Even though soil types vary with in very short distances, it is important to indicate the report carried out in the near upper Dhidhessa valley and identified its soil types. The report indicated that red and brown soils prevail on hills while black soils have developed on slightly slopping plains.

As it is the case in other parts of the earth, such geological formations might have resulted in the existing soil resources. The two soil types in the area Umbric Nitosols and Lithic Leptosols covering about 91.31 and 8.69 percents, respectively. According to FAO (2006), Nitosols are churning, heavy red clay soils which develop mostly in areas with an alteration of distinct wet and dry seasons like that of central southwestern Ethiopia where the resettlement sites are located. Such soils are common in grass-covered and/or woodland areas like other parts. Nitosols on the other hand, have substantial agricultural potential if appropriately managed for sustainable agricultural production. It is good for the production of crops like Haricot beans, maize, sorghum, rice and soya bean as can be evidenced by the current actual practices in the area.

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Figure 3.2: Soil Map of the Study Area, Chewaqa Woreda (source:--FAO 2006)

Leptosols are very shallow, gravelly and stony soils particularly good for wet-season grazing and forestland. Nitosols, on the other hand, are soils that are well known for their higher clay content in the subsoil than in the topsoil owing to the permeation of the particles. Such soils are suitable for a wide range of agricultural activities. Currently the major crops produced in the resettlement areas are Maize, Sorghum and Rice. These crops are produced by the farmers of the woreda especially for consumption of the local community.

TABLE 4.3: TOP FIVE CROPS PRODUCED IN THE STUDY AREA No Types of crops Area in hectare Production per (qt) 1 Maize 3215625 189,181.5 2 Sorghum 5525.75 172261.05 3 Rice 2282 139210

4 Soya bean 2850 59349 5 Haricot beans 250 5500

(Source: The Woreda Agricultural office Feb.2016.)

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FIGURE 3.3: LANDSCAPE MAP OF THE STUDY AREA, CHEWAQA WOREDA (SOURCE:FAO 2010)

The study area is mostly known by its mountan and hilly Esccarpment landscapes.In addition to this, as it is indicated in figure 3.3 above, most of the landscapes of the woreda is laying on mountainous and hilly minor escarpments with minor valleies.

3.5. Study design

A research design is a framework or general guide regarding how to structure studies concerned on to answer certain types of research questions. This study employed longitudinal research design in which the different years Satellite images of the study area was downloaded and analyzed with fully mixed approach across the data collection, analysis and interpretation stages. As noted by Leech & Onwuegbuzie (2007), the quantitative and qualitative phases are mixed concurrently at one or more stages or across the stages with more weight to be given either to the quantitative or qualitative phase. The study employed different methods to generate information on the current status of the woodland, forest product utilization pattern by the community, existing conservation measures (efforts) and the impact of resettlement on the forest lands.

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3.6. Population of the study

Chewaqa resettlement site is among areas that host large number of settlers in Oromia Regional State. About 12,390 households (more than 60,000 people) from Western and Eastern Hararghe Zone of the same region resettled in the area since 2003. But next to the first 2-3 consecutive years of the government resettlement programs, there was about 5000-10,000 household resettlers are settled from both zones of the same region by their own without the government resettlement program. Currently 14,779 households and a total population of 68,531 peoples, of which 36,149 Males and 32,382 Females live in the Woreda.among them 1541 peoples are living in urban area and 66,990 peoples are living in rural area (CSA 2015-17).

The area is found in Oromiya Regional State which is the biggest resettlement site in Ilu Abba Bora zone, previously the area was part of Bedelle district. The resettlement in the area is a massive resettlement program that was carried out in 2003/4 on vast areas of land in the former Bedele district of Ilu-Abbabora zone in the Dhidhessa valley. According to the woreda Finance office report, the number of households and populations who settled in the area was 12 390.The resettlement has become a district by its own and is divided into 28 kebeles for administrative purposes.

3.7. Sampling techniques

In this study non-probability sampling techniques were applied throughout the research. The target of this study was to describe and quantify land use land cover changes of the study area. The settlement kebeles were grouped in to kola and woynedega agro-ecological clusters. Therefore the study kebeles are selected based on judgmental/purposive sampling purposively one from each cluster. This is mainly because; resettlement is characterized by multifaceted and intertwined issues such as agro-climatic and environmental circumstances, adaptation strategies and public facilities in to the settlers.

Based on this, the three kebeles selected for the study was Dabena kebele, Boneya and Gudure kebeles. Among these, Dabena kebele were characterized by lower woyinadega ecological charcter. Among them Ilu Harer-Town/Gudure kebele is the woreda’s main city in which most of

38 the social services like the telecommunications, schools, electricity, legal services, etc. are relatively fulfilled. On topmost of this relevant and well thoughtful key informants and focus groups were also selected deliberately from local elders, youths and government responsible persons at kebeles and woreda levels for their deep understanding on the impact of resettlement on land use /land cover dynamics of the study area.

3.8. Data types and sources

In the present study, to understand land use/land cover changes, both spatial and temporal data were gathered. These data were collected from both primary and secondary data sources. The land use land cover of the area for three various years were generated from the analysis of satellite image, the current vegetation coverage extent and land cover conditions gathered through field observation, and then, historical data about the study area were collected from Agricultural officers, agricultural development agents (DA) and elders in the district using Key Informant Interview and Focus group discussions.

Therefore, the intended data were gathered from both secondary and primary sources in the form of both qualitative and quantitative approaches at the kebele levels in which the sample kebeles are representatives of the settlement woreda. On the other hand, secondary data were obtained from the study area topographic maps. Besides, the published materials including books, journals, research articles and census reports were reviewed.

3.9. Tools of data collection

In order to achieve the intended objectives and respond successfully to the research questions, this study utilized data collection instruments such as focused group discussions, key informant interview, Satellite images of the study area and personal field observations. On top of these, satellite images of 1995, 2005, and 2015 were applied as a tool of obtains data potentially describing the land use changes across the past 20 years in the study area. The 1995 image was used to have a clear picture of the former LC/LU circumstances prior to massive human interference in the area. The 2005 image also helpful to examine the LU/LC conditions few years after the implementation of the resettlement schemes. The 2015 image were used to see the present conditions of the study area. 39

In similarly way, qualitative data from primary sources for triangulation purpose that helped to understand the existing land use land cover conditions of the study area were collected through FGD, KII, Storytelling and direct observation of the selected settlements. Furthermore the researcher had been uses photographing of the study area and its environmental changes.

3.10. Techniques of data analysis

Applying different techniques of data analysis make parallel with each specific objective designed to be achieved at the end of this thesis. Therefore the land use dynamic analysis were used. The study utilized this technique to analysis and come up with the degree of land use changes and to identify the proportional trends of forestland, cropland, grassland, shrub lands and built up areas in the study area. The analysis of the proportion of land use changes 1995- 2015 were carried out employing three imageries of Landsat TM and Landsat ETM+. The Satellite imageries were captured on February 27, 2016 using the path/row numbers 168/054 and 181/054 with careful attention of capturing cloud free images to enhance their quality. Depending on the scope of the study and visual interpretation of the satellite imageries, five classes were chosen. These were forestland, shrub lands, grassland, cropland and built-up areas. The study utilized the satellite images to depict the spatial and temporal land use condition of the study area.

The downloaded images and Land use/land cover map of the area was analyzed through GIS image analysis techniques in order to quantify the changes over period. Using ERDAS IMAGINE Version 2014 software, there are supervised and unsupervised image classifications. Supervised classification involves selecting pixels that represents land cover classes that are recognized by the analyst. This requires, however, prior knowledge of the area by the analyst. Unsupervised image classification is more computer-automated. Then it was compared with the GIS output and used for further discussions. The primary data from FGD, KII and Storytelling and direct observation of the study area were summarized and used to cross checking the quantified data from GIS outputs. As an input for GIS analysis the landsat images were used to quantify former land use/land cover circumstances prior to massive human interference in the area. Secondary date from Woreda Land Administration and Agricultural Office (population, Crop type, Farm land Size, forest size) was used for comparison of the changes over the periods.

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3.11. Data validity and reliability

Validity refers to whether data accurately reflect the concept that they are intended to measure (Boba, 2001). The validity can be supported by internal and external measures through KII Guide by Stakeholder, private sector, researchers and extension agents examine the research, ask questions, judge and offer suggestions.

The Focus Group Discussions or KII were tested with the following objectives: (i) to determine whether the questions in the FGD /KIIs Guide were easily understand by respondents, (ii) to assess whether the questions contain the information for which they were designed, and (iii) to estimate how long it was take for a respondent to complete the questionnaire. The researcher himself was conduct the interviews and participate in pre-testing to accept their comments, suggestion and ideas conducting the interview.

3.12. Ethical consideration

Ethical issues are the concerns and dilemmas that arise over the proper way to execute research, more specifically not to create harmful conditions for the subjects of inquiry, humans, in the research process‖. This research was approved by the department head and Faculty dean of Arsi University. Official letter of cooperation was written from Arsi University School of Humanity and Law Department of Geography Postgraduate program and permission for the study was also obtained from Chewaqa Woreda Administration and all the concerned bodies in Chewaqa resettlement area to obtain their cooperation in facilitating the study.

Verbal consent was obtained from all of the study participants after informing them clearly and in detail about the nature and the purpose of the study procedures. They were assured anonymity and privacy; their name and identity was not disclosed at any time and the information provided by participants was kept confidential. The researcher should have to understand the culture, values and norms of the respondents. I am aware of the big responsibility to be sensitive and respectful of research participants and their basic human rights and fully endorse the Ethical Code of the Resettlement sites of the Chewaqa in particular. The study participants also informed that they can withdraw at any time.

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CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS This chapter deals with the clustering of raw data, discussing on clustered data, presenting different tables and figures and interpretation of the results based on impacts of resettlement schemes on LULC changes. In this chapter, the existing LULCC conditions as a result of resettlement obtained from the satellite images and survey data were presented. Using images which were taken in different times were represented former and current Land Use and Land Cover changes of the study area. 4.1. Vegetation/ forest cover changes The pre-settlement image analysis shows that almost the forest/shrub land was complete, and there was little amount of agricultural land on which practiced by individual farmers from the neibouring woredas especially from the present day Benishangul Gumz Region and there is no settlement schemes practiced in the area before the government resettlement program . Landsat image of the study area before the establishment of the scheme (1995) showing intact woodland with very small agriculture and no settlement areas.

FIGURE 4.1: PHOTO WHICH SHOWS WOODLAND CONVERTED IN TO CULTIVATION LAND (source: from

CHEWAQA WOREDA Agriculture Office)

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FIGURE 4.2: TRENDS OF AGRICULTURE FROM 1995-2015 (SOURCE: CHEWAQA WOREDA AGRICULTURE OFFICE)

This was also confirmed through the study area observation all the resettlers have settled after 2003 by clearing virgin woodlands. However, the post resettlement map based on ground observation revealed that nearly 160-200 km2 of the Shrub and forest land has been converted into combinations of agriculture and settlement (Figure 4.2)

4.2. Underlying cause of LU/LC dynamics

The increasing number of rural population from time to time, needs more agricultural land because there is increase in their demands for food production. People may supplement their income from agriculture with little or no off-farm employment. The population in the study area depends almost entirely on the land they cultivate. Farmers’ lack of livelihood security has forced them to use the woodlands to cope with recurrent household shocks. As clearly pointed out by the World Commission on Environment and Development, “Those who are poor and hungry will often destroy their immediate environment in order to survive (Belay, 2002).

Fuel wood is another problem associated with population growth. The spatial and demographic growth of population has definitely had an impact on agricultural land and availability of fuel wood in the surrounding area. Rain fed agricultural production system is the mainstay of farmers in the study area. According to the information obtained from the key informant, soil fertility and crop productivity declined from time to time. Land conversion is the greatest cause of extinction

43 of terrestrial species, of particular concern is deforestation, where logging or burning is followed by the conversion of land to agriculture or other land uses (Nejib, 2008). Figure 4.3: below shows illegal charcoal and fire wood production in the study area.

FIGURE 4.3: ILLEGAL CHARCOAL AND FIRE WOOD PRODUCTION IN CHEWAQA DISTRICT, (source: from study area survey photograph (Feb.2016))

Deforestation and Land use/land cover change are becoming locally common features wherever escalating human populations, because fuel wood demands to exceed supplies in the study area (Nejib, 2008). The large volumes of fuel wood consumed for personal use and also as a source of income coupled with other factor is driving rapid deforestation and land cover change in the study area. The major purpose for cutting trees in the study area was for fuel wood sale due to high demand especially for charcoal production. Most of the poor farmers in the study area was earn their income from the sale of firewood and charcoal.

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4.3. Analysis of Land use/Land cover dynamics 4.3.1. Land use/Land cover class of 1995

The major land use/land cover classes of 1995 include forest land, shrub land, grass land, crop land, bare land, and settlements. As indicated in table 4 below the greatest share of land use/land cover from all classified land use/land cover is grass land, which covers an area of 27258.2 hectare, contributes 44.0 percent. Because, during this time there were null/ low pressure of population and small agricultural activities and relatively the environmental condition was also safe and undisturbed. What the amazing issue between the information from field survey of 2016 and the actual Map results of 1995 were presented as follows. As the information of the study area observation and sayings of the elders, previously before 2003, the area was known for its coverage of the vast grass and shrub lands and there is no agricultural land and settlements in the area except few hunters from the neighboring region of Benishangul Gumz region in the North Western part and from the other woreda of the same region in South East and South Western parts of the area. But the actual Map results of 1995 shows the crop lands and agricultural practices before the 2003 gov’t settlement program.

TABLE 5.1: LAND USE CHANGES OF CHEWAQA WOREDA, 1995 –2015

Lu/Lc Change Change type 1995 2005 2015 Change 1995-2005 2005-2015 1995-2015 Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. %

Forestland 9305.4 15.0 8702.1 14.1 7376.1 11.9 -603.3 -6.5 -1326.0 -15.2 -1929.2 -20.7 - Shrubland 17108.9 27.6 15041.1 24.3 9108.5 14.7 +2067.84 -12.1 -5932.6 -39.4 -8000.4 -46.8 Grassland 27258.2 44.0 20177.2 32.6 18474.2 29.8 -7081.02 -26.0 -1703.0 -8.4 -8784 -32.2 Cropland 6087.1 9.8 14839.2 24.0 23124.9 37.4 +8752.14 +143.8 +8285.7 +55.8 +17037.8 +27..9 Bareland 2136.8 3.5 3111.5 5.0 3470.0 5.6 +974.7 +45.6 +358.5 +11.5 1333.2 +62.4 Settlement 1.0 0.0 25.3 0.0 342.6 0.6 +24.3 +29.0 +317.3 +12.548 +341.6 +34.163 Total 61897.3 100.0 61896.3 100.0 61896.2 100.0 -1.0 0.0 -0.1 0.0 -1.1 0.0

(Source: Extracted from analysis of Landsat images of 1995, 2005, and 2015)

Therefore, as it is indicated in table 4.1 above, LU/LC map of 1995 illustrated 6087.1 ha. (9.8 %) of the total coverage of the woreda land was crop land. These shows that as the researcher approves from the words of elders like Ato Waktole, who is 58 years old and living for 25 years in the neighboring Dabo hana woreda of Illu Abbabor Zone before the resettlement program and

45 he is a farmer, that means in that time he lives permanently in Dabo hana woreda and farming in present day settlement area. Now a days, Ato Waktole who is permanently living in Chewaqa Woreda. Like Ato Waqtole, there were also some agriculturalists who came from Benishangul Gumze Zone and uses the land for farming purposes.

From the total areal size of woreda, as it is indicated in the LU/LC map of 1995, Bush/shrub land and forest land cover 17108.9 hectare (27.6 percent) and 9305.4 hectare (15.0 percent) respectively. The least areal coverage was settlements. The basic reason for small percentage of crop lands and settlement before the specified year was less agricultural and settlement practices in the area except few an illegal farmers from the neighboring woreda of both Oromia and Benishangul Gumz Regional states.

Figure 4.4: Land use/Land cover Map of Chewaqa Woreda, 1995 (Source: 1995 Satellite Image Interpretation)

4.3.2. Land use/Land cover class of 2005

The major land use/land cover classes of 2005 include forestland, shrub land, grassland, crop land, bare land and built up area/settlements. As indicated in Table 4.1, the greatest share of land use/land cover from all classified LU/LC classes are grass land and bush/shrub land which covers an area of 20177.2 hec.(32.6 %) and 15041.1 hec (24.3 %) respectively. The area is known for its vast coverage of grass land and bush/shrub land in Western Oromiya. As it is

46 compared with the changes from 1995-2005, grass land, shrub and forest land coverage are decreased by 26.0 percent, 12.1 percent and 6.5 percent respectively due to the human interference in the area as a result of the government settlement programs of 2003 in the woreda.

But the areal coverage of the crop land increased by 143.8 percent as a result of settlement program. In the area forest land and bare land cover areal size are 8702.1 hectare (14.1 percent) and 3111.5 hectare (5.0 percent) respectively. The areal coverage of the buildup/settlement that illustrates settlements which experiences the peri-urban characteristics is 25.3 hectare (almost 0.0 %) from the total size of the Woreda.

Figure 4.5: Land use/Land cover Map of Chewaqa Woreda, 2005 (Source: 2005 Satellite Image Interpretation)

4.3.3. Land use/Land cover class of 2015

The major land use/land cover classes of 2015 include cultivated/crop land, grass land, settlement, shrub/bush land, forest and bare land. As indicated in the Table 4.1, the greatest share of land use/land cover from all classified land use/land cover classes are cultivated/crop land which covers an area of 23124.9 hec. (37.4 percent). In the present day, the woreda is known for its surplus producing and self-sufficient in terms of food security as other woredas from Illu Abbabor zone. Bush/shrub land and grass land cover the areal size of 9108.5 hectare (14.7 47 percent) and 18474.2 hectare (29.8 percent), respectively. The total areal coverage of crop/cultivated land increases in an increasing rate as compare to the rest major land use land cover classes. But the forest land is decreasing from 8702.1 ha. (14.1 percent) in 2005 to 7376.1 ha. (11.9 percent) in 2015. The basic reason for the decline of forest coverage in 2015 as compared to 2005 and 1995 is deforestation practices for the building of residences by the newly emerging settlers in 2003 and also the forests are cleaned due to the increments of the cultivated lands.

Figure 4.6:land use/land cover map of chewaqa woreda, 2015 (source: 2015 satellite image interpretation)

As we see from Figure 4.6 above, the areal size of built-up/settlement land area increased from 25.3 ha. in 2005 to 342.6 ha. in 2015 as a result of the increasing number of population and the need and demands for construction of different kinds of social services like telecommunication, school and health services, and other socio-economic services among the societies.

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4.3.4. Land cover change between 1995 and 2015

Changes in land cover driven by land use can be categorized into two types: modification and conversion. Modification is a change of condition within a cover type; for example, unmanaged forest modified to a forest managed by selective cutting. Conversion is a change from one cover type to another, such as deforestation to create cropland or pasture. The Land Use / Land Cover Change of 1995 - 2015, for Chewaqa Woreda is presented in Table 4.1 above. The result in the Table 4.1, above shows that the forest land are changed by -21.0 % from 1995-2015, but the other Land use /Land cover classes like shrub land and grass lands are reduced by -47.0% and - 32.0 % respectively. On the other hand, the coverage of bare land is changed by 1333.2 hectare of the total areal coverage of the woreda in the year from 1995-2015. Significant land, which was left un used, now used by the inhabitants of the woreda for various purposes due to high population growth occurred in the Woreda with in this period of time.

In the period between 1995 and 2015, there was a dramatic decrease in Grass land which is about 27258.2 ha.in 1995 and converted into cultivated land which is increased from 6087.1. ha.in 1995 to 23124.9 ha.in 2015.About 1929.2 ha of Shrub/bush land in 1995 was directly converted into cultivated land in 2015. Cultivated/crop land, bare land and to some extent, settlement land cover showed that an increasing from 1995 to 2015.In the study year, the coverage of bare land is minimum but it is positive, however, grazing /grasses land and forest land decreased by 8784 ha, and 1929.3 ha of land respectively. As it can observed from figure 4.7 below, cultivated land and settlement/built up were show high coverage of land than other land cover type in the study area. Generally, the LU/LC types in the three decades gradually changed with differing rates depending on the existing socio-economic, political, and environmental situation.

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LULC Change between 1995-2015

35000

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0

-5000

-10000 LU/LC Change 1995-2015 Ha. LU/LC Change 1995-2015 %

Figure 4.7: Changes on Lu/Lc between 1995 and 2015 (source: 1995-2015 Satellite Image Interpretation). On the other hand, the cultivated/crop land is increased or changed by 17037.8 hectare from1995- 2015. This result shows that more land has been changed to cultivated land. Moreover, the built up/settlement area were changed by 341.6 hectare of land from 1995-2015. This is mostly due to the increment of population size of the woreda. The result gained from this particular study shows that the forest area coverage, which was 9305.4 ha. of the total Woreda land has shrinking to 7376.1 ha. of the total area. The basic reason for the decrement of forest coverage in Chewaqa Woreda is the deforestation, charcoal and fire wood production and using the land for cultivation carried out by the local communities of the woreda. 4.4. Change detection matrix of LU/LC

As it is discussed here under, after a serious assessment of the classification of land use features of each satellite images of each separated years on the above discussions, the spatial and temporal trends of land use dynamics was detected in the study area of Chewaqa resettlement district using post classification comparison methods.

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TABLE4.2:CHANGE DETECTION MATRIX OF LULC TYPES IN CHEWAQA BETWEEN 1995 - 2015 Land use/Land cover types 1995

Lu/Lc type Forestland Shrub land Grassland Cropland Bare land Settlement Total

Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. %

Forestland 3559.7 38.3 1693.6 9.9 1773.0 6.5 265.0 4.4 84.8 4.0 0.0 0.0 7376.0 11.9 Shrubland 2276.3 24.5 2582.8 15.1 3726.6 13.7 324.4 5.3 198.4 9.3 0 0.0 9108.5 14.7

Grassland 2296.6 24.7 5608.4 32.8 8418.8 30.9 1457.3 23.9 693.1 32.4 0 0.0 18474 29.8

2015 Cropland 992.6 10.7 6498.8 38.0 11112.1 40.8 3537.9 58.1 983.5 46.0 0.45 1.8 23125 37.3 Bare land 175.1 1.9 648.6 3.8 2022.5 7.4 447.2 7.3 176.7 8.3 0 0.0 3470 5.6

Landuse/Land types cover Settlement 5.1 0.1 76.8 0.4 205.2 0.8 55.2 0.9 0.4 0.0 24.84 98.2 367.47 0.6 Total 9305.4 100.0 17109.1 100.0 27258.2 100.0 6086.9 100.0 2136.8 100.0 25.29 100.0 61922 100.0

(SOURCE:1995 AND 2015 SATELLITE IMAGE INTERPRETATION)

TABLE 4.3: CHANGE DETECTION MATRIX OF LULC TYPES IN CHEWAQA 1995 - 2005

Land use/Land cover types 1995

Lu/Lc type Forestland Shrubland Grassland Cropland Bareland Settlement Total Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. %

Forestland 3363.9 36.2 2045.9 12.0 2932.5 10.8 92.1 1.5 267.8 12.5 0.0 0.0 8702.1 14.1

ver ver

Shrubland 2838.5 30.5 3878.7 22.7 6139.9 22.5 1985.0 32.6 198.9 9.3 0 0.0 15041 24.3 Grassland 2300.0 24.7 5715.5 33.4 9639.1 35.4 1748.0 28.7 774.6 36.3 0 0.0 20177 32.6

Cropland 580.6 6.2 4469.5 26.1 6903.3 25.3 2033.4 33.4 852.5 39.9 0 0.0 14839 24.0

types 2005 types Bareland 222.3 2.4 992.7 5.8 1624.9 6.0 228.6 3.8 43.0 2.0 0 0.0 3111.5 5.0

Land use/Land co use/Land Land Settlement 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 18.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 25.29 0.0 Total 9305.4 100.0 17108.9 100.0 27258.2 100.0 6087.1 100.0 2136.8 100.0 1 100.0 61897 100.0 (Source: 1995 and 2015 Satellite Image Interpretation).

TABLE 4.4: CHANGE DETECTION MATRIX OF LULC TYPES IN CHEWAQA WOREDA FROM 2005 - 2015

Land use/Land cover types 2005

Lu/Lc type Forestland Shrubland Grassland Cropland Bareland Settlement Total Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Ha. % Forestland 3695.4 42.5 1735.8 11.5 1587.2 7.9 36.8 0.2 320.9 10.3 0.0 0.0 7376.1 11.9

Shrubland 1483.9 17.1 3879.1 25.8 3067.4 15.2 220.9 1.5 457.2 14.7 0 0.0 9108.5 14.7 Grassland 3059.0 35.2 5169.9 34.4 7046.6 34.9 2318.1 15.6 880.7 28.3 0 0.0 18474 29.8 Cropland 278.1 3.2 3174.5 21.1 7161.0 35.5 11558.2 77.9 952.7 30.6 0.45 1.8 23125 37.4

types 2015 types Bareland 184.8 2.1 975.6 6.5 1305.2 6.5 507.7 3.4 496.7 16.0 0 0.0 3470 5.6

Land use/Land cover use/Land Land Settlement 0.8 0.0 106.2 0.7 9.8 0.0 197.6 1.3 3.4 0.1 24.84 98.2 342.63 0.6

Total 8702.0 100. 15041.1 100. 20177.1 100. 14839.2 100. 3111.6 100. 25.29 100. 61896 100. (Source: 2005 and 2015 Satellite Image Interpretation).

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In the first analysis of 2005-2015, the settlement/built up area was increased at expense of 0.7%, 1.3%,and 0.1% for the conversion of shrub land, cropland and bare land respectively. However, as it is seen from the Table 4.4 above, the coverage of crop land has escalated to 23,125 ha. in the year 2015 as a result of extensive pressure on the forest and shrub lands. Accordingly, 278.1 ha. (3.2%) of forestland and 3174.5 ha. (21.1%) of shrub land were converted to crop lands. Therefore, as it is seen from table 4.2-4.4 above, due to the existing competitive land use dynamics pressure between crop land and settlement/built up area, the tendency of forestland throughout the analysis period of (1995-2015) have displayed a continuous decline from 9305.4 ha.to 7376.1ha.in 2015.similarly, shrub lands have shown little declined by 2067.84 ha.(12.1%) from 1995-2005 and it declined by 5932.6 ha.(-39.4%) from 2005-2015. 4.5. The Rate of Land Use Dynamics in Chewaqa Woreda

As it is indicated in the Table 4.2-4.4 above, over all the study periods, settlement/built-up areas, bare land and cropland are increased by 17.109 ha. 66.66 ha. and 851.9 ha. per annum respectively, and 439.21 ha. 400.03 ha. and 96.47ha.per annum reduction of grass land, shrub lands and forest land, respectively. Therefore as it is indicated in Table above, forest land is the main contributor for the expansion of settlement and crop land

TABLE 4.5: RATE OF LAND USE CHANGE PER HECTARE PER ANNUM IN CHEWAQA WOREDA, 1995 -2015

No. Land use types year

1995-2005 2005-2015 1995-2015 1 Forest land -60.33 -132.59 -96.465

2 Shrub land -206.71 -593.26 -400.03

3 Grassland -708.12 -170.31 -439.21

4 Cropland +875 +828.59 +851.89

5 Bare land +97.47 +35.85 +66.66 6 Settlement/built up +2.429 +31.734 +17.08

( Source: work out based on data extracted from own image analysis of 1995,2005 and 2015)

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4.6. Accuracy Assessment

The study focused on relatively small geographic units as compared to basin wise studies. Hence, much variability is not expected within a short distance and some of changes might not be captured due to image resolution. Generally, classification accuracy could be affected by lack of fine details; resolutions of images used, due the need to make generalizations, and errors are always expected accordingly. To assure wise use of land cover maps and accompanying statistics derived from remote sensing analysis, the errors must be quantitatively explained (Sharifi, 2006). The most common and typical method used by researchers to assess classification accuracy is the use of an error matrix (Congalton et al. 1999 in Sharifi 2006). Therefore, Table 4.6 shows details of the accuracy assessment done for the study area. Based on assessment made, producer’s accuracy is found to be 80.76923% for study area (see Table 4.6 below). Therefore, the researcher is 99 % confident that about 81 % Office interpreted Lu/Lc match with field observed Lu/Lc categories.

TABLE 4.6 :CROSS TABULATION OF FIELD OBSERVED LU/LC CATEGORIES WITH OFFICE INTERPRETED LU/LC CATEGORIES FOR ACCURACY ASSESSMENT.

Office interpreted * field observed Cross-tabulation

Field observation

Forestland Shrubland Grassland Cropland Bareland Settlement Total % of % of Coun % of % of Coun % of Coun % of % of Count Total Coun Total t Total Coun Total t Total t Total Count Total Forestland 7 13.5 1 1.9 2 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 19.2 Shrubland 1 1.9 9 17.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 19.2

Grassland 0 0.0 2 3.8 9 17.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 11 21.2 Cropland 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 3.8 11 21.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 13 25.0

Office Office Bareland 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.9 1 1.9 4 7.7 0 0.0 6 11.5 Settlement 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 3.8 2 3.8

Interpretation Total 8 15.4 12 23.1 14 26.9 12 23.1 4 7.7 2 3.8 52 100.0 (Source:ground survey of study area,Feb,2016) Matching level= 7+9+9+11+4+2 = 80.76 52

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CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Summary

The greatest impact of humans on their natural surrounding is the use of land for agriculture, forestry and settlement which was directly influencing natural resources. When the number of population increasing, carrying capacity of the land is decreasing. Therefore, increasing population growth and decreasing carrying capacity of land forced people to leave the original place and to settle on another less populated area in the world, particularly in Ethiopia. There is a long history of resettlement in Ethiopia, especially the spontaneous form of resettlement, from the Northern part of the country to the Southern part..

In most developing countries, especially, Africa the socio-economic needs of rapidly increasing populations are the main driving force in the allocation of land resources to various kinds of uses, with food production as the primary land use. Heavy population pressure and the related increase of rivalry for different types of land uses have emphasized the need for more effective land use planning and management. Rational and sustainable land use is an issue of great concern to governments and land users interested in preserving the land resources for the benefit of present and future populations. A problem proposed for this study concerned to the Impacts of resettlement scheme on land use and land cover changes in Chewaqa resettlement site in Illu- Abbabor Zone of Oromiya regional state. The major land use and land cover changes of the study area was identified and discussed from the beginning of 1995-2015.The objectives of this study was to describe the Impact of the resettlement on the land use and land cover changes. This research also intended to identify the major land use and land cover changes in combination with describing the influence of deforestation on land use and land cover changes.

5.2. Conclusion

The basis of this research comprises the multitemporal classification of Landsat satellite imageries to detect, describe, and map land cover change from 1995 - 2015. This time periods were chosen based on the availability of satellite imageries for classification and change detection. In this study, immense attempts were done while performing classification of each images through incorporating better spatial resolution image, ground truth data and other ancillary data. 54

Land cover post classification change analysis for the periods (1995, 2005 and 2015) revealed that some important land cover changes were consistent in all sub periods. Taking the 1995-2005 and 1995-2015 sub periods the results revealed that the extent of farm plot, bare land increased at the expense of vegetation/forest land and grass land. Post classification can give more detailed information and it provides a general picture of land cover class’s boundaries. Therefore, post classification comparison is proved to be the best method for the study area. Based on the analysis of the input data, in general the land use land cover classes were identified.

The present study showed that Chewaqa resettlement program brought environmental impacts despite the government authorities state the recent resettlement programs are environmentally friendly. The settlers heavily depends on natural vegetation for fuel wood and construction materials as well as production of charcoal as additional sources of income accelerates the depletion of the woodland. The high population growth of the settlers has an implication on the future demand for natural resources making the problem more complex.

The land use/land cover result shows that significant land which was left unused in 1995 changed in to cultivated and grazing land in the year 2005. The basic reason for the reduction of bare land is the resettlement program of 2003 in the Woreda and the main livelihood for the people is agriculture, which practiced by using traditional form of ploughing by applying oxen.

On the other hand, during 1995 shrub/bush land, which cover an area of 27.6 percent of land is now reduced to 14.7 percent of the total Woreda land size. In the same year, there was 9.8 percent of crop/cultivated land, which is now increased to 37.4 percent. This result shows that more land has been changed in to cultivated land. Besides, in 1995 the bare/grazing land area coverage has increased from 3.5 percent to 5.6 percent in 2015. Moreover the built up area which was only 25.3 hectare (0.0 percent) of land in 2005 has increased to 342.6 (0.6 percent) of the total Woreda areal size in 2015.

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5.3. Recommendations

The administration and rehabilitation of natural resources desires adequate data gathering and detail analysis to identify the factors and propose appropriate methodologies that enable decision makers to make appropriate decision. In this regard, having reorganized Land use and land cover change information is essential. For that matter, application of remote sensing and GIS was found helpful in quantifying past and present condition so that appropriate planning could be made for the future. It is therefore hoped that future development activities will exploit these resources more.

Land use/ land cover change analysis remain the major information required for planning and decision making. The government resettlement program of 2003 in the area contributed to the clearance of vegetation for the expansion of new agricultural land, homestead, fuel wood consumption and other livelihood needs which further exacerbated the degradation of natural resources latter aggravated low agricultural productivity

The main recommendation of this study is that:

. There should be appropriate training by the development agents and extension workers to increase the awareness of the community about the use of natural resources and the need for conservation are needed, as well as appropriate training and practice of land use are the right way to reduce the expansion of agricultural land that the resettlers experiencing currently. . Wood cutting for house hold energy consumption was identified as one of the causes that accelerated devegetaion. Hence, inorder to save energy, improved stove that is appropriate to the rural areas has to be introduced. Besides, most of the towns of Illu Harer and Dabena dwellers depend on purchased fire wood for its energy consumption. This encourages those groups of people who are engaged in the activity of illegal tree cutting and harvesting to further exploitation of the existing forest resources found in the study area. Therefore, the urban population should be encouraged to use alternative energy sources. . There should be well prepared, strong and effective policy intervention to protect the remaining vegetation and avoid further extinction.

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. Resettlement program might have a short term advantage, especially to be able to feed the food in-secured portion of the population. But its long lasting effect on the forest resources of the destination area is devastating. So, rather than targeting on it, it would rather be better to enhance the expanding off-farm economic activities and the like. When resettlement is the only option to be applied, special attention should be given to minimize its adverse effect. In addition, priority should be given to ecofriendly economic activities rather than agriculture or intensification has to be used in order to minimize additional demand of cultivable land at the expense of forests and woodlands. . In addition to this, further detailed study of the environmental impacts of the current resettlement programs in different parts of the country might be crucial to take corrective measures. These should actively involve and be done in collaboration with all concerned stakeholders (such as local communities, government and NGOs) for effective management of natural resources.

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APPENDICES

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Annex 1. KII GUIDE (Key Informant Interviews)

I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is Getachew Berbada, I am a student at Arsi University and now I am carrying out a thesis in the title of ‘Empact of Resettlement on Lu/Lc Dynamics: The Case of Chewaqa Resettlement Site In Oromiya Regional State. And I would like to talk to you about your experiences on impact of resettlement on land use land cover. The interview should take less than an hour. I will be taking notes during the session because I don’t want to miss any of your information, I will try to write fast enough to get it all down. All responses will be kept confidential. This means that your interview responses will only be used for this research and I will ensure that any information I include in my thesis does not identify you as the respondent. Remember, you don’t have to talk about anything you don’t want to and you may end the interview at any time. Are there any questions about what I have just explained?

Are you willing to participate in this interview? ______Interviewee Witness Date

1. What the land use/land cover of Chewaqa resettlement site looks like before and after the resettlement scheme in the area?  Is there any change on land use land cover after the resettlement program of Chewaqa district?  How can you describe the changes in your own words?  What are the indicators? Please mention as much as you can.  If there is a change, at what rate one type of land use/land cover is changed to another in pre-and post-resettlement periods in Chewaqa resettlement site? 2. Do you think that the resettlement have impacted negatively or positively to the area?  What are the negative impacts? And  what are the positive ones? 3. What is the major source of income for house-holds? 4. Is there any indigenous community before the resettlement program in this area?  If there, what is their livelihood strategy?

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5. What is land use/ land cover risks (especially, to the water bodies, grass lands, forests, farmlands, wild animals…) after the resettlement are occurred in Chewaqa site? 6. How is today’s coverage of the forest when compared to the conditions before 2005? A. Declined (thinned) B. Increased C. No change How? 7. According to your knowledge, is severe and rapid forest cover change observed today? 8. On the basis of your knowledge, what are the impacts of Forest cover change on the Area? (Put in order). 9. Are there species of “trees” and wild animals endangered for extinction due to forest cover change from the local area? Please mention if any? 10. What do you think about the possible solution to alleviate the current problem of vegetation cover change and to use forest resources in a sustainable manner? 11. Who is responsible for this risks? 12. How could the changes on land use land cover risks due to resettlement scheme be mitigated? 13. What is the roll of inhabitants in order to mitigate the risks occurred on the land use/ land cover?

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Annex 2

Table 1:Mean Annual temperature (Minimum and Maximum) and Total Rainfall chewaqa woreda from 1990-2014 Min Temperature (oC) Max Temperature (oC) Precipitation

Year Mean Mean Sum 1990 13.1 26.7 1358.1 1991 13.0 27.4 1253.9 1992 12.7 26.6 1482.8 1993 12.6 26.1 1916.1 1994 12.2 26.8 1142.7 1995 12.9 27.3 1386.2 1996 13.2 25.9 1680.1 1997 13.2 26.2 1775.0 1998 13.4 26.8 1692.2 1999 12.4 26.8 1518.5 2000 12.8 28.1 1381.2 2001 13.3 28.8 1535.7 2002 14.0 30.3 1583.8 2003 14.0 29.9 1714.8 2004 13.8 29.6 1919.3 2005 13.6 28.7 1930.4 2006 13.9 28.4 2327.0 2007 13.4 27.8 2305.5 2008 13.4 27.9 2096.3 2009 14.0 27.8 1645.2 2010 13.6 26.8 2197.5 2011 12.7 26.4 3314.7 2012 12.7 27.1 2772.2 2013 13.0 26.4 3359.5 2014 13.1 26.2 2910.0 Total 13.2 27.5 1928.0 (Source: National Meteorology Service Agency (NMSA))

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Annex 3 False Color Composite Display of the 1995 LandSat Tm7, 1995 Image of Chewaqa Woreda

Figure 1: False Color Composite Display of the 1995 LandSat Tm7, 1995 Image of Chewaqa Woreda (source: 1995 LandSat Tm7)

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Annex 4 :False Color Composite Display of the 2005 LandSat Tm7, 2005 Image of Chewaqa Woreda

Figure 2:False Color Composite Display of the 2005 LandSat Tm7, 2005 Image of Chewaqa Woreda (source: 2005 LandSat Tm7)

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Annex 5 : False Color Composite Display of the 2015 LandSat Tm7, 2015 Image of Chewaqa Woreda

FIGURE 3: FALSE COLOR COMPOSITE DISPLAY OF THE 2015 LANDSAT TM7, 2015 IMAGE OF CHEWAQA WOREDA (source: 2015 LandSat Tm7)

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