Layered Structure and Market Function of the 15Th Century Flanders Grain Circulation

Kobe University Economic Review 55 (2009) 9

MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION

By TAKASHI OKUNISHI

In Flanders long-distance grain trade was very developed and uniﬁ cation of the grain market also progressed in the 15th century. A multilayered structure of grain circulation enabled such a situation. The supply of grain was carried out in a multilayered form in Flanders; grain came mainly from surrounding areas of the city, a speciﬁ ed grain production area in Flanders, north France, and the Baltic area. This multilayered structure brought stability in the circulation. Privileged institutions and regulations on grain circulation had developed in close relation with this multilayered circulation structure. In this way, grain supply in Flanders kept its stability in sensitive balance among many elements.1)

1. Introduction

Grain Circulation in 15th Century Flanders is one of the best cases for examining the first step toward a market economy in Europe and many historians have studied the grain circulation of Flanders over the last 100 years, though it is comparatively a miner subject in the economic history of Flanders. G.Bigwood wrote an important article on this subject in 1906. He described the various activities and regulations related to the grain circulation of Flanders, quoting such documents as the City Charters. Based on the concept of development from medieval regulated trade to modern free trade, his study stressed the compellable character of the Grain Staple of Ghent. His arguments were accepted widely.2) After his work scholars came to be interested in grain trade itself. Grain imports from other countries, especially, from the Baltic Area and Northern France, were regarded as an important element strongly characterizing Flanders economy in the late Middle Ages. In the 1950’s and 1960’s study of Belgian agricultural history made progress and several important works on Baltic trade such as Lesnikov’s estimate of grain transport cost in 1957/58 were published.3) As a consequence, a gradual shift in grain supply from Northern France to the Baltic Area in the 15th century has become an assumption. In 1975 M.-J.Tits-Dieuaide expressed an adventurous opinion concerning this subject in her book.4) She compared movements in annual average grain price with those in yield-ratio and examined prices in periods during which there was interdiction of exports. According to these analyses her argument is that Baltic grain already had a leading position in Flanders grain circulation at the beginning of the 15th century. She also declared the progress of uniﬁ cation of price ﬂ uctuations across cities in Flanders and Brabant, through a comparison of their average annual grain prices.

1) This article is a summary of the author’s doctorate thesis in economics at Kobe University in 1998 with supplemental research. 2) G.Bigwood (1906) 3) M.P.Lesnikov (1957/58) 4) M.-J.Tits-Dieuaide (1975) 10 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

As for institutional change, she denied the presence of strict medieval regulations and emphasized the idea of a relatively free trade policy in the Southern Low Countries, with the exception of Ghent.5) Her study was based on an analysis of extensive price data, and her opinion was largely accepted at that time. But price and yield-ratio data from the 15th century are qualitatively and quantitatively inadequate, as I will show later, and her estimation of the importance of Baltic grain came to be strongly criticized. Northern France agricultural historians, particularly, G.Sivery, H.Neveux and A.Derville, who also made analyses of price, each insisted that Northern France kept a prominent position in the grain supply to low countries in the 15th century.6) But they may also overestimate the importance of Northern France. Several studies by E.Thoen declare that the domestic production of grain must not be underestimated.7) Several works by R.Van Uytven and W.Blockmans in the 1970’s and 1980’s are also important. Van Uytven remarked that the difﬁ culty of the grain supply from domestic areas and Northern France made the economic and social conditions of the Southern Low Countries worse in the 15th century, and that grain imports from the Baltic area became important only at the end of the 15th century.8) W.Blockmans described the distinctive features of the economic policy of Flanders including the regulation of grain circulation.9) As a consequence of the accumulation of research literature, Flanders grain circulation has been discussed in relation to other topics in the 1990’s, though there are few works that are mainly concerned with it. In a series of studies concerned with the social and economic structure of Ghent, M. Boone made comparisons between the grain price levels of Ghent and Bruges and noticed an important function of the grain staple right of Ghent in the strengthening of its economy and social stability. P.Stabel pointed out several characteristics of Flanders grain circulation in his synthesis based on center theory.10)

The main characteristics of Flanders grain circulation in the 15th century that have been emphasized in the literature can be condensed into the three key issues outlined below.

1. There was a synchronous ﬂ uctuation in the annual grain prices of various cities in Flanders and Brabant. These fluctuations were closely related with the progress of the integration of grain markets in this area. Differences in the positions of cities in the grain circulation, however, lead to differences in price levels and price ﬂ uctuations.

2. Flanders was the leading area of market integration within Europe. Flanders drew grain from various areas, including Northern France and the Baltic Area and long distance grain trade from the Baltic Area began in the 13th century. The shift in the main external supply area from Northern France to the Baltic Area was slower and later than many historians had

5) M.-J.Tits-Dieuaide (1984) 6) H.Neveux (1973), (1980), G.Sivery (1974), (1976), (1979-1980) 7) E.Thoen (1988), (1997) 8) R.van Uytven (1975), (1985) 9) W.P. Blockmans (1978), (1980) 10) P.Stabel (1997) MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 11

thought.

3. Regulations for grain circulation developed in the late middle ages and were rationally adapted to the socio-economic conjuncture of that period. Municipal authorities made the most of these regulations and took measures against violators in order to secure grain supply for their own interests in the grain trade. In general the regulations were relatively free as a result of the necessity for interregional and external trade but privileged regulations and institutions such as the Grain Staple were sometimes contradictory. Compared with other cities, the regulations of Ghent, which was the center of grain circulation and the biggest city in Flanders, were coercive and they were connected with the privilege rights of the grain staple. These privileges strengthened the city’s position in grain circulation and led to conﬂ icts between Ghent and other cities, though they were not sufﬁ cient to escape famine.

As to the research direction of the literature, research on the structure of grain circulation is well developed and accordingly current studies focus on the function of grain circulation. However, this type of study requires quantitative analyses, which the condition of late medieval quantitative documents makes difﬁ cult. The number of late medieval quantitative documents is much smaller than those of the later centuries. In many documents the price records for the late middle ages are just a fragmental prologue of the following continuous data. Adding to this fragmentation, price data contained in these records are various in quality and in quantity. Certainly, we can find some amount of quantitative documents, especially those of price and wage for the late Middle Ages in Flanders and Brabant for they were the most developed commercial and industrial areas in late medieval Europe. Several price data have been published and used for quantitative analysis. “Dokumenten voor de geschiedenis van prijzen en Lonen in Vlaanderen en Brabant” published from 1959 to 1973 is the most important published document.11) In these publications price data were provided in more detail. In 1959 G.Croisiau aggregated the price data of several registers of hospitals and abbeys in Bruges and Ghent and made several sets of time series data for annual average price. In 1965 A.Verhulst made a time series from the registers of Sint-Donatiaanskapitel in Bruges, where rent prices were recorded regularly on specific saint days. In 1973 Deblonde-Cottenier, Vandamme- De Mey and W.Prevenier made a list of prices with a description of price decisions from the registers of St.Pieter’s abbey and St.Baaf’s abbey in Ghent. Price had some generality even if it was recorded in an individual document and generality of price makes it easy to make a successive time series from a relative small number of data. Because of generality and continuity of price, price was considered as a fundamental quantitative datum in the late Middle Ages and in the 1960’s and 1970’s some economic historians made time series analyses of price in order to elucidate economic conjuncture, standards of living and other economic subjects. Consequently the study of price history evolved to quantitative economic history. H.Van der Wee and his group took an initiative in

11) C.Verlinden, E.Scholliers (1959-73) 12 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

this trend.12) As long as they use price data as statistics in order to analyze macroeconomic phenomena, the severalty of price documents could be eliminated. Thus, once some creditable time series of price are made, they use them and do not need the details of price documents. In regard to the published documents that I mentioned above, they have used mainly the time series made by A.Verhulst in 1965 and occasionally those made by G.Crousiou in 1959 but the list of prices made in 1975 has never been used. There seem to be several correlated reasons for this situation. Macro-analysis is the main method of analyzing Belgian price history, for which it is necessary to use continuous price data estimated as the “market price” used in modern economics. Based on work from 1950 to 1980, economic historians have been able to produce continuous price data that are thought to be similar to the “market price.” These studies have made clear the trends and patterns in price movements with which economic fluctuations can be estimated. In this situation comprehensive document research beyond previous work is not only time consuming but also increases the fragmentariness and variety of price data making it difﬁ cult to construct continuous time series. Thus there are few new publications of price data for the late middle ages and most price analyses use price data that have already been published, although supplemental unpublished price data from original documents are used in some studies. In this situation comparison of price fluctuations has been used in order to examine the progress of integration of the grain market in many studies. But as I show these price data were made for macro analysis and are not suitable for this type of precise comparison. Therefore, it is necessary to use price data for the study of grain circulation given the diversity of documents.

2. Diversity of contents of documents

There are differences among the purchases mentioned in the records. There are many records that contain limited information; in some cases only the amount of purchased grain was mentioned. There are also some records in which various items are mentioned: in addition to price, volume, the date of the grain purchase, the seller’s name, or transport cost. The registers of hospitals are one of the most important types of documents that contain activity related to grain: purchases, sales and so on. These documents are the main source of price data that are thought to be similar to the “market price.” In the case of the registers of eight hospitals in Ghent,13) the price data are varied in quality and in quantity. In addition, the number of years for which these accounts survived is much less than those of Saint-Peter’s Abbey as I write below. Hospitals in Ghent, whose income consisted mostly of money rent and tenant fees, bought grain in the 15th century, although relatively large hospitals, such as Hebberechtshospitaal levied rent in kind too. They made bread from purchased wheat in general, although breads were bought by some hospitals in the second half of the century and

12) H.Van der Wee (1963a), (1963b) 13) T.Okunishi (1994), list; unpublished document of RAG and SAG MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 13

many hospitals bought rye in periods of shortage such as 1437-39 and 1491-92 and in the early 15th century. The registers of abbeys are another kind of document that contains activity related with grain: sales, pricing and so on. In the case of the registers of Saint-Peter’s Abbey, which is one of most important and biggest abbeys in Ghent, grain prices are found in rent records.14) The Abbey’s income consisted mainly of money but some rent was still levied in kind. So grains such as rye, barley and oat were received as rent in kind and they made the conversion to money or sold the grain. On these occasions grain prices were recorded in various forms. Even in the same accounts there are various types of description, and changes in the style of description occurred during the 15th century. In some records the details concerning methods of conversion are mentioned but in other records only the volume of grain and the amount of money are mentioned. The style of description changed clearly in the 1460’s in some accounts, such as the Account of “Aalmoezenie,” “Infi rmerie” or the rent accounts of the Land of Aalst. More precise descriptions of pricing decisions began to be made and also the precise use of measures by which local measures were converted to those of Ghent date from this time. In many accounts the difference between the conversion price and sale of rent in kinds are confused. There are changes in the use of the words for conversion, such as “verdingen,” and sale, such as “verkopen,” by time and by place. The relations between the type of description and price movements are also confused. Most of the conversions and sale prices fl uctuated with in some range but some of them were fi xed at a low level for several years.

3. Variation and change of grain purchases

Ghent was a main center of grain circulation in late medieval Flanders and the registers of hospitals are one of the most important document types containing activity related to grain as I mentioned already. Hospitals in Ghent made bread from purchased grain in general and the kind of grain was usually wheat. Although some hospitals bought bread in the second half of this century and many hospitals bought rye in periods of shortage such as 1437-39 and 1491- 92. According to the descriptions in these records, the grain purchases of the hospitals can be classified into several types. In terms of place: 1) purchased at the Grain Market or at the quay beside Lys, 2) purchased at the hospital (grain was brought by the seller), 3) purchased directly from the storehouse with carriage, 4) purchased outside Ghent city (at small towns such as Aalst, Axel or in the countryside). In terms of the seller: 1) purchased from the person whose name was mentioned, 2) purchased from a tenant farmer that leased land from the hospital (sometimes they mentioned as “ons pachter” = our tenant), 3) purchased from a baker who baked bread for the hospital.15) There are many records that contain limited information. However, a lack of certain types of information is also a kind of information. Even if there is no information on such things as

14) T.Okunishi (1993), list; unpublished document of RAG 15) T.Okunishi (1994) 14 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

place or seller in the record, every grain purchase was made somewhere with some seller. A lack of some types of information in the record seems to be evidence that such information had less importance in the type of purchase. It is also possible that the change of writing form has some meaning. For example, the records of purchases mentioned ‘at the Grain Market’ did not have the name of seller. In contrast, the Grain Market was not mentioned in the record of purchase from the named person. There is also a difference between purchases from persons simply named and from persons mentioned as a tenant; carriage cost was paid in the former case but no carriage was usually charged in the latter case. There are also differences among purchases with respect to the volume purchased at one time; they bought one or less than one mud of grain at the Grain Market but they bought a much larger volume of grain from a named person. In the case of purchases without information, such as the seller or the place, the volume and periodical pattern has some similarity with those of purchases at the Grain market.

TABLE 1. purchase type Hospital name .Hebberchtshos .St. Annahosp .St. Janshos .St. Jacobshos .Wolwevers .St.Jan-Pauls.Voldersgods .Wenemaars F.S.P.R. r.I .F.B LXV LXIV LIV LXVI LV LXIX year MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb 1401-02 M S 1402-03 1403-04 M S 1404-05 1405-06 M S 1406-07 M US 1407-08 M US 1408-09 M S 1409-10 b 1410-11 1411-12 1412-13 M S P B 1413-14 1414-15 M S 1415-16 1416-17 1417-18 M S 1418-19 M U 1419-20 M U 1420-21 1421-22 1422-23 1423-24 1424-25 1425-26 U 1426-27 U 1427-28 ML U 1428-29 ML U 1429-30 ML U 1430-31 ML M U 1431-32 U 1432-33 U 1433-34 U MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 15

Hospital name .Hebberchtshos .St. Annahosp .St. Janshos .St. Jacobshos .Wolwevers .St.Jan-Pauls.Voldersgods .Wenemaars F.S.P.R. r.I .F.B LXV LXIV LIV LXVI LV LXIX year MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb MLUSHPOBtb 1434-35 t U t 1435-36 t U t 1436-37 U U t 1437-38 lUS M U O U t 1438-39 US O U t 1439-40 ML O U U o 1440-41 M U O U U o 1441-42 M O U U 1442-43 M O b 1443-44 M U U o 1444-45 M U 1445-46 S M U o 1446-47 M U o 1447-48 M U O U 1448-49 M U 1449-50 M S M U 1450-51 M S M O U 1451-52 M S M U M U 1452-53 M U P 1453-54 MLUS U U P 1454-55 U M U 1455-56 M LU US PO 1456-57 U M LU U 1457-58 M U P t 1458-59 U O t 1459-60 M t 1460-61 M US M S t 1461-62 S M S U P t 1462-63 M S U P t 1463-64 M M P t 1464-65 US M M P t 1465-66 S M P 1466-67 M M P 1467-68 M P U 1468-69 M S P t 1469-70 M S P 1470-71 S M S P b 1471-72 M HP 1472-73 S M P 1473-74 S M P b 1474-75 M U B b 1475-76 M P B b 1476-77 M b 1477-78 P U b b 1478-79 b b 1479-80 B b 1480-81 M U b 1481-82 U b 1482-83 U U OB b 1483-84 U U B b 1484-85 SHP b 1485-86 b 1486-87 S P S U b 1487-88 S b U B b b 1488-89 U P t U B b b 1489-90 B U L S H b 1490-91B US Ub 16 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

In these records there are some changes over the century. Although the number of registers that exist for the 15th century is not large, especially for the early part of the century, there is a tendency for the number of types of grain purchases to increase. According to the surviving records, in the early part of the century, the hospitals bought grain mainly at the market or the quay beside the Lys. In the middle of the century they began buying from their tenants, bakers or directly from storehouses. Conversely, purchases at some places outside Ghent, and the purchase of rye diminished. There are also occasional peculiarities at times of high prices. In these periods, some hospitals bought small volumes of grain at intervals of several days according to a limitation on the maximum purchase by the municipal regulation, usually two halsters (1 halster = about 52.4 liters), and in other cases they stopped buying in these periods. As I have shown, hospitals in Ghent purchased grain in various ways and these methods changed during the century. There are certain main types of purchases: 1) purchases of small volumes of grain at the Grain Market with regular intervals, 2) purchases of large volumes of grain from grain sellers once or several times per year, 3) purchases from tenants that leased land from the buyer, 4) purchases from bakers (as grain or bread). Hospitals surely had a special existence as religious institutions. Though it is necessary to consider that the purchases of hospitals were inﬂ uenced by the characteristics of the religious organization, it is unnatural to think that the variety and change of grain circulation structure reﬂ ected in the grain purchases of hospitals.

4. Multiple structure of grain supply in Flanders

The grain supply from Northern France and the Baltic Area for Flanders in the late middle ages has been a focus of economic history. But this focus does not mean that local circulation lost its function. In Flanders agriculture had already developed in form in the Middle Ages corresponding to MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 17

geographical conditions such as the soil quality of each area. Cattle breeding developed in the coastal areas of the North Sea and clay land including the mouth of the Schelde River. Wheat was produced in the polder of the coastal area and clay land in southern part of Flanders. Oats and rye were produced in the sabulous land of center Flanders. Furthermore, market oriented products such as fl owers, vegetables, and milk were produced in the surrounding areas of big cities. In addition, plants became industrial raw materials, such as madder, woad and fl ax, in each place they were produced. So regional specialization in agricultural sector already progressed to some level in Medieval Flanders. However, production of rye and oats continued as a main part of the cultivation cycle based on the crop rotation in many places. Even for Ghent, the surrounding area was still one of the main supply areas. So we can classify the types of grain that circulated in late medieval Flanders. The first type was produced and circulated in small areas. The second type was produced as a main product of specifi ed land which had a high productivity in grain cultivation. The grain of the Baltic Sea area was imported to Flanders as the second type of grain. These grains were circulated in Flanders in various commercial and noncommercial channels according to their conditions. Grain collected as “Aalmozenie” (a levy for the poor) by St.Pieter’s Abby in Ghent shows the importance of surrounding areas in grain supply. This abbey collected rye and wheat from its land mainly within a distance of less than 30km from Ghent. Only two areas were located at a distance of over 40km. Collections of large volume were done only in the surrounding areas of Ghent. These collections were carried to Ghent. Contrarily, grain collected in distant areas, especially small volumes, were converted into money or sold in the place where the collection was levied or in the local market, but these collections were also carried to Ghent at the end of the 14th century. They were also carried to Ghent in the second half of the 15th century. 18 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

TABLE 2. change of direct grain supply of “Aelmosenie” of St.Pieters Abbey in Ghent place area km type grain period(sampling year) I(1332) II(1364) III(1372) IV(1398) V(1422) VI(1441) VI(1464) VII(1514) VIII(1547) St.Pieters Dorp I 0 P r ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL St.Pieters Dorp I 0 P r ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL Zwijnaerde I 5 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ■ M ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L Zwijnaerde I 5 P r ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL Zevergem I 7 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ■ S ■ S ■ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Gentbrugge I 3 R r ■ S ■ S ■ S ■ S ■ S ■ S ■ S ■ S ■ S Gentbrugge I 3 T r ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M Nazaret I’ 12 P r ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL Land v. Esse* V 25 R r ○ S ○ M ○ M Deftinge V 30 R r ■ SS ■ SS ■ SS ○ SS ○ SS ○ SS St. Maria-Lierde V26Rr ◎ S ■ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Maarke IV 26 R/P r ○ M ○ M ○ M ■ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ■ M Maarke IV 26 R t/r ■ SS ■ SS ×○SS ○ SS ○ SS Martene IV 26 T r ○ M ○ M ■ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M Nederenam IV 25 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ◎ S(Oude) ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S St.Denijs-Boekel IV 20 R t/r ○ SS ■ SS ○ SS ■ SS ○ SS ○ SS ○ SS Baaigem II 12 R r ×■SS ■ SS ○ SS ○ SS ○ SS Gavere II 14 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ×○S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Otterghem III 20 R/P r ○ M ○ M ○ M Kampen III 20 T r ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M Kampen III 20 R r ■ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Aaigem III 23 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ■ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Oembergen III 18 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ■ S ○ S ■ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Letterhouten III 17 T r ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L ○ L Lemberge I’ 8R r ○ SS ○ SS Lemberge I’ 8P r ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL Merlebeke I’ 5T r ○ M ○ M ○ M ■ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M Avelgem S 40 R r ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ◎ LL(Oude) ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL ○ LL Lede bij Huise IV” 20 R/P r ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M ○ M Lede bij Huise IV” 20 R r ■ SS ■ SS ○ SS ○ SS ○ SS Gottem L 20 R r ○ S ○ S ○ S ■ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S ○ S Esteimbourg S 50 R t ■ SS ■ SS × Esteimbourg S 50 P c ■ M ○ M MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 19

5. Grain staple and Grain Market in Ghent.

Ghent, at the confl uence of the Scheldt and Lys Rivers, was the most important grain trade center in Flanders in the late Middle Ages as I mentioned already. Ghent had established a grain staple right by the latter half of the 14th century and controlled grain circulation in the Scheldt and Lys basins for a long period of time. Based on this privilege, Ghent managed the grain trade in this area and was occasionally in confl ict with other cities when attempting to keep its monopolistic position.16) The representative articles of the market regulation are as follows: prohibition of trade between citizens in the same city, prohibition of grain purchases for the purpose of sale in a market, and the maximum volume of purchases during famine were limited; normally 2 halsters and a non-Ghent citizen could only buy half the volume of a Ghent citizen. The representative articles of the staple right are as follows: compulsion of the carrying to market of grain that was purchased around Ghent, compulsion of the sale of grain at the market that was brought down the river. Some kinds of articles were seen in the laws and ordinances of other cities in Flanders and Brabant for they supplied their grain from the grain circulation with this multi-layered structure. This development lead to a stronger position for the grain circulation in Flanders integrated grain market and better mutual relations among cities. Municipal regulations on the grain market separated the grain market from outside circulation, and this separation was important to free price decisions in the market. In this stage, compulsive measures based on the staple right became more important to maintain grain circulation during famines. The municipal activities of Ghent in 1436-39 show their role characteristically. They are classifi ed into 5 types: 1) inquiry, foreclosure, 2) activities to bring grain to the city from surrounding areas, 3) gathering information and purchases, 4) proclamation of ordinance, 5) request of continuation of grain trade.

Type 1 Item Cornelis van P(er)boeme ende Dierie van Herdenborck waerderers ghinghen in Vierambachten omme vercoepers van graine te besouckene van 12 daghen 24 sg (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 138 v.) 1437/33 Item Cornelis van Peerboeme ende Lievin van der Ghijst ghinghen bij bevele van scepen. te Curterike om t’ coorne te arasteerne elc van 3 daghen 6 sg (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 235 v.) 1438/20

Type 2 Item Cornelis van P(er)boeme ende Jacob Blade ghinghen den 18sten dach van December omme t’ coorne te doen bringhene ter Stede waert van 6 daghen 12 sg (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 139 r.) 1437/51

16) G.Bigwood (1906), D.Nicholas (1987), M.Howell & M.Boone (1996) 20 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

Item Cornelis van P(er)boeme, Joos Roese warderers van den coornaerde ende Gheraert van der Eecke. boden ghinghen int Land van Aelst omme t’ coorne te doen comene ter stede waert van 11 daghen (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 139 r.) 1437/69

Type 3 Item Piet(er) de Meye(r) ende Jan van Caudenberghe(n) coopliede van coorne reden ter Sluis om coorne te coopene elc van 2 daghen 8 sg (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 138 r.) 1437/27 Item ghegheven eenen bode van der Sluus die eenen brief brachte van der meere van den coorne 12 g (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 235 v.) 1438/40

Type 4 Item Jan de Grave mess. reed den 19sten dach van Julio met brieve(n) van voorgheboden van den coorns t’ Audenhaerde ende te Curterike van 3 daghen 4 sg. (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 140 r.) 1437/140

Type 5 Item de selve reed voort in de landen van Artoys ende Henegauwe omme de gaten te doen openene ende t’ cooren te doen comene te dezer stede waert met 3 p:den van 24 daghen 7 lb 4 sg (Stadsrekeningen van Gent 15/400 235 v.) 1438/12

6. Grain Price ﬂ uctuation in Ghent

The trends and patterns of grain price movements in this period are shown in Graphs I and II. Graph I shows the fl uctuations of the purchase price of wheat in the registers of six hospitals in Ghent (except Sint-Jans hospitaal and Voldersgodshuis). Graph II shows the fl uctuations of the conversion or sale price of rye in the registers of Saint-Peter’s Abbey and Graph III shows the changes in the silver content of the contemporary coin, the Flemish groat. (The vertical-axes in Graphs I and II show price in Flemish Groats per Ghent’s halster and the horizontal axes give the years). In Graph I, each dot represents the weighted annual average price of each hospital. HH, SA, SJB, WW, SJP and WN denote Hebberechtshospitaal, Sint- Anna Hospitaal, Sint-Jacobshospitaal, Wolwevershospitaal, Godshuis van Sint-Jan en Pauwel and Wenemaarhospitaal respectively and the numbers in parentheses represents the month when each hospital’s fi nancial year began. The thick and broken lines show the highest and lowest price in each year respectively. In Graph II each diamond shows the rye price of each yearly rent and a thin line connects the prices of the same items. The grain price movements indicated in Graphs I and II show a trend similar to that which previous work has made clear but also demonstrate some fi gures that are unknown. There were markedly high rises in the late 1430’s in both prices. The peak prices of wheat and rye were about 50 and 40 groats. These prices decreased gradually until the middle of the 1450’s. The wheat price rose rapidly in 1452 when Ghent revolted against the Duke of Burgundy. Then there was a sharp rise in 1455 and prices gradually declined until 1463. Then prices began increasing slightly and there were several periods of marked high prices, twice MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 21

in the 1480’s and once in the early 1490’s. The peak prices of wheat and rye were about 90 and 60 groats. The high prices in the 1480’s were particularly related to the serious debasement in that period. Then there was a big drop in prices and a gradual increase followed. Finally there was also a small rise in the early 1500’s. As a trend, grain prices decreased from the 1430’s to the 1460’s and increased steadily after 1463. It is clear that this price increase was connected with the debasement in this period but price began increasing before debasement began. Graphs I and II also show some interesting trends in price movements. First, the price range during a year was narrower in the 1460’s and 1470’s than in other periods. Adding to this, only in these periods was there no rye price that was fi xed steadily. Second, the annual average prices paid by hospitals sometimes show differences according to the month when the fi nancial year began. Finally, the wheat price, which was the purchase price, and the rye price, which was the conversion or sale price, had very similar tendencies and patterns except for the movement in 1452. The movements of daily prices are indicated in the following graphs. The price movements in the periods of high prices are indicated in Graphs III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX. The price movements in the periods of normal prices are indicated in Graphs X, XI, XII, XIII. In these graphs the following black symbols denote the different types of wheat prices for which the purchase date was recorded: black circle = purchased at the Grain Market or the quay beside the River Lys, black diamond = purchased from a person whose name was recorded, black triangle = purchased from tenant farmers that leased land from hospital, black square = purchased outside Ghent, short line = non-specifi ed purchase, plus sign = purchased from a baker, cross sign = purchase at the hospital. White circles denote the price of rye that hospitals bought with a record of its purchase date and white diamonds denote the conversion and sale prices of rye for which the levied date was recorded: Sept. 17, Oct. 1, Nov. 1, Nov. 11, Dec. 24 or 25 and Feb. 2. I later write these prices as rent price simply. Finally, vertical broken lines denote the range of the maximum and minimum purchase price of each hospital in the case that they mentioned few data in the periods of high prices, and horizontal and curved broken lines denote the purchase price for which the date was estimated roughly. First, Graph III shows that wheat and rye prices rose from February 1437 to August 1438 and that the price was steady at a high level until August 1439. In that period hospitals stopped buying grain so there are few wheat price data. Then there was a rapid drop in prices in the summer of 1439. Graph IV shows that only the wheat price rose and fell during 1452, the harvest year when the revolt of Ghent occurred, as mentioned above. The only item of data for which the purchase date was recorded was the price of wheat purchased at the Grain Market in August 1453 and the peak price was about 35 groats. But the wheat price had already decreased by the autumn of 1453. For the rent price of rye there was no rise, but some of the rent in rye which could not be levied in the harvest year, 1452, was levied in the next harvest year, 1453, so that two years rent were levied at one time at the price of 1453. It is clear that the revolt of Ghent affected the selling and buying at the market and the payment of rent in grain. Although it is also clear that the revolt had an effect on the purchase price, it is not easy to say whether the 22 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

effect on rent price was weak or price rose only in the period between the seasons of levying rent. Graph V shows another pattern of price rises. There was a steep price rise from the early spring to the winter of 1455-56 following the very slight rise in the harvest year 1454. In the next three years the price gradually declined with seasonal fl uctuations such as the short rise in the autumns of 1456 and 57. In this period both the purchase price of wheat and rent price of rye display similar patterns. Graph VI and VII show high prices in the early and late 1480’s when Flemish cities revolted against Maximilian I of Hapsburg and when severe debasement also occurred. In this period there were many rents that could not be levied for several years because of warfare. There are no records of purchases of small volumes made at intervals of several days that were made in other periods of high prices and there were several purchases, of large volumes, direct from grain storehouses. Most of the purchase records lack dates, so we can only see the price movement sketchily. In the fi rst half of the 1480’s, the purchase price of wheat seems to have risen in the summer of 1481 to a peak in the harvest year 1482, and then gradually declined. In the case of the rent price of rye, including prices without the levied date, the price level of 1481 was higher than that of 1482. Subsequently the purchase and rent prices seem to have increased gradually from the autumn of 1485 to the winter of 1489-90 and then dropped sharply. Concerning the price level, we must think of the effect of debasement particularly in the second half of the 1480s. Graph VIII shows the highest price rise of the century that occurred from 1490 to 93. The purchase and rent prices rose rapidly from the autumn of 1490. The purchase price of wheat rose to about 90 groats in the autumn of 1991 and after that hospitals stopped buying wheat until the winter of 1492-93. Then they bought rye in the harvest year 1491 and the vertical thick line at July 1491 shows the range of the purchase price of rye bought by Sint- Jacobshospitaal. The purchase and rent prices of rye continued to rise until the spring of 1492 when they rose to about 80 groats. There was no price data in the following period until the autumn of 1492. At that time the price level had fallen to about 40 groats, then prices gradually decreased. Although there were few data, the fall in price seems to be rapid at the beginning for the peak price was very high and the span between the peak and the level of 40 groats was relatively short. Concerning the different types of prices, wheat prices were higher than rye prices except in the autumn of 1492 when both prices were at the same level. The purchase prices of rye were at the same or a little above the level of the rent prices of rye and most of the prices of wheat purchased at the hospital were little lower than those at the Market. Graph IX shows that the price rise in the beginning of fi rst decade of the 1500’s was similar to that of the second half of the 1430’s. Wheat and rye prices rose from February 1501 to November 1501 and the price rose steadily until August 1503. Then there was a rapid drop in the summer of 1503. The seasons of rise and fall and span and pattern of the periods of high prices was nearly the same, although price level was lower. Next we examine price movements in periods of normal prices. Graph X shows the declining trend of prices, with seasonal fl uctuation, in the fi rst half of the 1440’s. The purchase price of MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 23

wheat rose between the harvests and fell gradually following the harvests time except in the harvest year 1452. Although there was no data in rent prices in rye between harvests, the rent price also gradually decreases with a serrated pattern. Graph XI shows the price movements in the fi rst half of the 1460’s when the price level was at its lowest point in the 15th century. Price declined gradually until the autumn of 1463 and then price increased gradually. In this period there was a difference between the price of wheat purchased from the tenant farmers and that purchased at the Grain Market or purchased from other named persons. The former was more stable and a little higher than the latter. In the harvest year 1464, however, the purchase price at the Grain Market increased steadily and became a little higher than the purchase price from the tenant farmers in the winter 1464-65. Graph XII shows the price movements in the fi rst half of the 1470’s. In this period both the purchase price from tenant farmers and the rent price were steady in each harvest year, except in 1475, and the yearly price level changed in a narrow range. Graph XIII shows the price movements in the second half of the 1490’s. In this period prices rose gradually until the winter of 1497-98, then fell gradually. The features that are distinguished in the graphs have lead to the conclusion that there were several patterns of price movements in periods of high prices and in periods of normal prices. The former can be classifi ed into three types: 1) a gradual rise followed by a steady, high level and a sharp fall, 2) a rapid rise and a gradual fall and 3) a sudden rise in the short term. The rise in the fi rst half of the 1490’s seems to be of the second type although the fall in prices at its beginning seems to have been rapid. The movements in periods of normal prices can be classified into three types: 1) gradual change, which had in some cases a serrated pattern, with a rise in the season between harvests, 2) a fi xed price in each harvest year and 3) continuous change over several years. There are several studies of the price movement pattern and it has already been said that the grain stock in Ghent, and strong control, caused the rapid fall after periods of high prices but these variations in price movements are not identifi ed clearly in previous studies. However, it is clear that a change in the price movement pattern was related to the structural changes in grain circulation. For example, Ghent lost several privileges after its defeat in 1452, when the short-term price rise occurred. The price movement in the second half of the 1430’s before the revolt was of Type 1) of the periods of high prices and the price movement in the second half of the 1450’s just after it was of Type 2). It seems that the grain stock in Ghent and strong control caused the rapid fall after the period of high prices before Ghent’s defeat, while conversely the gradual decline was caused by grain stock-shortage and weak control of circulation after that. 24 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2. price A rye Ghent new MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 25

FIGURE 3. 1435-1440

FIGURE 4. 1450-1455 26 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

FIGURE 5. 1454-1459

FIGURE 6. 1480-1485 MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 27

FIGURE 7. 1480-1495

FIGURE 8. 1490-1495 28 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 10 MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 29

FIGURE 11. 1460-1465

FIGURE 12. 1470-1474 30 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

FIGURE 13. 1495-1500

7. Conclusion

In this article I described the structure of grain circulation in 15th century Flanders. Ghent played the most important role in Flanders grain circulation in the late middle ages and in the early modern times. We can use a relatively large number of documents to examine the function of the main factors in the grain circulation, though the quantitative and qualitative limitations of documents still makes this examination diffi cult. A multi-layered structure of grain supply and circulation existed in 15th Century Flanders, and diversity and fl exibility in supply were observed. In the case of an important abbey in Ghent, grain from surrounding areas seems to have become more important in the later half of the 15th century. Municipal efforts to supply grain to their cities during famine followed this multi-layered structure. The grain market played one part in the whole circulation and regulation separated the market from the whole circulation and price was fi xed without price control. The market price was used as index to fi x the conversion rate of grain rent and that of Ghent was used in larger area after the middle of the 15th century. The development of grain circulation in Flanders integrated grain market strengthened mutual relations among cities. It influenced municipal regulations on the grain market and municipal regulations had some diversity according to their position in circulation. Compulsive measures based on the staple right of Ghent benefi ted both Ghent and other cities by sustaining grain distribution and by making the price level lower in cooperation with strict market regulation that adjusted the relationship between grain provision to citizens and the intermediate function of grain trade. In this way, grain supply in Flanders kept its stability. But this mechanism could work MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 31

effectively in a good balance among many elements. But this balance was very sensitive and differences in the pattern of price fluctuation during famines is good evidence of this sensitiveness. More study of this sensitiveness is necessary to examine differences in the price patterns of cities. Fortunately there are several documents that contain such price records in other cities in Flanders and Brabant as I list as resources.

List of unpublished documents that contains records related to grain trade or prices. Rijksarchief Gent (RAG) Fonds Sint-Pietersabdij Reeks I Rekeningen, II and Bisdom K Pitantie: Algemene rekeningen door de monnik pitantier. Inﬁ rmerie: Algemene rekeningen door de monnik inﬁ rmerier. Aalmoezenie: Algemene rekeningen door de monnik aalmoezenier. Kwartier van Gent: Rekeningen van de heerlijkerenten, cijzen en pachten door de ontvangers. Kasselrij Oudenaarde: Algemene rekeningen door de ontvangers. Land van Aalst: Algemene rekeningen door de ontvangers. Land van Waas: Rekeningen van het Land van Waas en Temse door de ontvangers. Hebberechtshospitaal: Rekeningen van het Hebberechtshospitaal. Fonds Bisdom - Sint-Baafs Reeks Sint-Anna Hospitaal: R 766, B 905-909 rekeningen Sint-Niclaaskerk: S Stadsarchief Gent (SAG): Oudarchief Reeks 400: Stadsrekeningen 16-22 Reeks 110 bis Reeks LIV: Wolweversgodshuis; rekeningen Reeks LV: Voldersgodshuis, rekeningen Reeks LXIV: Sint-Jakobshospitaal, rekeningen Reeks LXV: Hospitaal van Sint-Jan ten Dulie, 159-207: rekeningen Reeks LXVI: Godshuis van Sint-Jan en Sint-Pauwel, 27-30: rekeningen Reeks LXIX: Wenemaarhospitaal, 284: rekeningen Reeks LXXVIII: Sint-Elisabethbegijnhof, 1: rekeningen

Bruges OCMW Archief Brugge Sint-Janshospitaal: G 84-223 Rekeningen Sint-Juliaanspassantehuis: R 30-38 Rekeningen Magdalenaleprozerij: R 26-81 Rekeningen Prinselijk Begijnhof ten Wijngaarde: A 1-18 Rek.van infermerie Armendis van de Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk: R 1-9 Reg.m.Disrekenigen Armendis van de Sint-Salvatorskerk: R 1-18 Reg.m.Disrekenigen Sint Niklaaskapel: R15-22 Rekeningen 32 TAKASHI OKUNISHI

Hospitaal van de Onze-Lieve-Vrouw van Potterie: Aalst Stadsarchief Aalst: Oudarchief Stadsrekeningen: 1991-92 Armenrekeningen Het Archief van het OLV hospital Oudenaarde OCMV Archief Oudenaarde Onze-Lieve-Vrouwehospitaal: R 150-192. Register van rekeningen Ieper Archief van het OCMV te Ieper (microﬁ lm in Stadsarchief Ieper) Godshuis der Hoge zieken te Ieper: 726-727 Rekeningen Kortrijk OCMV Archief Kortrijk Fond Begijnhof: 1-4 Rekeningen Hospitaalarchief Kortrijk Archief van het Onze-Lieve-Vrouwehospitaal 209/a

Brabant Antwerp OCMW Archief Antwerpen Sint-Elsabethgasthuis: R 1-4 Rekeningen

Mechelen OCMW Archief Mechelen (restored in Stadsarchief Mechelen): Oudarchief Onze-Lieve-Vrouwegasthuis: 8790-8797: rekeningen Heige Drievuldigheidgasthuis: 8950-8953: rekeningen Sint-Juliaansgodshuis: 9039-9044: rekeningen Sint-Barbaragodshuis: 9090-9094: rekeningen Sint-Pietersgodshuis: 9142-9146: rekeningen Lier OCMV Archief Lier Heilge Gasttafel 30-42 b.Flanders (in the Netherlands)

Gemeentearchief Hulst Gesttafel: 492-496 Rekeningen van de armentafel

Gemeentearchief Axel Armenrekeningen 671/A* MULTI – LAYERED STRUCTURE AND MARKET FUNCTION OF THE 15TH CENTURY FLANDERS GRAIN CIRCULATION 33

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