THE mORYOF GENERATIONAL CHANGE: A CRITICAL REASSESSMENT Sharon Opal Scuily, B.A. Hom. A thesis submitted to the Facdty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Political Science Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Juiy 24,2000 Qcopyright, 2000 Sharon Opal Scuily National Library Bibliothèque nationale l*l of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Servies services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Ottawa OA K1A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distriite or seil reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of ths thesis in microfom, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de micrciiche/ftlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni Ia thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othewise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT This thesis critically reassesses the scbolarly Iiterature on generational theory. illustrated through comparative. theoretical and empirical analyses. lt begins by reviewing Comte's insights, which have inspired two schools of thought, that of José Ortega y Gasset and Julian Marias, and that of Karl Mannheim. A series of mini case studies on U.S. electoral politics helps to illustrate the value of adding the Ortega-Marias approach, which has been underutilized by North American social scientists. We hold that a greater use of this approach to generational theory should produce fruifful additions to the scholarly literature. In addition, social demographer Richard Easterlin's postulated "Easterlin Effectn is also a useful potential addition to our conceptual toolkit that could help shed new explanatory light on generations. This thesis aims to deepen understanding of generational theory in the hope that it rnight help others find general pathways sufficiently intriguing to warrant some follow-up studies. Acknowledgements In writing this thesis I am greatly indebted to my supervisor Professor Jon Alexander. His extensive comments, advice and encouragement over the past years, which have been invaluable. Also, I would like tu think Professor Robert Shields. He has made extensive comrnents on my thesis. I would also like to thank Professor F. Rocher, for his comments and Professor H. von Riekhoff, the other member of my thesis defense board. Finally, I would like to thank the computer service and library of Carleton University for additional help. Chapter I - INTRODUCTION ..____..___.___.__f_..C_._......_.-...f..-..--...1 Chaprer II - THE HETORY OF THE CONCEPT OF GENERATIONS. - - . - - . - - - - - . - - 6 1 Fin t Steps: Corn te's Theory of Society II The Ortega-Marias Mode1 of Generations I, Redity Paradigm 2. F~ionund Relatjonship of frital Reason and His iorical Rearon 3. Vigencias 4. What is a Generaiion? 5, Types of Genera~ions 6. How Long does a Generusion Lat? 7. Relation betweerr Generations and Historical Change Chopter III - C~RREYTCONCEPTIOP;~ OF GE~TION,~ THEORY - - - - . .. - . - - . - - - . - - 32 1 Thc Generations Model LI Two Antagonistic Sehoois of Thought 1. The Posi~ivist ,4pproach 2. Tlie Romantic-Historical Approach a. Entelechv III Mannheim's Single Generation Society 1. 1fl1at is a Generariort? a. Genemtion Location b. Genention as Actualitv c. Generation Unit 2. IVlrat is the Duration ofa Generaiion? N Political Genemtion V Generational Cohorts 1. Birih Cohorts 2. Period Efleccs 3. Life Cycfes CirapferTV- THE ~MISS~NG CONTRLB~ON OF ORTEGA AVD hilLuu,\s IN CURREii CO~CEP~OFSOF GEXERA~~NS .-...-.-..,.............--..- 77 1 Traditional Gcnerational Models II Ortega and MariasTMultifaceted Model I. Background 2, Three Theoretical Dimensions a. Perspectivism b. Vitalism c. Subiectivism III Mannheim's Dualkt Mode1 I. Background 2. Two Theoretical Diniensions a. The SocioloaicaI Dimension b. Obiectivism IV How are thcse Approach Related? V In Dcfcnse of Synthcsis Chapter v - APPLYINCTHE GENERATION CONCEPT TEE DIMENSIONSOF VIGENCLSAND ENTELECHY ................... 119 1 Cyciicai Theories 1. The ahlesinger Cycle 2, The Schlesinger Cycle Eqlahted 3. The Staie of rhe Art 4. Key's Critical Realrpent und Criticaf EIections Theory II Linking Generation with the Concepts Vigench and En teIechy 1. Ortega andMirias 'Relafiun tu Cyclicol Theory 2. RelafingMdeim 's Enrelechy ro Ortega-Mmm?as 3. Eas~eriintr Relation tu Cyclicai Theory Cizupfer P7 - Conclusion ................................................. 164 Endnotes ........................................................ 176 Bibliogmphy ........................................................ 202 Figure 1 ........................................................ 312 AppcnduA ....................................................... 214 Chapter I INTRODUCTION Frorn the knowledge derived from our studies on cornpetition and genera- tions, we have concluded that what, from the point of view of immanent intellectual history, appears to be the 'inner dialecticJin the development of ideas, becornes, from the standpoint of the sociology of knowledge, the rhythmic movement in the history of ideas as affected by cornpetition and the succession of generations. Karl Mannheim, ldeology and Utopia (1936) This thesis has two purposes. Firstly, it will seek to demonstrate that there is in the scholarly literature a vast amount of information on how politically significant generational change occurç and the mechanisms through which such change works. In doing so, it will argue, however, that North American scholars are not making full use of the European literature. In particular, they have failed Page 1 Page 2 sufficiently to utilize the joint theories of the Spanish scholars José Ortega y Gasset and Julian Marias. The thesis consequently argues a second point that follows from the first. Secondly, putting together the different strands of generation theory, including those woven by Ortega and Marias, helps one to explain generational effects in American political science. These two arguments will develop as the reader moves through the following chapters. Chapter Two offers an illustration of some non-linear historiographical approaches pioneered in the first instance by Auguste Comte, but greatly developed by Ortega and Marias. Then Chapter Three extends the discussion by outlining Karl Mannheim's generational theory and looking at some related subsequent research by prominent scholars whom Mannheim seems to have influenced. Chapter Four discusses the underlying methcdological tools of the two main available traditional generational models -one developed together by Ortega and Marias, and the other by Mannheim. We compare and contrast these and in the process suggest what are the main tenets of Ortega's and Marias' contributions that remain largely absent from current North American theories on generations. Chapter Five seeks to illustrate the value of a combined approach that combines the work of Marias and Ortega with that of Mannheim. It discusses ho essentially US. contributions to generational theory that take the form of descriptions of the nature of political cycles in American history. The first is the three decade generational political or ideological cycle called the Schlesinger Cycle, in honor of historianArthur Schlesinger Sr., who first described its operations Page 3 over a nation's entire political history, in this case the United States. The second is one of the many contributions made by the great American political scientist V. O. Key, Jr. who described the Arnerican party system as a self-steering historical process subject to critical realignrnents. These realignments refer to the changing nature of the effective coalitions that constitute the major strengths of the Americans' two major parties. The two models presented each conceptualize the American party history creatively, and they are both useful as ernpirical case studies on their own. As wel! they yield up some evidence to illustrate that a synthesis between the Ortega- Marias and Mannheim schools of thought is both possible and desirable. We include a figure that shows the unfolding of these two cycles over time, and provides some strong prima facie evidence that they are not in fact two cycles but instead are one and the same phenomenon. That is, we will show that there is an extremely intimate and sustained temporal connection behiveen the Schlesinger Cycle and Key's critical realignmentlcritical elections cycle. In addition, we treat the so-called "Easterlin Effect,'' named to honor its discoverer, the socio-economist Richard Easterlin, which helps to solidify this thesis' arguments by permitting some real insight into the causative mechanisms involved. The Easterlin Effect postulates that a major motive force impelling generational change is a dialectically induced change in female fertility rates that in turn produces a relative change in the size of succeeding generations, with all the economic and social consequences that this change entails. Page 4 In effect, Chapters Two to Five combine to argue