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Home , Chicago house, Disc jockey, DJ Culture, Drum and bass, Everything But The Girl, House music

GIRLS US

The Afro-Digital Migration:

A DJ’s journey from Hip-Hop To House

By DJ Lynnée Denise

DJ and Grace Jones at the

96 ISSUE SIX

Vintage flyer from “house” in

It was Sean ‘Puffy’ Combs who sent me running into the arms of , hands up, betrayed, like a wounded lover.

I spent the majority of my childhood The culture gave a voice to socially the intricate ways that hip-hop pro- writing the to my favourite silenced people and was powerful ducers pulled from , soul, , rap , making up dance steps because it was rooted in ghetto and other forms of Black Ameri- with friends and dreaming of having a based philosophy and secret codes of can music developed in underground mic to one day speak on the resistance. We had crews, colours, spaces, to carve hip-hop’s own place world stage. Hip-hop provided me new names and new skills by which in the legacy. with a credible summary of almost to express our chosen discipline from every corner of Black life in America. elements of the culture. This It was 1995 when hip-hop and I And there were many different iter- period, though the dates are debat- parted ways, and without telling too ations of Black life to be found in this able, has been aptly described as the many details about the breakup, I’ll sound. Hip-hop showed the world ‘Golden Era,’ and I had a stake in it. share a few moments in its history that we were building a movement For me the ‘Golden Era’ was be- that led to my indifference. It starts in the basements, parks and - tween 1979 and 1995. And during this with MTV. Though once an exclusive ern juke joints of our communities, time I discovered the musical roots for white rock and then later, a movement that thrived off of the of hip-hop by learning that much of with some nudging, black pop, MTV multiplicity of DJs, dancers, what was being ‘sampled’ could be finally opened its arms to hip-hop artists and emcees: most critical to found in my parents’ and with the 1988 launching of Yo! MTV the art form’s well-being was the in their parents’ record collection. Raps. My friends and I watched it diversity among them. I spent hours coming to understand daily after school, like part of our

97 GIRLSGIRLS LIKELIKE US homework included studying inter- America could offer. I worked at mu- the UK I felt drawn views, videos and the live perfor- sic stores during my high school and to was influenced by traditional and mances of each artist featured. The college years, where I was exposed contemporary music of the African show was aired for the last time in to genres of music from around Diaspora. For example, similar to 1995, a heartbreaking symbol of de- the world. I developed an intimate hip-hop, drum and at its core is cline. Yo! MTV Raps’ final episode was relationship with classic rock, a hybrid of , dub, and an indicator that even in its purest, jazz, and so many other computer technology. Garage was most political form, hip-hop was a forms of music, but it was drum a ‘mesh up’ of UK soul, New real contender for occupying a ‘legit- and bass, introduced to me by the City’s Paradise Garage sound and imate’ place in the American musical UK’s , that music. There was a imagination. allowed me to escape the sterility form of diasporic dialogue happening of American hip-pop and indulge between Black Americans and the The second fatal break happened in other youth-led music movements. Black British and this transnational 1995, when Puffy’s Bad Boy Records I started diggin’ through the catalog exchange inspired a new question for began functioning as an empire. Bad of Everything but the Girl, in awe of me: How was music travelling across Boy had a roster of both R&B singers their range and evolution as artists. and between what Paul Gilroy refers and rap artists, including one of the I was feeling deeply moved by music to as the ‘Black Atlantic’? Essentially, most celebrated emcees in rap music that had a totally different social and I had to leave America, first symbol- today, the Notorious BIG, Biggie for cultural context and in it I found my- ically, then physically, to discover a short. Faith Evans, an artist in her self becoming a global citizen. genre of music that would eventually own right and Biggie’s wife, along become the primary focus of my DJ with Mary J. Blige, affectionately I had transferable skills that I de- scholarly attention—house music. known as the ‘Queen of Hip-Hop veloped as a B-Girl (research skills Soul,’ were singers who with Puffy’s from chasing samples) that made it House music developed beneath the help secured a hip-hop Hollywood easy for me to learn about UK soul radar of commercial and status but the remaining acts on his with the same ferocity I did hip-hop. and claims lineage to , gospel, label had fleeting careers that func- Doing my homework allowed me to soul, funk and the African drum. tioned more like fillers to grow the discover who were on the front lines Characterized by repetitive ‘four to brand. The fillers, in my head, were of what was being called ‘ the floor’ beats, it was nurtured by mediocre artists who by topping the music.’ My curiosity led me to cities the hunger of artists and post-disco music charts lowered the standards like (St. Paul) and , club patrons who were marginalized of the craft. As far as I could see, the listening in heavy rotation to artists by the marginalized: Black and Brown sun never set on Puffy’s empire. Bad such as Loose Ends, , gay folk. Black and Latino queer Boy could be heard and seen on ev- Portishead, , Björk (UK trans- culture shaped house music, and the ery music network, heard plant), , Roots Manuva and culture around it was informed by on every urban radio station and Soul II Soul. From there, I expanded the compromised and often dehu- read about in most music magazines. my UK repertoire to include garage, manizing social positions of queer With this shift, the nature of the hip- a subgenre of . people. One of the most important hop culture, or at least the culture films highlighting the role that house the masses had access to, began to By 2000, I had purchased turntables, music plays in queer communities change. The lyrics were less creative, , needles and speakers and in creating safe spaces is Paris Is the videos more extravagant, and and decided I would create collages Burning, a documentary that explores these changes proved lucrative for (mixes) that represented the in- aspects of ’s music executives/distributors, who terconnectedness between music ball scene. The ball scene functioned saw their profits multiply with Puffy’s migration and culture travel. I had like a secret society where one could Midas touch. The fact that Arista enough information and confidence and take part in gender per- Records/Clive Davis bought a 50 per to officially accept the responsi- formance and build identities drawing cent stake in Puffy’s label symbolizes bility of being a DJ, a position that from a range of transgressive gender the industry’s confidence in his ability would require me to teach by way practices. to create pedestrian listeners. of exposing my audience to new and highly contextualized music. It had A commonly overlooked fact about Musically, I needed more than what become clear to me that most of the story of house music is that two

98 ISSUE SIX

Queer men from Chicago’s early house days.

of its most celebrated DJs/producers experience, but we were there, even ander spun alongside Andre Hatch- of this period, Larry Levan (Paradise if in smaller numbers, as patrons and ett, and . Garage) and Frankie Knuckles (The performers. There were women DJs, I’ve also travelled extensively in ), were members of the producers and promoters who lent search of women DJs and found that New York City late 1970s ball scene. their skills to house music as cultural we were there, in smaller numbers, Larry Levan and Frankie Knuckles producers and not simply passive but part of the culture and the devel- became popular while spinning during bystanders. Most of the oral history opment of house for the past three the disco era, getting their first gigs and literature I’ve read about house decades and we’re still here. I’ve spun at the famous NYC Gay Continental music, even stories told by Black and alongside DJs Rimarkable, Reborn, bathhouses. My belief is that part of Brown queer men, claims that wom- Sabine Blaizin and Selly in NYC. why this is rarely discussed is because en were ‘few and far between.’ They I’ve spun alongside Miz Buttons and the retelling of this particular musical share that the predominantly gay DJ Satori in South Africa. I’ve spun history has been limited to a privi- male disco and early house scenes alongside Tora Torres and Cha-Cha leged class of people who have access preferred women to play a limited Jones in Atlanta and I’ve spun along- to the financial and social resources role in their entertainment, but side Keithy ‘ SpecialK’ Antoine, that allow for a dominant narrative, there’s still a history there and I’ve Sweet La Rock, and Amrew Weekes one that historically leaves out the had an active role in trying to unfold in Montreal. There are many more voices of queer people, people of it. Through my prodding I’ve learned of us and it’s become impossible to colour and women. about women DJs Stacey ‘Hotwaxx’ wipe our faces from the story of DJ Hale and Lynda Carter from , culture as a whole. It is true that there were very few who played alongside the ‘founding women DJs who established them- fathers’ of , also known as the So yes, in the interests of racist selves as household names within the Belleville Three: , institutions and heteronormativity, story of house and that the music is and . In Chi- the Black and Brown queer roots of an integral part of the Black gay male cago Lori Branch and Celeste Alex- house and the women who played a

99 GIRLSGIRLS LIKELIKE US

Vintage flyer from Frankie Knuckles party in Chicago.

role in the development of the cul- There were similar rallies and move- did not stop White entrepreneurs ture have been lost in its translation. ments launched across the country, from instituting racist door polic- Addressing the longstanding history on the street level, on a political es, especially in NYC disco venues of homophobic rhetoric and erasure level and on the level. like the Flamingo and Studio 54. In of queer cultural movements, Frank- Record company executives began response to increasingly unwelcom- ie Knuckles famously said: “House to witness a decline in disco record ing spaces in the mainstream disco music is disco’s revenge.” This was a sales brought on by the ‘disco sucks’ scene, Blacks and Latinos organized direct response to the ‘disco sucks’ movement. Chicago politicians were separate events where not only the movement, a movement that spoke notorious for shutting down racial politics differed greatly, but so to an irrational concern over the and creating obstacles, in the form of did the music. reshaping of masculinity and the new policies around liquor licenses, centring of female sexual pleasure; sound ordinances and curfews, to de- In 1977 New York’s Paradise Garage two social developments that disco ter promoters from creating under- was born, and over the course of ten symbolizes. In 1979, Radio ground spaces where gay folks could years it established itself as a never- Steve Dahl famously organized a pub- gather and disco and early house to-be-missed party where cultural, lic detonation of disco records inside could be heard. The message was ethnic and musical differences could Chicago’s Comiskey Park baseball clear; racism, sexism and homopho- be celebrated and developed. Under stadium to the chant of thousands of bia helped build the momentum of the leadership of DJ Larry Levan, rioters screaming; “Disco sucks.” the anti-disco movement. But at the club-goers, most of them male and Steve Dahl was a rock jock frustrated same time Black and Brown queer queer, were challenged and educated by being replaced by a disco DJ, and people came up against the racist on the dance floor. At the Paradise while he was personally affected by and exclusionary practices within Garage could be found an incredible disco’s rise, his Comiskey Park ‘cer- the disco movement. The fact that that helped to enhance emony’ did not happen in isolation. disco originated in Black gay clubs the already euphoric experience,

100 ISSUE SIX along with the liberating sexual poli- of dance music, Frankie’s DJ style incorporating more dance floor jazz tics, drugs and that circu- introduced the term ‘house music’; and electro funk into the queer club lated through the room. Larry Levan in other words, house music became scene. He also sped up the tem- was famous for spinning nonstop the word used to describe Frankie po of the music, manipulated the inter-genre music that made soulful Knuckles’ sound. Chuck E, who was sound with a DJ mixer and added links between funky gospel groups working at Chicago’s Imports Etc. re- sound effects like the sound of an like The Clark Sisters and the Krau- cord store during the years 1979 – 81, approaching train. At this time, local trock group . This eclectic claims: “People would come in and Chicago club patrons were beginning mix of music later became known as ask me for the old sounds…the to dabble in the production of what ‘Garage music’ in underground dance Salsoul that Frankie used to play at they called ‘beat tracks.’ Frankie music circles and was the foundation The Warehouse, so we put up a sign Knuckles was known to almost snub for the UK Garage movement. in the store that said ‘Warehouse the original music (beat tracks) that music....’ It worked so well that we Chicagoans would bring to him, When a former student of the started putting it on all sorts of choosing instead to play the familiar Dance Theater of , records that we knew he played and disco and funk that he had brought Williams, moved to Chicago from shortened the label to ‘house.’” from NYC, or the Italian Disco and New York City, he reached out to Philly Soul he had acquired over the Larry Levan to start a DJ residency So while these histories are more years. Ron Hardy, however, would in Chicago that would be based on nuanced, essentially, NYC ‘Loft and play the music that helped spawn parties he had experienced Garage music’ migrates to Chicago Chicago’s first wave of house music in NYC. Larry Levan declined to join and morphs into Ware ‘house’ music producers. It was Ron’s willingness the project, but encouraged his DJ and this is how Frankie Knuckles to include locally produced music in partner Frankie Knuckles to take the becomes known as the ‘Godfather his mix that garnered the attention of job. In 1979, Knuckles accepted the of House Music.’ Frankie was a part , one of the first record offer and moved to Chicago, with his of the first wave of DJs 1979 – 1983 in labels to distribute house music on a own DJ signature heavily influenced Chicago, but prior to his arrival, Chi- global level. by ’s Loft Parties cago had its own dance music scene and Larry Levan’s Paradise Garage and a dynamic history with jazz and As house music moved into the sound. Frankie Knuckles became the blues produced by the southern mu- early ’90s, after enjoying success in resident DJ for the acclaimed ’Ware- sicians (including artists like Sun Ra), a number of European countries, house Parties,’ bringing a new aes- who made their way to the urban it became clear that this genre of thetic to Chicago nightlife. Between north as part of the Great Migration. music and the culture around it 1979 and 1981 Knuckles became a would never receive the commer- household name, particularly among In 1983, Frankie Knuckles left The cial success it deserved. The scene, Black gay club kids. The book Last Warehouse to the disappointment of a reflection of gay communities at Night a DJ Saved My Life explains the Robert Williams, who then began a large, began to take an unfortunate scene: “In Chicago, as the seventies desperate search for a replacement turn. I like to refer to this period as became the eighties, if you were DJ. He combed the city looking for the fatal pleasure era. Fatal because Black and gay your church may well and listening to DJs until his search the liberating sexual politics that have been Frankie Knuckles’ Ware- ended with Ron Hardy. Ron Hardy shielded the community from prudish house, a three-story factory build- was from the South Side of Chicago, notions of sexuality eventually led ing in the city’s desolate west side which is important to the discus- to the loss of thousands of lives as industrial zone. Offering hope and sion of house because of the ten- many partygoers, producers and DJs salvation to those who had few other sion that grew from Knuckles’ New lost their battle to AIDS. More sad places to go, here you could forget York-based domination of a Chicago was the number of people who went your earthly troubles and escape to a music scene. Ron Hardy was hired from the recreational use of drugs better place. Like church, it promised to preside over ‘The Music Box,’ a to life-threatening addiction. I write freedom, and not even in the next weekly event from the second wave this without judgement and with the life. In this club Frankie Knuckles of house music parties. However utmost understanding of the role that took his congregations on journeys of instead of simply replicating Knuck- drugs played in helping people move redemption and discovery.” les’ sound, Ron Hardy brought his through the depression associated According to longtime students Chicago brand of music to the mix, with being attacked, ostracized and

101 GIRLS LIKE US alienated by family and mainstream Recently I’ve shifted my position on culture as a whole. Drugs also helped the Golden Era of hip-hop, which is to provide a cinematic journey to huge for a DJ: inflexibility is a hidden dancers who wanted to be taken struggle that many of us have, but away from the earthly dance-floor rarely admit to. We pride ourselves and teleported into magical places in knowing exactly what happened free of judgement and oppressive musically and when it happened. I conventional concerns about what decided that I would no longer limit they did or did not do with their the discussion of the Golden Era to bodies. hip-hop music and culture. The truth is, most of the electronic music I Both Ron Hardy and Larry Levan love was being shaped and formed died in 1992 from complications during this particular moment in related to drug use and, in time, and house music simply became Ron Hardy’s case, an additional battle my muse. And while it will take years with AIDS. Ron and Larry are famous to thoroughly examine each city’s for the undeniable mark they left and relationship to house music and the for the way they shaped the culture, important ways that Black queer but what I’m struck by is the number culture hammered the movement of nameless people who made up the into shape, I am happy to discover all ‘scene’ and who will never have the of the secrets of hip-hop’s Golden opportunity to share their stories, Era and house music is one of them. or to solidify their places in this slice Buried beneath the story of hip-hop of human history. AIDS remains a is the story of house and I’d like to topic, which makes it difficult thank Sean ‘Puffy’ Combs for inspir- to access the stories of people who ing me to discover it. are currently living with HIV/AIDS, or people within the scene too trauma- tized to relive the pain of losing hun- dreds of folks to what, at the time, was an unknown and understudied disease seemingly aimed at a very specific and vulnerable group.

DJ Lynnée Denise is a cultural producer and independent scholar who uses DJ culture to create forums of the African Diaspora. Her work is informed and inspired by underground social movements, theories of escape, and afro-. Lynnee is the founder of WildSeed Cultural Group, an organization whose mission is to provide ‘entertainment with a thesis.’ Through an interdisciplinary approach, including podcasts and lectures, she examines the migration of Black cultural products, people and ideas. In 2011, Lynnee began developing the award winning Afro-Digital-Migration project, in which she travels, conducts ongoing research and produces events that celebrate the presence of house music in New York, Chicago, Detroit and South Africa. In 2012 she coined the term ‘DJ Scholarship’ to explain how “diggin’ in the crates” and “sample chasin” are credible forms of academic research.

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