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SPACE-CABIN ATMOSPHERES Part III /Physiological Factors of Inert Gases

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NASA SP-117 SPACE-CABIN ATMOSPHERES Part III /Physiological Factors of Inert Gases A literature review by Emanuel M. Roth_ M.D. Prepared under contract for NASA by Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, New Mexico Scienti[ic and Technical In[ormation Division OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION 1967 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Washington, D.C. For Sale by the Superintendenl of Documents, U.S. Governnlenl Printing Office, Wasllington, D. C. 20402 Price $ 1.00 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 64-61557 Foreword THIS REPORT is Part III of a study on Space-Cabin Atmospheres, conducted under sponsorship of the Directorate, Space Medicine, Office of Manned Space Flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Part I, "Oxygen Toxicity," was published as NASA SP--,47, and Part II, "Fire and Blast Hazards," as NASA SP-48. The final report, Part IV, "Engineering Trade-Offs of One- Versus Two- Gas Systems," will complete the series. This document provides a readily available summary of the open literature in the field. It is intended primarily for biomedical scientists and design engineers. The manuscript was reviewed and evaluated by leaders in the scientific community as well as by the NASA staff. As is generally true among scientists, there was varied opinion about the author's interpretation of the data compiled. There was nonetheless complete satisfaction with the level and scope of scholarly research that went into the preparation of the document. Thus, for scientist and engineer alike it is anticipated that this study will become a basic building block upon which research and development within the space community may proceed. JACK BOLLERUD Brigadier General, USAF, MC Acting Director, Space Medicine Offtce of Manned Space Flight Contents PAGE INTRODUCTION Chapter 1: PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF INERT GASES ......................................... 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE. ....................................................................................... 1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF INERT GASES ......................................................... 1 BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF INERT GASES .................................................... 4 Solubility of Inert Gases in Liquids ................................................................... 4 Diffusion of Inert Gases in Liquids .................................................................... 7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF INERT GASES .......................................................... 8 Chapter 2: ROLE OF INERT GASES IN DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS ............... 11 ANALYSIS OF BUBBLE FORMATION IN DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS .................. 11 Physical Factors Controlling Growth of Bubbles in Biological Systems ..................... 12 Correlation of Bubble and Symptom History ....................................................... 17 Pathological Physiology of Decompression Symptoms ........................................... 18 Role of Gas Bubbles in Symptoms at Specific Body Sites ...................................... 22 Factors Controlling Decay of Bubbles in Biological Systems ................................... 24 Calculation of Gas-Specific Factors Controlling Peak Bubble Size ........................... 30 EMPIRICAL AND OPERATIONAL DATA ON INERT GASES IN DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS ...................................................................................................... 34 Animal Studies of Decompression From High Pressures ....................................... 34 Human Decompression From High Pressures ...................................................... 37 Human Decompression to Altitude From Helium-Oxygen Atmospheres .................... 46 DECOMPRESSION SCHEDULES AND DENITROGENATION PROGRAMS IN THE PRE- VENTION OF DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS ........................................................ 49 Ascent Schedules in Diving ............................................................................. 49 Computer Programs in Diving .......................................................................... 51 Denitrogenation Schedules in Decompression to Altitude ...................................... 54 ANALYSIS OF INERT GASES IN "EXPLOSIVE" DECOMPRESSION AND IN THE EBULL1SM SYNDROME ................................................................................... 72 "Explosive" Decompression ............................................................................. 72 Gas-Dependent Factors in Lung Expansion During "Explosive" Decompression ......... 75 Gas-Dependent Factors in Gas Emboli After Lung Disruption ................................ 76 Ebullism Syndrome ........................................................................................ 77 SUMMARY OF INERT GAS FACTORS IN DECOMPRESSION ................................. 82 Chapter 3: METABOLIC EFFECTS OF INERT GASES ......................................... 85 INERT GAS NARCOSIS ....................................................................................... 86 INERT GASES IN CELLULAR METABOLISM ........................................................ 89 CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO INERT GASES ............................................................. 96 Chapter 4: ENGINEERING IMPLICATIONS OF THE USES OFJlNERT GASES IN SPACE CABINS .................................................................................. 101 THERMAL CONTROL ......................................................................................... 101 VOICE AND SOUND TRANSMISSION ................................................................... 102 LEAK RATES OF GAS ........................................................................................ 104 Chapter 5: ROLE OF INERT GAS PHYSIOLOGY IN SELECTION OF SPACE-CABIN ATMOSPHERES ................................................................................... 115 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 119 iii Introduction What has been is what shall be What has gone on is what shall go on And there is nothing new under the sun. Men may say of something, "Ah, this is new!" But it existed long ago before our time. The men of that old time are now forgotten, As men to come shall be forgotten, By those who follow them. Ecclesiastes 1 : 9-11 THAT THE CHEMICALLY INERT GASES are far from inert physiologically has been known for over a half century. Caisson engineering, submarine technology, and aviation have, in turn, been plagued with this phenomenon. This study of space-cabin atmospheres will consider the problem. The physiology of inert gases in space cabins will be approached from an operational point of view. Chapter 1 reviews the physical chemistry of inert gases as it bears on physiological realities. Subsequent chapters treat reviews of the prime role of inert gases in decompression sickness; general physiology of inert gases in biological systems; engineering aspects of inert gases in space cabins; and those considerations directly related to the selection of space-cabin atmospheres optimally suited for specific space missions. CHAPTER 1 Physical Chemistry of Inert Gases THE INERT GASES available as diluents of oxygen formed with 10 electrons in the valence shell and in space-cabin atmospheres are helium, neon, hybridized sp3d orbitals to form XeFz, with 12 argon, krypton, xenon, radon, and nitrogen. electrons in the valence shell and sp3_ orbitals Radon, a radioactive gas, can be immediately to form XeF4, and with 14 electrons in the va- eliminated as a diluent and is not included in lence shell and sp3d 3 orbitals in XeFn. The the discussion. All except nitrogen are ele- potential for bonding lies in the five 3d unfilled ments of the helium group, or "Group 0," of the orbitals of argon, the five 4d orbitals of krypton, periodic table. The atoms of these elements and the five 5d orbitals of xenon. Because of have stable and "satisfied" electronic valence the high energy required for hybridizing their structures. Unlike the atoms of nitrogen or orbitals, neon and helium atoms appear to have oxygen, the atoms of the helium-group gases do no ionic or covalent bonding potential. It must not combine in the gas phase to form stable be remembered that even the xenon fluoride diatomic molecules. The "aloofness" of these compounds are very unstable. Exposure to essentially monatomic gases has led to the term water vapor of the air immediately results in "noble gases." their conversion to oxide. It would be most An excellent, exhaustive review of inert gases unlikely that noble gas compounds of this type has been recently presented by Cook et a12 °9 could exist in the preaence of biological fluids. Much of the physical data presented in this Nitrogen gas is a diatomic molecule. The study is taken from this source. Emphasis is arrangement of the 10 valence electrons in the placed on those physical and chemical factors molecule probably resonates between the :NiiiN: that directly influence the biochemical and and the :N::N:' states of the molecule, resulting physiological activities of these gases. in a diamagnetic structure with a heat of disso- ciation that is probably greater than that of any ATOMIC STRUCTURE other diatomic molecule. From thermal data, Most of the physical and chemical properties it has been calculated that at 8000 ° -C the gas is of the noble gases are atomic properties; that is, only 40 percent dissociated into atomic nitrogen. properties of the individual atoms. The quan- It appears that only in the nitrogen
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