SLICES: Critical as Praxis and Research-Based Service Learning

Anna C. Smedley-López, University of Nevada Heidi R. Johnson, University of Nevada Arléne Amarante, Immigrants Justice Initiative*

In an era of increasing racial and ethnic diversity, both in the larger U.S. society and in institutions of higher education, using teaching strategies that explicitly address racial justice can be a meaningful way to engage a diverse student. Service Learning Initiative for Community Engagement in Sociology (SLICES) is a research-based program in the Department of Sociology at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas that uses critical as praxis to foster academic and professional development, and civic engagement while paying particular attention racial justice. This paper describes the use of Feminist Standpoint Theory and Information Has Value as theoretical tools for course curriculum development, larger program design, and community involvement.

Keywords: Feminist Standpoint Theory, service learning, participatory action research, racial justice

he University of Nevada, Las bodies, and a smaller, though valuable body of Vegas is home to the second literature on service learning in higher education, most racially and ethnically no scholarship currently speaks to the particular diverse undergraduate intersection of research-based service learning, student body in the U.S. and driven by , that focuses on as such,T addressing issues of equity in higher academic and professional development and education can be both a necessary and social justice-based civic engagement. This meaningful way for faculty members to engage paper describes the use of Feminist Standpoint students in the classroom. In today’s socio- Theory and Information Has Value as theoretical political climate, racial justice focused service tools for course curriculum development, larger learning can be a compelling way to engage program design, and community involvement in students in research activities that not only a collaborative service learning program in the increase understanding about the experiences of Department of Sociology at the University of different racial and ethnic groups, but also Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV): the Service engage them in the work of social change. Learning Initiative for Community Engagement Though there is a large body of literature that in Sociology (SLICES). highlights strategies for serving diverse student

*Acknowledgements: The authors would like to extend our appreciation the two blind reviewers for their thoughtful and comprehensive comments. SLICES’ work would not be possible without the support of our UNLV campus partners. We would like to thank the Office of Student Engagement and Diversity, the Office of Undergraduate Research, University Libraries Social Sciences Librarian, Heidi Johnson, and the Office of Career Services. We would also like to thank Sociologists for Women in Society for their generous support from the Social Action Grant and the Nevada System of Higher Education Regents Service Award program funding support for SLICES staffing positions. And the first author would like to thank José Luis Meléndrez, M.S.W., Executive Director of Community Partnerships, UNLV School of Community Health, for modeling commitment to community engagement and mentorship. Page 177 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS

Community-based Learning and Research Similarly, Smith Budhai (2013) found that for community partners, service learning did benefit Service learning is the practice of aligning their organizations, had inherent though civic engagement to course learning objectives amendable difficulties, and strengthened the while including a reflection component (Jacoby relationship between the university and the 1996) and has a modest, yet persistent tradition community. In contrast, Becker and Paul (2015) in the academy. Its roots can be found in found that after completing service learning, over community-based learning (CBL) traced back to half of the students they assessed employed the early 1900s work of educational theorist John color-blind racism rhetoric practices. Dewey (1938). Dewey suggested that education Community Based Participatory Research should meet real life settings and advocated for (CBPR) subscribes to a methodology that experiential learning and an applied cumulative situates community members as experts of their approach that moved beyond the classroom own experiences and needs, and as contributors setting. Though introduced by Dewey in the to the creation of knowledge. CBPR works to 1930s, CBL was not immediately embraced by include community stakeholders in all stages of the academy until its increased popularity in the the research and is often used as a strategy for 1960s with the introduction of service programs identifying or designing culturally sensitive like VISTA and the Peace Corps. Following a interventions and subscribes to the following decline in CBL in the 1970s connected to a eight key principles (Israel et al. 1998): decrease in student activism, CBL reemerged in the 1980s and 1990s with national commitment • Recognizes community as a unit of to community experiential learning both among identity institutions of higher education and the U.S. • Builds on strengths and resources within government that remained strong into the 2000s the community as institutions of higher education sought • Facilitates collaborative partnerships in strategies for meeting the increasing demands of all phases of the research a global economy (Mooney and Edwards 2001). • Integrates knowledge and action for Contemporary examples of CBL can be mutual benefit of all partners found frequently in disciplines like • Promotes co-learning and an empowering and community health sciences, though, as a process that attends to social inequalities teaching strategy, less often discussed in • Involves a cyclical and iterative process sociological scholarship. For example, while • Addresses health from both a positive and reviewing the sociological teaching and learning ecological perspective literature during the program and course design • Disseminates findings and knowledge process using the keyword search “service gained to all partners learning,” the program designer found a mere seven articles published in the last decade by Similar to service learning, CBPR is most Teaching Sociology, the discipline’s national frequently found in community-focused peer reviewed teaching journal. In addition to disciplines such as social work and community being less than robust, the current sociological health sciences. The literature on community- literature on service learning suggests that based participatory research as service learning student and community outcomes are mixed. For in sociology is even more limited than the example, Huisman (2010) found that when using literature on traditional service learning. service learning in her Women and Migration However, the limited research has found positive class, student understanding of both the content benefits of CBPR as service learning. For area and the sociological lens increased. example, Lewis (2004) found that applying a HJSR ISSUE 39 Page 178

CBPR model rendered positive outcomes for model of service learning exposes students to a student learning, though the author also cautions research methodology that focuses on engaging that it is difficult for social change to occur over community members in all stages of the research the course of just one semester. Limitations in the project, CBPAR. SLICES includes the “A” for CBPR as service learning literature are not “Action” in the model as a way to encourage surprising, given the difficulty of doing course- students to also engage in the work of social based research with a community partner within change, rather than just studying social change. the context of one semester. In this regard, the SLICES model falls under the This paper contributes to the small body of umbrella of ‘critical service learning’ because of literature on course-based research as service its explicit focus on social justice (Mitchell learning in the following ways. First, this paper 2008). serves as an example of a unique program that The mission of SLICES is to use sociology to uses course-based research projects as service foster academic development, career and learning. Second, the paper discusses course and professional development, and civic program design that is explicitly theoretically engagement. The program’s vision is to increase grounded. Third, it offers examples of a UNLV student engagement in critical, research- community partner project, the various learning focused education by connecting sociological activities that the students engage in, and the inquiry to the Las Vegas Community. SLICES benefits for the community partner and the focuses on four goals: to connect classroom student researchers. And fourth, the paper learning to the larger social environment, to highlights the SLICES partnership with UNLV increase critical thinking, to increase research University Libraries as part of the course skills, and to foster life-long community curriculum and support for the service learning engagement to foster a social change model of projects. leadership. Accordingly, SLICES relies on three The following discussion details the SLICES key assumptions: that education can and should program, introduces the work of the community be intimately tied to social justice and the work partner, Immigrant Justice Initiative (IJI), offers of social change, that ALL students can make an overview of the student project for IJI, and important contributions to the learning space and discusses the library research literacy portion of to learning activities, and that the engaged the curriculum. student is a successful student. SLICES developed as an outgrowth of Serving Learning Initiative for Community service learning projects for an Ethnic Groups Engagement in Sociology (SLICES) course for the Department of Sociology at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. As the CBPAR SLICES is a community-based research projects began to draw long-term commitment initiative that partners UNLV undergraduate from the students in the course, several students with Las Vegas organizations and infrastructural components emerged. First, initiatives in support of racial/ethnic/immigration alumni of the course received leadership training education and equity. SLICES students work and returned as peer facilitators to be project closely with our local partners to complete CBPR managers for the incoming CBPAR projects. projects that align directly with their course Second, a leadership team developed that now learning objectives. While completing their consists of peer facilitators and other alumni who CBPR projects, students gain professional skills, advise the instructor/SLICES program increase their understanding of culturally coordinator on possible community partnerships, competent research, and learn the importance of how to better support student engagement and working with the community. The SLICES development, and how SLICES can grow to Page 179 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS

better serve UNLV’s diverse student body. and social forces, but that these same inequalities Third, SLICES students and alumni have can also be changed by social actors and social developed a registered student organization for forces. the program so that UNLV students who are not enrolled in the Ethnic Groups course can engage Theoretical Foundations in the work of service learning and social justice. Feminist Standpoint Theory is central to Theoretically Driven Curriculum and SLICES programming. Feminist Standpoint Program Design Theory relies on the assumptions that social inequalities are salient factors in the lives of SLICES’ work relies heavily on critical marginalized groups, and the marginalized are theory. In contrast to traditional social theory, best equipped to describe their lived experiences which focuses solely on explaining the social (Smith 1974; Hill Collins 2004; Hartsock 2004). world, critical theory focuses on both the critique In her critique of the male-centered nature of of and the change of society. In other words, for sociology, Feminist Standpoint Theorist Dorothy a theory to be critical, it must identify the social Smith (1974) argued “…it is not enough to supplement an established sociology by addressing ourselves to what has been left out, overlooked, or by making sociological issues of the relevances of the world of women. That merely extends the authority of the existing sociological procedures and makes of a women’s sociology an addendum” (P. 8). In other words, we cannot just add the study of women to a sociology designed for and by men. Rather, Feminist inequality and the responsible actors, it must Standpoint Theory suggests that women do articulate feasible solutions for addressing social indeed have a unique perspective on their lives, disparities, and it must adhere to the norms of and a feminist sociology must begin with those criticism established by the field (Horkheimer perspectives. Similarly, , in 1993). What may make critical theory so Black Feminist Thought (2000), notes that ideas appealing to social justice scholars, activists, and produced by black women are necessary to educators, is its departure from the notion of a understanding the unique social position held by neutral social world, and therefore neutral social black women. And that indeed sociology should science theory. Instead, critical theory relies consider black women the knowers of their own heavily on the assumption that not only do social lives, and research must treat them as such. inequalities indeed exist because of social actors HJSR ISSUE 39 Page 180

SLICES and Critical Theories research projects that have the potential for real life effects on Las Vegas community groups, of Drawing on Feminist Standpoint Theory in which many of the students are members. An the SLICES course curriculum focuses on intentional outcome of the CBPAR projects is centering the voices of the communities that the that students include community members as class is learning about in several ways. First, it both owners and creators of knowledge and learn relies heavily on the work of critical scholars of about the value of sharing the intellectual product color and immigrant scholars for course readings. of research with communities. While readings do include sociological texts A third way that SLICES employs critical from native-born white scholars, the course theory as praxis is in its peer mentorship model readings primarily come from academic and non- of leadership. Students who previously enrolled academic people of color in the form of peer- in the Ethnic Groups course and completed the reviewed articles, blogs, poetry, and essays. For CBPAR project have an opportunity to return as example, the class reads “Acculturation, Income peer facilitators and project managers to the next and Vegetable Consumption Behaviors Among group of student researchers. Similar to the Latino Adults in the U.S.: A Mediation Analysis multi-level team approach used in the with the Bootstrapping Technique” by Erick B Department of Sociology at Brandeis University López, M.A., and Takashi Yamashita, Ph.D. that includes graduate students as mentors in an (2015), both scholars of color, one first undergraduate methods course described by generation immigrant and one second generation Shostak et al. (2010), SLICES incorporates immigrant. This reading facilitates learning three student mentors who are familiar with the topics: various methods for the study of race and research and with the focus of the different ethnicity; the intersection of race/ethnicity, projects. However, what makes SLICES income, and health disparities; and a discussion different is its application of Feminist Standpoint of assimilation. Examples of informal works read Theory in identifying and cultivating peer are: “What it Means to Become ‘BiRachel’” from facilitators. By default, the course draws a very the Huffington Post by Aaron B. Wilkinson diverse student group each semester because of (2015), who is a biracial scholar whose work the nature of the course content and the racially focuses on mixed race issues. And when and ethnically diverse undergraduate student discussing assimilation, the class reads “Latina body. But SLICES is also intentionally inclusive 2016” by Ana Maria Menda, Ph.D., a piece of in its design and outreach. For example, UNLV poetry about the effects of assimilation on Latina is home to a large immigrant population, body image. including undocumented and Deferred Action for A second way that SLICES applies critical Childhood Arrivals (DACA) students. As theory as praxis is by engaging the class in a immigrant justice is an on-going focus of semester long CBPAR service learning project. SLICES’ collaboration with community partners, The CBPAR projects serve several key purposes. SLICES includes in its outreach regular It works to center the voices of the communities participation in campus events and initiatives that the class is learning about by immersing the pertaining to immigration. And because SLICES students in collaborative community-driven is not federally funded, it can provide a research research projects. The course offers critique of experience and potential leadership opportunities how and why scholars study communities of to undocumented students who are excluded color by evaluating the methodologies behind from the many Department of Education different race and ethnicity focused studies. The supported programs. In addition to building course increases research literacy skills in leadership skills, increasing research literacy, meaningful ways by tying learning outcomes to and fostering professional development, the Page 181 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS

SLICES peer mentorship model intentionally Nowhere is the need greater, however, than in situates SLICES’ racially and ethnically diverse the realm of asylum. Beginning in 2014, the student leaders as knowers of the learning United States experienced a surge in the number content and activities about racial and ethnic of Central Americans who fled unspeakable groups in the U.S. violence and entered the U.S. in search of SLICES relies on a heavily collaborative protection (Brodzinsky and Pilkington 2015), service learning model, working closely with yet, at the same time, the Obama Administration several community partners each year to design prioritized the removal of all immigrants who and complete the CBPAR projects. However, entered the United States without documentation this type of high impact learning experience also after January 1, 2014 (Johnson 2016). This requires the support of several key campus means that rather than finding sanctuary, asylum- partners. To maximize student success, SLICES seekers find themselves immersed in a complex also works closely with the Office of Student foreign legal system. Prioritizing the removal of Engagement and Diversity’s service learning those who entered after 2014 means that those staff, the Office of Undergraduate Research, the asylum-seekers must prepare and present their Writing Center, Career Services, and University cases much sooner than those who entered prior Libraries’ Social Sciences Librarian. The to 2014. following discussion highlights the partnership For many asylum-seekers, the ability to prove with the community partner, Immigrant Justice their case can be a matter of life and death Initiative, and the library research literacy (Brodzinsky and Pilkington 2015) and those support provided by University Libraries. unable to retain an attorney are less likely to win their claim.[3] But even with an attorney, the Community Partnerships: Immigrant Justice likelihood of success in Nevada is dismal. For Initiative instance, in the Las Vegas Immigration Court, only 3 percent of asylum cases were granted The IJI is a 501(c)(3) public charity formed in during the 2015 Fiscal Year (EOIR 2016), down Las Vegas to help guide immigrants and their from 7 percent the year prior. families through the complexities of the Asylum-seekers are expected to present immigration system. There are approximately evidence that if they are forced to return to their 210,000 undocumented immigrants living in countries of origin they would be harmed Nevada, representing 7.2 percent of all Nevadans because of their race, , nationality, (Chen 2016). This means that Nevada has the political opinion, or “membership in a particular largest per capita share of undocumented social group” (8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(42)(A) immigrants in the country, and while almost C.F.R.). That is to say that not only must they seven percent of children in public schools prove a harm, but also prove that it would occur nationwide have at least one undocumented because of one of the recognized reasons. This parent, that number is almost 18 percent in means that a critical part of preparing a case is Nevada (Pew Research Center 2014). Despite helping the adjudicator see the connection these numbers, there is a shocking lack of between the harm and the reason the harm was services for Nevada’s undocumented population. inflicted. This harm must somehow be unique to The shortage of low-cost, quality legal services a group of people in the country left behind. has led to disastrous consequences as many Therefore, to properly draw the connections, the immigrants are forced to consult unscrupulous adjudicator must also be provided with societal and incompetent Notarios or document preparers context, commonly referred to as country (Lapan 2012). conditions evidence. This is where the sociology students have been instrumental in gathering HJSR ISSUE 39 Page 182 evidence on behalf of asylum-seekers. The most was a behavior and not an innate characteristic. common ground for protection being invoked by But the judge in that case, and later the BIA, held Central American asylum-seekers is membership that sexuality is immutable, and therefore in a particular social group. This category allowed for the creation of a particular social requires self-awareness such that a legally- group on the basis of sexuality. The Ninth Circuit recognized grouping can be articulated. For the has defended this position, stating that “sexual students, it is critical that they understand what orientation and sexual identity are immutable; constitutes membership in a particular social they are so fundamental to one's identity that a group before they begin to gather evidence to person should not be required to abandon them.” support any claims. Hernandez-Montiel v. INS, 225 F.3d 1084,1093 There are three necessary components for (9th Cir. 2000). recognition of a particular social group: 1) the Next, we turn to the second component of group must share a common immutable particularity, which requires that the group “be characteristic, 2) the group must be defined with recognized, in the society in question, as a particularity, and 3) the group must be socially discrete class of persons.” In re S-E-G-, 24 I&N distinct within the society in question. In re M-E- Dec. 579, 584 (BIA 2008). Consider the V-G-, 26 I&N Dec. 227 (BIA. 2014). We will language of the applicant’s proposed particular only briefly examine each of these requirements social group in that case: “Salvadoran youth who here. The common immutable characteristic is have been subjected to recruitment efforts by set out in Matter of Acosta, where the Board of MS-13 and who have rejected or resisted Immigration Appeals (BIA) stated that a membership in the gang based on their own particular social group is comprised of personal, moral, and religious opposition to the gang’s values and activities.” Id at 581. This a group of persons all of whom share a careful wording was rejected as a particular common, immutable characteristic. The social group because the proposed members shared characteristic might be an innate one could “make up a potentially large and diffuse such as sex, color, or kinship ties, or in some segment of society,” and there was no indication circumstances it might be a shared past purported members were targeted as a result of experience... must be one that the members of their membership in this group. Id at 585. the group either cannot change, or should not Significantly, the purpose of the particularity be required to change because it is requirement is delineation, or to draw the “outer fundamental to their individual identities or limits,” of the proposed group. In re W-G-R-,26 consciences. In re Acosta, 19 IN Dec. 211, I&N Dec. 208 (BIA 2014). In drawing out the 233 (BIA 1985). parameters of a proposed group, it is not enough that we can marshal people into proposed groups, To illustrate how this is interpreted, let us look for clearly, someone will be able to identify as a at how the BIA dealt with the issue of sexuality. Salvadoran youth who resisted gang membership In Matter of Toboso-Alfonso, the BIA decided because of their own personal, moral, or religious that sexual orientation is the kind of opposition to the gang. But the significance of the characteristic that one cannot change. While the particular social group is that it is grounded in its attorney representing the government in that case own societal framework, such that “[t]he didn’t argue that the immigration judge erred in boundaries of a group are not sufficiently finding that homosexuality was an “immutable” definable unless the members of society characteristic, they did to categorizing generally agree on who is included in the group.” “socially deviant behavior” as a particular social Id at 221. Particularity, as such, was introduced group. They seemed to be arguing that sexuality in Matter of A-M-E- & J-G-U- where the BIA Page 183 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS

rejected “wealthy Guatemalans” as a recognized 388 (BIA 2014). The board determined that group because wealth was considered “too , nationality, and inability to leave a amorphous to provide an adequate benchmark marriage were all immutable characteristics for determining group membership.” In re Matter because the characteristics could not be changed. of A-M-E- & J-G-U-, I&N Dec. 69, 74 (BIA The group became particular because it created a 2007). Members of a society may disagree about clear benchmark for membership including who is wealthy and who is not as well as about women who were married and unable to leave who has resisted gang membership and why. their relationships and it became distinct because What we learn from these cases is that the country conditions evidence demonstrated that benchmark for membership must be clear and it Guatemala has a of “machismo and must be based in the context of the society in family violence” which recognized the existence question. An individual’s family, for instance, of women so situated. “remains the quintessential particular social A full analysis of the intricacies of group.” Rios v. Lynch, 807 F.3d 1123, 1128 (9th designating particular social groups cannot be Cir. 2015). addressed here. Further, it is important to note Finally, the requirement of social distinction that these examples are specific to the Ninth proposes that “to be socially distinct, a group Circuit. For our purposes, we should recognize need not be seen by society; rather, it must be that we have established a standard for protection perceived as a group by society.” Matter of C-A- that requires self-awareness, social awareness, , 23 I&N Dec. at 956-57. Similar to the and awareness of legal precedent in the United requirement of particularity, social distinction States. Refugees must situate themselves in the requires an examination of the societal context conflict they are fleeing from to make sense of which would support the finding that a group is their identity as well as how their individual distinct by virtue of being perceived as a group plight relates to the society from which they are by their society. The Ninth Circuit has found that fleeing. Never mind grappling with the legal the particular social group of “young men in El intricacies of an unfamiliar nation, the level of Salvador resisting gang violence” was not awareness required to effectively demonstrate socially visible because they questioned whether membership in a particular social group, and a person could be perceived as being a gang therefore worthy of relief under our asylum laws, resistor. Santos–Lemus v. Mukasey, 542 F.3d is astounding. 738, 745–46 (9th Cir.2008). The logic is that if Self-awareness as a requirement for a society cannot readily identify those who resist favorable finding is not limited to membership in gangs then they are not part of a group as a particular social group, but extends also to perceived by society. On the other hand, consider claims based on political opinion. Articulating a the visibility of the particular social group political opinion in the context of gang violence “former members of the national police of El may not naturally occur to Central American Salvador”, which was successful (Parish refugees (Anker and Lawrence 2014). In this 1992:936). context, a refugee must first conceptualize that A recent case from a Central American the gangs are operating as de facto governments asylum-seeker provides all of the required and then conclude that their opposition to the elements for a particular social group. In Matter gangs is therefore political (Anker and Lawrence of A-R-C-G-, a Guatemalan woman who had 2014). Novel formulations of particular social been the victim of domestic violence proposed groups and political opinions are being the particular social group of “married women in challenged and proposed around the country in Guatemala who are unable to leave their hopes that the categorizations will be validated as relationship.” Matter of A-R-C-G-, 26 I&N Dec. worthy of protection (Zedginidze 2016), but it is HJSR ISSUE 39 Page 184

unreasonable to expect refugees to have this asylum-seekers from El Salvador, Guatemala, perspective. and Honduras. The evidence mostly corroborates A successful immigration case requires particular social groups pertaining to gang extensive supporting documentation that most violence and domestic violence. refugees either do not have access to or do not Because asylum grant-rates in Las Vegas are know about. For instance, it is suggested that so low, even with representation, our current strategy is to prepare applicants for a possible Evidence such as country conditions reports, loss while identifying the most viable cases to expert witness testimony, and press accounts represent. Each case will nevertheless contain of discriminatory laws and policies, historical appropriate documentation to not only establish animosities, and the like may establish that a the existence of a particular social group but also group exists and is perceived as “distinct” or to demonstrate how that group is targeted for “other” in a particular society. In re M-E-V- persecution in their society. In this way, the G-, 26 I&N Dec. 227, 244 (BIA 2014). students are learning to situate themselves in the sociopolitical context of some of the most If asylum-seekers focus on their personal vulnerable members of our society and also tragedies and ignore mention of the societal learning to formulate legal means by which to context which allowed those tragedies to take offer them protection. Naturally, each case is form, their cases have already been different, and only a few will ultimately be defeated. Even assuming that the relevant successful, but allowing the students a space to country conditions evidence can be found in an question the merits of different claims by asylum-seeker’s native tongue, the court will examining their respective country conditions only accept documents submitted in English. and our country’s laws is a very real way of This is where we should begin to question what learning through service to understand the unique kinds of information asylum-seekers have access positioning of refugees under our asylum laws. to by virtue of their own limitations (language, access to the internet or a library, education Projects that Matter: Community Based levels, etc.) or by virtue of systemic limitations, Research such as pay walls. Each of these limitations should be addressed if we are to better situate IJI is one of SLICES’ original community asylum-seekers to succeed in their claims. partners. IJI’s work is especially compelling and To help asylum-seekers overcome their meaningful to SLICES students for two reasons. personal limitations, the Immigrant Justice First, UNLV is home to a large immigrant Initiative has been employing the help of population. SLICES students, as a whole, tend to carefully trained sociology students who have an place a high importance on learning about understanding of what it means to belong to a immigration, and the effects of U.S. immigration particular social group. With their assistance, policy and practice on their community each asylum-seeker is provided with country members. Second, the low rates of asylum conditions evidence that pertains to their claim so verdicts in the local immigration court signals to they can more clearly situate themselves within students an institutional failure that is both the context of their societies. Asylum-seekers egregious and requires immediate attention. The must understand how the court will analyze their IJI project garners much excitement from individual claims if they are to understand what SLICES students semester after semester, and information will be relevant in the adjudication they become very engaged in supporting IJI’s of their claims. The students have put together a advocacy work. collection of country conditions evidence for Page 185 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS

SLICES’ work for IJI has focused on three country conditions are also summarized for IJI key areas. As an entry point to the project, the and delivered indicating which sources are open students complete a systematic literature review sources and which sources are subscription that highlights various explanations for based. In addition to the literature review and disparities in asylum verdicts across immigration data collection activities, as a third and equally court systems. The literature review serves two important piece of the CBPAR project, students purposes. As a learning tool, the literature review provide programming support for the IJI client engages SLICES students in growing their workshops, allowing them to engage with the library research skills and better understanding community they were learning about while doing what previous researchers have found on the the immigrant justice work. topic of asylum. The literature review is delivered to IJI in narrative and annotated Campus Partnerships that Matter bibliography format that identifies which sources are open sources and which sources are Ethnic Groups in Contemporary Societies is a subscription based. As a resource for IJI, the 200-level multicultural elective that draws literature review serves as summary of scholarly students with an interest in race and ethnicity, but evidence that supports their ongoing that come with varying levels of research representation of asylum clients. Next, the literacy. SLICES uses the course as an students gather textual data as evidence of opportunity to increase research skills by country conditions for Guatemala, El Salvador, partnering with various research related campus and Honduras. The data consists of peer- resources. University Libraries Social Science reviewed scholarship, research reports, and Librarian is one of those important resources. mainstream news stories. As a learning activity, Once the students have been assigned to their the data collection process helps familiarize community partner of choice, they begin the first SLICES students with sampling strategies and stage of the research process, the literature data collection methods. SLICES students learn review. While in this phase of their research, about the difference between probability SLICES students participate in two library sampling and non-probability sampling workshops, one on - to help them strategies, when each may be appropriate, and the prepare for their course reading summaries and strengths and limitations of the different the CBPAR annotated bibliography - and one on strategies. For example, while completing the IJI information underprivilege and Open Access. project, the students identify and make Working closely with the Social Sciences arguments why non-probability was a relevant Librarian during the workshops and throughout and realistic sampling strategy for their project. the projects is important for SLICES students Once they identify their sampling strategy, because they gain valuable library research and students then develop a data collection plan that critical reading skills and begin to develop an begins with an initial wave of textual data understanding of the importance of information collection using a key word search strategy. privilege. Following wave one, the students then collect a Highlighted in the library workshops and the second and third wave of textual data by applying literature review process is how easily accessible a snowball sampling strategy and allowing each information, especially empirical evidence, is to article to serve as a reference point for other the student researchers and in contrast, the relevant articles. Once completed, the textual barriers that many community members may data is used as a resource for IJI in support of face in gaining access to similar information. The their individual client cases, and in their ongoing information gap can be especially problematic education workshops. The textual data on for IJI clients, as they are relying on textual HJSR ISSUE 39 Page 186 evidence to support their case for asylum in the • Bounded—may help define the boundaries of U.S. rather than being deported back to their a particular discipline, are perhaps unique to country of origin, where they often face life the discipline; threatening violence. While IJI clients • Troublesome—usually difficult or technically can access the same peer reviewed counterintuitive ideas that can cause students sources that SLICES summarizes for them by to hit a roadblock in their learning. (P. 387- using the community computers in the library on 388) the UNLV campus, for many there are obstacles that may include: language barriers, a need for Two of the theoretical concepts that served as childcare, transportation limitations, and limited the basis of SLICES library instruction were knowledge of how to read and use research Information Has Value and Authority is articles. Constructed and Contextual. The other theories important in the library instruction literature Theory-Driven Library Instruction and include the critical of and CBPAR critical information literacy. These concepts and theories are explained below, along with their There are several theoretical foundations and applications in the classroom for SLICES concepts that serve as the basis of the library students. workshops, and all of these theoretical is an important approach in foundations contribute to student success and library instruction, as it empowers students to retention for this diverse group of students. think for themselves and encourages Library instruction in general has become more collaborative spaces and dialogue among focused on social justice issues in recent years, students. Thus librarians attempt to create spaces and this is reflected in the types of critical in the classroom for self-directed learning, even theoretical foundations and concepts that have in so-called “one-shots” (one time library become more popular as well as the recent workshops), as opposed to the “point-and-click” adoption of the Framework for Information demos that have historically been the norm for Literacy for Higher Education (the Framework), library instruction. Critical pedagogy, at least a guiding document recently adopted by the according to Freire, is opposed to the “banking” Association of College and Research Libraries, model of education, where knowledge is the premiere professional organization for “deposited” in students’ minds, and instead academic librarianship. The foundation of this proposes a problem-based approach where document is the idea of “threshold concepts,” teachers learn along with the students (Freire that is, concepts that meet the following five 1970). Critical pedagogy also shaped and criteria, quoted from Hofer, Townsend, and informed the Social Sciences Librarians’ lesson Brunetti (2012): plans in the case of the SLICES workshops, as they employed think-pair-share methods and • Transformative—cause the learner to small group discussions as the format for experience a shift in perspective; learning, engaging students on a deeper level and • Integrative—bring together separate allowing for self-directed learning. concepts (often identified as learning Authority is Constructed and Contextual objectives or competencies) into a unified formed the basis for the critical reading whole; workshop. Students read a text by Indo-Pakistani • Irreversible—once grasped, cannot be un- theorist Jenny Sharpe: “Is the United States grasped; Postcolonial?: Transnationalism, Immigration, and Race” about the United States’ Page 187 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS

heterogeneous history of slavery, racism, and the Information possesses several dimensions of conquest of land from Mexico. The text was value, including as a commodity, as a means chosen for a number of reasons, including its of education, as a means to influence, and as a relevance to the ethnic groups that the students means of negotiating and understanding the work with as well as the fact of its authorship by world. Legal and socioeconomic interests a theorist belonging to a group about which she influence information production and writes. Students had the opportunity to consider dissemination (Association of College and Sharpe’s arguments about the heterogeneous Research Libraries 2015:6). nature of the history and population of the United States as compared to Great Britain. Students For this frame, the Social Sciences Librarian also had the opportunity to engage in discussion created a lesson about information privilege and about how the reading applies to them. The Open Access, asking students to consider their reading was self-directed with opportunities for information privilege, which is precarious in critical reflection, and this points to critical nature since their status as students affiliated with pedagogical practices as well as the Feminist the University is most often temporary. Through Standpoint Theory that serves as the foundation the case studies, students considered the for the entire course. Students had the perspectives of a chair of a department, an editor opportunity to consider how a member of a of a major journal, a tenure-track professor, a marginalized (immigrant) community could also student, and a community partner who could occupy a place of privilege in academia and benefit from access to information behind traditional scholarly publishing. The full frame of paywalls for their own health, safety, and Authority is Constructed and Contextual reads: wellbeing, as in the case of the clients of IJI. Through this exercise, students came to an Information resources reflect their creators’ understanding of what information privilege is, expertise and credibility, and are evaluated and the injustice that it causes, as well as ways based on the information need and the context that they can become involved in the Open in which the information will be used. Access movement. They came to see information Authority is constructed in that various as a commodity but also as a tool that has the communities may recognize different types of potential to change lives. They came to authority. It is contextual in that the understand the reasons for paywalls, namely how information need may help to determine the the traditional publishing system operates, apart level of authority required (Association of from considerations about the injustices cause by College and Research Libraries 2015:4). this traditional publishing model. Students were asked to represent the different The critical reading workshop incorporated perspectives by arguing for them in front of their this frame as students were asked why it is peers. Thus students could empathize with a important that they read authors who belong to number of perspectives and understand the issue the groups about which they write. This led us to from all sides, in a complex, nuanced manner. a conversation about credibility and authority Both lessons reflected the goals and aims of when it comes to scholarship about ethnic critical pedagogy; the lesson on Information Has groups, as a way to integrate Feminist Standpoint Value was centered around the problem of Theory into the library workshop discussion. information privilege and paywalls, and students The second frame used was Information Has were asked to problem solve through dialogue Value, the full frame is as follows: with one another, a form of problem-based learning. Similarly, during the critical reading workshop, students were asked to interrogate HJSR ISSUE 39 Page 188

their community partners’ situations from the that the program is in its early years. While the perspective that Jenny Sharpe represents, and program has received both institutional funding were asked how the text applies today, if it is and outside funding, the time required to do more or less true today, since it was written 21 programming and student mentorship leaves years ago. This again was a model of critical little time for grant writing as well as scholarship. pedagogy in that students were empowered to ask And finally, as much as the community partners questions and solve problems for themselves, rely on SLICES to produce the literature review, using their unique perspectives as group to engage in data collection, and to support their members working with particular community events and overall initiatives, SLICES students partner organizations that represent particular rely on community partners to also remain ethnic groups. engaged. On occasion, organizational changes Library instruction was important to the and personal lives leave community partners students for a number of reasons, in empowering distant from the student groups. them to speak up in the classroom and develop a Because of its comprehensive nature, the . Critical pedagogy, SLICES program is ripe for research. In addition Feminist Standpoint Theory, and critical to course learning activity assessments, SLICES information literacy were all applied in the students could be assessed for their increased library workshops, and as a result, students knowledge of and comfort with research. learned in ways that will contribute to their Similarly, program assessment could include retention and progression, and they were increased knowledge of critical theory and empowered to take charge of their own learning. application of the sociological lens. As the program serves a very diverse group of students, Limitations and Future Research exploring how they evolve and experience their own empowerment while serving others would In spite of SLICES’ success, the program is also make for valuable research. And finally, as not without limitations. As mentioned earlier, SLICES is in its third year, it would benefit from completing community based research projects a comprehensive program evaluation. These in the course of one semester is difficult. The recommendations for research related to the program serves students with entry-level SLICES program may also serve as suggested research skills and must provide basic training so research for programs similar in nature. that they can complete the CBPAR project in a very compressed period of time. Because of this, Conclusion SLICES has, to date, contributed in smaller ways to the missions of the community partners. In the This paper discusses the use of critical same vein, SLICES serves as an introduction to theories as praxis across three disciplines in research skills and cannot offer intensive collaborative work for a critical research-based research training to each new cohort. There is one service-learning program, SLICES. The exception to this limitation, however. SLICES application of Feminist Standpoint Theory and has roughly a fifty percent retention rate. Information Has Value allows SLICES to Meaning, about half of a given cohort remains in address issues of racial justice with a diverse the program as peer facilitator, RSO members, or undergraduate student group in ways that are advisory committee members. Of those students, meaningful not only to the students’ lived many remain in close contact with the SLICES experiences, but also relevant to today’s socio- program coordinator and receive on-going political climate. This paper provides examples research mentorship. Another limitation of the of how critical theories are applied to curriculum program is its time intensity, especially given design, program design, and community Page 189 CRITICAL THEORIES AS PRAXIS involvement. SLICES has used critical research- Arléne Amarante, Esq. is the Executive Director based service learning to build a program that of the Immigrant Justice Initiative. As an focuses on academic development, professional attorney, she primarily represents asylum development, and civic engagement while applicants and has spent her entire professional attending to important issues of racial justice. career focused on immigrant rights. Ms. There is no better time than the present to do Amarante is currently pursuing a Masters in explicit racial justice work in the classrooms of Social Justice and Community Action at the higher education, to augment research literacy in University of Edinburgh and is a long-time increasingly diverse undergraduate student community partner of Service Learning Initiative bodies, and to use the skills of the academy to for Community Engagement in Sociology help meet the needs of the community. (SLICES). ______

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