Lietuvos Muzikologija 20.Indd

Lithuanian Musicology 20

Vilnius 2019 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Redakcinė kolegija / Editorial Board

Vyriausioji redaktorė / Editor-in-chief Prof. habil. dr. Gražina Daunoravičienė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre)

Vyriausiosios redaktorės asistentė / Assistant editor-in-chief Prof. dr. Rima Povilionienė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre)

Nariai / Members Prof. habil. dr. Eero Tarasti (Helsinkio universitetas / University of Helsinki) Prof. habil. dr. Helmut Loos (Leipcigo universitetas / University of Leipzig) Prof. habil. dr. Nina Aleksandrovna Gerasimova-Persidskaja (Ukrainos nacionalinė P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademija / Petro Tchaikovsky National Music Academy of Ukraine) Prof. dr. Mart Humal (Estijos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre) Prof. dr. Marina Frolova-Walker (Kembridžo universitetas / University of Cambridge) Prof. dr. Leon Stefanija (Liublianos universitetas / University of Ljubljana) Prof. dr. Janis Kudinš (Latvijos J. Vytuolio muzikos akademija / Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music) Prof. dr. Mikhail Saponov (Maskvos valstybinė P. Čaikovskio konservatorija / Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservaroty) Prof. habil. dr. Daiva Vyčinienė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre) Prof. dr. Danutė Petrauskaitė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre) Prof. dr. Rūta Stanevičiūtė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre) Dr. Audronė Žukauskaitė (Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institutas; Europos humanitarinis universitetas / Lithuanian Culture Research Institute; European Humanities University)

Sudarytoja / Compiler Gražina Daunoravičienė

Žurnalas „Lietuvos muzikologija“ referuojamas tarptautinėse duomenų bazėse: SCOPUS; EBSCO Humanities International Index; EBSCO Humanities International Complete; British Humanities Index; MLA International Bibliography; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature

Viršelyje / Cover Raimondos Žiūkaitės „Levituojanti organza“, PLR operacijų schemos / Levitating Organza by Raimonda Žiūkaitė, schemes of PLR operations

Kalbos redaktoriai / Language Editors Ilona Čiužauskaitė, Kerry Kubilius

Redakcijos adresas / Address Gedimino pr. 42, Vilnius, LT-01110 Lietuva El. paštas / Email [email protected], [email protected] Interneto adresas / Website zurnalai.lmta.lt

Žurnalas „Lietuvos muzikologija“ rengiamas įgyvendinant projektą „Periodinių mokslo leidinių leidyba ir jos koordinavimas“. Projektas finansuojamas Europos socialinio fondo lėšomis pagal 2014–2020 metų Europos Sąjungos fondų investicijų veiksmų programos 9 prioriteto „Visuomenės švietimas ir žmogiškųjų išteklių potencialo didinimas“ priemonę „Mokslininkų ir kitų tyrėjų gebėjimų stiprinimas“ (www.esinvesticijos.lt).

© Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2019 Mokslo straipsniai © Vida Bakutytė, You-Kyung Cho, Vita Česnulevičiūtė, Dāvis Eņģelis, Jiří Kopecký, Claire McGinn, Lidia Melnyk, Rasa Murauskaitė, Magdalena Nowicka-Ciecierska, Isabel Pina, Gabrielius Simas Sapiega, ISSN 1392-9313 Nana Sharikadze, Laura Svirskaitė, Richard Taruskin, Rūta Žarskienė, 2019 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Turinys / Contents Pratarmė ��4 Foreword ��7 Richard TARUSKIN...... 10 Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems | Plus ça change? Apie Liszto, Bartóko ir mano problemas Lidia MELNYK...... 20 Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today | Kas nužudė muzikos kritiką. Socialinės muzikos žurnalistikos strategijos Claire MCGINN...... 31 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change | Hauntologija ir heterogeniškumas: institucinių pokyčių iškraipymai vakarų kritikoje You-Kyung CHO...... 46 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s | Mahlerio kūrybos interpretacija: György’o Ligeti aštunto dešimtmečio muzikos kritika Magdalena NOWICKA-CIECIERSKA...... 62 In Search of Values in Contemporary Music—Andrzej Chłopecki’s Music Criticism | Vertybių paieškos šiuolaikinėje muzikoje: apie Andrzejaus Chłopeckio muzikos kritiką Isabel PINA...... 68 Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology | Portugalų diktatūros propaganda penkto dešimtmečio periodinėje spaudoje: muzikos kritika, kompozitoriai ir ideologija Dāvis EŅĢELIS...... 78 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media | Autoriteto diskursas ir užslėpti galios santykiai Latvijos žiniasklaidoje skelbiamuose muzikos kritikos straipsniuose Nana SHARIKADZE...... 90 Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras | Gruzinų muzikos kritika sovietmečiu ir posovietiniu laikotarpiu Jiří KOPECKÝ...... 101 Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer | Fibichas Vilniuje: 1874-ieji ir kompozitoriaus asmenybės formavimasis Vida BAKUTYTĖ...... 118 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai | Some New Highlights for the Biography of Composer Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844) Laura SVIRSKAITĖ...... 132 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose | The Triadic Chord and Its Expression in the Compositions of Twentieth- and Twenty-first-century Music Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA...... 148 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje– XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrie- liaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje | Conversion of Microtonality in the Second Half of the Twentieth and Twenty-first Century Manifestation of Microintervals in the Creations of Mārtiņš Viļums and Gabrielius Simas Sapiega Vita ČESNULEVIČIŪTĖ...... 167 Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje | Codes of Interpretation of Musical Analogies in Poetry Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ...... 178 Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis | Funeral Repertoire and the Identity of the Periphery Population: The Case of the Raseiniai District Priedai | Supplement Rasa MURAUSKAITĖ...... 188 The International Image of Lithuanian Composers after the Restoration of Independence | Tarptautinis lietuvių kompozitorių įvaizdis atkūrus Nepriklausomybę Dvidešimt metų: „Lietuvos muzikologija“, 1–20 t., 2000–2019 m. | Twenty Years: Lithuanian Musicology, Vols. 1–20, 2000–2019 ...... 194 Apie autorius �� 203 About the authors �� 206 Atmintinė autoriams �� 209 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Pratarmė

Dviejų dešimtmečių žurnalo „Lietuvos muzikologija“ gyvavimo istoriją vargu ar galėtume pavadinti solidžiu amžiumi. Paskutiniais antrojo tūkstantmečio metais (2000) Lietuvoje pradėtas leisti daugiatomis periodinis mokslo leidinys, kurį inicijavo ir dvidešimtį tomų sudarė vyriausioji redaktorė prof., habil dr. Gražina Daunoravičienė, buvo svarbus etapas skatinant Lietuvoje aukšto lygmens muzikologijos tyrimus, taip pat užtikrinant jų publikavimo periodiškumą ir sklaidą tarptautiniu mastu. Per dvidešimt metų „Lietuvos muzikologijos“ puslapiuose paskelbti 227 originalūs, aukštos moksli- nės kokybės Lietuvos ir užsienio muzikologų moksliniai straipsniai ir studijos, prieduose – pokalbiai, knygų recenzijos, kritiniai straipsniai ir pan. Ypač reikšmingas tyrimų mokslinės kokybės pripažinimas ir žurnalo brandos liudijimas buvo gautas pastaraisiais metais. „Lietuvos muzikologija“ įsiveržė į pasaulio mokslininkų auditoriją. Šį proveržį paliudijo žurnalo įtraukimas į atvirosios prieigos bibliografinių duomenų bazę „Scopus“, kuri skirta mokslinių tyrimų bibliografinių įrašų ir mokslinės informacijos internete paieškai ir kurioje yra 75 mln. bibliografinių įrašų, ji aprėpia 24 600 tęstinių leidinių ir 194 000 knygų. „Lietuvos muzikologijoje“ skelbiami tyrimai, duomenys apie jų autorius ir žurnalą leidžiančią instituciją (LMTA), kita svarbi informacija atsidūrė greta daugiau negu 24 600 aktyvių pavadinimų ir 5000 leidėjų. Tad atsiveriantis milžiniškas mokslinių tyrimų duomenų tinklas padės lietuvių muzikologams operatyviai susipažinti su inovatyviausiomis kolegų idėjomis ir išvesti Lietuvos kultūrą į tarptautinį kontekstą. Kad tokiam startui žurnalo leidėjai ir mokslinė redakcija yra pasirengusi, rodo ir XX tomo turinys. Pagrindinė tematinė šio tomo ašis telkiasi į muzikos kritikos problematikai skirtus tyrimus. Daugybę konkrečių vertinimo klaidų, kurios kilo iš politizuotų pseudoestetinių dichotomijų, Richardas Taruskinas straipsnyje „Plus ça change? Apie Liszto, Bartóko ir mano problemas“ iliustravo Bélos Bartóko pavyzdžiu. Stodamas į Vengrijos mokslų akademiją Bartókas siūlė Liszto kūrinius suskirstyti į dvi nevienodai vertinamas dalis: vertingus darbus, kurie pristatė Lisztą kaip meno novatorių, ir nepageidaujamus, kurie rodė pseudovengrišką stilių, džiuginantį neišrankius klausytojus ir gadinantį jų skonį. Kaip pažymi tyrėjas, po keliolikos metų Bartóko kūryba buvo labai panašiai dichotomizuojama abiejose Geležinės uždangos pusėse. Taruskinas apibendrina, kad XX a. kriptopolitinė pseudoestetika, skatinama nacionalinių tradicijų, propaguojama socialinio teisingumo ar estetinės autonomijos grynumo labui, pakenkė muzikos kūrimui ir jos suvokimui, taip pat darė poveikį iškreiptai kritinei refleksijai. Žurnalo puslapiuose autoriai imasi apibrėžti pagrindinius kriterijus, kurie skiria muzikos kritiką nuo muzikos žurnalis- tikos, nes, kaip teigia Lidia Melnyk straipsnyje „Kas nužudė muzikos kritiką. Socialinės muzikos žurnalistikos strategijos“, šios sąvokos anaiptol nėra tapačios. Muzikos kritiką griežtai įrėmina ne tik labai specifinės temos, bet ir vienalytė skaitytojų auditorija. O muzikos žurnalistika skirta platesnei auditorijai, ji išryškina socialinius, ideologinius ir politinius proble- mų aspektus. Kaip sako autorė, muzikos žurnalistikos padėtį apibrėžia ir žurnalistų požiūris į viešąjį interesą. Ji išskiria šiandien vyraujančias keturias pamatines kultūros žurnalistikos strategijas – informatizavimą, personifikavimą, tyrimus ir populiarinimą, jos iš principo taikytinos ir muzikos žurnalistikai. Šiomis strategijomis remiasi pagrindiniai viešųjų ryšių modeliai (Jamesas E. Grunigas ir Toddas Huntas). Kaip vakarų kritikams reikėtų vaduotis iš požiūrio į Baltijos šalių muziką šablonų, straipsnyje „Hauntologija ir hetero- geniškumas: institucinių pokyčių iškraipymai vakarų kritikoje“ aptaria anglų muzikologė Claire McGinn. Kritikų požiūris į akademinę Baltijos šalių muziką ilgai buvo maitinamas naratyvu apie nemodernią, dvasingą, bet liaudišką „baltiškos“ estetikos pasaulėžiūrą. Šis požiūris rėmėsi Arvo Pärto, Veljo Tormiso ir Jaano Kaplinskio „dvasingo minimalizmo“ kūrybos refleksija. Kritinę interpretaciją apmąstanti straipsnio autorė plečia diskursą ir priešina sąsają su šiaurietiško mentaliteto estetika, akademinės muzikos vaizdine sfera ir sparčiais instituciniais pokyčiais, kurie Estijoje vyksta kartu su šalies ta- patybės „Brand Estonia“ kūrimu. Tyrime akcentuojami skirtingu tempu vykstantys instituciniai pokyčiai, atspindintys hauntologijos ir heterogeniškumo reiškinius, kurių sampratą vakarų kritikoje iškreipė klaidingas esencialistinis požiūris. Japonijoje gyvenanti korėjiečių muzikologė You-Kyung Cho straipsnyje „Mahlerio kūrybos interpretacija: György’o Ligeti aštunto dešimtmečio muzikos kritika“ aktulizuoja Ligeti aštunto dešimtmečio tekstuose plėtojamą diskursą, ap- žvelgiantį jo pateiktą Gustavo Mahlerio citavimo technikos sampratą. You-Kyung Cho neaptaria su citatomis tradiciškai saistomo intertekstualumo teorijos požiūrio, tačiau akcentuoja Ligeti sampratą analizuodama ją lėmusius aštunto dešim- tmečio kultūrinius ir socialinius veiksnius. Autorės nepriklausomas požiūris pabrėžia kultūrinę ir socialinę laikotarpio dvasią atspindinčių kompozitorių kritinių komentarų svarbą. Šios dominuojančios problematikos kontekste You-Kyung Cho taip pat analizuoja XX a. muzikos kritikos paskirties kismą. Kompozitorių kritinės refleksijos atvejį „Lietuvos muzikologijos“ XX tome papildo iškilaus lenkų muzikologo ir kritiko Andrzejaus Chłopeckio vertybių šiuolaikinėje muzikoje analizė. Magdalena Nowicka straipsnyje „Vertybių

4 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 paieškos šiuolaikinėje muzikoje: apie Andrzejaus Chłopeckio muzikos kritiką“ bando įžvelgti šio kritiko pastangas įvar- dyti ir konceptualizuoti naujausius šiuolaikinės muzikos reiškinius, kuo Chłopeckis ryškiai prisidėjo prie diskurso apie šiuolaikinę lenkų muziką kūrimo. Kaip pabrėžia straipsnio autorė, Chłopeckio šiuolaikinės muzikos interpretacijai buvo svarbios naujumo ir originalumo kategorijos, kurios iškyla tik siejant jas su tradicija ir priešinant tam, kas sena. Intriguoja ir Chłopeckio diskusija su ispanų filosofu José Ortega y Gassetu, kuris kaltino XX a. muziką humaniškumo stygiumi. Net keturi žurnalo straipsniai gvildena muzikos kritikos padėtį konkrečiose Europos šalyse – Portugalijoje, Latvijoje, Lietuvoje ir Gruzijoje. Kaip rašo Isabel Pina („Portugalų diktatūros propaganda penkto dešimtmečio periodinėje spaudoje: muzikos kritika, kompozitoriai ir ideologija“), penktame dešimtmetyje diktatoriaus Antonio’aus Salazaro ir jo šalininko Antonio’aus Ferro siekį Portugalijoje įtvirtinti tradicinėmis, regiono ir katalikų vertybėmis grindžiamą politinį režimą, panašiai kaip ir daugelyje diktatūros valdomų šalių, parėmė kai kurie į propagandą įsitraukę kompozitoriai ir muzikos kritikai. Atsižvelgiant į cenzūros prižiūrimą ir ideologiškai konstruojamą to meto kultūrą straipsnyje iškeliami būdai, kuriais reiškėsi keletas įtakingiausių XX a. Portugalijos periodinių leidinių, kompozitorių ir kritikų, nulėmusių Estado Novo atneštas kultūrines ir muzikines permainas. Remdamasis Romano Jakobsono apibrėžtomis kalbos funkcijomis, latvių muzikologas Dāvisas Eņģelis žvelgia į muzikos kritiką ir bando perskaityti joje užslėptas teksto reikšmes. Tai kritiko savivoka, autoriteto konstravimas, socialinės distancijos tarp publikos ir klasikinės muzikos industrijos didėjimas arba mažėjimas, verbaliai perteiktos muzikos interpretacijos ir kita. Straipsnyje „Autoriteto diskursas ir užslėpti galios santykiai Latvijos žiniasklaidoje skelbiamuose muzikos kritikos straipsniuose“ Engelis aptaria muzikos kritikos padėtį Latvijos žiniasklaidoje ir ją atskleidžia analizuodamas latvių muzikos kritikų Inesės Lūsiņos ir Armandso Znotiņšo recenzijas. Muzikos kritikos padėtį sovietinėje ir posovietinėje Gruzijoje straipsnyje „Gruzinų muzikos kritika sovietmečiu ir posovietiniu laikotarpiu“ tyrinėja Nana Sharikadze. Ji pabrėžia, kad muzikos kritika totalitariniams režimams tampa „destruktyvi“ ir pavojinga. Panašiai kaip penktame dešimtmetyje Portugalijoje ir kitose totalitarinėse šalyse, Gruzijoje po okupacijos (1921 m.) įsigalėjo „pusiau kritika“, paremta režimo nustatytais leidimais ir draudimais. Sovietmečio muzikos kritiką, autorės požiūriu, įprasmina Grigorijaus Ordžonikidzės darbai. 1991 m. griuvus Sovietų Sąjungai, Gruzijos muzikos kritikai teko iš naujo atrasti savo vaidmenį, kitaip apibrėžti vertybes ir išsikovoti deramą vietą, atsi- žvelgiant į vietos ir globalias aktualijas. Straipsnyje siekiama atsakyti į klausimą, kaip žiniasklaida ir socialinė medija veikia muzikos kritikos raidą. Prieduose skelbiamame straipsnyje „Tarptautinis lietuvių kompozitorių įvaizdis atkūrus Nepriklausomybę“ lietuvių mu- zikologė Rasa Murauskaitė svarsto aktualų klausimą, kodėl Lietuva, turėdama daug talentingų kūrėjų, vis dar stokoja plačiai žinomų vardų tarptautiniu mastu. Klausimas tampa dar aštresnis pradėjus lyginti situaciją su Estijos ir Latvijos žinomais pasaulyje žymiais kompozitoriais. Esama situacija straipsnyje analizuojama, remiantis ne tik moksline literatūra, kritiniais užsienio spaudos straipsniais, bet ir užsienio muzikų (47 muzikantų iš 23 valstybių) apklausa. Jos rezultatai patvirtino esamą padėtį ir faktą, kad užsienio muzikams geriau žinomi seniau kūrę lietuvių kompozitoriai, tokie kaip Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis ar Balys Dvarionas. O užsienyje geriau žinoma šiuolaikinė estų ir latvių muzika. Aiškindamasi kompozitorių kūrybos sklaidos prielaidas, straipsnio autorė remiasi apklausos dalyvių nuomone ir apibendrina, kad labiausiai prie tarptautinio žinomumo prisideda kūrybinio stiliaus originalumas, kūrinių atlikimas prestižinėse koncertų salėse, žymių atlikėjų dėmesys, kompozitoriaus asmenybė ir politinės aplinkybės. Šiame kontekste straipsnyje aptariama ryškiausių Lietuvos kompozitorių – Onutės Narbutaitės, Ramintos Šerkšnytės ir Linos Lapelytės – kūrybos tarptautinė sklaida. Greta į muzikos kritikos klausimų diskursą orientuotų straipsnių ciklo tradiciškai skelbiami teminiai muzikos istorijos, teorijos ir etnomuzikologijos tyrimų tekstai. Istorinės muzikologijos straipsniai šįkart pristato XIX a. Lietu- voje viešėjusių užsienio muzikų gyvenimo bei veiklos tyrimus. Čekų muzikologas Jiří Kopecký straipsnyje „Fibichas Vilniuje: 1874-ieji ir kompozitoriaus asmenybės formavimasis“ rekonstruoja Zdeněko Fibicho Vilniuje 1873–1874 m. praleistus metus dirbant muzikos mokytoju. Kaip rodo tyrėjo atverti šaltiniai, ruošdamasis „rusų caro muzikos mokytojo“ tarnybai, Fibichas planavo atlikti įvairiausių žanrų veikalus, tarp jų kantatas ir simfonines poemas. Vis dėlto kompozitorius nebuvo patenkintas savo profesine veikla Vilniuje ir asmeniniu gyvenimu. Nors muzikinio gyvenimo Vilniuje intensyvumas neprilygo jo studijų miestams Leipcigui ir Manheimui, kaip teigia Kopecký, Fibichas Vilniuje sukūrė daug vertingų kūrinių. Tad tyrėjas daro išvadą, kad kaip tik šiame mieste subrendo Fibicho meistriškumas, nes čia jis galėjo apmąstyti drąsius kūrybinius sprendimus. Vida Bakutytė straipsnyje „Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai“ iš už- maršties iškėlė Vilniuje gimusio kompozitoriaus ir dirigento Józefo Deszczyńskio kūrybinę biografija, kuri lietuvių muzikologijoje išsamiau netyrinėta. Straipsnyje pateikiama žinių apie Deszczyńskio bajorišką kilmę, atskleidžiamos patriotiškų aspiracijų apraiškos jo muzikoje, pristatomi jo kūriniai, taip pat XIX a. pirmos pusės vilnietiško muzikinio gyvenimo detalės.

5 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Sisteminės (teorinės) muzikologijos skiltį žurnale šįsyk formuoja trys tyrimai. Laura Svirskaitė atsigręžė į trigarsio fe- nomeną ir kintančią jo raišką XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose. Tyrėją domina tonacinės muzikos fenomenų apraiškos XX a. posttonacinėje muzikoje, tad analizės centre atsidūrė vienas svarbiausių tonacijos elementų – konsonuojantis trigarsis, dabarties kompozitorius provokuojantis kūrybiškam santykiui. Remiantis Gérard’o Genette’o transtekstualumo teorija, trigarsis interpretuojamas kaip metatekstualus elementas atonalioje muzikoje. Jis įgauna prasminę funkciją ir modalioje struktūroje arba tampa organiška naujojo tonalumo harmonijos dalimi. Kaip tvirtina Svirskaitė, Luigi Dallapiccola’os ir Olivier Messiaeno kompozicijose trigarsiui suteikiamos simbolių reikšmės, o Arvo Pärto, Philipo Glasso ir Raimondos Žiūkaitės kūriniuose jis tampa generuojančiu struktūriniu komponavimo vienetu. Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos tyrime „Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos ap- raiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje“ tiriama, kaip naujosios mikrointervalikos apraiškos paskatino komponavimo principų kismą, transformavo senąsias muzikos idiomas ir perkeitė kūrėjo bei kūrinio santykio lauką. Siekdamas detalizuoti skirtingas mikrointervalus eksploatuojančias komponavimo technikas, straipsnio autorius manipuliuoja taksonominėmis kategorijomis (transferencija, sinkretizmas, sintezė, pagal Yayoi Uno Everett). Mikrosistemų transformaciją į kompozicinius tekstus atskleidžia tyrime analizuojami straipsnio autoriaus ir Mārtiņšo Viļumso kūriniai. Įdomią ir nedažnai konceptualizuojamą muzikinės ir poetinės kalbinės raiškos paralelių tematiką savo straipsnyje „Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje“ gvildena šios srities specialistė Vita Česnulevičiūtė. Mokslininkė aptaria įvairius muzikinės, poetinės ir kalbinės raiškos sankirtų aspektus. Kartu ji aktualizuoja keletą ryškesnių XX a. su- siklosčiusių poezijos ir muzikos giminystės pavyzdžių, kurie iliustruoja tam tikrus poetinio teksto persmelkimo muzikos komponavimo principais atvejus, taip pat struktūrinės ir semantinės sąrangos bendrumo apraiškas. Specialus dėmesys skiriamas poetinio teksto analizės strategijos formavimui. Tuo pagrindu išskiriami Alfonso Nykos-Niliūno ir Nijolės Miliauskaitės eilėraščius formuojantys muzikos kalbos generatyvumui artimi poezijos skaitymo parametrai. Etnomuzikologijos tyrimų sričiai XX tomo puslapiuose atstovauja Rūtos Žarskienės straipsnis „Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis“. Daugiau kaip dešimtmetį jos tyrinėjama Žemaitijoje gyvuojanti pučiamųjų instrumentų ansamblių / orkestrų tradicija glaudžiai susijusi su šio krašto šermenų apeigomis ir jų muzikine išraiška. Mokslininkė ginčija paplitusią nuomonę, kad Žemaitijos regiono simboliu tapę Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kálnai – pagrindinis katalikiškų laidotuvių kūrinys, kurį atliekant tradiciškai dalyvauja pučiamieji instrumentai. Tačiau 2015 m. Raseinių rajone atlikti lauko tyrimai parodė, kad pagrindinis laidotuvių kūrinys – Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis, o ne Kalnai. Laidotuvių repertuaras ir jo skirtumai didžiojoje etnografinės Žemaitijos dalyje ir jos paribyje – Raseinių rajone ir šį skirtumą nulėmusios priežastys tapo pagrindiniu šio straipsnio tyrimo objektu. Jubiliejinio žurnalo tomo prieduose teikiama 2000–2019 m. „Lietuvos muzikologijos“ dvidešimtyje tomų paskelbtų tyrimų suvestinė. Tad įvairialypis jubiliejinio žurnalo numerio tyrimų laukas skatina optimistiškai vertinti būsimų jo gyvavimo dešimtmečių perspektyvą.

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6 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Foreword

This year is the twentieth anniversary ofLithuanian Musicology—not a lifetime, yet quite an achievement. The last year of the second millennium (2000) saw the launch of an authoritative twenty-volume scientific periodical, whose founder and editor-in-chief was Prof. Habil. Dr. Gražina Daunoravičienė (in total she compiled 20 volumes). This was an important step in stimulating high-level musicology research in Lithuania as well as ensuring a regular publication and the international dissemination of its results. Over the twenty years, Lithuanian Musicology has published 227 genuine research articles and studies by Lithuanian and foreign musicologists of the highest scientific quality along with a wealth of interviews, book reviews, and critical analyses in its appendices. The fact thatLithuanian Musicology has recently managed to take a worthy place in the global scientific community attests to the journal’s maturity and the firmly recognized scientific quality of the research work published. This breakthrough is evidenced by the journal’s inclusion into the Scopus open access bibliographic database that has 75 million records covering 24,600 serial titles and 194,000 books. Research papers published in Lithuanian Musicology along with information on their authors and the journal’s publisher (the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre) are now indexed among 24,600 active titles from 5,000 publishers. The enormous network of research data that has become available will grant Lithuanian musicologists quick access to the most innovative ideas of their peers and will promote representation of Lithuanian culture in the global context. The content of the twentieth-anniversary edition is proof that the publisher and editorial board of the journal are ready for this step. The thematic focus of this volume is on music criticism issues. Many fallacies resulting from the pseudo- aesthetic dichotomy asserted in the interests of a political agenda are specified through the figure of Béla Bartók in the article “Plus ça change? Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems” by Richard Taruskin. In his inaugural speech to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Béla Bartók proposed dividing Liszt’s oeuvres into two unequally valued portions: the valuable works that showed Liszt as an artistic innovator and the undesirable ones that adopted a false “Hungarian” style and pleased unsophisticated listeners but corrupted their taste. The researcher draws attention to the fact that a dozen years later, Bartók’s own legacy was dichotomized in a very similar way by musicians and politicians on both sides of the Iron Curtain. Taruskin concludes that the crypto-political pseudo-aesthetics of the twentieth century, driven by national traditions or practiced in the name of social justice or aesthetic autonomy, has undermined the production and the reception of art music and has distorted critical thinking. The articles in this edition attempt to define the main criteria for distinguishing between music criticism and music journalism because these notions do not mean the same thing, according to Lidia Melnyk. In her article “Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies for Music Journalism Today,” she states that music criticism is not only framed within specific topics but that it also has a homogeneous recipient audience. Music journalism, on the contrary, is addressed to a wider audience and deals with problems that have a social, ideological, or political bent. As the author concludes, the status of music journalism is also defined by how far music journalists take notions of public interest. Four fundamental strategies of cultural journalism—informatization, personification, exploration, and popularization—currently prevail and are, in principle, applicable to music journalism. These four strategies are at the core of basic public relations models (James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt). In her article “Hauntology and Heterogeneity: ‘Western’ Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change,” British musicologist Claire McGinn discusses clichés which Western criticism should avoid with regard to Baltic music. The critical gaze on Baltic art music has long been colored by narratives of an a-modern, spiritual but folkish “Baltic” aesthetic and worldview, stemming from the characterization of Arvo Pärt’s, Veljo Tormis’s and Jaan Kaplinski’s music as “spiritual minimalism.” By reflecting on the critical interpretation, the writer expands the discourse and compares the northern mentality and aesthetic countenance of Estonian art music to the rapid institutional transitions in this northern country, accompanied by the commissioning of “Brand Estonia.” The paper contrasts hauntology and heterogeneity as symptoms of differentiated rates of institutional change that have been distorted in Western discourse through an erroneous essentialist lens. In her article “Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s,” the Korean musicologist who resides in Japan You-Kyung Cho explores Ligeti’s discourse on Gustav Mahler’s quotation technique in his texts from the 1970s. Instead of discussing the intertextual approach, traditionally linked to quotation technique, You-Kyung Cho focuses on Ligeti’s perspective and analyzes cultural and social aspects that underlay its emergence. Through her independent approach, the writer demonstrates the significant role of composer-critics as a reflection of the cultural and social zeitgeist. Apart from this, the paper also explores the fundamental change in the function of criticism in the twentieth century.

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To further develop the topic of critical reflection, the twentieth volume ofLithuanian Musicology presents a study of prominent Polish musicologist and critic Andrzej Chłopecki’s search for values in contemporary music. Magdalena No- wicka’s article “In Search of Values in Contemporary Music—Andrzej Chłopecki’s Music Criticism” defines Chłopecki’s role in naming and explaining new phenomena in contemporary music, which significantly contributed to the development of the discourse on Polish contemporary music. The author highlights that categories of novelty and originality were important in Chłopecki’s interpretation of contemporary music and that they existed only in relation to tradition and in opposition to the old. The paper also addresses Chłopecki’s intriguing discussion with the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset, who had accused twentieth-century music of lacking humanism. A total of four articles in the volume deal with the situation of music criticism in specific European countries: Por- tugal, Latvia, Lithuania, and Georgia. Isabel Pina’s article “Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers, and Ideology” shows how in the 1940s, some Portuguese composers and critics, like their counterparts in many other dictatorship countries, became involved in propaganda and supported dictator António Salazar’s and his follower António Ferro’s attempts to build a political regime, based on traditional, regional, and Catholic values. In the light of the culture marked by censorship and political ideology at that time, the article points out the ways in which cultural and musical changes imposed by the Estado Novo were aired by some of Portugal’s most influential periodicals, composers, and critics of the twentieth century. Latvian musicologist Davis Engelis approaches music criticism through the prism of language functions defined by Roman Jakobson and attempts to define its implicit meanings such as construction of a critic’s self-image and authority, an increase or a decrease in social distances between audiences and classical music industry, and the voicing of musical interpretation. In his article entitled “Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media,” Engelis presents the situation of music criticism in the Latvian mass media through the analysis of reviews written by two Latvian music critics, Inese Lūsiņa and Armands Znotiņš. The situation of music criticism in Georgia during the Soviet and post-Soviet eras is analyzed in the article “Georgian Music Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras” by Nana Sharikadze. The author points out that music criticism tends to be viewed by totalitarian regimes as “destructive” and dangerous. Like Portugal in the 1940s and other totalitarian countries, Georgia saw “quasi-criticism,” which was driven by the do’s and don’ts of the regime, come into full force after the country’s occupation in 1921. In the author’s opinion, music criticism under Soviet rule is best reflected in Grigory Orjonikidze’s works. After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Georgian music criticism had to rediscover its role, redesign its values, and regain its place in the light of both local and global realities. The article aims to define the effects of mass and social media on the development of music criticism. In her article “The International Image of Lithuanian Composers after the Restoration of Independence,” published in the supplement of the journal, Lithuanian musicologist Rasa Murauskaitė poses a topical question why, with so many talented musicians, Lithuania cannot boast names of wide international repute. The problem becomes even more acute when attention is drawn to world-renowned Estonian and Latvian composers. The current situation is analyzed through a discussion of scientific literature, critical reviews in the foreign press, and the results of a survey of foreign musicians (47 respondents from 23 countries). The findings of the survey corroborate the fact that foreign musicians are more familiar with classical Lithuanian composers such as Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis and Balys Dvarionas. However, when it comes to contemporary music, Estonian and Latvian composers are better known abroad. Drawing on the respondents’ opinion, the author explores factors which mostly contribute to the promotion of compositions. Apparently, the originality of compositional style, performance in prestigious concert halls, famous performers’ attention, composer’s personality, and political circumstances are among the key prerequisites for global recognition. In this context, the article discusses international presence of the works by the most prominent Lithuanian composers, including Onutė Narbutaitė, Raminta Šerkšnytė, and Lina Lapelytė. Along with a series of articles on music criticism, the twentieth volume of Lithuanian Musicology traditionally includes sections on music history, music theory and ethnomusicological research. Two studies within the field of historical musicology recreate the life and professional activity of foreign musicians who temporarily lived in Lithuania in the nineteenth century. Czech musicologist Jiří Kopecký’s article “Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer” attempts to retrace Zdeněk Fibich’s (1850–1900) years (1873–74) spent in Vilnius working as a music teacher. Surviving sources show that while preparing himself for service as the “Russian czar’s music teacher,” Fibich planned to perform an extensive range of works including cantatas and symphonic poems. However, he was not content with his professional standing or his private life in Vilnius. And yet, even though musical life in Vilnius did not offer the stimulation that Fibich had found when studying in Leipzig and Mannheim, according to Kopecký, a great many notable compositions were written there. Thus the researcher assumes that it is in Vilnius where Fibich matured to mastery as he had sufficient time to consider bold solutions for his works.

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Vida Bakutytė brings our attention to the creative biography of Vilnius-born composer and conductor Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844), the life of whom has not been thoroughly addressed in Lithuanian musicology. Her article “Some New Highlights for the Biography of Composer Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844)” aims to provide greater knowledge about Deszczyński’s noble descent, reveal the manifestations of the patriotic aspirations in his works, and discuss his creative legacy and the details of the musical life in early nineteenth-century Vilnius. The music theory (or systematic musicology) section comprises three studies. Laura Svirskaitė addresses the phenomenon of the triad and its development in the music composed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In her analysis of manifestations of tonality in the post-tonal music of the twentieth century, the researcher focuses on the consonant trichord, one of the key attributes of tonal harmony, which has stimulated a variety of creative solutions in contemporary composition. According to Gérardo Genette’s theory of transtextuality, the triad is treated as a metatextual element in post-tonal music; it either takes on a semantic function in a modal structure or becomes an intrinsic part of the neo-tonal harmony. Svirskaitė concludes that in the music by Luigi Dallapiccola and Olivier Messiaen, the triad assumes a certain symbolical meaning, whereas in works by Arvo Pärt, Philip Glass, and Raimonda Žiūkaitė, it becomes a structurally significant compositional element. A study by Gabrielius Simas Sapiega entitled “Conversion of Microtonality in the Second Half of the Twentieth and Twenty-First Century Manifestation of Microintervals in the Creations of Mārtiņš Viļums and Gabrielius Simas Sapiega” reveals how manifestations of the new microintervalics stimulated changes in the principles of composition, transformed the old idioms of music, and reconstructed the relationship between the composer and the composition. In his attempt to explicate different strategies for compositional technique which involve microintervals, Sapiega employs taxonomic categories such as transference, syncretism, and synthesis proposed by Everett and Lau. To demonstrate the transformation of microsystems into compositional texts, the author analyzes his own and Mārtiņš Viļums’s works. Parallels between musical and poetic language—a stimulating yet rarely conceptualized topic—is dealt with in the article entitled “Codes of Interpretation of Musical Analogies in Poetry” by Vita Česnulevičiūtė, who is an expert in this field. The scholar discusses various aspects of intersections of musical, poetic, and language-related expression and puts forward a few more prominent examples of the relationship between poetry and music of the twentieth century, which illustrate affinities between the principles governing the creation of the musical sound of a poetic text and the principles underlying the structural and semantic frame of a musical composition. With a focus on strategies of textual analysis, the article discusses various parameters of reading that constitute the analysis of poems by Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas and Nijolė Miliauskaitė and link with the generativity of musical language in a certain way. The ethnomusicological research section includes an article by Rūta Žarskienė entitled “Funeral Repertoire and the Identity of the Periphery Population: The Case of the Raseiniai District.” The brass band tradition, which has been -re searched by the author for over ten years, is closely linked to the wake customs of this region and their musical expression. The scholar questions the popular view that the Kálnai of Žemaičių Kalvarija (Engl. Samogitian Calvary Hills)—the main hymns of a Catholic funeral traditionally accompanied by brass instruments—were spread throughout the Samogitian region and could even be considered its symbol. Fieldwork conducted in the Raseiniai District in 2015 showed that the main funeral chant was not the Kálnai, but the Rosary of the Blessed Name of Jesus there. The study focuses on funeral repertoire and its variations in the greater part of ethnographic Samogitia and on the periphery of the region, the Raseiniai District, as well as on factors that had determined the differences. The appendices include the index of all research articles published in the twenty volumes of Lithuanian Musicology between 2000 and 2019. The multifaceted field of study represented in this anniversary volume fills us with optimism about the future of the journal.

Editorial Board

9 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Richard TARUSKIN Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems Plus ça change? Apie Liszto, Bartóko ir mano problemas

University of California, Berkeley, UCB 2000 Carleton Street, Berkeley CA 94720-2284, USA Email: [email protected]

Abstract In his inaugural address to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Béla Bartók proposed dividing the works of Liszt into two unequally valued portions: the valuable works that showed Liszt as an artistic innovator, and the undesirable ones that adopted a false ‘Hungarian’ style that pleased unsophisticated listeners but corrupted their taste. In sum, he asserted a radical pseudo- aesthetic dichotomy in the interests of a political agenda. Only a dozen years later, Bartók’s own legacy was dichotomized in a very similar way by musicians and politicians, on both sides of the Cold War divide, who were acting according to a political agenda that no one even tried to disguise as aesthetic. The crypto-political pseudo-aesthetics of the twentieth century, whether practiced in the name of pure national traditions, in the name of social justice, or in the name of aesthetic autonomy, has corrupted both the production and the reception of art music and has played a part in its devaluation, all too evident in twenty-first-century society. The many errors of evaluation enumerated in this essay have contributed to that melancholy history. Keywords: critical reflection, Liszt, Bartók, Shostakovitch.

Anotacija Sakydamas inauguracinę kalbą Vengrijos mokslų akademijoje, Béla Bartókas pasiūlė Ferenco Liszto kūrybą skirstyti į dvi nelygiavertes dalis: vieną sudarytų visi vertingi kūriniai, kuriuose reiškiasi meninis Liszto novatoriškumas, kitą – visi nepageidaujami veikalai, parašyti neautentišku „vengrišku“ stiliumi ir įtinkantys neišrankiems klausytojams, bet gadinantys jų skonį. Trumpai tariant, turėdamas slaptų politinių motyvų, jis skelbė radikalią pseudoestetinę dichotomiją. Dar po kelių dešimtmečių, vadovaudamiesi savo politinėmis programomis ir nė nesistengdami šių pridengti estetiniais tikslais, muzikantai ir politikai abipus Geležinės uždangos panašiai skirstys paties Bartóko kūrybinį palikimą. XX a. politines užmačias slepianti pseudoestetika, ar būtų propaguojama tautinių tradicijų grynumo, socialinio teisingumo, ar estetinio savarankiš- kumo labui, pakenkė ir akademinės muzikos kūrybai, ir jos suvokimui bei turėjo įtakos jos nuvertėjimui, apie tai akivaizdžiai liudija XXI a. visuomenė. Šiame straipsnyje įvardytos vertinimo klaidos prisidėjo prie melancholiškos istorijos kūrimo. Reikšminiai žodžiai: kritinė refleksija, Lisztas, Bartókas, Šostakovičius.

The progression that I have taken as my frame, from the Liszt’s great Hungarian musicians of the past to me – or us – in the present, was prompted by my efforts to solve another Bartók took the fiftieth anniversary of Liszt’s death in problem: the problem of how to respond appropriately to 1936 as an occasion for reflecting on Liszt’s significance. the great honor done me by The Hungarian Academy of His title, “Liszt Problems,” prompted mine. Rather than Sciences elected me a corresponding member in 2015. The conventional encomia, Bartók offered critical reflections, honor entailed an obligation to give an inaugural lecture, some of which so resonated with my own preoccupations which I delivered on 11 December 2017. Casting about as to become my own questions, although my answers, as for the right theme and the right tone, I of course recalled you will see, differ from his. My title, too, differs slightly but that Bartók and Kodály had been members of the Academy. significantly. Bartók was not investigating Liszt’s problems, (Indeed, Kodály was once its president.) I knew the often but rather his problems with Liszt, or (more strongly) reproduced photographs that show Bartók, on February 3, problems that Liszt created for Bartók and other Hungarian 1936, reading his inaugural lecture in the very room where I composers of Bartók’s generation. would read mine almost eighty-two years later. So of course The biggest, to judge by the amount of space he devoted I looked up Bartók’s lecture, which (fortunately for me) to it, was the obstacle Liszt had unwittingly placed in the had been published in an English translation, as a possible path of modern Hungarian music by mistaking the music of guide to what might be an appropriate tone and scope. In the Roma musicians who performed in urban venues such the end it gave me much more than that. as restaurants for the authentic folk music of Hungary. As a result, even as he acknowledged and took pride in Liszt’s

10 Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems achievements as the genius who had put Hungary on the Bartók’s remarks on the Hungarian rhapsodies leapt out musical map of Europe, Bartók found it necessary to re- at me and provided the spark that kindled my lecture be- ject the specifically national side of Liszt’s output. Bartók cause I had already taken their equivocal status as the start- hastened to assure the Academy that Liszt’s Hungarian ing point for a talk I gave at a Liszt bicentennial conference Rhapsodies, were “perfect creations of their own kind.” at the musicological institute in Buda in 2011, half a dozen Indeed, he said, “the material that Liszt uses in them could years ago, titled “Liszt and Bad Taste.” Although the title not be treated with greater artistry and beauty.” The problem suggested a critique of Liszt, the paper was actually a critique was “that the material itself is not always of value,” and as of the other term, bad taste, and its implications, chiefly as a result, “the general importance of the works is slight and regards the relationship between artist and audience.1 The their popularity great” (Suchoff 1976: 504). problem of the audience and its bad taste led Bartók to You have noticed, of course, the use of the conjunction the “distressing conclusion that music-lovers and average “and” where Bartók might have said “but.” Their popularity musicians […] liked and accepted, almost exclusively, only with the nonprofessional audience is thus cast as a con- [Liszt’s] comparatively insignificant and outwardly brilliant comitant of the Hungarian Rhapsodies’ slight importance. works, completely rejecting the most valuable ones which They are popular, Bartók implies,because they are of slight pointed so amazingly ahead of their time.” And this in turn importance. Thus he points to an esthetic contradiction that became a problem of strategy: how to get listeners to get had grown since the nineteenth century, when it was first over their preference for the works “that merely tickle the identified by the early Romantics, into a huge dilemma for ears” and begin to prefer “the more interesting but less flashy mid-twentieth-century modernists (or, as I like to call them, ones” (Suchoff 1976: 501). after Leonard B. Meyer, my favorite music theorist, the “late, In sum, Bartók’s solution to the Lisztian dilemma – the late Romantics”; see Meyer 1991: 241). That dilemma, the dilemma of an indispensable but potentially harmful pres- contradiction Bartók purported to identify between aes- ence – was to dichotomize his output, split it into two parts: thetic value and popularity, and which he saw as a problem one to promote, the other as far as possible to suppress. Liszt for Liszt (but which I see more as a problem for Bartók), gave made this project difficult, owing to what Bartók called the me the idea of counterposing Liszt’s problems with Bartók’s many “concessions he makes to the public, even in his finest problems on the way to my own. A related problem, one that works” (Suchoff 1976: 504). In part this was attributable Bartók, together with Kodály, had been wrestling with for to his career as a virtuoso, “fascinated,” along with “so many thirty years, ever since they issued their first collection of of his contemporaries […] by frills and decorations, show Hungarian peasant songs, was the contradiction between and glittering ornamentations, [rather] than by perfectly what was truly national in Hungarian music and what was plain, objective [elsewhere in the lecture he calls it ‘classical’] popular (The Selected Writings of Zoltán Kodály1974: 10). simplicity” (Suchoff 1976: 506–507). Twentieth-century The ultimate Liszt problem for Bartók was whether, in listeners, Bartók urges, ought to surmount the taste of their light of the spuriousness of the national element in Liszt’s “grandfathers” and ignore what is “extravagant, over-loaded music (not to mention the fact that Liszt’s mother tongue and rhapsodic” in Liszt (Suchoff 1976: 507). “[T]he essence was German, his preferred language French, and that, having of [his] works” was to be found not there, but rather in the left Hungary as a child, he did not return until his musical “new ideas, to which Liszt was the first to give expression, personality was fully formed), one could nevertheless claim and in [his] prophetic boldnesses”–first and foremost in Liszt as a Hungarian musician rather than “a homeless the “solution of formal problems” such as “the first perfect cosmopolitan.” For Bartók, the answer was a resounding realization of cyclic sonata form” in the First Piano Con- yes, for Liszt’s “art is the antithesis of the excessive density certo (Suchoff 1976: 503). and laboriousness so characteristic of the works of the out- These were not new arguments in 1936. Connoisseurs standing German composers of the nineteenth century; it of nineteenth-century musical thought will recognize in is rather the clarity and transparence of French music that Bartók’s proposals a revival of the campaign mounted manifests itself in every measure of Liszt’s works” (Suchoff on Liszt’s behalf by Franz Brendel, the editor of the Neue 1976: 509), together with the pervasive “imprint of the bel Zeitschrift für Musik, in the writings with which he pro- canto style of the Italians,” which is “plainly to be seen in claimed the advent of the Neudeutsche Schule, the “New every work” (Suchoff 1976: 502). In sum, therefore, when German School,” with Liszt as its spiritus rector. Beginning it comes to characterizing “the style of Liszt’s works[, o]ne with Liszt, and only with Liszt, Brendel asserted, “content can say anything of it rather than that it is German.” For creates its own form” in instrumental music as it had been Bartók, in 1936, as horror of the Germans was mounting doing in opera thanks to Wagner (Brendel 1857: 186). A toward the point that would eventually cause him to leave little earlier, writing in the same journal, Liszt himself had Hungary, un-Germanness sufficed to make a great Hungar- proposed free forms based on literary plots as one of the ian out of Liszt. “steps forward which the art [of music] has still to take”

11 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Richard TARUSKIN toward “the poetic solution of instrumental music” (Liszt distant keys are those at maximum distance on the circle 1855 / Strunk 1950: 859, 863). How ironic to find Bartók of fifths, whose tonics differ by the interval of the tritone; reviving these “New German” claims in the same lecture and Bartók probably knew better than anyone else that this in which he held Liszt up as the antidote to everything in was the harmonic relation on which Stravinsky had staked music that was German. his chief claim to originality, with Petrushka, his second But that is not the only anomaly. Consider the incon- ballet, in 1911. I thought it had been my achievement, in gruity between the criteria of value Bartók applies to the an article I published in 1985, to demonstrate Stravinsky’s two sides of Liszt’s creative output. The characteristics that indebtedness to Liszt (Taruskin 1985: 72–142); but here account for Liszt’s appeal to audiences–ear-tickling bril- was Bartók in 1936, almost half a century earlier, already liance, glittering ornamentations and the like–are matters showing his awareness of it, though without naming names. of immediate sensuous apprehension. That makes them, This harmonic effect was famous in Stravinsky for its in the literal and etymological sense of the word, aesthetic expressive use. It furnishes the accompaniment to the title characteristics. They are valued (or not) on account of the character’s expressions of rage in the ballet’s second tableau. direct impression that they make upon the listener’s percep- Bartók, however, describes it not in terms of its effect, but tions (that is to say, in Greek, on account of their aisthesis, only as a technique, adding that to elucidate it and the whence “aesthetics” courtesy of Alexander Baumgarten’s treatise of 1735, in which the word, and the philosophical “many other points” that would serve to valorize the essence category, was coined). The characteristics Bartók asserts on of Liszt’s music in the eyes of those who have “never see[n] behalf of Liszt’s better music–that it was ahead of its time, the substance, only the exterior [...] would require the use that it was prophetically bold, that it solved long-standing of too many technical terms” (Suchoff 1976: 501, 503). formal problems–these are not aesthetic traits at all, but The substance, he implies, is only accessible to the informed rather historical facts and appraisals. And so is the point, perception of trained musicians–indeed, only accessible to to which Bartók gives special emphasis, that “Liszt’s works the perception of what neo-Hegelians would call progressive had a more fertilizing influence on the following generations musicians. (And if we still use that adjective, progressive, to than” those of any other composer (even Wagner), and that describe music, we are still neo-Hegelians.) he “touched upon so many new possibilities in his works […] But is this not a pessimistic view, and one, moreover, that he provided an incomparably greater stimulus than” that perhaps unawares undermines the ostensible thrust anyone else (Suchoff 1976: 505). These traits and virtues of Bartók’s lecture? How can one make a bid for public are intelligible only with reference to an historical narrative, recognition of the true, substantial Liszt behind the flashy, and they only appear valuable (or not) with respect to a ear-tickling exterior, if the substance is arcane to the un- particular theory of history. initiated? If the Lisztian essence was to be sought only in That theory, of course, is the neo-Hegelian historicism advanced technical innovations, it should be little cause first applied to the history of music by the same Franz for wonder if, as Bartók admits, despite some progress in Brendel. It strongly valorized technical innovation and popularizing Liszt’s more significant work, widespread influence on the work of contemporaries and especially on posterity. Both of these are certainly legitimate we are still not where we could and should be[, a]nd the indicators of historical importance. But to tout them as question keeps coming up–why are the favourite works still marks of creative greatness and high aesthetic value as well, mainly the least important ones, […] and why do people requires the application of what I have sometimes called the still shrink from the more interesting but less flashy ones? poietic fallacy (Taruskin 2004: 7–34). That is, it takes only (Suchoff 1976: 501) the maker’s input (poiesis in Greek), not the apprehender’s Let this be the first hint, speaking from the vantage takeaway (esthesis), into account in making judgments of point of the early twenty-first century, when popular ap- value. It is a fallacy because it confuses aesthetic and historical issues, but it has been the dominant historiographical preciation of classical music has stopped making progress view since the late nineteenth century, and in all likelihood but has regressed to a point that Bartók would never have Bartók never considered alternatives to it. thought possible in 1936, of the problems to which my title Bartók’s account of Liszt illustrates the poietic fallacy alludes at its end. most clearly when he singles out, for their newness and The final paragraph of Bartók’s inaugural lecture sud- significance, “the bold harmonic turns, the innumerable denly departs from the measured, scholarly tone befitting an modulatory digressions, such as, for instance, the juxtaposi- academic address and becomes an impassioned complaint. tion, without any transition at all, of the two keys most dis- After clinching the case for Liszt’s acceptance as a true tant from each other” (Suchoff 1976: 503). This is another Hungarian and a great one, Bartók turns around and adds passage that leapt out at me as I read, because the two most a big bewildering “but”:

12 Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems

But […] there are important and publicly respected gentlemen was, at a time he never foresaw, after his heartbreakingly in our musical life who are stubbornly opposed to everything premature death in exile, when the defeat of the Fascist new that has happened in Hungarian music since Liszt; who occupier of Hungary, for which Bartók yearned, was suc- prevent, as far as they can, the following of Liszt’s traditions; ceeded by a Soviet occupation he did not live to witness. who, whether as composers or as writers, spend their whole This hostile division is the subject of a book by another lives crying down Liszt’s artistic principles; who, in spite of one of my Doktorkinder, Danielle Fosler-Lussier. Her title, all this, pharisaically call themselves supporters of Liszt, and Music Divided: Bartók’s Legacy in Cold War Culture, already pay homage to the memory of an artist whose whole life and identifies it as a double parsing–doubly opportunistic, dou- work was in absolute opposition to their own. It is these who have the least right to take Liszt’s name in vain, to claim him bly cruel. The division itself was not dissimilar to the one as a Hungarian and to boast of him as a compatriot. (Suchoff that Bartók imposed on Liszt: the popular folkloric pieces 1976: 510) on the one hand, and the advanced, modernistic ones on the other. The double, or complementary parsing was the I knew this paragraph before I knew the rest. Pretty result of the ideological polarization that took hold of the much every Anglophone writer on Bartók cites and para- Euro-American world as postwar shaded into cold war, and phrases it. It is quoted in full in the recent Bartók biogra- erstwhile allies became enemies. phy by David Cooper, who comments that in lashing out The two sides of the cold war divided Bartók just the this way at his more conservative compatriots Bartók was way they divided Berlin, into eastern and western zones. In “implicitly plac[ing] himself as an heir of Liszt’s legacy” the Soviet bloc, where Hungary had landed in 1949, Hun- (Cooper 2015: 276). David Schneider, in his dissertation, gary’s greatest composer was lumped with Schoenberg and of which I was the proud supervisor, and then in his book Stravinsky as one who, in the words of Sovetskaya muzïka, Bartók, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradition, went fur- the organ of the Union of Soviet Composers, “paid tribute ther. In his view Bartók was “using Liszt as his surrogate” to the glamorous excesses of modernism, creating a series of to “lodge a thinly veiled complaint at his exclusion from works that are remote from and alien to the people” (Szabo Hungarian concert life” (Schneider 2006: 228). Lynn 1950: 93). Hungarian musicians faced a problem similar Hooker agrees and goes further yet. She sees the lecture as a to the one Bartók had faced in his evaluation of Liszt: the counterpart to Bartók’s refusal, the year before, of an award problem of remaining faithful to a precious emblem of from the Kisfaludy Society for his early Orchestral Suite No. Hungarian achievement in music (as well as a symbol of 1 (1905), a work that no longer represented what he saw as pertinacious resistance to Fascism) and at the same time his true, as-yet-unrecognized achievement (Hooker 2013: remaining faithful to an ideology that called his musical 252 n15). The resentment that Bartók was feeling at that commitments into question; or, as Fosler-Lussier puts it, neglect, she suggests, was what motivated the strategy of of “simultaneously reclaiming Bartók as a great national “selective embrace of Liszt” (Hooker 2013: 255). She writes: composer and denouncing his music as decadent” (Fosler- Lussier 2007: 65). Maintaining this strict separation between the ‘bad’ Liszt The rhetorical solution to this problem can be best and the ‘good’ Liszt–or, to be fairer to Bartók, between Liszt observed in a pair of articles by Ferenc Szabo, at the time of as audience-indulging virtuoso with dubious taste in source writing the head of composition at the Liszt Academy and material, and Liszt as visionary and important modernist prec- among composers perhaps “the most active in bringing the edent–allowed Bartók to imply that his own work represented the fulfillment of Liszt’s incomplete promise, a promise that ideals of Soviet music to bear in Hungary,” in the opinion of Liszt could not carry out due to the limitations of his time. one who was in a position to know, namely József Revai, like (Hooker 2013: 254) Szabo a so-called Muscovite, a repatriated communist who had sought refuge from Hungarian fascism in the Soviet Union, and who served as Minister of Culture under Má- Bartók’s tyás Rákosi (Fosler-Lussier 2007: 134).2 Szabo’s articles were commissioned as answers to Western criticism of the musi- But of course Bartók’s strategy implied a similarly strict cal policies of the new Hungary. The second of them, titled, separation with regard to his own works; and thus he left a simply, “Bartók Béla,” was published in the magazine Szovjet time bomb ticking at the end of his inaugural lecture. If it kultúra in September 1950, and reprinted two months later served to promote his more recent, more radical, and (there- in a Russian version in Sovetskaya muzïka, titled “In Defense fore) more important work in preference to an “ear-tickling” of Bartók,” where I encountered it, and from which I will piece like the First Suite, the opportunistic division could quote. This piece was cast as a specific denial of what was be seen as benign. But such things are rarely benign, and in fact an entirely correct report, broadcast by The Voice of no composer’s work was ever more cruelly parsed into its America in August 1950, informing listeners that several “good” and “bad” components than we now know Bartók’s works of Bartók, including The Miraculous Mandarin; the

13 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Richard TARUSKIN first two piano concertos; the violin sonatas; the third, was as transparent and preposterous a lie as any of Szabo’s, fourth and fifth quartets; and several piano works and songs, but it enabled Stravinsky to condescend to Bartók at a time had been banned from public performance and broadcast when such condescension was chic. “since the bourgeois influence can be felt most strongly in The quartets, first performed as a cycle in New York in them.” 3 The impassioned conclusion of Szabo’s denial recalls March 1949 by the Juilliard String Quartet, were the works Bartók’s impassioned defense of the “true” Liszt. “Having that made Bartók respectable in the Cold War academy. embarked on the path of Socialist Realism,” Szabo wrote: Milton Babbitt, the leading American twelve-tone composer of those days, who had written his first “total serial” We are striving to reflect in music the building of a new life, the work, Three Compositions for Piano, in 1947, reviewed building of socialism. […] Enormous tasks confront us, upon the quartets in the , then the première us lies the responsibility of marking out the paths along which Musical Quarterly our art will develop. We will not deviate from this direction, American musicological journal, and pronounced Bartók’s for we are deeply convinced that, following this path, we will music “completely of its time,” because it “achieves a con- preserve the best progressive tendencies in Bartók and thus temporaneity far transcending mere considerations of style assure the growth and development of Hungarian music. […] or idiom.” In this it: Our task today is to restore to his music the social signifi- …reveals a thorough awareness of the crucial problems con- cance of which fascist barbarity and decadent bourgeois art fronting contemporary musical composition, and attempts had robbed him. […] Therefore we must cleanse the healthy to achieve a total and personally unique solution of these folk roots that remain in Bartók’s musical legacy of all alien problems. (Babbitt 1949: 377) influences and all that at the present moment can no longer express the spirit of our epoch. Coming from Babbitt, this had to imply a comparison In Hungary we are most apt to play those of his composi- with twelve-tone or serial technique, which composers tions in which the fundamentals of folk music most clearly and of the postwar avant-garde regarded as the single viable decisively show through, together with the principal classical traditions of the past and the aspiration toward realism. We method for future composition. Babbitt located Bartók’s do not maintain, nor do we have the slightest grounds for affinity for serial composition in “the identification of -lin maintaining Bartók’s pessimism, understandable from the ear and vertical statements” in the “developmental nature human standpoint but altogether unacceptable to us who of the motival structure” (Babbitt 1949: 382). firmly believe in the triumph of progress and in the further What this means is that any sequence of tones presented development of human culture. successively, as a melody, can also be presented simultane- Bartók did not know this faith. But all the same he is ours, ously, as a chord. What Babbitt had recognized was an for he is with us and only with us. Bartók is ours. He belongs “emancipation of dissonance” comparable to Schoenberg’s. inseparably to the party of peace. He cannot have anything in He acknowledged that “serialization in Bartók is but one common with the igniters of a new war, the dollar imperialists. of many integrative methods in the small, and its specific We Hungarian musicians demand an end to the heinous character is determined by the context in which it occurs,” comedy the heirs of Goebbels in America and England are adding that “never does it create the context” (Babbitt perpetrating around the name of Bartók. Keep your dirty hands off our Bartók! (Szabo 1950: 95)4 1949: 382–383). So Bartók cannot be classified with the serialists, although Babbitt does admit him, against Bar- The comedy to which Szabo refers at the end was the tók’s own claims, to the company of atonalists insofar as he cold war counterdivision of Bartók in the West, which showed himself “aware of the hazards inherent in the use formed a precise inversion of the one practiced in the East, of a language overladen with connotations” arising from so that the two Bartóks thus promoted fit one another like “generalized functional tonal relationships, existing prior to two pieces in a jigsaw puzzle. Anyone who studied music a specific composition” (Babbitt 1949: 377). And for this in American or western European institutions of higher reason Babbitt went out of his way to characterize Bartók’s learning half a century ago, as I did, will know that the list of music as “non-provincial,” implying a refusal to acknowledge works that could not be performed in Hungary was precisely the national character that allowed musicians on the other the list of works studied and analyzed to death chez nous, side of the Iron Curtain to admit and even promote a por- which earned Bartók his place in the twentieth-century tion of Bartók’s output (Babbitt 1949: 377). international modernist canon alongside Stravinsky and the Yet even on the western side the national coloration Viennese atonalists despite his indulgence in folklore, which was for most listeners the salient feature. Olin Downes, Schoenbergians explicitly despised and which Stravinsky the New York Times’s chief critic, who was hearing the nervously (and hypocritically) disavowed. “I never could quartets (as performed by the Juilliard Quartet) for the share his lifelong gusto for his native folklore,” Stravin- first time, confessed that they were “too unfamiliar […] sky said of Bartók in his first book of “conversations” with for the writer to have much perspective or even any very Robert Craft in 1959 (Stravinsky and Craft 1959: 82). This settled ideas about any of them,” save that “they ‘sound’

14 Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems marvelously, and show incorrigibly original and racial[!] become in effect the composer of two quartets, the First approaches to quartet problems” (Downes 1949: 23). But and the Sixth. you will find no mention in Babbitt’s analysis of anything But by the time Babbitt voiced his gentlemanly and racial, whether Bulgarian rhythms or parlando-rubato, or musicianly reservations, Bartók had been viciously at- even “Bartók pizzicati.” Of the eleven musical examples in tacked for his apparent relapse on crypto-political grounds Babbitt’s essay, ten are drawn from the Fourth Quartet, the in that infamous article by René Leibowitz, which ap- one that most convincingly illustrates the verticalization of peared in Jean-Paul Sartre’s journal Les temps moderns linear statements, and the remaining example comes from (Leibowitz 1947: 705–734). Leibowitz was astute enough the Fifth Quartet, another item in the Communist regime’s to notice the synthesis I have described as successful; but index librorum prohibitorum. for him it was an unacceptable and politically suspect The nadir of Cold War iniquity toward Bartók and his regression from the position of “engagement” that he legacy hooks up in a painfully ironic way with Bartók’s believed a serious composer was obliged to embody in the inaugural lecture of 1936. It is now widely accepted among post-fascist world. So he gave it another name: Compromis. scholars and commentators on Bartók’s career that the pe- Compromise. Just about the worst thing you could say of a riod during which he gave that lecture was the high point person in the aftermath of the Second World War, and he of tension between him and the Hungarian musical public, said it in the journal where it would be widely discussed which motivated his exaggerated partition of Liszt’s legacy. far beyond the professional world of music, translated into Also widely observed, and variously explained, is the notable many languages, and widely accepted to the detriment of relaxation of that tension in the final decade of Bartók’s Bartók’s reputation—but also furiously resisted. The first career, which coincided paradoxically with his despairing of Ferenc Szabo’s manifestos, “Bartók nem alkuszik” (Bar- removal from Hungary and his unhappy exile in America. tók does not compromise), was an agonized direct reply to The last of Bartók’s “difficult” works, and the latest one to be Leibowitz, even if Szabo was mainly concerned to defend listed on the index of prohibited compositions, was the So- the composer’s personal political integrity rather than nata for Two Pianos and Percussion, composed in 1937, one vindicate the music (see Fosler-Lussier 2007: 178 n60). year after the inaugural lecture. Beginning with Contrasts in 1938, Bartók started softening his style and readmitting to it some of the more popular Hungarian idioms, such as A sidelong glance at Shostakovich verbunkos, which he had formerly excluded on account of what he thought their dubious legitimacy as resources for The real compromise was Szabo’s. As Danielle Fosler- modern Hungarian music. As a result, the works he wrote Lussier, who has investigated his archive, has noted, in during the last six years of his life–the second violin con- private or unpublished official documents, Szabo testified certo, the Divertimento, the sixth quartet, the third piano to his discomfort with the role he was obliged to play in concerto, and above all the Concerto for Orchestra–are public. Fosler-Lussier quotes the minutes of a meeting the ones that have won him his place in the enduring con- of the Communist Action Committee of the Hungarian cert repertoire and made him a twentieth-century classic. Musicians’ Association in November 1950, just when These were also the works of which it could be said that he Szabo’s equivocal defenses of Bartók were appearing in made the most successful synthesis between the two sides the Hungarian and Soviet press. He told his comrades: of his creative output that were being cast after the war as My own heart draws me strongly toward Bartók. I have drawn irreconcilably opposed. so much from him. I, who directly occupy myself with musical This was of course regarded in the western academy as education, see that we must be very careful in the Bartók backsliding from the fully contemporary into the “racial.” question. (Fosler-Lussier 2007: 178 n59) Concluding his essay on the quartets, Babbitt expressed this concern as tactfully as he could. “Perhaps more prob- When I read this, I thought of a tiny article that ap- lematical than any aspect of Bartók’s music itself,” he wrote, peared in the New York Times on Tuesday, March 29, “is the future of the attitude it embodies.” Babbitt wonders 1949, two days after the Cultural and Scientific Congress whether Bartók’s solution to the problem of what he calls for World Peace had concluded its business at New York’s “generalized functionality” can be sustained, or extended Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. That is the famous convocation by others. “There is some evidence in Bartók’s own work to which Dmitry Shostakovich was sent as a delegate, that such an exhaustion may have taken place,” he wrote, and where he read a speech (or rather, sat silent while a for “the sixth quartet is in many respects a retreat from translation of a speech was read in his name) that stridently the position of the fourth and the fifth” (Babbitt 1949: accused the United States of imperialism and warmonger- 385). And that judgment was corroborated by that of ing, and denounced the leading modernist composers the cultural politicians in Hungary, where Bartók had of the day, and Stravinsky in particular, for their “moral

15 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Richard TARUSKIN barrenness” and “nihilism” (Fay 2000: 173). Two days On the evening of 28 March (1949) we dropped in on a very later, the little Times article appeared (Example 1). It was good concert by the Juilliard String Quartet at Times Hall. headed “Bartók’s Modern Music Soothes Shostakovich,” This quartet, consisting of young musicians, has only existed and it read, in toto, as follows: for the past three years. They devoted both of their concerts to the quartets of Béla Bartók, who died in New York in 1945, After the hurly-burly of the last few days, Dmitri Shostakovich as I was told, literally of malnutrition, in a state of dire need. took refugee [sic] at a concert in Times Hall last night. The On this evening they performed the First (1907), the music consisted of the three string quartets by the late Béla Fourth (1928) and the Sixth (1939) quartets of Béla Bartók. I Bartók, and the modern music apparently took precedence over did not like the Fourth Quartet but very much liked the Sixth. all other engagements and invitations for the Russian composer. This is an outstanding work by a first-class master. The young He and a friend sat unobtrusively in the balcony through- quartet played it superbly, and the evening left me feeling very out the performance, listening intently. When the music was pleased. (Shostakovich 1949: 21) over, they went backstage to congratulate the performers, members of the Juilliard String Quartet, and then slipped As I say, it is impossible to know just what to attribute quietly out into the night. (Bartók’s Modern Music… 1949: 3) to Shostakovich in this report. That the author takes the trouble to compare the Fourth Quartet invidiously with the It was probably an ignorant editor who put the word Sixth accords with official Soviet policy, and by so neatly “the” before “three string quartets by the late Béla Bartók” complementing the precisely opposing judgment of Milton in the reporter’s copy. If, as I suspect, the reporter was Babbitt, crisply illustrates the Cold War dichotomization the same Olin Downes whose review (already quoted) that played such havoc with the reception of Bartók’s music appeared elsewhere in the same issue of the Times, he on both sides of the curtain. To my ear, however, the bare knew perfectly well that the three quartets performed fact of Shostakovich’s presence at the concert speaks louder were the First, the Fourth and the Sixth. There is a report than the judgment he submitted for public consumption in of Shostakovich’s participation in the hurly-burly of the the USSR, assuming that it was he who submitted it. Musi- Waldorf Conference in Sovetzkaya muzïka signed by the cians seek out music for their own reasons. In the official composer. That is no guarantee that he wrote it, but still, speech read at the conference on his behalf, Shostakovich the article may record some first-hand impressions. Two roundly denounced Stravinsky in exactly the terms dictated paragraphs pertain to the concert at which the Times by the official line. And yet, in his “Travel Notes,” we read reporter spotted Shostakovich in the balcony. (Milton this: Babbitt, as we know, was also there.) I wanted to obtain some records of Stravinsky’s music. In not a single record shop on Broadway did the salespeople know the name of this composer; they asked me to look it up in the catalogue. But jazz they knew thoroughly, in every detail, down to the most intimate details of the personal lives of jazz composers and performers. (Shostakovich 1949: 21)

Whoever wrote up this anecdote for publication evidently intended it as an indictment of American culture, along lines long familiar from Theodor W. Adorno and his many epigones. But what leaps out at me is the fact that Shostakovich, who had just delivered a ringing denunciation of Stravinsky, went out immediately afterwards to buy whatever Stravinsky records he could find. His composer’s ear hungered for the very sounds he had just condemned—and perhaps even sincerely condemned—for political reasons, or reasons of state. Ferenc Szabo, whose ear and heart were drawn to Bartók even as he participated—again, I believe, out of a sincere ethical commitment—in the suppression of a significant portion of his work, would have sympathized with Shostakovich’s ambivalence. I, too, sympathize. I have expressed my own disapproval of performers and audiences who now listen with enthusiasm to works such as Prokofi- eff ’s , his cantata in praise of Stalin, because they Example 1. New York Times article: Shostakovich Listens to Zdravitsa Bartók String Quartets (March 29, 1949, © New York Times) think it is beautiful. I, too, think it is beautiful—and worth

16 Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems listening to, but not in blissful oblivion. While, unlike longer so sure, and that is my chief problem. I can broach Szabo, I deplore censorship, I also deplore the unthinking it best with a true, and very prosaic story. I have often joked elevation of aesthetics over ethics, and to that extent perhaps that I know that there is a God in heaven because whenever I am like Szabo. We are all, in varying degrees and in varying I am thinking hard about something, especially when I am connections, ambivalent. drafting a text for publication or public delivery, God has a way of sending me clippings. Things happen or come to me out of the blue that help me formulate my thoughts. Mine (or ours) Sometimes they take strange forms indeed. What I am about to tell you happened to me on the morning of Wednesday, So I am wrestling with the same problems as Bartók November 29, 2017, while this text was in progress, when I when it came to Liszt, or Szabo when it came to Bartók, or paid a routine visit to the urologist, something I do twice a Shostakovich (or perhaps pseudo-Shostakovich) when it year like many men of a certain age. The fact that a urologist’s came to Stravinsky—about whom, having spent so many office is a veritable old men’s club is something I normally years in close scholarly communion with him, I entertain take for granted and don’t pay much attention to; but this especially ambivalent feelings. Bartók’s problems were time I happened to leave the office with two other men, one especially acute, and especially illustrative of the ambiva- of whom made a remark that when he goes to the urologist lence that must attend these questions. The operation he he realizes how old he is. To which the other replied, “If I performed on Liszt, for what seemed to him very pressing want to feel somewhat young I have to go to the Symphony.” and necessary reasons, gravely injured him when he post- I think you know what he meant. He did not mean humously became, so to speak, the operand rather than the that at the Symphony he would hobnob exhilaratingly with operator. Those who operated on him had equally pressing youth. He meant that at the Symphony he would be among agendas. Thus I broach the third, last, and shortest part of people even older than he is. Classical music is losing its this talk, which, as promised in my title, will be about my audience. The audience is literally dying off. After a century problems. or so of heavy promotion both by governments (in one My problem is not with agendas as such. I am critical of part of the world) and commercial interests (in another), them all, Bartók’s, Szabo’s, Babbitt’s, Leibowitz’s, Adorno’s, it is reverting to its aristocratic niche, which means to a Shostakovich’s, and my own. But I acknowledge their ne- narrowly hedonistic assessment of its value to a very small cessity. We all have them, insofar as we have objectives; for coterie. The sense of urgency that led to polemics about an agenda is, quite simply, a list of “things to do.” We all its social value—Bartók’s about Liszt’s, Leibowitz’s about believe—do we not?—that there is more to art than the Bartók’s, mine about both of them—is vanishing from our pleasure that it gives, as we, to whom art gives so intense a daily discourse. pleasure that we have devoted our lives to it, have the great- I am not proclaiming the end of the world when I say est right—and the greatest obligation—to acknowledge. this. I don’t even deplore the changes to which I am bear- We all believe that art also plays a social role, that it can do ing witness, because to do so would be fruitless as well as good, or harm, and our view of its social role is not neces- egotistical. After the experience of barbarism in precisely sarily correlated with our immediate sensory or visceral or those countries of Europe that boasted the longest and cognitive response to it. most distinguished high-art traditions, it is no longer pos- There has always been a strong tradition in Hungary for sible to pretend that high art is high for reasons having to such recognition, even on the part of musicians thought of do with superior moral or ethical quality. What is, or was, as modernists. Certainly it was true of Bartók, and perhaps high about high art, as any historian will agree, was its social even truer of Kodály. Although Bartók figures in this essay status, the very thing it has been losing since the middle of as an upholder of the poietic fallacy, that was only one the twentieth century. facet of his complex and ambivalent outlook. In my Oxford To account for the loss in full, even were we to confine History of Western Music I dealt with Bartók and Kodály, the question to the world of music, would require an as- along with Janáček and a few others, in a chapter to which yet-unwritten book, and it is a book I actually am planning I gave the title “Social Validation,” and I took note of the to attempt—not for the purpose of assigning blame: the fact that both Bartók and Kodály, in strong contrast to endless contributing factors—economic, social, cultural, Schoenberg, Stravinsky, and other modernist icons, were political, demographic—include factors of which I actually vitally concerned with pedagogy (that is, the education feel one must approve, such as the greater seriousness with of children), the strongest possible testimony to a social which my country, for one, now takes the rarely-lived-up- conscience in a composer. to egalitarian principles on which it was founded. While I Or do we still believe in the social role, and the conse- do not think the trend is reversible, and do not see it only quent value, of art—that is, of so-called high art? I am no in terms of loss, I have a wish—the wish of my academic

17 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Richard TARUSKIN profession, after all—to understand it. And so I look to the twentieth century aesthetic autonomy should have shaded past history of the art, including the history of discourse into irrelevance and disinterestedness should have shaded about the art (the part to which people like me have con- into moral indifference? tributed), for clues about its trajectory, up to the recent past We in the twenty-first century are paying the price. High and extending to the future. art no longer matters the way it did, and perhaps it no longer Here is where Liszt’s problems and Bartók’s problems deserves to matter that much. My effort to understand what have light to shed on my problems. The tendency, or the at- brought us to this pass, and it has not made me popular in tempt, to protect high art by removing it from the concerns my field, has stemmed from a sense of responsibility that I of the real world—something that first occurred to artists could not shake—that is, the consciousness that my own and philosophers exactly when artists were abandoned by profession, that of critics, scholars and commentators, has their patrons at the beginning of the period we now call contributed, through commission and through omission, romantic—was all too successful. It found expression in not crucially, perhaps, but nevertheless significantly, to the Kant’s notion (asserted in the Critique of Judgment) of irreversible decline. It leaves me, in my belated, ineffectual disinterestedness as an aesthetic sine qua non (indeed as way, feeling lonely the way Bartók was feeling when he ad- the very definition of the aesthetic), and in Schopenhauer’s dressed the Academy of Sciences in 1936. That feeling of classic assertion, in his Parerga und paralipomena, of the sorrowful solidarity has motivated this offering, along with principle of aesthetic autonomy, which I have quoted more the hope that twenty-first century musicians continue to act times than I can count because of the damage I think it has in the spirit of Bartók’s “compromise.” done, and so I’ll quote it once more:

This intellectual life floats ethereally, like a fragrant cloud Endnotes rising from fermentation, above the reality of the worldly activities which make up the lives of the peoples, governed 1 It is published in the original English in Studia Musicologica, by the will; alongside world history there goes, guiltless and Vol. LIV, 2013, p. 1–17; and in Hungarian translation (by unstained by blood, the history of philosophy, science and Balazs Mikusi), as “Liszt és a rossz ízlés,” in Magyar zene, Vol. the arts. (from Schopenhauer’s Parerga und paralipomena) L, 2012, p. 419–443. 2 Paraphrasing a statement by József Revai. What Schopenhauer wrote was not true when he wrote 3 Letter from György Pollner of the Agitation and Propaganda it; it had never been true; nor is it true today. But artists Division to Jenő Szell, August 9, 1950; quoted in Fosler- (and, as we see, philosophers) needed to believe it in order Lussier 2007: 54. 4 to carry on after their social abandonment. It laid the intel- The final sentence had not appeared in the Hungarian original. lectual foundation for an unprecedented flowering of the arts, and music especially, in the nineteenth century, but it Bibliography reached a corrupted and deleterious epitome in the twenti- Babbitt Milton, The String Quartets of Bartók, in: eth. It produced what I have already named as the poietic fal- Musical Quar- terly, Vol. 35, 1949, p. 377–385. lacy, the insistence that the maker’s technical achievements Bartók’s Modern Music Soothes Shostakovich, in: New York create the value of the art work, and that the public should Times, March 29, 1949. be taught to value art the same way professionals judge it. Brendel Franz, Die Aesthetik der Tonkunst, in: Neue Zeitschrift That was the principle that determined Bartók’s splitting of für Musik, Vol. 46, 1857, p. 186. Liszt into the bad—the works that appealed to the philistine Cooper David, Béla Bartók, New Haven and London: Yale Uni- versity Press, 2015. public—and the good, the ones that influenced the work Downes Olin, Juilliard Quartet in 3 Bartók Works, in: New York of later composers like himself. Later Bartók’s own works Times, March 29, 1949, p. 23. were split between those that were promoted by political Fay Laurel, Shostakovich: A Life, New York: Oxford University powers who wanted to take control of cultural production Press, 2000. and those that were held up as a bulwark by supporters Fosler-Lussier Danielle, Music Divided: Bartók’s Legacy in Cold War Culture, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Cali- of Schopenhauer’s principle of aesthetic autonomy in its fornia Press, 2007. debased culminating phase. Hooker Lynn M., Redefining Hungarian Music from Liszt to It was a contest of mendacity. The politicians pretended Bartók, New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. to speak for the public. (Soviet newspapers, for example, Leibowitz René, Béla Bartók, ou la possibilité du compromis dans used to print phony letters from fictitious collective farm- la musique contemporaine, in: Les temps modernes, Vol. 3, No. ers judging the symphonies of Prokofieff or Myaskovsky 25 (October), 1947, p. 705–734. Liszt Franz, Berlioz and his Harold Symphony, in: Neue Zeitschrift from the point of view of “the people.”) The protectors für Musik, Vol. 43, 1855, reprinted in: Oliver Strunk, Source saw in audience appeal a fatal compromise with totalitar- Readings in Music History, New York: W. W. Norton, 1950, ian power. Is it any wonder that over the course of the p. 859, 863.

18 Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Problems, My Problems

Meyer Leonard B., A Pride of Prejudices; Or, Delight in Diversity, Vertinant Liszto kūrybą, klaidinga nuostata, kai kūrinio in: Music Theory Spectrum, Vol. 13, 1991, p. 241–251. vertė matuojama vien tiktai kūrėjo indėliu (angl. poietic Schneider David E., Bartók, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradi- fallacy), labiausiai atsispindi toje vietoje, kur Bartókas ypač tion, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006. pabrėžia naujumą ir svarbą „drąsių harmoninių posūkių bei Shostakovich Dmitri, Putevyje zametki [Travel notes], in: Sovet- nesuskaičiuojamų moduliacinių nukrypimų, pavyzdžiui, skaya muzyka, No. 5, 1949, p. 21. labiausiai viena nuo kitos nutolusių tonacijų derinimą be Stravinsky Igor, and Robert Craft,Conversations with Igor Stravin- jokių perėjimų“ (Suchoff 1976: 503). sky, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959. Tačiau ši Bartóko strategija neabejotinai suponavo Suchoff Benjamin (ed.), , New York: St. Mar- Béla Bartók’s Essays lygiai tokią pat griežtą skirtį vertinant jo paties kūrybą, tin’s Press, 1976, chapter “Liszt Problems”. Szabo Ferenc, V zashchitu Bartoka, in: Sovetskaya muzyka, Vol. 14, o inauguracinė kalba paliko tiksinčią bombą. Jeigu kalba No. 11 (November), 1950, p. 93–95. Editorial introduction. buvo skirta tik jo paties naujesniems, radikalesniems ir (dėl Taruskin Richard, Chernomor to Kashchey: Harmonic Sorcery; to) svarbesniems kūriniams iškelti atitraukiant dėmesį nuo or, Stravinsky’s Angle, in: Journal of the American Musicological „ausiai malonesnių“ veikalų, tokių kaip „Pirmoji siuita“, tuo- Society, Vol. 38, 1985, p. 72–142. met šią oportunistinę skirtį galima laikyti nekenksminga. Taruskin Richard, The Poietic Fallacy, in:Musical Times, Spring 2004, p. 7–34. Dvi šaltojo karo pusės padalijo Bartóko kūrybą taip, kaip The Selected Writings of Zoltán Kodály, Ferenc Bonis (ed.), Lili jos padalijo Berlyną į Rytų ir Vakarų puses. Sovietiniame Halapy and Fred Macnicol (trans.), London: Boosey & bloke, į kurį Vengrija pateko 1949-aisiais, didysis vengrų Hawkes, 1974. kompozitorius buvo suplaktas į vieną su Schoenbergu ir Stravinskiu, nes, sovietų kompozitorių sąjungos organo „Sovetskaja muzika“ žodžiais, Bartókas, „sukūręs daugybę Santrauka nuo žmonių nutolusių ir jiems svetimų kūrinių, atidavė duoklę efektingiems modernizmo kraštutinumams“ (Szabo 1936-aisiais, Liszto penkiasdešimtųjų mirties metinių 1950: 93). proga, Bartókas apžvelgė šio kompozitoriaus kūrybos Retorinis šios problemos sprendimas geriausiai atsisklei- reikšmę. Užuot ją gyręs ir aukštinęs, kaip įprasta tokiomis džia Ferenco Szabo, kuris tuo metu vadovavo Ferenco Liszto progomis, pažėrė kritinių pastabų. Jis analizavo ne Liszto, akademijos Kompozicijos katedrai ir iš visų kompozitorių o veikiau savo problemas, priimant Liszto kūrybą, arba bene aktyviausiai piršo sovietų muzikos idealus Vengrijai, dar daugiau – problemas, kurias Lisztas sukėlė Bartókui ir poroje straipsnių. kitiems jo kartos vengrų kompozitoriams. Tačiau prieš pasirodant mandagiems, profesionaliems Didžiausia problema, sprendžiant iš to, kiek vietos skyrė Miltono Babbitto pastebėjimams, Bartókas dėl akivaizdžiai jai nagrinėti, Bartókas laikė kliūtis, kurias modernios veng politinės ideologijos paveikto nuopuolio buvo aršiai rų muzikos raidai, pats to nesuvokdamas, sukūrė Lisztas, sukritikuotas garsiajame René Leibowitzo straipsnyje, klaidingai laikydamas romų kilmės muzikantų miestie- išspausdintame Jeano Paulio Sartre’o žurnale „Les temps tiškose erdvėse, tokios kaip restoranai, atliekamą muziką moderns“. Taigi susiduriu su tomis pačiomis problemomis, autentiška vengrų liaudies kūryba. Todėl, nors ir pripažino su kuriomis susidūrė Bartókas vertindamas Lisztą arba Liszto genialumą bei didžiavosi jo laimėjimais, įtvirtinusiais Szabas – vertindamas Bartóką, arba Šostakovičius (o galbūt Vengriją muzikiniame Europos žemėlapyje, Bartókas matė tariamasis Šostakovičius) – vertindamas Stravinskį, kuriam, būtinybę atmesti grynai tautinę Liszto kūrybinio palikimo beje, po tiek metų artimo profesinio bendravimo puoselėju pusę. Bartókas skubiai patikino akademiją, kad Liszto ypač nevienareikšmius jausmus. „Vengriškosios rapsodijos“, „kaip tokio žanro kūriniai, yra tobuli“ (Suchoff 1976: 504). Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 02 14

19 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Lidia MELNYK Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today Kas nužudė muzikos kritiką. Socialinės muzikos žurnalistikos strategijos

Lviv Mykola Lysenko National Academy of Music, Nyzhankiwskoho St. 5, 79005 Lviv, Ukraine e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract If music criticism has been killed, who killed it, and which strategies has it developed for survival? First, I should define the most important criteria for an assessment of music criticism and music journalism because the terms do not mean the same thing. Music criticism today is framed within specific topics and has a homogeneous recipient audience. Music journalism is again seeing such a challenge of new time. Its messages are addressed to a wider audience and deal with more problems that have a social, ideological, or political bent. Crucially, the status of music journalism is also defined by how far music journalists take notions of public interest. These new challenges may have “killed” classical music criticism, but they have also revived it and helped it develop. Currently, four fundamental strategies of cultural journalism exist (Stegert) which are also used for music journalism—informatization, personification, exploration, and popularization. These four strategies are compared with basic public relations models (Grunig/Hunt). Keywords: music criticism, music journalism, PR models, strategies of cultural journalism.

Anotacija Kas nužudė klasikinės muzikos kritiką ir, jei taip atsitiko, kokios išgyvenimo formos ir strategijos yra susikūrusios iki šių dienų? Pirmiausia turėčiau apibrėžti svarbiausius muzikos kritikos ir muzikos žurnalistikos kriterijus, nes šios sąvokos anaiptol nėra tapačios. Nūdienos muzikos kritiką griežtai įrėmina ne tik labai specifinės temos, bet ir vienalytė skaitytojų auditorija. Muzikos žurnalistika susiduria su iššūkiu, kuris turi nenuginčijamą poveikį žurnalistikos praktikai. Muzikos žurnalistika skirta platesnei auditorijai, ji išryškina socialinius, ideologinius ir politinius problemų aspektus. Labai svarbu, kad muzikos žurnalistikos padėtį apibrėžia ir tai, kiek rimtai muzikos žurnalistai traktuoja viešąjį interesą. Šie naujieji iššūkiai tam tikra prasme „nužudė“ klasikinės muzikos kritiką, tačiau kartu jie suteikia naują būdą atgimti ir plėtotis. Šiuo metu egzistuoja keturios pamatinės kultūros žurnalistikos strategijos (Stegertas), kurios iš principo taikytinos ir muzikos žurnalistikai: informatizacija, personifikacija, tyrimas ir populiarinimas. Šiomis keturiomis strategijomis remiasi pagrindiniai viešųjų ryšių modeliai (Grunigas / Huntas). Reikšminiai žodžiai: muzikos kritika, muzikos žurnalistika, viešųjų ryšių modeliai, kultūros žurnalistikos strategijos.

Introduction In the context of the presented research the following statements are key: music criticism is a kind of mental activ- In 1997 Norman Lebrecht asked the rhetorical question ity directed to evaluation and analysis of relevant informa- “Who killed classical music?” (Lebrecht 1997) and started tion about music with its following public verbalization, to search for the roots of the evil within the growing com- which can be realized both in published forms of disclosure mercialization of music production and re-production. I and outside them. Music journalism may become one of the will try to find answers to the related questions of whether forms of realization of music criticism in the mass media. classical music criticism was killed as well, and if so, who So, music journalism is a special creative activity, di- helped to do so. I will also mention which forms of it have rected at the transfer of facts related to events in the world survived and will summarize which strategies have been of music into their informational equivalent (the creation developed to maintain it. of an informational model of the subject). As a form of First, I would like to define the most important criteria mass communication, it is aimed, through mass media, for assessment of music criticism and music journalism towards a large, anonymous, heterogeneous audience. The because, from my perspective, they do not mean the same communication of music journalism is any verbal mes- thing. Music criticism today is defined within specific top- sage—informational, evaluational, or analytical—where ics and has a strictly homogeneous audience. The messages connections between society and music are thematized of music journalism are addressed to a broad spectrum of through different genres. The notion of music criticism can recipients and deal with issues of a more social, ideological, be seen as equivalent, in a wider sense, primarily when the or political angle. matter concerns the evaluation and analysis of works and/ or their performances in the mass media.

20 Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today

Because historically the optimal forms of “appearance” a specialist for the majority of the abovementioned issues is of music criticism were in published form, this notion al- always appropriate and desirable, and a look from the “in- most immediately became equivalent with any messaging of side” significantly strengthens the development of themes. current importance from the world of music, regardless of In the middle of the last century, the well-known theo- whether it contained a critical evaluation component or not. rist and composer Herbert Eimert suggested rejecting the In this sense, music criticism really may be “equal” to music definition “music critic” completely. First, he indicated that journalism, but in fact the radius of its functioning is much this profession should disappear from “registration lists at broader: it can be realized both in journalistic forms, both the police and in hotels, not only because a critic usually in mass media and outside it. The sphere of music criticism performs his duties outside his main work, or, at best, he is is also artistic salons, discussions, debates, round tables, oral an employee of an editorial office, then he should be called and printed announcements of concerts, musical and theat- a representative of the press, an editor of editorial staff or a rical performances, theoretical and critical essays, and spe- journalist (italics are mine – L.M.), but also because anyone cial edition publications—in a wider sense, any public form who feels the most subtle nuances of language will notice of verbal analysis and evaluation of musical phenomena. the mismatch hidden in the phrase itself ” (Eimert 1953: Thus, the main task of music critics, notes Gerhard Rohde 206). In his somewhat ironic reflections, consciously or rightly, is “to be mediators between complicated processes not, Eimert reveals the cornerstone issue of the problem: of music and citizens interested in them” (Rohde 2001). can everyone who writes about music and wider topics be While for journalism, even music journalism, the defining called a critic? Has not the time come to expand and clearly feature is orientation toward a public form of presentation, define the boundaries of the concepts? toward poly-systems of mass media. Another German theoretician of music criticism, Under certain conditions, music criticism, primarily its Werner Braun added Eimert’s thinking to his arsenal. It is analytical segment, becomes an instrument of music jour- noteworthy, however, that in his “historical-critical attempt nalism. In turn, journalistic forms allow criticism to fulfil the to determine the place” of music criticism by describing the majority of its social functions. Moreover, according to the three main professional types of music critic, he does not goals of journalism as a communicative institute in general, specifically distinguish the journalist, though the character- the list of tasks for music journalism also turns out to be istics of a journalist may be present in each of the following: much broader; it goes far beyond the limits of only critical evaluation and ascertaining of the historical importance of 1. Critic—the earliest definition of the person who de- certain events in the world of music. scribes (musical) events and identifies and evaluates In light of above, the wide-spread statement that music them. In the same section Braun calls Johannes Matthe- criticism performs, for example, an informative function, son with his Critica musica the first musical journalist, seems to be methodologically wrong. The objection to this obviously interpreting the term “critic” and “journalist” statement can be found in the etymology of the concept as largely equivalent. κριτική as consideration or analysis. Thus, the predominant 2. Reviewer and consultant—the most used terms from the function of criticism in the mass media, criticism as a way beginning of the nineteenth century. Robert Schumann of thinking and as an analytical instrument, should remain defined “critics” as “artists” and “reviewers” as “artisans.” evaluational and axiomatic, while music journalism also Thus, in this context as well, the concept of “reviewing” covers other functional spheres. In this context, Gunter as a description and the category “craft” spur us to make Reus’s generalization that the product of music journalism generalizations in favor of journalism. “can be considered any descriptive, analytical or evaluational 3. Music writer— this term corresponds to the epoch after message about musical events and their relationships in mass 1860. Braun relies on similar reasoning from Hugo Rie- media” (Reus 2008: 86) seems appropriate. mann and his Lexicon, where mention of this concept So, music journalism can include all materials that are occurs most often and where the term describes the related to cultural themes and also includes the opening work of “reviewers” as well as authors who take part in or closing of concert halls or musical educational institu- the process of criticism or, to be more precise, practice tions, conflict situations in groups of musicians, issues of music writing about extraordinary, famous personalities, copyright, payment of royalties, and many other topics. such as writers or composers, or publish articles about Writing about these topics in periodicals requires jour- music in periodicals or write books. nalistic investigational skills, the skill to work with official documents, knowledge of the basics of content analysis, and Mathias Döpfner, one of the most competent research- direct contact with representatives of authorities in the field ers of music criticism of our times, instead distinguishes of culture. This journalistic routine must not necessarily two types of critics—writers and musicians. The first type engage a music critic, though a competent comment from (“a journalist or writer knowledgeable in music”) actually

21 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Lidia MELNYK practices their craft because of a love of words and the press. Incidentally, Döpfner is a highly successful journalist The second type (“an instrumentalist or a composer who and manager, acting since 2000 as CEO of Axel Springer knows how to write”) comes to this profession because of media group and president of the German Federation of a love of music, often after realizing that the framework of Newspaper Publishers (BDZV). their original profession was too narrow. It is interesting First, the increasing delineation between “classical” and that, according to Döpfner, these types are different not only “popular music,” led to its death, as predicted by Adorno in their form, way of presentation, and thematic interests, and his school. but also in their intended audiences: if the “journalist” The second main factor was the growing pace and speed tries to captivate as wide a readership as possible, while the of information transmission. In the past, music criticism “musician” is interested primarily in the attendees of the was never a high-speed process, as every analysis required event (Döpfner 1991: 80). a certain amount of time and here the question “how?” is Most appropriate to the “handicraft” understanding significantly more important than the questions “who?”, of music journalism seems to be in this context the second “where?”, or “when?” group in the typology of the authors outlined by Braun The third factor of its destruction was the growing (or the first by Döpfner). Mentioned in this connection, quantity of publicly available information, which does not Schumann’s antinomy “art—handicraft” was relevant in the always go hand in hand with quality. Having fast access to period of Romanticism and influenced ideas of a later time. valuable information became a challenge for our time, but The status of music journalism is basically defined by music criticism was never before prepared for acute social how far music journalists take the notion of public inter- challenges. Which means actually lead to the renewed rel- est. This situation “killed” classical music criticism to some evancy of the music critic and how can music journalism extent, but at the same time encouraged it to survive and support this process? develop. These processes were especially recognized after World War II, when musical styles and trends separated and became diversified and new ways and styles of writing Strategies and models about music appeared. As Theodor Adorno wrote:

The qualifications for music critics remain irrational. If a man Currently, three fundamental strategies of cultural jour- is well-versed and has kept some interest in music, his isolated nalism are known, which also can be used for music journal- journalistic writing talent will mostly suffice; the crux— a ism, to make it significantly more attractive to recipients in knowledge of composing, an ability to understand and judge both quantitative and qualitative terms. the inner form of structures—is hardly called for, if for no The concept of media strategies, developed by German other reason, because there are none who might judge that theorist Gerhard Maletzke in the 1970s, is still relevant and ability itself, who might criticize the critics. (Adorno 1962, regarded today as a benchmark for further approaches in Engl. translation 1976: 151) this field of research.

With his work, Adorno anticipated one of the most The statements that are published by the media must achieve important attributes of music writing in modern times, the certain goals. Some want to inform the recipients, educate, growing gap between music criticism and music journalism. instruct; some try to influence their opinions and attitudes, Immanent factors in music development in contemporary through patterns and values; and some want to induce them music culture have contributed to this situation as have new to take certain actions and join certain behavioral systems. All challenges for journalism in general. There was an impressive these aspirations are summarized with the collective term of development of music writing from a tool used to inform goal-oriented or international mass communication. In terms people to an instrument forming public opinion, which of strategy, we understand the rational, planned setting of gradually expanded to include more topics of the social and goals as well as the determination of the ways and means to cultural life, even going so far as to influence music itself. reach the set goals. (Maletzke 1976: 1) Whenever music criticism increased its isolation, music In 1998 German publicist and media theorist Gernot journalism started to develop new subjects and topics. Stegert published his comprehensive study of strategies in As a matter of fact, we can assume three general factors cultural journalism, partly based on the Maletzke concept. leading to the status of “death” or at least a certain stagna- He, however, extended into the field of cultural journal- tion of classical music criticism after 1945. ism through further conclusions and observations, which The end of the war thus resembles an “hour zero.” For recons- we can use and expand upon. Stegert generally identifies titution, music criticism had to be something completely three main strategies of cultural journalism: personaliza- new and different, both in terms of personnel and content. tion, popularization, and feuilletonizing—the latter refers (Döpfner 1991: 50) to the traditional German term used for such media as the

22 Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today cultural sections of newspapers. Further, I’ll propose dif- introduction of culture in periodicals was a trend, first in ferentiating three additional strategies to complement this the so-called “moral journals” and later in the daily press. topic (Stegert 1998). For example, in Germany, thanks to Gotthold Ephraim For greater descriptiveness in respect of each period of Lessìng and the father-and-son pair Johann Carl Friedrich journalism history (Klaus Meier’s identification of periods and Ludwig Rellstab, theatrical and music journalism in was used with additions and more precise definitions by the daily newspapers gained traction. author; see Meier 2007) one strategy is defined as dominant, but other strategies also played their role at various stages. The beginnings of music journalism are noticeably influenced by changes of public musical life in general, where a new As an apt supplemental instrument for structuring the class—the bourgeoisie (burgers)—begins to play an increasin- following summary reflections, we should consider Grunig- gly active role. So, it [musical journalism] becomes primarily Hunt’s four models of public relations. In this case, the dependent on public concert practice, gradually doing away model acts as a sort of ideal scheme of the result achieved with court insularity and becoming increasingly oriented to due to the application of a certain strategy. the needs of the third class. (Seeger 1966: 9) Renowned American media researchers James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt in 1980s generalized four models of public Therefore, it would be appropriate to suggest that the relations (Grunig, Hunt 1984), taking into consideration a appearance and establishment of varied types of informa- number of factors of a socio-communicative and historical tion about music in the daily press was a direct response character. The schemes of media influence on mass con- to a social requirement: at that time, the situation of the sciousness they formulated are related to the main periods public performance of musical works underwent profound of mass media development. These models, considered to changes and ceased to be the prerogative of a limited circle. be classic today, also show high topicality in the context A more broadly educated audience, the petty bourgeoisie of the conclusions of the presented study because they also required other forms of finding orientation in cultural clearly reflect the strategic relationships and targets of texts situations: information about cultural events and including about music in daily media outlets at different stages of its musical ones became “utilitarian” and essential, as in the development. previous decades what was most important was stock news The most important achievement at the stage of the or the reprinting of decrees. formation of periodical press is called “correspondent The development of a new, descriptive-analytical direc- journalism.” This stage lasted from about 1600 to 1750 tion was encouraged by the general atmosphere in music and demonstrated an awareness of weight of words and the journalism in the period of early Romanticism and directly price of information in different spheres of social life. The impacted the phenomenon of “writer’s” journalism. dispatches from these areas had a mostly dry, informative During the period of 1750–1850 it is still too early to character, were free of the author’s opinion, and served the talk about the establishment of the full-fledged review as exclusively utilitarian goals of certain social groups. the central analytical genre in music journalism. Most of A special feature of musical themes in the first periodical the varieties of writing that go beyond the provision of publications is complete non-autonomy or subordination to dry information relate to the subjective preferences and the general context. That is, music (performances, the work experiences of the author and/or protagonists of his publica- of composers, the appearance of music publications, etc.) in tions. It was indeed the reason that the genre of reportage terms of the tasks of the journalism of the correspondent achieved true prosperity at that time: in fact, comprehensive phase still cannot be seen as information important in its reports from operatic performances or concerts contained own right, since it is relevant to the public by way of being significant subjective details and impressions and served the complementary or supplemental information. Specific wholesome effect of presence but rarely gave a skilled analy- information about performances of musical works appear sis of the performance itself. Besides this kind of “review,” exclusively in the context of reports about public events of a genres associated with detailed coverage about the activities secular or spiritual nature (a reception, ball, religious service of a media personality, typically a performing virtuoso or a where politically important persons were present, etc.) as a composer, become widespread. We should not forget that reference. Even short special announcements (advertising, in the nineteenth century both of types of professionals chronicle notes) about an appearance or performance of were granted equal attention, while in the following epochs musical works do not exist at this time. authors gradually began to prefer performers. Biographical The strategy of providing unbiased information and articles, reviews of comments, and historical anecdotes supplying the audience with the knowledge necessary at the were often published in the press before the arrival of the appropriate moment remains relevant for music journalism important figure to a certain city. in the following historical periods, including at the stage of Such predominance of personalities as one of the three “writer’s journalism” (1750–1850). At this time, the gradual major subjects covered in journalism (an event, a process,

23 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Lidia MELNYK a personality) allows us to state that it is at the writer’s • Personification by choosing the main theme provides a stage another media strategy, personification, gains special personality as the center of a journalistic dispatch. In this weight in music journalism. It is interesting to note that the case, it did not matter what its informational purpose main features of this strategy, described by Gernot Stegert was. Often, it could be a description of a performance or from the point of view of the realities of the present time, even of a musical work carried out through the prism of correspond to the methods used in the nineteenth century. broader reflection about a composer, the dominant role Stegert marks out the following techniques as key: being given to that person and not to a concrete event.

The closest to the personalization strategy seems to be •• Personification by way of choosing the author: when the material is written not by a member of staff, an obscure techniques peculiar to the historical first model of public journalist whom nobody knows, but by an outstanding relations, mentioned above as the press agentry model and personality that attracts the attention of the readership. connected with efforts to provide the broadest public divulgence (it does not matter whether it is positive or negative) As a matter of fact, in the nineteenth century, com- of a specific event or personality. Hence, the model is also munication to readers about a publication’s personalities called the publicity model. “No matter what they say about becomes widespread. This communication could come in me—the important thing is not to make a mistake in my the form of a lively, heated argument with the reviewer or surname”—this phrase of Phineas Barnum, a legendary invitations to performances and gratitude to the public: a showman and the founder of the “circus of miracles,” is often few such examples are presented in the historical part of this quoted as the motto of this model. Means to achieve the work. They can be interpreted not only as the spontaneous goal, as well as the principles of objectivity and impartiality, responses of the recipient, but also as ways to attract other usually play a minor role here. reader groups. Using modern terminology, a key factor for the model At the end of the nineteenth century this strategy is the media presence of an important personage. Even gained other significance when eminent writers (in this today, this model is often used in showbusiness and sports case—music critics) were able to provide larger resonance to PR strategies. It plays the same role for music journalism, the subject presented on the pages. Instead, another highly where “divulgence” is one of the main features. We are per- significant form of personification of the recipients of these suaded about this every time we look through the pages of messages was directly linked with the tradition of “romantic “glossy” or “tabloid” publications: scandalous stories—true or invented—from the life of “stars,” shocking interviews, journalism,” which lasted until 1850, that is, personification and provocative photos are primarily intended to encourage by an appeal to the audience. The “dear,” “beloved,” “most precious,” “highly respected readers” are already addressed less public interest in a personality and consequently to attract warmly at the turn of the twentieth century: whole genres attention to their work. fade into the past (such as, for example, the prospectus) The second half of the nineteenth century is significant associated with the actual “recruitment” of the audience in the history of music journalism because of the fact that to participate in a particular art or music event. However, the distinctions between journalism as an informative me- the custom of a personal appeal to the reader has never dium and criticism as an axiomatic one were more clearly been lost, because it is a surprisingly effective technique defined and deepened towards the end of the century. These and it highlights the fundamentally dialogical nature of processes turned out to be connected with changes in the journalist text. press landscape as well as in the wider historical context. The gradual growth in the independence of periodicals from the The method of personification through subjectivation of government, constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech the content and/or evaluation that acquires extreme forms in the period of “I-criticism” in the early twentieth century in certain countries, and the establishment of editorial staff has its roots in the Romantic epoch. The problem of “criti- as a collegial form of guidance of a press organ allow us to cism” as a synonym of “subjective analysis” remains relevant define a new turn in the history of the press from about 1850 called “editorial journalism.” throughout the entire history of the phenomenon’s exist- In cultural journalism, this period also important for ence. At the same time, it should be regarded as a factor in formation and development of the comprehensive review its dynamic development. Without intense discussion and (“feuilleton”1). Highlighting the three main components the writer’s exposure to readers of different points of view, of the “feuilleton” narrative (to entertain, to teach, and to without precise, though often bitter comments, without the enlighten), Reus notes: writer’s willingness to assert their own own opinion regardless of its appropriateness to music criticism in periodicals, In the middle of the nineteenth century, feuilleton also beco- it would be an extremely bland phenomenon and hardly mes established in music journalism. Since then it—relevantly interesting for a broad circle of readers. and informatively—accompanies artistic events of the time,

24 Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today

trying to attract the broadest audience to “educate them” the establishment of the qualitative press which, in turn, (Reus 2009: 319) corresponded to the main principles and requirements of this model. Strengthening of feuilleton as a genre, and even as an In the following periods of mass media history, the entire editorial section, allowed Stegert to define the strat- review, along with thematization, would have its ups and egy of thematization as a key strategy of cultural journalism: downs caused by both aesthetic and ideological factors. At Thematization as a strategy is used when they begin to write the same time, thematization becomes an important vehicle about cultural events of current importance, about figures to attract attention to an event and consequently to make it or works of art in a special, sophisticated language in order interesting for contemporary people and preserve it for pos- to draw attention to the text—or the journalist or the print terity. However, the review ceases to be the only “weapon” to organ—of a greater number of readers, make it more effici- achieve this goal. Today, we often hear complaints that this ent. These texts go beyond the framework of a simple act of genre has become obsolete and is not interesting except to providing information. (Stegert 1998: 167) those who write and those about whom it is written. Some wags even call the pages dedicated to culture in respected In summary, we can assert that it is due to the strategy of newspapers “the cemetery of reviews” (Spahn 1992: 105). thematization the fact becomes an event, the play becomes The problem lies not only in the “conservatism” of the a box office success, and the soloist a prima donna. Reviews, genre, in the fact that it, or rather its authors, was not ready without doubt, remains the most characteristic for the for the challenges of modernity, but also in the profound thematization strategy genre. Its inherent features include changes in the audience as well as the media itself: for specific language often enriched with professional terms, a centuries, reviews were the prerogative of the mass print characteristic structure of the text, and several set goals: to media. Other forms of thematization, typically of a narra- inform, to entertain, and to educate. tive but not an axiomatic nature, involving the appropriate In the second half of the nineteenth century, a new func- audio and video illustrative material dominated radio and tion of journalistic writing was realized. Authors of articles television. In the Internet space with its ability to present about music tried to move away both from strict attachment stable informational pages—“publications,” which by their to dates and facts and from the excessively poetic language structure and principles are not much different from print of the previous epoch. Information became more concrete, media and new forms of communication, such as through more objective, and more appropriate and the analysis more blogs and social networks. competent. At the same time, the audience was expanding The stage of landmark political shifts in the first half and the range of demands for this type of writing grew. So of the twentieth century, associated primarily with the it would be no exaggeration to say that it was in this period two world wars and changes in the system of major Euro- when all three forms of review were equally relevant: the pean powers, as a rule does not stand out in the history of composer’s, the performer’s (interpretational), and reviews journalism, which is unusual because this period is marked of the activities of a certain music institution. This was also by a significant reorientation of professional vectors, the the time when differences between the qualitative and establishment of new goals and strategies, and even new gutter press were becoming more acute, though they were media (primarily radio). So, below we highlight the period especially relevant as early as in the early twentieth century. of 1900-1950, conditionally calling it the stage of “armed Daily newspapers after 1850 demonstrated how the journalism.” Not without a good reason the Russian poet review genre in particular, and the strategy of thematization Vladimir Mayakovsky wrote at this time about the bayonet in general, flourished. The gradual pull away from romantic and equated the pen to it: the case in point here is not only exaltation and poetics meant that writing from different about specific forms of journalism generated by the military areas of musical life began to occupy a more stable position reality, such as war journalism, front-line newspapers, and a in publications of general information. People became more whole corps of underground press, but also about the fact aware of the importance of properly presented informa- that information becomes a weapon, a means of struggle, tion: from now on, it would not only attract attention to a and an element of strategy. certain event, a fact, or a personality but also create a wider In 1925, criticism in the Soviet Union, according to poly-semantic context and play an educational or even the resolution of the Central Committee of the Russian propagandistic role. Communist Party (of Bolsheviks) “About the policy of At the stage of editorial journalism, the next model of the party in the field of belles-lettres (literature)” became the public relation comes evolutionarily and chronologi- “one of the most important educational tools in hands cally into being—the public information model, especially of the party” (Курышева 2007: 57). Classic examples of relevant from the early twentieth century.2 I can add that “taming of unruly” musicians include the publication in the spread of the public information model coincided with the newspaper Pravda in 1936 of “Chaos instead of music,”

25 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Lidia MELNYK an article about Shostakovich’s opera Lady Macbeth of Mt- take into consideration the reactions of the recipient and sensk District or the resolution of the Central Committee correspond to the linear source-recipient scheme. of the Russian Communist Party “About Vano Muradeli’s The originator of the two-way asymmetrical model is opera The Great Friendship” that became the beginning of thought to be Edward L. Bernays, the nephew of Sigmund a large-scale persecution of composer-“formalists.” Gradu- Freud and the author of a key work in the field of public rela- ally, Soviet music journalism and criticism became powerful tions Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923). The model tries weapons of influence on mass consciousness, since conclu- to understand the needs of the recipient and to take them sions about certain phenomena published in the official into consideration in the process of informing; furthermore, publication often became admission to the stage and gained forms of manipulation of the public consciousness are based the attention of the public. on the study of the preferences and tastes of the audience We can see similar techniques in the music journalism and the media utilizing them. The asymmetric aspect of the of Nazi Germany, which after 1933 (when Adolf Hitler model consists in the fact that the main role still continues dissolved the Association of German Music Critics), was to be played by the source, the provider of information. “smelted” into an ideological weapon. In 1936 Reich During the reign of totalitarian regimes, which car- Minister of Propaganda Josef Goebbels officially banned ried out strict control of the mass media, the use of the art criticism: since then, the review was replaced by “art model was realized primarily in taking into consideration survey,” written according to strictly prescribed parameters. the tastes of the masses, in trying to write comprehensibly The intent of such writing was exclusively educational, not on popular themes, and often also organizing deliberately evaluative-narrative, and the themes were limited to the positive feedback, publication of the “voice of the people,” creativity of contemporary “mass” authors or prominent prepared accordingly. However, attempts to attract the German composers of the past. Among events of current broadest audience by simplifying the content was inherent importance, preference was also given to the description of to the mass media of democratic countries as well. Thus, musical events of an educational nature for a mass audience in the second half of the twentieth century, the strategy of or activities of amateur, mainly military ensembles (Lovisa popularization becomes firmly established as a dominant 1993: 200). one in art journalism (Beniger 1968). Needless to say, contemporary modern music and jazz Unprecedented rapid development of the mass media found themselves behind an information blockade on both and communications since the 1950s, the growth of both sides of the frontline for several decades. Fabian Lovisa, a transmitted and received information, as well as the social researcher of this period, emphasizes, “It should be empha- importance of that information, welcome the entry of a sized that the prohibition of criticism primarily concerned new historical phase of development of civilization—the not professional magazines, but the daily press” (Ibid.). information society. At this stage, of course, media strategies Obviously, these ideological opponents realized the are also changing, including those that are directly related specific power of the printed word, in particular in the daily to the spread of information about music in all its varieties. press. It is in them we see the consistently used strategy of A sequence of metamorphoses in this sphere was con- ideologization, the most characteristic features of which nected both with the attempt to expand the audience of are a major emphasis on the educational functions of music music and journalistic texts mentioned above and with journalism (with the intention to broadcast the only cor- the changes in concept about the thematic palette. The rect, in the opinion of the authority, point of view), lack of processes of renewal primarily impacted plots: the entertain- openness for discussion, the creation of a perfect schematic ment genre and pop and rock music begin to figure in mass image of an artist or a composer, and “art survey” instead media reports, and also reflection on modern and classical of “reviews.” music returns. These processes, as well as the development In the period of “armed journalism” the review under- of mass media, contributed to the appearance of new genres, goes its first stages of decay. That which was popular in the such as reviews of audio recordings. The post-war period previous period of the personal narrative genre, including is also significant for the establishment and spread of the reportage, profiles, and informative historical articles, interview as a mass media genre. replace it. At first glance, this class of text in fact could be most At the same time, according to Grunig and Hunt, it closely related to the personalization strategy. However, at was just after the First World War when the two-way asym- the time when it becomes established, the very nature of the metrical model of public relations was being developed, society’s desire for information is changing. That is why the where for the first time the reaction of those who received mass media, especially print publications, tried to win and information and the factor of feedback are taken into keep as great a number of readers as possible: the strategy of consideration. After all, it is not difficult to notice that the popularization became important, being equally important two previous historical models mentioned above do not to the “clusters” (Stegert) of both elitist culture and pop

26 Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today culture. The center of gravity of the messages shifted again the first pieces of musical journalism as a rule did not even from “evaluation” to “narrative”: not to criticize, but to be have headlines and only in half of the cases were displayed read and to inspire readers to listen became the objective graphically separated from other streams of information for the music journalist. (the tradition of general cultural “chronicles”), at the end From this survey, the interview is a genre that most of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, corresponds to such psychological qualities of humans as we notice the first attempts to emphasize the importance curiosity; along with providing information, it is charac- of certain articles by visual presentation: information terized by strong cognitive and entertaining aspects that emphasized by a box, the headline introduction (headline are necessary for a new strategy. In the elitist culture the complex), and even—an exceptional thing—publication of interview very quickly acquired the features of a creative illustrations or photographs. portrait, a comprehensive analytical-biographical sketch In proportion to the increased competition in print with the most valuable thing—reflections about the main mass media in the twentieth century and its struggle to gain character—as central to the composition. Popular culture readership, the means of attracting attention also changed. also often turns to this genre, using it in the tradition of a One of the factors that directly influenced the changes in press agent. But in any form of presentation, the interview the nature of information in the twentieth century was effectively attracts an audience. speed of transmission. In general, Stegert highlights several techniques of the In the information society, visualization of information strategy of popularization. These techniques may coincide acquired special importance because the recipient makes a with those already mentioned above, but in this case they decision in a few seconds, and it is very important to attract will serve other purposes (Stegert 1998: 167–171). their attention either by an unexpected title, or for example, by an expressive illustration (photo) or an appropriate •• Popularization by selection of the theme. In this case, the graphic or color accent. researcher has in mind the aspiration of the majority of According to Grunig and Hunt, the two-way sym- modern publications to cover as large a range of topics as metrical model of public relations became relevant in the possible, relatively speaking, to write “in breadth” rather 1960s–70s, that is, the stage of information society which than “deeply,” to attract the reader by a large range of presupposes the equal right to share information between information. At the same time, we may consider this the source and the recipient, while communicators acted strategy as taking two directions: due to selecting one exclusively as intermediaries (mediators). It is important of the informational purposes the popularization of the that in this case, the feedback factor here is already taken reflected phenomenon takes place, converting it into a into consideration: the recipient actively responded to in- media event. formation from the sources supplied by the communicator. However, the two last mentioned models have proven to •• Popularization by selecting the genre involves, according be the most relevant for advertising, both commercial and to Stegert, the use of selected informational genres for political, and have played a lesser role in informative and purely “promotional” purposes. They inform and seek analytical journalism or even in music journalism. to attract attention to a certain product, such as an announcement, an overview-forecast, or a calendar of events. Expanding Stegert’s thesis, we can remember Conclusion the popularity of “announcements” and “booklets” in the nineteenth century, when the corresponding media According to the majority of researchers, in the last preparation for operatic performances or concerts, not few decades, cultural journalism in general has been going to mention the celebration of anniversary dates, was through a crisis connected with the general loss of interest in often more consistent and careful than today. “high” art (the elitist culture), as well as with the gradual decline in newspaper readership and newspapers’ dominance Another aspect of this technique is the introduction of as an important source of information. Nevertheless, most genres alternative to the review and their subordination to print publications continue to dedicate sections to cultural both informative and analytical (critical) purposes. Today, themes, where both traditional reviews and materials of an the interview or news report could prove to be much more “alternate” character are published. The attachment to the effective from the point of view of analytical capacity than dates and specific facts, the advantage of practicing criticism traditional “criticism.” New forms of reviews, such as the over that of a composer’s one, as well as the stratification of review of an audio recording, are widespread. authors: a wide range of writers, from barely competent to No less important is the visual form of material presenta- highly qualified, are featured in the majority of publications tion—the strategy of presentation— according Stegert. If inhabiting the sphere of music journalism.

27 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Lidia MELNYK

A general theory of communication and its role in the global, including assertion of national identity and certain functions of mass media reveal another approach to the political ideas. problem. It is the convention here to interpret multifarious In today’s information society the function of social relationships and mass media contributions to the formation of orientation has taken on special significance again. The the modern public system as functions (Saxer 1974: 22–33). range of cultural, including musical, events and phenomena From this perspective, the most important features of music is almost boundless, and the mass media play a crucial role journalism seem to be informational and educational. Be- in the preferences of the public. cause articles about music in the mass media usually report The entertainment (recreational or gratifìcational) func- as well as try to explain, to deepen knowledge, and to grab tion of music journalism is often overestimated or falsely the reader’s attention. This way of presenting information identified as predominant. Music as art is an important form is concerned with the nature of music itself as the most of mental recreation; it promotes spiritual rest. Information abstract medium among the arts, which requires verbal about music may also be a form of entertainment: it will explanation, as well as with the requirements of cultural never belong to the breaking news, which includes report- journalism in general. Dieter Heß, a theorist in this field, age on natural disasters or political or economic upheavals. also observes: However, to limit its role only to entertainment would be wrong in principle. Actually, in themes from the sphere of culture, journalists In their perception of information about music (unlike rarely can limit their functions to “informational brokerage.” Interpretation and evaluation of cultural events and products music itself ) the recipient usually connects with expecta- belong to the most important elements of cultural journalism. tion of pleasure as well as, just like with any other receipt (Heß 1992: 24) of mass media, with the search for information and a reference point. Therefore, the comments made by Heß about So the educational function as the most important cultural journalism in general seem to be relevant for music function for music journalism, after its intent to inform, is journalism: restricted only to explanation and expanded ways of presenting themes and often attempts to evaluate and form public Cultural journalism must satisfy informational demand opinion. It is not by chance that in the 1970s, a new vision and help in orientation. After all, from the point of view of “active leisure” the choice has long been made not only by the of four main mass media tasks appears: alongside “informa- public. And it is this “active leisure,” which could mean both tion” is, quoting Ulrich Saxer, “comment,” “education,” and the usual curiosity and desire to learn, to study something “entertainment” (Saxer 1974: 25). Ryszard Kowalczyk, a more, requires the critical-informative support of cultural Polish specialist of mass media, tends to combine the first journalism. (Heß 1992: 11) two concepts as functions of social orientation and social motivation (mobilization) (Kowalczyk 1999: 11). Therefore, in the discourse of entertainment, the con- In fact, information about music in the mass media is cept of the critical approach actualizes again when the mat- very often carried by a motivational or mobilization ele- ter concerns music. In this context, we can mention another ment, such as announcements of concerts or performances, function of journalistic messages commonly attributed to the task of which is attendance, or reviews of music publica- information on political or economical themes, namely the tions or recordings designed to attract a buyer. However, function of criticism and control. the task of social orientation within the framework of the In the case of music journalism, we are dealing with a educational function of music journalism is not limited bilateral process: the formation and articulation of public to the distribution of the respective cultural product. It opinion, and the influencing of the tastes of the audience as is also a matter of forming public opinion about it, about well as subordination to them. An event not articulated in the assessment and prediction of the social significance of the mass media may be completely lost and go unnoticed, musical events. consequently losing importance. In different epochs the educational function of music Furthermore, we can develop these strategies as well an journalism was equally important: only the tools, ways to additional strategy, which I suggest defining as the strategy achieve the goals, and the genres have changed. If in the of motivation. It is probably one of the most important nineteenth century virtually every publication connected strategies of our time. I’m sure that this strategy can revive with musical subjects served to socially orient and motivate both music journalism and music criticism. One of the most and the desired effect was often achieved by rather subjec- important challenges today is to motivate the public, not tive means of evaluation, at the beginning of the twentieth only to reflect, appreciate, or criticize. And how can that century there were more articles of a general educational be done? In this case all the enumerated strategies become nature. Their impact on public consciousness appears to very useful. Personalization is very important in the time be more moderate, and at the same time the goals more of globalization. Feuilletonizing could be helpful for an

28 Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today analysis of “serious” media performance. And of course, Rohde Gerhard. u.a., Schwierige Beziehungskiste: der Künstler popularization as a call for cooperation and coexistence und sein Kritiker, in: Protokoll einer Podiumsdiskussion auf in the multisided stage of contemporary music culture is der diesjährigen Musikmesse Frankfurt, Andreas Kolb (ed.), NMZ, 2001, No. 9. also important. Saxer Ulrich, Funktionen der Massenmedien in der modernen Gesellschaft, in: Kurzrock Rupert (ed.), Medienforschung, Berlin: Colloquium, 1974, p. 22–33. Endnotes Seeger Horst (ed.), Der kritiöe Musikus: Musikkritiken aus drei Jahrhunderten, Leipzig: Reclam, 1966. 1 From the point of view of another connotation that this genre Spahn Claus, Musikkritik, in: Dieter Heß (ed.), Kulturjournal- acquired in the post-Soviet school, we are incline towards the ismus. Ein Handbuch für Ausbildung und Praxis, München- definition of “review” when the matter concerns “feuilleton” Leipzig: List, 1992, p. 101–108. as a genre, and characterize this strategy as the strategy of Stegert Gernot, Feuilleton für alle: Strategien im Kulturjournalis- thematization. mus der Presse, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1998. 2 It is associated with the name of New York journalist Ivy Lee, who followed his own slogan “Tell the truth.” Ivy Lee was one of the first journalists to introduce the practice of linking ma- Santrauka terials to competent sources and presenting reliable, accurate, and undistorted information in newspapers. Nūdienos muzikos kritiką griežtai įrėmina ne tik labai specifinės temos, bet ir vienalytė skaitytojų auditorija. Bibliography Muzikos žurnalistika susiduria su iššūkiu, kuris turi nenugin- čijamą poveikį žurnalistikos praktikai. Ši žurnalistika skirta Adorno Theodor W., Introduction to the sociology of music, Michi- platesnei auditorijai, ji išryškina socialinius, ideologinius ir gan University: Seabury Press, 1976. politinius problemų aspektus. Beniger J. R. The Control Revolution: Technological and Eco- Remiantis pristatomu tyrimu galima išskirti keletą svar- nomic Origins of the Information Society. – Cambridge, biausių argumentų. Muzikos kritika – tai protinė, į aktualios Mass.; London: Harvard University Press, 1968. Braun Werner, Musikkritik: Versuch einer historisch-kritischen informacijos apie muziką analizę ir vertinimą nukreipta Standortbestimmung, Köln: Musikverlag Hans Gerig, 1972. veikla, kurios rezultatas – viešas įžodinimas įvairiomis pub Döpfner Mathias O.C., Musikkritik in Deutschland nach 1945: licistinėmis ir šio žanro ribas peržengiančiomis formomis. inhaltliche und formale Tendenzen; eine kritische Analyse, Muzikos žurnalistika galėtų tapti viena iš muzikos kritikos Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1991. realizavimo formų masinėse informacijos priemonėse. Eimert Herbert, Zur Kritik, in: Melos, 1953, No. 20. Muzikos žurnalistikos padėtį iš esmės apibrėžia tai, Grunig James E.; and Todd Hunt, Managing Public Relations, Fort Worth a.o.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, inc., 1984. kiek rimtai muzikos žurnalistai traktuoja viešąjį interesą. Heß Dieter (ed.), Kulturjournalismus. Ein Handbuch für Ausbil- Šie naujieji iššūkiai tam tikra prasme „nužudė“ klasikinės dung und Praxis, München-Leipzig: List, 1992. muzikos kritiką, tačiau kartu jie suteikia naują būdą atgimti Kowalczyk Ryszard, Zarys dziejów prasy lokalnej w Polsce, Poznań: ir plėtotis. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Nauk Politycznych i Dzi- Galima daryti prielaidą, kad klasikinės muzikos kritikos ennikarstwa UAM, 1999. Kurysheva Tatiana, Muzykalnaya zhurnalistika i muzykal- „mirtį“ arba mažiausiai – tam tikrą stagnaciją po 1945-ųjų naya kritika, Moskow: Vlados-Press, 2007 [Курышева Т. nulėmė trys veiksniai. Pirmiausia šią mirtį lėmė didėjanti Музыкальная журналистика и музыкальная критика. – М.: takoskyra tarp „klasikinės“ ir „populiariosios“ muzikos. Владос-Пресс, 2007]. Antroji priežastis – spartėjantis informacijos perdavimas Lebrecht Norman, Who Killed Classical Music?: Maestros, Man- ir augančios jo apimtys. Trečiasis muzikos kritikos nykimą agers, and Corporate Politics, Birch Lane Pr; 1st ed., 1997. nulėmęs veiksnys susijęs su tuo, kad viešojoje erdvėje daugėja Lovisa Fabian R., Musikkritik im Nationalsozialismus: die Rolle deutschsprachiger Musikzeitschriften 1920 – 1945, Laaber: informacijos, kuri ne visada kokybiška. Laaber, 1993. 1998 m. vokiečių publicistas ir medijų teoretikas Ger- Maletzke Gerhard, Ziele und Wirkungen der Massenkommunika- notas Stegertas paskelbė išsamią studiją apie kultūros žurna- tion. Grundlagen und Probleme einer zielorientierten Medien- listikos strategijas, iš dalies remdamasis Gerhardo Maletzkės nutzung, Hamburg: Verlag Hans-Bredow-Institut, 1976. koncepcija, bet praplėsdamas ją ir pritaikydamas kultūros Meier Klaus, Journalistik, Konstanz: UVK, 2007. Reus Gunter, Musikjournalismus – Ergebnisse aus der wissen- žurnalistikai. Šioje studijoje pateiktais pastebėjimais ir schaftlichen Forschung, in: Weinacht Stefan and Scherer išvadomis galime vadovautis ir šiandien bei toliau jas plė- Helmut (eds.), Wissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf Musik und toti. Stegertas suskirsto pagrindines kultūros žurnalistikos Medien, Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, strategijas į tris grupes: suasmeninimas, populiarinimas ir 2008, p. 85–95. feljetonizavimas (pastaroji susijusi su tradiciniu vokišku ter- Reus Gunter, Musikjournalismus in der Zeitung, in: Schramm minu, įvardijančiu kultūrai skirtas laikraščio skiltis ir pan.). Holger (ed.), Handbuch Musik und Medien, Konstanz: UVK, 2009, p. 299–320. Šią apžvalgą puikiai papildo Grunigo ir Hunto apibrėžti

29 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Lidia MELNYK keturi viešųjų ryšių modeliai. Šiuo atveju modelis – tai arba viešinimo“ modeliui – ir skirtas kuo platesniam kon- savotiška ideali schema, apibrėžianti rezultatą, pasiektą kretaus įvykio arba asmenybės išviešinimui (net nesvarbu – taikant tam tikrą strategiją. teigiamam ar neigiamam). Taigi informavimo strategija, kurios tikslas – suteikti XIX a. antra pusė muzikos žurnalistikos istorijai svarbi auditorijai nešališkas, objektyvias, atitinkamu momentu tuo, kad šiuo laikotarpiu išryškėja ir baigiantis šimtmečiui reikalingas žinias, išlieka aktuali muzikos žurnalistikoje šiais stiprėja žurnalistikos, kaip informavimo formos, ir kritikos istorijos laikotarpiais, ypač „rašytojo-žurnalisto“ klestėjimo skirtis. Kultūros žurnalistikoje šis laikotarpis ne mažiau laikais (1750–1850). reikšmingas dėl to, kad susiformuoja ir plėtojasi išsamios Šiuo laikotarpiu iš visų trijų žurnalistikos sudedamųjų recenzijos („feljetonas“) žanras. Kadangi šis gerai įsitvir- (įvykis, procesas, asmenybė), ryškiai vyraujant asmeny- tino ir netgi ėmė užimti visą redaktoriaus skiltį, Stegertas bės komponentui, muzikos žurnalistikoje ypatingą svorį tai apibrėžė kaip vieną pagrindinių kultūros žurnalistikos įgauna kita žiniasklaidos strategija – personifikacija (suas- strategijų – „tematizaciją / temos suaktualinimą“. meninimas). Minėtas tyrėjas išskiria kelias technikas kaip Žurnalistikos evoliucijoje redakcinių straipsnių etapą pagrindines: chronologiškai keitė kitas viešųjų ryšių modelis – viešojo informavimo, ypač aktualus XX a. pradžioje. •• suasmeninimas pasirenkant autorių; Vėlesniais žiniasklaidos raidos etapais recenzijos žanras, •• suasmeninimas apeliuojant į auditoriją; kartu ir temos suaktualinimo strategija, išgyveno estetinių •• suasmeninimas suteikiant turiniui ir (arba) atitinka- ir ideologinių veiksnių nulemtus pakilimus ir nuosmukius. mai – vertinimui subjektyvumo; Tačiau pasirodė, kad siekis pritraukti platesnę auditoriją •• suasmeninimas pasirenkant pagrindinę temą. paprastinant turinį neatsiejamas nuo demokratinių šalių Geriausiai suasmeninimo strategiją išreiškia komplek- žiniasklaidos. Taigi XX a. antroje pusėje meno žurnalistikoje sinis priemonių rinkinys, ypač būdingas istoriškai pirmam įsigali ir ima vyrauti populiarinimo strategija. viešųjų ryšių modeliui – jau minėtam „atstovavimo spaudoje Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 01 25

30 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Claire McGinn Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change Hauntologija ir heterogeniškumas: institucinių pokyčių iškraipymai vakarų kritikoje

University of York, Heslington, UK, YO10 5DD [email protected]

Abstract The (formerly) “Western” critical gaze on contemporary Baltic art musics has often been colored by problematic perspectives. Many writers eagerly swallowed proffered narratives of a homogeneous, a-modern, spiritual and/or folkish “Baltic” aesthetic and worldview (epitomized by figures like Arvo Pärt, Veljo Tormis, and Jaan Kaplinski)—at times interpreting popular “spiritual minimalist” leanings as reflective of some inherent quality or character of “the region.” This tendency may not have altogether dissipated, but the dust has settled somewhat (cf. Kevin Platt’s 2007 assertion that “the post-Soviet is over”), and it is possible to view critical sensationalism through a more historical lens. A perceptible correlation exists between the notably consistent outward-facing aesthetic countenance of more northern, particularly Estonian, art music and the comparatively more unified, rapid, single-message institutional transitions, accompanied in the northern country by drastic socioeconomic reforms and the commissioning of “Brand Estonia.” This contrasts instructively with greater institutional heterogeneity and relative slowness of change in Lithuania and, correspondingly, comparatively less unified aesthetic discourses, at least on the most broadly visible level. We can view this disjuncture not in terms of what peculiar quality the art in question has, which seems to have been a common essentialist fallacy (or fantasy) in much English-language scholarship, but in terms of what has apparently been marginalized—the “hauntology” of modernism, dissonance, angularity, motor rhythms, urbanity, and red. This paper contrasts hauntology and heterogeneity as symptoms of differentiated rates of institutional change that have been distorted in Western discourse through an erroneous essentialist lens. Keywords: criticism, discourse, journalism, marketing, Brand Estonia, modernism, Baltic, post-Soviet, essentialism, hauntology.

Anotacija Anksčiau vadinamajam „vakarų“ kritikų žvilgsniui į šiuolaikinę Baltijos šalių akademinę muziką būdingi tam tikri probleminiai aspektai. Dauguma autorių uoliai pasigavo pasiūlytą naratyvą apie vienalytę, amodernią, dvasingą ir (arba) liaudišką „baltišką“ estetiką ir pasaulėžiūrą (kurią įkūnija Arvo Pärto, Veljo Tormiso ir Jaano Kaplinskio kūryba), kartkartėmis interpretuodami populiarią „dvasingo minimalizmo“ kryptį kaip tam tikrų šiame „regione“ užkoduotų ypatybių atspindį. Nors ši tendencija visiškai neišnyko, ji tam tikra prasme laikoma atgyvena (pavyzdžiui, 2007 m. paskelbtas Kevino Platto teiginys, kad „posovietinė era baigėsi“), o į kritikos sensacionalizmą dabar galima pažvelgti labiau istoriškai. Egzistuoja ryšys tarp itin vientiso, į išorę orientuoto labiau šiaurietiškos, ypač estiškos, akademinės muzikos estetinio vaizdo ir santykinai labiau unifikuotų, sparčių, nekomplikuotų institucinių pokyčių, kurie šioje šiaurės valstybėje vyksta kartu su radikaliomis socioeko- nominėmis reformomis ir šalies tapatybės „Brand Estonia“ kūrimu. Tai iškalbingai kontrastuoja su didesniu instituciniu nevienalytiškumu ir gana lėtai vykstančiomis permainomis Lietuvoje ir atitinkamai – su mažiau unifikuotais estetiniais diskursais, bent jau žvelgiant iš plačiausios perspektyvos. Šią skirtį galima sieti ne su aptariamam menui būdingu specifiškumu, tą darė daugelis angliškai kalbančių mokslininkų, ir tai yra esencialistinio mąstymo klaida (arba fantazija), o su tuo, kas iš pažiūros buvo marginalizuota – modernizmo, disonanso, kampuotumo, motorinio ritmo, urbaniškumo ir raudonumo „hauntologija“. Šiame straipsnyje priešinami skirtingu tempu vykstančius institucinius pokyčius atspindintys hauntologijos ir heterogeniškumo reiškiniai, kurių sampratą vakarų diskurse iškreipė klaidingas esencialistinis požiūris. Reikšminiai žodžiai: kritika, diskursas, žurnalistika, rinkodara, Estijos prekės ženklas, modernizmas, Baltijos kraštai, posovietinis, funda- mentalizmas, hauntologija.

Introduction wider matters of representation and political, economic, and institutional change. Certain popular, internationally visible Baltic art music As the most-performed living art-music composer in styles—often choral genres—show some distinctive recur- 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018 (Tambur ring trends, at least on the level of discourse. This article 2019) most readers will be familiar with Arvo Pärt. Further- will discuss how these associative trends may relate to a more—as will be supported in more detail later—familiarity marketing campaign regarding the outward-facing image with Pärt’s musical work may be accompanied by a strong tacit of Estonia specifically; what they appear characteristically awareness of the aesthetics, imagery, rhetoric, associations, to encompass or exclude; and how this could be related to and allusions that tend to surround this composer in popular

31 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn discourse. The whole conceptual package accompanying Pärt Publication, date Relevant quotes is quite vivid and recognizable—partly, of course, owing to his considerable commercial success. The following table (Table New York Times ◆ a whiff of church incense (Lubow 2010) ◆ resonate profoundly 1) contains examples of recurring tropes and imagery as they ◆ harmonic stillness appear in a number of articles about and reviews of Pärt’s ◆ unbelievable calm and brilliance music from various English-language media outlets between ◆ seeming simplicity 1989 and 2017. In addition, the second table shows examples ◆ total meditative state taken from similar writings (those articles with listed dates ◆ like raindrops on a windshield range from 2000–2018) on the Estonian composer Veljo ◆ the silence that is being broken Tormis (1930–2017), Latvian composers Peteris Vasks (b. is as palpable as the music being played 1946) and Peteris Plakidis (1947–2017), and a number of ◆ a web of sustained notes that CDs and concerts advertising compilations of contemporary shimmer and glisten “Baltic” classical music (mostly choral) by various artists. Gramophone ◆ austerely meditative (Cowan 2011) ◆ weeping cadences Table 1. Examples of recurring tropes and imagery of Pärt’s ◆ seemingly timeless music from English-language media outlets between 1989 and ◆ haunting bass drone 2017 ◆ infinitely strange Publication, date Relevant quotes ◆ gentle ◆ deep spiritual engagement New York Times ◆ shimmeringly mystical, devotional (Kozin 1989) quality Tel eg raph (Hewett ◆ sublime ◆ [a] mystical enigma 2012) ◆ otherworldly ◆ radiantly euphonious Gramophone ◆ marked lack of musical “activity” (Cowan 1999) ◆ a few simple but beautiful ideas ◆ quiet and meditative ◆ extreme simplicity ◆ primal simplicities ◆ deceptively uncomplicated ◆ strange new light ◆ hangs suspended ◆ patience, naivety and indifference ◆ subtle to public scorn ◆ sustained intensity that aids ◆ “one is capable of doing anything, concentration if one only listens attentively ◆ the voice of internal exile, self- enough.” (Pärt quote) communing and highly personal but ◆ put his faith in the simple truths wholly accessible his ear was telling him ◆ radiant, harmonious intervals Guardian (Wigley ◆ music that conjures an instant magic 2008) ◆ plangent ◆ sturdy simplicities ◆ repeated stark tones ◆ ancient musical devices ◆ sparse ◆ mystery ◆ severe if ineffably beautiful music ◆ new sort of truth ◆ pure, spiritually inflected work Limelight (May ◆ vertiginous excitement ◆ stirring resonances 2013) ◆ spiraling serenity ◆ yearning delicacy ◆ haunting Los Angeles Times ◆ mystical aura ◆ inexorably building sostenuto (Swed 2009) ◆ meditative music lines ◆ a man not of this world ◆ the Estonian wizard ◆ otherworldly ◆ towering and slightly ursine ◆ haunting beauty [conductor Tõnu Kaljuste] New York Times ◆ mournful, introspective lament ◆ simplicity is...captivating (Schweitzer 2010) ◆ mystical ◆ elegiac ◆ slow, introspective style ◆ overenthusiastic and distracting ◆ solemn, shimmering haze application of artificial snow ◆ delicate chimes ◆ serenity NPR Classical ◆ slow, pure, simple, yet powerfully ◆ meditative moods (Huizenga 2014) focused ◆ glacial pace ◆ musical combination of awe and ◆ seething tension silence ◆ hauntingly beautiful ◆ austere

32 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change

Publication, date Relevant quotes Table 2. Examples from the writings on Veljo Tormis, Peteris Vasks and Peteris Plakidis 365Bristol.com ◆ radical, reductive, introspective, (Caddick and impassioned and intensely Publication, date Relevant quotes Anderson 2015) personal ClassicalNet ◆ ancient power ◆ haunting dissonance (Tuttle 2000) ◆ paradoxically contemporary ◆ anguished intensity ◆ shamanistic rain-dance ◆ flickering with dreamy oscillations ◆ natural, non-operatic quality ◆ eventually, quietly, hauntingly ◆ fresh and challenging like a stiff Baltic fad[ing] away into silence breeze ◆ totally hypnotic, tranquil, ◆ strikingly beautiful dreamily endless aural will o' the wisp Gramophone ◆ sung drones propel us back through ◆ gently repeated (Fanning 2002) the centuries to a time when folk ◆ sublime, heart-meltingly lilting and sacred music could be imagined lullaby growing from the same stem ◆ delicate, tender intimacy and quiet ◆ attractive yearning ◆ a rich tradition, euphonious and for the ◆ intense, magnetic, hypnotic, most part proudly rooted in national introspective, prayerful, profound, folk idioms compelling, luminous, meditative: Guardian ◆ bland invention these are all words that could (Service 2003) ◆ dispiriting poverty of musical easily be used to describe Arvo imagination Pärt's wholly unique musical soundscape Gramophone ◆ soft but evocative choral breezes from (Fanning 2004) the East Classic FM ◆ unique, atmospheric and ◆ authentic performances (Brunning 2015) compelling ◆ it’s not all slush ◆ ancient sounds ◆ the gift of spinning long threads of ◆ the world of monasteries musical thought from apparently ◆ strikingly minimalist unpromising material ◆ hauntingly simple ◆ coming rather too close to Pärt’s patent ◆ gentle tintinnabuli idiom for comfort ◆ slow-moving ◆ doubts are niggling as to whether the ◆ magic first five movements[...] [are] ever ◆ stillness going to do anything original ◆ almost divine ◆ superb gift for sustaining a long floating ◆ state of infinity line ◆ beautifully transcendent ◆ much of this work is very soft-centred ◆ still and lyrical ◆ full of emotion Classics Today ◆ broad umbrella of “tonalism” ◆ slow, exquisite musical meditation (Vernier 2005) ◆ repetitive elements ◆ perfectly peaceful ◆ nothing particularly innovative here ◆ voices spend lots of time whispering, Financial Times ◆ flaccid panting, groaning and swooping (Nepil 2015) ◆ simplistic ◆ minimalist mannerisms ◆ soothing sonorities struggle to cast ◆ impressive for its beautiful unison a spell and close interval singing, and for its ◆ musical spiritualism powerful ending (that should have Tel eg raph (Brown ◆ profound, spiritual music come about two minutes sooner) 2017) ◆ indefinable power ◆ listeners interested in exploring beyond the choral music world in which most Guardian (Smith ◆ mystical minimalism of us mortals reside and perform will be 2017) ◆ immense stillness at least enlightened if not compelled to ◆ mesmeric, free-floating hear more Guardian ◆ light-filled music Gramophone ◆ considerable aural imagination (albeit (Molleson 2017) ◆ most popular choice [of music for (Rickards 2007) with a debt to Bartók) people who are dying] ◆ postmodern tonal idiom

33 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn

Publication, date Relevant quotes Publication, date Relevant quotes ECM Reviews ◆ EPC’s restraint is in full flower Toccata Classics ◆ unique (Tormis 2012) ◆ reverence (nd.) ◆ quasi-minimalist rhythmic vigour of ◆ uncanny ability to soak us in a feeling Estonian runic singing ◆ shamanic drum and tense use of silence ◆ tingling with excitement, energy, and ◆ peers into the heart of elemental forces power and further into the human condition MusicWebInterna- ◆ music that is “off the beaten path” ◆ proves the power of song to be a tional (Arloff nd.) ◆ [performer] writes that all four guiding light through adversity composers on his disc “share a ◆ ethereal fundamental conviction that music has ◆ gentle enough to break apart from a the power to transcend suffering and sigh heal the human spirit” ◆ appeal to nature as a source of art ◆ attractive ◆ whistling winds ◆ a wonderful and ethereally beautiful ◆ monastic solemnity work that expresses feelings of nostalgia Hyperion (Gough ◆ strong affinity with the meditative and loss in the most unmistakable way 2013) power of nature ◆ incredibly powerful ◆ distinct character of Latvian folk music ◆ a luminosity that shines within the music Tel eg raph (Allison ◆ too much easy listening 2014) ◆ theme of northern light ◆ made my hair stand on end with its ◆ Baltic connection hugely effective evocation of those ◆ single, meditative arc feelings he seeks to describe ◆ haunting lines ◆ quietness ◆ repeated incantations ◆ echoes of folk music which further ◆ mood of increasing fervour enhance the feeling of timelessness ◆ the most satisfyingly relaxing work I Guardian ◆ free in narrative fantasy have heard in a long time (Reinvere 2017) ◆ incorporating [...] sounds of village life or birdsong In many positive and important ways, it is possible ◆ sparse in development ◆ “I don’t use folk melody – it is folk to map some of these and other related ideas onto some melody that uses me” (quoting significant visible currents of twentieth-century literary Tormis) and philosophical discourses of Estonian cultural identity. ◆ drew on [the] power [of singing] to Drawing on the work and ideas of Jaan Kaplinski (Salumets express [...] forest pantheism 2015/2006; Daitz 2004), Maire Jaanus (2006), Veljo Tormis Planet Hugill ◆ elegiac, folk-like (2007; Daitz 2004), Mikk Sarv (n.d.), Marek Tamm, and (Hugill 2018) ◆ beautifully shaped with a sense of a Kalevi Kull (2016), a broad set of relevant themes can be still, quiet centre extrapolated. Those familiar with common treatments of ◆ focused, serious and intent musical time in so-called “spiritual minimalist” music may ◆ folk-ish melodic lines recognize intersections between this list and the interpre- ◆ meditative ◆ Spare, short and intense tive discourses that often tend to accompany works of this ◆ hanging in mid-air sort. In short, and to simplify a diverse and nuanced body ◆ completely magical of literature, it is possible to see recurring references to: ◆ The four songs didn't so much tell a •• ritual (whether “folk or religious) story as each evoked a particular mood •• a sense of ancientness or “timelessness” (whether in a ◆ flowing, long-breathed “folk” or Orthodox religious interpretation) ◆ melancholy • a sense of diminished authorship and intuition or “me- ◆ straightforward, though beautifully • diation”; a recognition of the primacy of nature (or of constructed God—just not of humans). Toccata Classics ◆ rooted in the melodic character of • the idea that space takes priority over time; postmodern (nd.) Latvian folk music • paradigms of time and history as circular, repetitive or ◆ remarkable strength and beauty ◆ remarkable and moving goalless. ◆ shares some points of contact with the ‘Holy Mystics’ among other Baltic For a more detailed example, the conceptual imbrica- composers, such as Arvo Pärt and tions between the work of composer Veljo Tormis and Peteris Vasks poet Jaan Kaplinski can provide an illustrative focus. An

34 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change intersection between constructions of “Baltic” (more spe- depends predominantly on assertive, goal-bound initiative” cifically, Finno-Ugric) identity in a more abstract sense and (Ibid.). He goes on to explain that, “built on a distinctly parallels in a composer’s theories about their own practice different foundation, ‘unforced flourishing’ calls for dimin- can be seen in the juxtaposition of Tormis’s words about ished intervention in favor of an engaged responsiveness his music1 with Kaplinski’s expression of certain idealized without agenda” (Ibid.). Emphasizing the poet’s “sense of ways of being (2002), as extrapolated by Thomas Salumets ‘artlessness’ as a desired aesthetic effect,” Salumets highlights (2014). This “quilting point” is a helpful way to expand on a “deep and unqualified identification with the nonhuman the present discussion due to the vividness of Kaplinski’s world” as the “very richest” manifestation of unforced poetic imagery. Starting from these apparently entirely flourishing in his thought (Ibid.). Kaplinski believed in sincere and meaningful articulations of twentieth-century the value of minimal intervention and the relative insignifi- pro-independence Estonian identity discourse, we can trace cance of human goals. In conjunction with the rejection of their reverberations across other conceptually relevant areas, anthropocentrism and a belief in self-organizing systems with varying degrees of ambivalence. redolent of a brand of Cageian anarchism, this ontology is positioned as a discursive other to rationality in the Webe- Responding to the perceived threats of “intra-European rian zweckrational sense—rationality defined as a highly or postcolonialism” and the “rush to join the West,” as well as maximally efficient relationship between input and output, historical occupations, Soviet erasure and Russification, deliberate cause and intended effect, decisive action and Estonian poet Jaan Kaplinski conceived of an idealized desired outcome (Petrov 2015: 97; an outlook we could “Finno-Ugric mode of seeing” (2006). The group of con- characterize as “modernist,” when defined as being in a cepts which he saw as aligned with this mode includes: unity of opposition to postmodernism). Salumets’s pithy artlessness; the value of minimal intervention and “unforced paraphrase of the overarching sentiment—“don’t touch flourishing”; “blandness”; a lack of concern for strict differ- that rock, Sisyphus” (Salumets 2014: 25)—unfolds more entiation or exactitude; ritualistic, monotonous repetition, subtly in this “biophilic” extract from Kaplinski’s Through as opposed to innovation and progress; and respect for the the Forest (1996), which follows the heading: balance of nature (Salumets 2014). Kaplinski’s poetry paints fond portraits of the unforced and the everyday: I have no principles. in my depths are no thoughts. The snow’s melting. The water’s dripping. in the depths is clear water that flows The wind’s blowing (gently). in the dimness over stones, a few shells, or caddis fly, The boughs are swaying. There’s a fire in the stove. minnows The radiators are warm. and roach, Anu is doing exercises on the piano. water-moss and speedwells Ott and Tambet are making a snowman. that tremble in the current Maarja is preparing a lunch. like the strings of an instrument, only unheard. The wooden horse is looking in from the window. At the bottom of stream are no thoughts, I am looking out of the window. only flowing, only the current’s I am writing a poem. categorical imperative I am writing that today is Sunday. which bends and bows with it That the snow’s melting. That the water’s dripping. the mosses and speedwells, the fish and caddis flies, That the wind’s blowing, etc., etc. (Kaplinski, accessed online, nd.) teaching some to cling to the stones on the bottom, others to the flowing water itself, According to Salumets, the idea of “unforced flourish- which is called swimming. (1996; Salumets 2014: 25) ing”: Kaplinski’s worldview also colors his interpretation ... conceives of two otherwise separate and contradictory of the significance of ancient Estonian regilaul folk song. processes as one: it conveys engagement and attentiveness, but Salumets says that: our involvement is directed towards bringing to fruition what happens of its own accord. Expressing a complex matter all too … to capture the essence of its unique appeal for Kaplinski simply, one might say that Kaplinski’s intention is to “invent [...] means to recognize and welcome the regi song’s astonish- nothing” and thus “receive everything”, to borrow Gerhard ing inartistic modality, a remarkable “blandness”’ (Salumets Richter’s words about his kindred existential perspective and 2014: 158). sense of diminished authorship. (Salumets 2014: 26) The poet’s recognition of a positive valence of ambiguity Coined by Salumets, the term reflects Kaplinski’s “chal- (the inherent value of the sense that “an a” is not “an a” but lenge to firmly entrenched and reified core conceptions,” is merely “an a-like thing”; Salumets 2006: 443) in the char- most notably the assumption “that human fulfilment acteristic parallelisms of regilaul verse implicitly suggests

35 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn a correspondingly diminished significance for language, phenomenon Kaplinski emphatically feels is symptomatic taxonomy, classification, symbols, and systems designed of a form of self-colonization—is reflected in Salumets’s to maximize efficient action. There is more to say about explication: regilaul in particular, and about the connections that may In the course of their 700-year colonizing process, as Kaplinski be drawn between the ways it is frequently described in rela- sees it unfold, Estonians find their culture wanting, particu- tion to time and some of the most prominent discourses of larly during the period of national awakening in the 1860s and minimalist music, both spiritual and otherwise. 1870s. Estonia was perceived to be lacking in what Europe’s centers took for granted: stone buildings, churches, palaces, Many aspects of Kaplinski’s characterizations of regilaul poetry with end rhymes, manor houses, cities, abstract words, are conceptually mirrored in other cultural and histo- a Protestant ethic, a national epic, song festivals, fraternities, riographical framings of the runic song. Observations by operas, the devil, a standard literary language, a single God, Tormis and others also suggest a discursive opposition to and other manifestations of the mentality associated with the anthropocentric agency and rationalism. Regarding his own colonizers. (Salumets 2006: 435) relationship with the folk songs, Tormis said “I am more a Maire Jaanus’s essay “Estonia’s Time and Monumental mediator than composer or arranger,” and that “it is not I Time,” in which she asserts that the time of Estonia is re- that makes use of folk music, it is folk music that makes petitive, cyclical, feminine, Other, ecological, eternal, static, use of me” (Daitz 2004: 56). Mikk Sarv has also identified goalless, hysterical, and linked to a history of oppression, a conviction among some regilaul singers that the songs serves to link an image of Baltic postcolonialism (or post- represent “the free flow of nature through the human spirit” colonial “Balticness”) strongly to the collection of tropes (Sarv n.d.). His advice for students hoping to learn to sing that have historically functioned as “Western” imperial them is as follows: rationalism’s discursive others.2 This in turn serves to rein- You cannot learn regilaul tunes from a songsheet—you need force a discursive link with popularly cited characteristics of to look for them among what they call willow notes. As singer minimalism, cf. static time, circularity, repetition, endless- Toomas Köömel explained in 1913 to folksong researchers ness, goallessness, and more related tropes of otherness to visiting Rannu village, Viru-Nigula parish: “These old songs academic modernism and/or putatively Western teleology. didn’t have no proper tune to them. They were sung just like that—to willow notes.” When asked “what does that mean?”, Many of the above examples can be seen as positive his answer was: “Well, this means that each singer has their identity constructions relating to a hugely important pro- own tunes and sings to them…” You can learn the willow notes independence moment, linked with internal movements of when you go to a tree, stone, river or spring, on your own and empowerment and self-identification. The valence of this without talking to anyone, and ask them to teach you a tune. type of imagery is necessarily altered when it is wielded by If you know how to be very quiet, and open your heart, then a tune will start singing within you. Sing along to it and give different speakers in a different context and can have a notably your thanks to the place where you found the tune. (Sarv n.d.) altered function in English-language discourse about Baltic art music, particularly when the commercial dimension is In the 2007 lecture “Some Problems With That Regi- taken into account. Having identified this cluster of distinc- laul,” Tormis laid out fourteen points for consideration. tive qualities, it is possible to map related concepts onto the Here are two of the most salient ones for the discussion rhetorical “superstructure” of cultural discourse and to argue in hand: that aesthetic and conceptual connections can be drawn between key threads of cultural discourse and the marketing 9) The regilaul is a ritual song and not a means of commu- and reception of the most successful ‘Baltic music’ exports to nication. date. However, a side effect of the popularity and coherence of 10) The regilaul is supra-individual culture, the cultural at- this particular postmodern palette may be seen in its potential mosphere that stretches out above us like the sky. One should to obscure a greater diversity of styles, ideas, and movements not aim for setting a model based on the regilaul as performed generated by artists from the three “Baltic” countries. by a particular singer, and linking it with the so-called “great” singers. (Tormis 2007)

Salumets relates Estonian folklorist Jakob Hurt’s 1902 Heterogeneity characterization of regilaul as like the “ancient tendrils” of a “primeval forest, which refuse to be transformed into One of the aspects of “heterogeneity” that is relevant here artful gardens of modern culture” (Salumets 2014: 157). concerns the idea that other Baltic art musics—notably, some The idea of Estonia viewed as Other/underdeveloped/ of the most significant Lithuanian contemporary art music primitive in comparison to (formerly) “Western Europe”—a and its mainstream discourses—may share many of these

36 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change fingerprints (such as a prominent tendency towards post- in 700 years (Salumets 2006: 435)—hardly less “dramatic” minimalist styles) but also have a comparatively more visible than a ground zero of 1913. During this period of independ- legacy of twentieth-century atonal modernism—with signifi- ence and “national awakening,” various strands and siblings cant figures like Jeronimas Kačinskas, Vytautas Bacevičius, of “modernism” in the arts may have flourished and withered and Osvaldas Balakauskas—which is less prominent in main- for any number of reasons. stream English language discourses of Estonian art music. However, although it is vital that modernism is not The Baltic states are often erroneously homogenized. framed as some kind of necessary evolutionary stage—or Obviously, it is not surprising that discourses of art and indeed as a normative good—it is also not hugely obscure music across such a region should be very diverse—but knowledge that even Arvo Pärt, who is generally portrayed beyond that, the underlying implication that Estonia might as epitomizing the most prominent kind of “euphonic” have just bypassed musical modernism in the twentieth palette, also wrote experimental avant-garde or modern- century seems problematic. ist works before his “tintinnabuli” phase. There still exist popular tropes which hold that the central powers of According to Boris Groys, one of the tactics ostensibly the Soviet Union succeeded in erasing and rooting out deployed with the aim of (re)building an identity free from all modernist, experimental, or progressive tendencies in any associations with the USSR was the idea of “going music and art altogether in the twentieth century—and back” (2015) to pre-occupation-era art and culture to find this is not a completely accurate picture (Sverdiolas 2006).3 something “authentic,” erasing the Soviet experience from But “modernist” leanings do seem to be comparably more cultural memory as both alien and entirely irrelevant. In a marginalized in the internationally visible image of Estonian lecture on the difference between Western postmodernism art music. This is at least the case in accessible, published and Eastern post-socialism, Groys claimed: English-language sources. I am not trying to argue either way that there is or isn’t a comparable Estonian modernist Western postmodernism was a reaction against the modernist canon—in which case, figures like Mart Saar and Heino canon […] The emergence of this type of postmodernism was Eller might be cited—but intend instead to examine some impossible in Eastern Europe because the conditions under potential significances and sources of the discursive empha- which art was practiced there were completely different. The sis placed on, and the apparent privileging of, what I think modernist canon was never established and institutional- ized in Eastern Europe, so the revolt against it had no sense. can reasonably be described as a postmodern aesthetic in (Groys 2015) terms of reception, interpretation, and promotion.

He also suggested that: So, in addition to some (already-cited) important cultural roots of the aesthetic discourses in question, the ... for the Eastern European and Russian artists, to move on prevalence—and the distortion—of these images is a means, in fact, to go back […] to the national cultural identity matter of reception (though in the context of this arti- before it was repressed and distorted by communism. Here cle, I am only examining English-language, and mainly the question emerges, of course, how far they have to go back Anglo-American, examples). One quite striking case, to to be able to rediscover and reappropriate the cultural capital. Obviously Russians have to go at least until 1916, maybe to be discussed imminently, is a 1995 article from the British 1913. That means that on the way to post-communist nor- newspaper the Sunday Telegraph, which was actually about malisation, globalisation, they have to abandon and subtract the Latvian composer Peteris Vasks but could almost be a from the, let’s say, cultural bank account […] almost the kind of instruction manual for writing reductive and fantas- whole twentieth century. The situation of other post-socialist tical clichés about post-socialist countries. But recurring in countries is not so dramatic. They have to go back merely to the ways that English-language writers have depicted Arvo the period before World War II. But they still lose several dec- Pärt himself, we also, of course, see particular trends. A ades, and in terms of cultural capital, under the conditions of notable phenomenon is the recurrence of pairs of concepts international competition, this is not so negligible an amount which, on the one hand, emphasize his supposed intuitive,

of time.(Groys 2015) abnormal genius and, on the other, paint pictures of a kind In the case of the Baltic States, two complications arise. of impish, childlike, animal-like, emoting-rather-than- One is the common idea that Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania intellectual figure. One user’s comment on a YouTube video experienced comparatively greater cultural freedom and less of a Pärt piece claims: strict control on the production of art and culture during I have a much higher IQ than Arvo Pärt, but there is no way I Soviet occupation than some other republics. The other is could have even begun to conceive the indescribably beautiful that, for Estonia at least, the interwar period in fact consti- sounds in his compositions. Where do you think that kind tuted the only two decades of full national independence of genius comes from?

37 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn

Not only does the user assume, without providing any Pärt is a gaunt man with a pale, gentle face and mournfully evidence, that their own intellect is demonstrably far supe- powerful eyes. His bald pate is balanced by a tightly curled beard rior to Arvo Pärt’s, but they also highlight their impression of a few inches’ length. He has been described as “monkish” so that the composer’s “genius” is somehow strange, unex- often that a German musicologist has undertaken a deconstruction of the term, but the word still springs to mind unbidden: pected, incomprehensible, or difficult to define. Moreover, he could pose for an icon of St. John Chrysostom, or another of the discursive binary of being simultaneously more-than the literary saints. Yet, when his large eyes fix on you, he becomes and less-than an imaginary “normal” standard of intellect more worldly and formidable; his stare seems to ask, “Are you is strongly reminiscent of David Graeber’s assertion that serious?” At times, he is unexpectedly impish, even antic. He the subject who has (or is supposed to have) less power in needs few words to make himself understood, using a repertory a relationship is often framed as being simple, backward, of quasi-operatic gestures and clownish faces. (Ross, 2002, online) irrational, or stupid—but, at the same time, also “somehow Highlighting his alleged penchant for non-linguistic mystically wise” (Graeber 2015: 69–70), preternaturally in- forms of expression, the description here seems to link tuitive or instinctual, “in touch” with nature, or “streetwise”; Pärt to irrationality, the unconscious, the body, childhood we can see this in countless representations of women, peo- (actually, the language[s] in which the interview was con- ple of color, poor people, and people with other marginal- ducted—English and German, presumably encompassing ized identities. It also reflects Stuart Hall’s identification that the reviewer’s first language and the composer’s third or the Other is often required to represent something inciting fourth—may be more relevant). The excerpt effects the attraction and something provoking repulsion at one and uncanny evocation of images of someone very ancient/wise the same time (Hall 2013 [1997]: 228, 257). (St. John Chrysostomom) and someone very young (impish, clownish), mirroring the common interpretations of Pärt’s In a 2002 New Yorker article, Alex Ross cited the “un- postmodern compositional juxtapositions of very old and sentimental evidence of record sales” as an indicator of the new musical ideas. If this characterization of his person is significance of Pärt’s work. Pondering the significance of accurate, then that is certainly a convenient coincidence; this mass appeal and explicitly describing the composer as more important, either way, is that it serves to make the having an “uncanny voice,” the article theorized: composer himself seem almost strange. The article’s poetic He has put his finger on something that is almost impossible closing lines also zero in on the significance of the non- to put into words—something to do with the power of music linguistic and emotive, claiming that, while trying to make to obliterate the rigidities of space and time. One after the himself understood during their conversation the composer other, his chords silence the noise of the self, binding the mind had “stopped, frustrated at the inability of either English or to an eternal present. For this reason, anecdotes of listeners’ German to bring his image to life”, produced a pen “as if that experiences, whether extreme or mundane, may give a better would explain everything”, and exclaimed that “Schubert’s account of the music than any analysis of its inner workings. pen […] was fifty per cent ink, fifty per cent tears” (Ross (Ross 2002) 2002). The general idea that what composers “want to say” can only adequately be expressed in music, not verbally, is Here the author frames the composer as being in a popular one, but in other cases it may be less common touch with “something” powerful yet non-verbal and/or to highlight an actual perceived failure or breakdown in inarticulable (and therefore non-rational?). Silencing the everyday interpersonal verbal communication to illustrate “noise of the self ” surely also means silencing language, this. The intensification and personification of existing ideas discourse, and the symbolic order, as these are what about intangibility, inarticulability, and the uselessness of constitute the subject. Positioning Pärt as both inspired words when talking about emotion and meaning in music is and irrational—intuitive and emotive, not analytical—is used here, however inadvertently, to characterize Arvo Pärt to situate him on the “more organic” side of a kind of as an individual in a way that overlaps with both positive nature-culture dichotomy (or spectrum). In a classical internal and othering external constructions of Estonian othering strategy, the composer is repeatedly represented cultural identity. So, these recurring images of “mysticism,” as being both “more” and simultaneously “less” than an simplicity and naturalness may in some instances consti- unspoken standard of normality or some anonymous but tute demeaning representations, as in the aforementioned more “rational” cultural counterparts. Even the ways that Sunday Telegraph article about Peteris Vasks, which made writers describe the composer as an individual tend to incredible, sweeping claims about Latvians in the 1990s make him seem somehow unusual, different (from “us,” (“these people know nothing yet of guile”) and accused i.e., normative standards of reason and rationality govern- the composer—whose music the article’s author clearly ing hegemonic discourse). The article acknowledges these enjoyed—of producing work that “lacked the qualities of trends at the same time as reproducing them: a mind in dialogue with itself ” (Jackson 1995).

38 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change

Brand Estonia There are, of course, restrictive terms of use on the Brand Estonia imagery, which is still live and has since been up- But in addition to orientalism, exoticism, or cultural dated. The terms state that the permitted and appropriate paternalism on the part of external commentators, there is use of the images and design materials is “to introduce the also the matter of how foreign policy, economic agendas, Republic of Estonia, the Estonian society or different fields and outward-facing reforms also had great potential to of the Estonian economy,”6 and, as such, they will not be influence the ways in which powerful groupsinternal to reproduced here. However, by navigating directly to the Estonia might have favored a particular perception of their website, it is possible to view various samples of the style country for more pragmatic reasons. As many readers may specifications; various pages, such as “imagery,” or “colours,” be aware, in 2002 the Estonian government commissioned can be found at https://brand.estonia.ee/design/. This is Interbrand, a British branding company, to produce a clearly a very pragmatic and carefully considered design. For document—a style guide—called Brand Estonia. Although similar reasons of copyright, it is not possible here to repro- many other nations subsequently commissioned new na- duce album covers of the many CDs of popular “Baltic art tional brands around a similar time, Estonia’s was one of the music” that have circulated through classical markets since earliest and most visible “exemplary” cases (Jansen 2008: Arvo Pärt’s 1984 Tabula Rasa release with ECM. However, 124). The resulting guide was essentially an introduction a brief search reveals that the iconic, muted white, and pale to how to represent the country abroad in line with their blue cover has clearly played a part in influencing subsequent new image. Proposed keywords were digital, ecological, releases. Among covers that can easily be found on Google and —one of the key messages was “Nordic fresh, Nordic Images, common themes include water (droplets, lakes, or with a twist.”4 At this time, Estonia, along with but ever- the ocean); grey, white, and blue palettes; symmetrically so-slightly more rapidly at first than the other Baltic states, framed wooden posts (tree stumps or the remains of a boat was of course undergoing radical shifts—obviously the dock) in empty landscapes; vast, empty spaces with no hu- change in administration from Soviet to independent was mans or animals, or the distant silhouette of birds against the biggest meta-level transition, but even in a wider context a mountain or a tiny rowboat; fog, clouds, aurora borealis; of drastic change, Estonia seemed to lead the way in terms light and shadow in monochrome images; rocks, boulders, of the speed and depth of reforms that were implemented in the earliest days. One politician said it wasn’t enough to pebbles, shells, feathers, leaves, branches, and natural shapes. change institutions—that they had to also actively undo Many of the images described here come from covers for Soviet brainwashing in the minds of the people. recordings of music by Arvo Pärt, but they also include releases by Veljo Tormis and a number of compilations (such Themes and images highlighted for focus by the up- as “Baltic voices 1–3” or “Baltic and Beyond”), to reinforce dated “Brand Estonia toolkit” —which is available online, that there is a quite strong aesthetic correlation with, for as is the 2002 Brand Estonia handbook—include sparsity, example, the photography prototypes that can be viewed nature, water, plants, weather, boulders, bogs, clouds, blue, on Brand Estonia’s “imagery” page. green, purple, fog, snow and ice. “Diversity” is pinpointed as a significant message; the guide advises that this concept The stereotypical picture of Soviet imagery or iconogra- “displays the contrasts of our four voluptuous seasons and phy is so vivid from its many “ironic” recyclings in popular also our rich history. It conveys the layers of our culture—Es- culture today (particularly on the internet), as well as in tonia as a place in-between (east and west; nordic and rustic, memory, that it doesn‘t seem necessary to provide examples. etc).”5 The guide recommends that users “show contrasts: But we can have in our minds’ eyes the starkness of the nature/technology, snow/soil, water/land, eastern europe/ contrast between the, again stereotypical, archetypical Soviet nordic, traditional/modern, digital/natural, typical/weird, modernist aesthetic, at least as it might appear in simplistic, boulders/fog.” One sample photo of a foggy, rainy, grassy almost caricatured, pop-culture revisions (if required, a scene featuring a retreating, umbrella-wielding figure is ac- simple Google Images search for generic terms like “Soviet companied by instructive copy that explains: art” or “communist art” can offer a helpfully condensed snapshot), and the Brand Estonia/“Baltic Voices”-type Sparsity means openness. It displays our pure nature and palettes explored above. One, typically, has sharp lines, low population density, but also that there is lots of room to regular shapes, and jagged edges; the other has soft lines, discover. (Brand Estonia, nd.) irregular shapes, and smooth, blurry, foggy textures. One The “how-to” notes direct the reader to “prefer spatial is, stereotypically, bright red, while the other is both more compositions with a clear fore- and background which is muted and lower contrast, and favors cooler, more “natural” emphasized by the objects and actions in the frame or by colors. Various contrasts between the visual/stylistic, con- the depth of field,” adding “Nature shots should display fog ceptual, and more implicit or extrapolated associations of and/or clouds if possible” (Brand Estonia, nd.). these loose aesthetic clusters are suggested below:

39 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn

Digital Industrial use it freely. Otherwise, it would not be a creative process, but “Nature” / landscapes / weather Humans only some kind of mechanical process of writing in accordance Wild / rural Urban / industrial-agricultural with various rules. To achieve a Russian style I would avoid “Nordic” / Western “Slavic” / Eastern some devices, for a Spanish style I would avoid others, and Blue Red for a German style, still others. (Frolova-Walker 1998: 344) Cold / grey tones Warm / bold / saturated tones Round / “natural” shapes Angular / abstract shapes I’ve appropriated the term “hauntology” (which might Soft / blurred / Solid / sharp / block textures be understood in a number of ways) to characterize my im- translucent textures pression of this phenomenon. The concept of hauntology, Postmodern Modernist for Mark Fisher: Sparse Busy Neoliberal Authoritarian communist … can be thought of as fundamentally about forces which act at a distance—that which [...] insists (has causal effects) In the course of confronting the kind of aesthetic trends without (physically) existing. (Fisher 2012: 20) that seemed common to both Brand Estonia and this music For Colin Davis, hauntology: marketing palette, it seemed pertinent to ask, not necessarily what this “meant” but maybe something about what ... supplants its near-homonym ontology, replacing the prior- its various producers might have been trying to achieve. ity of being and presence with the figure of the ghost as that Considering this, and simultaneously also being confronted which is neither present nor absent, neither dead nor alive. by some quite suspect assertions of a sort of “special qual- (Davis 2005: 373) ity” of “Baltic music” from around the early 2000s—the For Jacques Derrida, for whom exclusion is a necessary question arose of what appeared to have been excluded and fundamental ingredient of all meaning: from this palette. Now, of course, it is almost blindingly superfluous to point out that the aesthetic trends of one … to haunt does not mean to be present, and it is necessary to period may be seen as a reaction to and rejection of what introduce haunting into the very construction of a concept. came before, especially if there is any sense that what came (Derrida 1993: 202) before was somehow an imposition. But I am particularly Some of these definitions are perhaps more “literary,” interested in this case because of the apparent extent and but in this context it seems feasible that the concept could degree of the coherence of the visual messaging, compared be used in quite a straightforward definition as pertaining with other examples (and because so many writers externally to something which signifies in or through its marked ab- apparently accepted it as a kind of reality). sence: a “ghost” of something that has been meaningfully marginalized and makes meaning through not being there. This idea of systematic exclusion as a fundamental This is a complex phenomenon, far more multifaceted than cornerstone of identity- or image formation was strongly a simple, essential characteristic to be observed, appropri- evocative of Marina Frolova-Walker’s “deconstruction” ated, and uncritically consumed. of some forms of Russian romantic nationalist composition, in which she highlights the tactic of a via negativa We can see the “absences” in Brand Estonia not framed or negative strategy (Frolova-Walker 1998: 349–50). She in terms of a lack or of something found wanting, but actu- explained that some of these composers and theorists ex- ally of something decidedly strategic. Frolova-Walker’s as- plicitly acknowledged that the way to write “Russian music” sessment of the Russian nationalist technique is that it was was not to attempt to identify what that might actually “very prosaic”—and this is something that seems important sound like—probably an impossible task—but instead, to to emphasize in light of the tendency to frame some of the consciously erase compositional features and patterns that most widely visible Baltic art music as magical, unbelievable, seemed stereotypically Western. The following quote, from otherworldly, and so on, in fundamentally Othering ways. Rimsky-Korsakov, is cited by Frolova-Walker as emblematic As Frolova-Walker continues, of this pragmatic attitude: Here the composer is not, after all, the conduit for the inef- Russian traits—and national traits in general—are acquired fable groanings of the Russian soul, but merely a practical not by writing according to specific rules, but rather by re- musician who has learned the trick of avoiding certain turns moving from the common language of music those devices of phrase in order to create a distinctive stylistic ambience. which are inappropriate to a Russian style. The method is of (Frolova-Walker 1998: 344) a negative character, a technique of avoiding certain devices. Thus, for example, I would not use [stereotypical melodic Veljo Tormis, an Estonian composer whose treatment phrase example—C. M.] if I were writing in a Russian style, and re-presentation of the runic song genre regilaul has been as it would be inappropriate, but in other contexts I might received as an oeuvre of incredible cultural importance, once

40 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change noted that the folk song could “not be harmonized” (Tormis may be founded on the baseline assumption that inequalities 2007)—at least, not according to Western common-prac- are a part of nature (Bookchin 1987)—a necessary part, tice ideas about harmony. There may be echoes in this state- in fact, of a “self-organizing” system, which is another ment of the kinds of tactical avoidance prescribed above. favorite concept of Kaplinski’s (Salumets 2014: 24)—and However, I am not so interested in ascertaining whether that “natural” imbalances shouldn’t be interfered with. or not Tormis, Pärt, or any other successful and popular This is relevant here because, at the time of Brand Estonia’s Estonian, Latvian, or Lithuanian art music composers conception and release, figures within the Estonian govern- used a via negativa approach as consciously and explicitly ment were implementing comparatively drastic right-wing as Rimsky-Korsakov. The more important point, I would economic policies—what then-Prime Minister Mart Laar argue, is the reluctance or inability of some writers, evident described as “shock therapy” (Jansen 2008: 127)—in the in some previously explored examples of criticism, to accept name of economic recovery. Laar, who was nicknamed that Tormis, Pärt, and other successful and popular Baltic “Margaret Thatcher’s grandson,” headed a government art music composers were primarily “practical musicians which saw in a series of radical changes; at this time, as Sue who learned tricks [...] in order to create a distinctive stylistic Jansen explains: ambience” (Frolova-Walker 1998: 344). This, of course, does not necessarily preclude such artists from having incredibly Estonia created and ratified a new constitution and legal strong and profound national and/or spiritual feelings, system, which reduced the role of the state in the economy; the government streamlined privatization, introducing a inspirations and/or significance. However, it should be stable national currency that was soon made an equivalent recognized that when the suggestion that an artist displays of the Deutschemark, eliminating price controls, selling off a special kind of strange, dim-witted, intuitive genius is state properties, underwriting business loans in lieu of un- prioritized over the assumption that, first and foremost, employment benefits, offering retraining programs especially they have studied, they are skilled, and they have worked in the information technology sector, introducing a flat tax hard to produce effective and distinctive pieces of music, an with no corporate tax, and eliminating tariffs. (Jansen 2008: insidious Othering strategy may be at work. Furthermore, 127–128). as suggested by Graeber’s ideas above, the assertion that a subject is both more (magically intuitive) and less (practi- The new socioeconomic order in post-independence Es- cally rational) than the alleged norm has precedents in tonia generally seemed to favor startups and entrepreneurs the kinds of oppressive and power-loaded circumstances and encouraged cheap labor and foreign investment. Even which it seems highly undesirable to reproduce. Some within a context where all three “Baltic Tiger” economies commentators framed Brand Estonia as quite cynical—be were undergoing radical and hugely important changes, that as it may, it’s certainly not evidence of a lack of the so- Estonia appears to have stood out by comparison, as some called “qualities of minds in dialogue with themselves.” In a key steps tended to happen slightly earlier there, and with similar vein, an excessive focus in reception on a composer’s marginally less internal political resistance than, for exam- intuition and/or identity can equal a failure to acknowledge ple, in Lithuania. The latter state had more successfully built the skill, commitment, opportunities, training, experience, up a national ruling elite of native Lithuanians during Soviet labor, and simple trial-and-error experimentation that go occupation due to the lower rates of emigration (Bohle and into producing successful and meaningful music. Greskovits 2012: 99) and tolerated comparatively stronger residues of left-wing politics after independence than the Estonian government under Laar, who “was adamant in his Conclusions rejection of any socialist legacy” (Ibid.: 124).

What seems to emerge overall from earlier comparisons So, without entertaining the essentialist idea that this is a relatively more unified, streamlined and coherent aes- nation had some quality that would explain the quicker thetic “message” in many more visible cultural exports of rate and more focused direction of change, we can trace the northernmost Baltic country, seemingly correlating with more pragmatic, “material” reasons why powerful groups in Estonia’s rather faster and more radical (in the earliest days) Estonia may have been more inclined or able to make these post-socialist reforms. We can also see some links between choices in an attempt to influence cultural policy. Brand Estonia’s aesthetics and the Estonian poet Jaan Kap- linski, whose ethos of “unforced flourishing” supports non- Without wanting to understate the seriousness of the intervention and a kind of “attentive inaction,” and “deep experiences of any one group or region and without intend- ecology,” a laissez-faire environmental philosophy of “checks ing to simplify to the point of insensibility, it seems relevant and balances.” The social ecologist Murray Bookchin sees that, during Soviet occupation, a comparatively higher deep ecology as an implicitly neoliberal ideology because it number of ethnic Russian communists emigrated to Estonia

41 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn and Latvia than to Lithuania. The culturally destructive mind Johannes Fabian’s ideas about the implicit imperial- programs of linguistic and institutional Russification ist tendencies of anthropology, one of which concerns the might therefore be seen to have had a comparatively more tendency to confront Otherness as though it does not exist in widespread or extensive reach there. It may be suggested the same time as the observer (Fabian 1978); this is a trait that that the impact of these numbers of ethnic Russian émigrés can also be seen to characterize quite a lot of writing about would make the immediate and radical transformation and Pärt. Furthermore, and critically, these representations seem replacement of Soviet-era institutions and structures seem to portray a ‘Baltic’ Other with a lack of agency. It’s this relatively more urgent for cultural and linguistic reassertion agency which seems particularly important to reassert in the in Estonia, whereas Lithuanian institutions changed slightly discussion—not just on an individual, exceptionalist level, more slowly—and it must be emphasized here that this is looking at figures like Pärt, but on a wider structural level, only meant in terms of a comparison with Estonia—seeing relating that agency to a really radical (if at times socially a greater degree of heterogeneity and resistance. Bohle and ambivalent) project of economic and cultural “rebirth.” Greskovits write that, in contrast to the case in Lithuania:

Estonian and Latvian power holders have [...] pursued a na- Endnotes tionalizing project to reverse the effects of the massive influx of Russian speakers in Soviet times. (Ibid.: 97) 1 See Tormis, “Regilaul” (2007) and Daitz, Ancient Song (2004). 2 See Jaanus, “Estonia’s Time and Monumental Time.” Obviously, it is critical to recognize that all three Baltic 3 See also Vita Gruodytė, “Happening instead of rupture, or countries had fundamentally similar experiences in the sense rupture as happening,” transl. Tomas Čiučelis. Lithuanian that they all endured a violent, traumatic, oppressive, and Music Link no. 18 (accessed online, http://www.mic.lt/en/ unlawful occupation and subsequently strove to rebuild discourses/lithuanian-music-link/no-18-january-decem- their nations after regaining independence. But it may be, ber-2015/happening/, 01.02.2019). 4 See the 2002 Brand Estonia style guide, “Eesti stiil,” for example, that certain geographical differences, such as available online at http://arhiiv.pixel.ee/eas/eesti- Estonia’s quite large shared border with mainland Russia, brand/2002-2008/2002-eesti-brand-welcome-to-estonia.pdf. while Lithuania has no border with the mainland—and a 5 See the “Design” section of the current Brand Estonia website: number of other factors relating to geography and proximity https://brand.estonia.ee/design/imagery/. 6 which contributed to Estonia being viewed as a desirable See “Brand Estonia’s Terms and Conditions,” Brand Estonia location for FDI—(Kaarma 2017: 25) were involved in the website: https://brand.estonia.ee/about/terms/. formation of subtle, slight political, cultural, and economic contrasts, even between countries that were all engaged in a Literature very similar process of moving forward that was, of course, of equally critical importance everywhere—and that these Allison John, Hilliard Ensemble, Salisbury Cathedral, review: differences are perhaps at the root of the gap between “too much easy listening”, in: Telegraph, May 28 2014, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/classicalcon- Estonia’s highly concentrated re-branding program and certreviews/10860634/Hilliard-Ensemble-Salisbury-Cat- economic reforms and the comparatively more heterogene- hedral-review-too-much-easy-listening.html [last checked ous processes apparent in Lithuania. 01.02.2019]. Arloff Steve, Review: Balys DVARIONAS: Complete works But it is, of course, not appropriate to make such for violin and piano and Baltic and Beyond, in: MusicWe- sweeping claims here. My argument, in fact, is only that the bInternational, nd., http://musicweb-international.com/ classrev/2017/Jun/Dvarionas_violin_8573673.htm [last emphasis apparently placed on a stylistic palette that seems checked 01.02.2019] almost to represent the inverse of modernism in visible Bohle Dorothee, and Béla Greskovits, Nation Builders and Neo- discourses of Estonian or more “Northern” Baltic art music liberals: the Baltic States, in: Capitalist Diversity on Europe’s may be more helpfully understood in terms of marketing Periphery, New York: Cornell University Press, 2012. agendas’ relationships to foreign, social and economic policy Bookchin Murray. ‘Social Ecology versus Deep Ecology’ [first published in Green Perspectives 1987], http://dwardmac. than the essentialist notions of identity that seem to have pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/socecovdeepeco. underpinned a lot of the rhetoric deployed by some English- html [last checked 01.02.2019]. language music writers who tended to pay less attention to Brand Estonia, Contemporary website, https://brand.estonia.ee more subtle differences in the histories of these European [last checked 01.02.2019]. neighbors, at least in the late ’90s and early 2000s. Brand Estonia (2002 guide), http://arhiiv.pixel.ee/eas/eesti- brand/2002-2008/2002-eesti-brand-welcome-to-estonia. pdf [last checked 01.02.2019]. The more “exotic” kinds of representations seem to Brown Mark, A brave but flawed attempt to dramatise Arvo paint an undignified picture of a “mystical” collective Part - Tabula Rasa Traverse Theatre, Edinburgh, Review, Other with a special, magical quality of difference, calling to in: Teleg raph, Nov 10 2017, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/

42 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change

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43 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Claire McGinn

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44 Hauntology and Heterogeneity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change gali būti geriau suprastas analizuojant rinkodaros programų susipriešinti su Kitu, lyg tai neegzistuotų tuo pačiu metu kaip sąsajas su užsienio, socialine ir ekonomikos politika nei stebintysis (Fabian 1978); šis požymis būdingas nemažai pasitelkus esencialistines tapatybės sampratas, daugiausia tekstų apie Pärtą. Be to, galima kritiškai pasakyti, kad šiuose lemiančias kai kurių angliškai rašančių muzikologų retoriką apibūdinimuose „baltiškajam“ Kitam stinga laisvos valios. O ir jų nepakankamą dėmesį subtilesniems šių kaimyninių kaip tik ją ir reikėtų sugrąžinti į diskusiją – ne vien kalbant šalių istorijos skirtumams bent jau praeito amžiaus dešimto apie išskirtinai tam tikras asmenybes, tokias kaip Arvo’as dešimtmečio pabaigoje ir šio tūkstantmečio pradžioje. „Eg- Pärtas, bet ir platesniu struktūriniu lygmeniu – bei susieti zotiškesniuose“ apibūdinimuose iš aukšto pateikiamas „mis- laisvą valią su tikrai radikaliu (retkarčiais gal net socialiai tinio“ kolektyvinio Kito paveikslas, nuspalvintas ypatingo, ambivalentišku) ekonominio ir kultūrinio „atgimimo“ magiško kitoniškumo, o tai pasufleruoja Johanneso Fabiano projektu. mintį apie antropologijos netiesioginį imperialistinį polinkį Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 02 09

45 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

You-Kyung CHO Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s1 Mahlerio kūrybos interpretacija: György’o Ligeti aštunto dešimtmečio muzikos kritika

The University of Tokyo, 7 Chome-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyō, Tokyo, Japan (Zip Code: 113-8654) Email [email protected]

Abstract Contemporary composer-critics’ commentaries, particularly around the 1970s, have been overlooked despite the acknowledged significance of the writers. This paper explores the Hungarian-Austrian composer György Ligeti’s discourses in articles, interviews, and reviews in the 1970s and takes a close look at his reading of Mahler’s quotation technique. In the first part, giving a brief overview of the commentaries made by Mahler’s pre-1970s critics, I will focus particularly on the 1970s to clarify what cultural and social aspects underlie the emergence of a new perspective in the course of interpreting Mahler’s quotation technique. Then in the second part, drawing on commentaries made by Ligeti, I will explore the idea that Ligeti’s view reflects his contemporary aesthetics by viewing Mahler’s quotations as collage. He offers a valid musical analysis to highlight heterogeneous characters in Mahler’s quotations and emphasizes its function as a vehicle for social criticism. His conclusion is drawn from the standpoint of viewing the heterogeneity as the key element of collage technique that prevailed among contemporary composers around the 1970s. Through Ligeti’s reading of Mahler, this paper attempts to demonstrate the significant role of composer-critics as a reflection of the cultural and social zeitgeist. It also explores the fundamental change in the function of criticism in the twentieth century. Keywords: György Ligeti, Gustav Mahler, quotations, collage in the twentieth century, composer-critics, music and society, utopianism.

Anotacija Šiuolaikinių kompozitorių-kritikų komentarai, ypač praeito šimtmečio aštuntame dešimtmetyje, dažnai nesulaukdavo deramo dėmesio, nors jų autoriai ir buvo reikšmingi. Darbe nagrinėjami vengrų-austrų kompozitoriaus György’o Ligeti aštunto dešimtmečio straipsniuose, interviu ir recenzijose plėtojami diskursai, plačiau apžvelgiama jo pateikta Gustavo Mahlerio citavimo technikos samprata. Pirmoje dalyje, glaustai apžvelgus iki 1970 m. skelbtus Mahlerio kūrybos komentarus, analizuojami kultūriniai ir socialiniai veiksniai, lėmę naują, aštuntame dešimtmetyje susiformavusią Mahlerio citavimo technikos sampratą. Antroje dalyje, remiantis Ligeti komentarais, plėtojama mintis, kad šio kompozitoriaus požiūris į Mahlerio citatų vartojimą kaip į koliažą atspindi šiuolaikinę estetiką. Įtikinamoje muzikos analizėje jis atskleidžia Mahlerio citatų daugialypiškumą ir pabrėžia jų atliekamą socialinės kritikos funkciją. Kompozitoriaus argumentai remiasi nuostata, kad dau- gialypiškumas yra pagrindinė aštuntame dešimtmetyje vyravusios koliažo technikos ypatybė. Pasitelkiant Ligeti pristatytą Mahlerio kūrybos interpretaciją, šiuo tyrimu siekiama atskleisti, kokį svarbų vaidmenį atlieka kultūrinę ir socialinę laikotarpio dvasią atspindintys kompozitorių kritiniai komentarai. Čia taip pat analizuojama, kaip XX a. kito kritikos paskirtis. Reikšminiai žodžiai: György Ligeti, Gustavas Mahleris, citatos, koliažas XX amžiuje, kompozitorius-kritikas, muzika ir visuomenė, utopia nizmas / utopinis socializmas.

Introduction However, since Johann Mattheson’s Critica Musica (1722), considered the first full-fledged music criticism periodical The objectives of music criticism and its role have to portray musical activity, music criticism started to gradu- changed along with several transitions in the musical and ally form into a systematized practice. Those who made cultural scene since its first appearance in the Renaissance substantive contributions to music criticism during this period. In the most general sense, music criticism refers to a time include Charles Burney in England and Jean-Jacques published discussion about a musical trend in periodicals, Rousseau in France. These authors sought to comment informing the reader both about the music it describes and on the music of their day and did so focusing on musical the sense of what the particular age deems important and practices and techniques. Burney went so far as to include worthy of criticism. In this sense, it could be a useful refer- a glossary of particular terms that would be needed for him ence to scrutinize history or aesthetics in music. Early music to describe the musical practices he wanted to convey to his journalism, such as The Spectator (1711), mostly discussed audience. Then at the end of the eighteenth century, there the cultural purpose of music rather than music itself. was a notable change in music journalism in Germany with

46 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s the emergence of erudite critics, mostly German Romantic or must it analyze musical works? What is to be the role of authors such as Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann and music criticism today? In the more-complicated situation Johann Friedrich Rochlitz, inspired by the ideals of con- of the late twentieth century, music criticism—especially necting all kinds of art, sociology, and politics. For these that found in the popular press and in journalism—became authors, broader language, less burdened by the technical a practice that discussed musical interpretation or descrip- jargon of musical structure and inclusive of non-musical tion rather than evaluating new music or performance styles. terms and concepts, was typical. Now, criticism rarely engages in analysis. Such change has Like Mattheson and others, many of the aforementioned been caused by a couple of prominent factors: the on-going critics were composers who devoted themselves to music New-Romanticism movement as compostional style, re- criticism from its inception. Then, more composer-critics duced enthusiasm for virtuoso performers, the emergence appeared throughout the Romantic period.2 At the turn of of “middlebrow” audiences with a diverse background of the nineteenth century, as the early Romantic composers muscial experiences resulting in concert programs being used literary or poetic ideas in their music, writing about fixed with mainstream repertoires such as nineteenth- music had a ready target for description that was not con- century and some twentieth-century works whose musical cerned with the technical aspects of music (such as harmony, language was dependent on the late Romantic tonality, and counterpoint, instrumentation, form, etc.). Writing about the prevalence of new technologies which have affected the music became more descriptive, allowing composers in this music business. period to engage their audience not just with their music, Then, how did critics respond to this phenomenon? but also with words. For example, Franz Liszt both wrote Some criticized performers for failing to introduce new about music and encouraged his contemporary composers music to listeners, and others problematized the “middle- to participate in music criticism more actively. Carl Maria brow” audience’s taste. Within this context, performance von Weber also wrote, in an affirmative way, about the culture has received more attention than new musical works musical issues of his time in numerous newspapers between and their construction. That is, the performance itself is the 1809 and 1813. Needless to say, Robert Schumann was an focus of the criticism rather than the musical content or important composer-critic of his time. In his writings, he “meaning” of what was performed. Meanwhile, in the effort dealt largely with the question of the aesthetic aspect rather to give “middlebrow” audiences a broad understanding of than that of expressive technique or engaging in musical the scope of new music, twentieth- and twenty-first-century analysis. However, with the emergence of Hanslick in the composers have often spoken or written about their tastes or middle of nineteenth century, the agenda of the critic’s role styles in the form of lecture concerts or articles. Their state- was challenged again, and there was a new attempt to map ments should not be overlooked, for they can be considered out the position of both musical aesthetics and musical an important source not only for clarifying their intention techniques.3 and style but also for reading the cultural context of music Under the influence of flourishing music journalism creation. The composers themselves recognized that these in German-speaking countries, music criticism had an “middlebrow” audiences would be more responsive to a authoritative power in the music world by the early twen- general aesthetic discussion and less responsive to technical tieth century. Since its first emergence, music criticism language they could not understand. Their musical ideals are has been shaped as an expression of thought related to the reflected in their own pieces as well as in their interpretation evaluation or interpretation of music as a form of art or of the precedent works. as an object of aesthetic experience. However, there was Bearing the aforementioned issues in mind, this paper a dramatic upheaval in the field of music in the twentieth deals with Hungarian-Austrian composer György Ligeti’s century that made musical works impossible to evaluate.4 (1923–2006) interpretation of Gustav Mahler (1860– This upheaval was created by the radical new musical de- 1911), an Austro-Bohemian late-Romantic composer, velopments of early twentieth-century composers such as attempting to show how a new perspective on interpreting Stravinsky, Bartok, the Second Viennese School, and others. Mahler’s quotation technique. In the 1970s, the history Of course, there are parallels in the visual arts with Picasso, of the reception of Mahler’s music was characterized by a Miro, and others. The radical new sound of these works Mahler Renaissance. It should be noted that Mahler’s high and the techniques used to create them meant that music profile in the 1960s and 1970s was in stark contrast to his criticism in the early twentieth century was in crisis because reception in the 30s, 40s, and 50s. The 1954 edition of the of the complexity of the music and the inability of words Grove Dictionary, for example, only allotted a scant six to do the music justice without resorting to highly techni- pages to him. The 1986 edition was almost five times that cal language. Here some questions arise: should criticism many pages. Henri de la Grange’s landmark biography of necessarily deliver a judgment of good or bad? Or, without Mahler was only completed in 1984. In 1960, with the 100th any evaluation of quality, should criticism merely describe anniversary of Mahler’s birth, Mahler’s works started to be

47 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 You-Kyung CHO actively performed; finally Leonard Bernstein’s first com- reveals how Ligeti reads Mahler’s quotations as well as what plete Mahler cycle was recorded between 1960 and 1967. In sort of thoughts in general Ligeti has on the problem of this climate, Mahler’s music came to be played more often. quotations, specifically collage technique, in general. This Simultaneously, a number of publications about Mahler study will ultimately verify the significance of the role of were released. The most influential was the monograph composer-critics in the late twentieth century. Mahler: Eine musikalische Physiognomik written by T. W. Adorno in 1960. Japanese musicologist and aesthetician Hiroshi Watanabe states that it was not until the 1970s 1. Music Criticism and the Reception that basic research including scores, letters, memoirs, and of Mahler’s Quotations commentaries was prepared for full-fledged research in Mahler studies (Watanabe 1993: 566–585). This became Musical quotation, a kind of musical borrowing of a springboard for triggering multi-faceted approaches to already existing music, has a long history. However, that later Mahler studies. It is easily predictable that a remark- historical context in the twentieth century should be con- able transition in interpretation of Mahler’s music around sidered different for a couple of reasons. Having argued the 1970s inevitably happened. that quotation is to be considered in the scope of music Early Mahler Studies focused on Mahler as a person history rather than music theory, Stefan Kostka has stated and proceeded to examine his musical works over time. that it is one of the important sources that shapes the sound However, there are only a few studies from the perspective of twentieth-century music (Kostka 1990: 164–165). He of cultural studies. Carl Niekerk’s work focuses on Mahler writes: and his pieces in the context of anti-Semitism, and Hiroshi But many other twentieth-century composers not connected Watanabe discusses Mahler within the framework of Fin- with the neoclassical style have quoted, arranged, and paraph- de-Siècle Viennese culture (Niekerk 2010; Watanabe 1990). rased earlier music extensively. (Kostka 1990: 168) However, there are few studies dealing with the reception of Mahler’s music from the standpoint of contemporary He named Debussy, Berg, and Ives as the earliest ex- composers’ criticism. As was referred to earlier, this paper amples and Stockhausen’s Hymns (1966) and the second aims to clarify the significance of Ligeti’s Mahler reading act of Rochberg’s Music for the Magic Theater (1965) as in the 1970s, taking note of Ligeti as a composer-critic in examples without any programmatic purpose. Likewise, it the twentieth century. has been confirmed at least since the middle of the 1960s In the first part, making a brief overview of the com- that musical works with quotations have burgeoned. Al- ments made by Mahler’s critics of the last century, I will though there was a dramatic upsurge in musical practice particularly focus on the 1970s, the period that witnessed by contemporary composers at this time, the discipline of a chain of cultural and political change. Here I will clarify musicology rarely discussed the topic. Polish musicologist what cultural and social aspects underlie the emergence of Zofia Lissa attested in her 1966 article that she had ever a new perspective in the course of interpreting Mahler’s seen only one article dealing with musical quotations and quotation technique. Then, in the second part, drawing their manipulation: on the commentaries by Ligeti in 1970s, I will scrutinize Quotations in Bartok’s [sic.] Music, which was reported in how Ligeti recontextualizes Mahler’s quotation technique. the second International Musicological Congress Budapest Many of the late twentieth-century composers who make in 1963. (Lissa 1966: 377) excellent use of quotations had a deep interest in Mahler’s quotation technique. They commonly took advantage of She theoretically discusses the musical and aesthetic all kinds of available musical materials including other functions of quotations in greater depth; in this light, her composers’ works, their own works, everyday sound, ma- article can be regarded as literally the first to deal with musi- chine sound, and even noise. In most cases, they distorted cal quotations in the late twentieth century. or modified the original sound in their new context. This However, despite Lissa’s valuable discussion in that kind of collage sound certainly became one of the impor- 1966 article, later musical quotation studies have only been tant characteristics in composition. Some employ it with focused on individual composers’ quotation technique. In a their own specific purpose, such as parody or irony, but keeping with this trend, the primary problem of recent others do so as part of conceptual art. Unlike many other studies on musical quotation is concerned with the attempt contemporary composers such as Luciano Berio, Ligeti to categorize and systematize it. Peter J. Burkholder has didn’t directly employ Mahler’s music in his pieces; though devoted himself to collecting as many types of quotations in during this time, he committed himself to collage practice music history as possible and categorizing them (Burkholder in his only opera Le Grand Macabre (1974–1977). Taking 1985, 1987, 1994). Burkholder’s work illustrates many a close look at Ligeti’s discourses in the 1970s, this paper interesting examples of the quotation technique, though

48 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s the study is limited by the manner in which the categories One of Mahler’s opponents, Robert Hirschfeld writes in are labeled and the limited number of composers who are the concert review on the fifth symphony performed on examined. A complete reexamination of musical quotations December 7, 1905: in the historical and cultural context is beyond the scope of But the finale fizzes with frisky cheeriness. Every source of -mu the current study, which will focus on Ligeti’s writing in the sical pleasure from Haydn to Humperdinck trickles through a 1970s. Prior to moving on to Ligeti’s 1970s discourses, I will variety of tunes. Consciously or unconsciously incorporated briefly discuss how music criticism or journalism has shaped quotations buzz through the score. The theme of the finale the interpretation of Mahler’s music. This is necessary to of Symphonic Etudes by Schumann flashes note by note. Is understand what Ligeti’s discourses in the 1970s mean to this homage or sarcasm? We don’t ask.6 (Hirschfeld 1905) the field of interpretation of Mahler’s quotation technique and to twentieth-century musical culture. Therefore, in the Hirshfeld complains about the fragments that appear next paragraph, I will start with how early music criticism everywhere in the symphony but in the form of disorder. narrates Mahler’s quotations and how this was received by What is more, as Hirshfeld mentions the reminiscence of the culture of his own time. melodies from the great composers of the past in Mahler’s melodies, many critics made similar comments. Most a) The Reception of Mahler’s Quotations of their criticism was negative, seeing it as a problem of Shaped by Critics originality or creativity. Besides the problem of originality, Karen Painter and Bettina Varwig point out how early Mahler’s quotations were at the center of the debate on twentieth-century journalism exercised a profound influ- program music. Sometimes his quotations were understood ence on the reception late nineteenth century art (Painter as serving a programmatic purpose; at other times they were and Varwig 2002: 267). In Mahler’s lifetime, specifically in considered as irrelevant to program music. On the other Vienna around 1900 when Mahler was appointed as music hand, there were also positive commentaries. For example, director of the Vienna Court Opera House,5 the major Mahler’s proponent Ernst Otto Nodnagel provided a role of music criticism was to enlighten the public with positive overview in Allegemeine Musik-Zeitung (March 3, a cultural purpose. Since audiences had so little access to 1905). He speaks very highly of Mahler’s style in manipulat- live performances then, journalism took responsibility for ing melodies. He interestingly points out that only ignorant supporting their musical culture. The critics’ job wasn’t just audiences would hear it as a reminiscence and, according writing a concert review but ranged from musical analysis to him, 90 percent of what they heard would be false lis- to interpretation of pieces as most writers had a scholarly tening. He adds that, in fact, composers wouldn’t hear in educational background. In short, the music criticism of such way. As such, we can see that many critics of the early Mahler’s music at the time served two functions: intro- twentieth century made a negative or positive assessment duction of the music (Mahler’s newly created pieces) and along with the aesthetic problems of their time: the problem culturing the audience. It must be remembered that Mahler of originality, banal character in melodies, and the debate died decades before the radio and the record industry trans- on program music in instrumental music. formed the dissemination of musical culture beyond the However, there was a prominent change in the reception concert hall, making print journalism of that day especially of Mahler’s music in the 1920s after Mahler’s death. Dur- important. Such functions of journalism end up contributing this time, three critics who were supporters of Mahler’s ing to the foundation of the reception or interpretation of music, Richard Specht, Paul Stefan, and Paul Bekker, made Mahler’s music. According to Painter and Varwig, one of a contribution to comprehending Mahler’s music, bringing the important reasons Mahler’s music was often the locus of about a Mahler Boom in the 1920s. Specht’s and Stefan’s contemporary debate is that his identity and music involve publications on Mahler are biographical, while Bekker’s a mix of social, political, and musical factors. The basis for book provides an analysis of his symphonies (Specht 1913; this would have to be found in the journalism and critical Stefan 1920; Bekker 1921). Two opposing responses largely writing of the first two decades of the century. co-existed among them: on one hand, positioning Mahler’s Referring to many articles in the 1900s such as those music as the precedent of New Music or on the other, view- written by Max Graf, Eduard Hanslick, Theodor Helm, ing his music as the successor of the German tradition. The Robert Hirschfeld, Ernst Otto Nodnagel, and many others, former focused on musical structure or form, positioning Mahler’s music was often criticized for being incompre- him as a progressive, the latter viewing his music as conserva- hensible for his general audiences because his music was tive emphasizing the emotional quality related to nostalgia imbued with a chain of abrupt changes of tones and noisy or sentimentalism which can be found in German Romantic characteristics. In addition, providing some analysis of his literature and the lied. In the frame of this debate between music, his contemporary critics severely slammed melo- formalism and semantics, Mahler’s music was received dies in his symphonies as being derivative or not original. positively but from competing viewpoints.

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Specht tried to create an image of Mahler as a successor function in society. This sociological point of view was an to the Germans. In regard to Mahler’s quotations, he picks aspect of writings in the 1930s that emphasized the theory up the problem of dismaying the audiences that many previ- of social criticism that arose from external factors such as ous critics already identified. He writes: two world wars and by the criticism of ideology. As early as Bekker, a sociological point of view was instilled in the However, Mahler’s commitment to a military rhythmic style, discipline of music, even in the interpretation of Mahler’s courageous march motifs, and familiar and simple episodes made up from folksongs is also psychologically motivated by music. Bekker has argued that the reason composers write the lied. It is not only that people love what they have called symphonies is that they need to address the public. Accord- “banality.” The banality rarely existed elsewhere than the brain ing to him, the great symphonies are capable of creating a or ears of those who accommodate it.7 (Specht 1925: 169)8 collective of emotion (Gefühlsgemeinschaften) and also have power to establish the collective (Bekker 1918: 12–18). Specht expresses the allusion or indirect quotations as Such ideas from Bekker were based on the link between Mahler’s musical borrowing style by using the expressions society and music and were continued by later critics. It is “military rhythmic style” or “made-up from folksongs” interesting to note the relationship between Bekker, Krenek, and continuously emphasizes that those familiar and lucid and Adorno. While Bekker was working as a music direc- melodies are profoundly originated from the German lied. tor in the Kassel national theatre, Krenek was appointed Specht also discusses Mahler’s quotations and emotion such as an assistant in 1925. According to Clair Taylor-Jay, they as feeling of nostalgia or melancholy. had known each other even earlier and had exchanged let- Stefan makes the even more critical comment that Mahl- ters discussing the problems relating to society and music er’s Jewish identity was an obstacle to understanding his (Taylor-Jay 2017: 106–111). Also, Krenek and Adorno music rightly and accurately. He views Mahler as a successor became friends and in the 1930s and 1940s exchanged their of the German spirit inherited from great masters such as opinions concerning musical thought through journalism. Beethoven, Wagner, and Goethe. Notably, his comment that Their correspondence shows that they both took a deep Mahler’s music has a nature of Germanness that comes from interest in social theory in music as well as in the issues over Wagner is opposite to the earlier critics’ comment from their New Music. These three figures mutually interpret Mahler’s anti-Semitic viewpoint. The Germanness for Stefan here is music as both innovative and progressive. In particular, it perfection, consciences, and seriousness, and he finds such was Adorno who developed a discussion of Mahler and his features in Mahler’s music (Stefan 1920: 21). music from the perspective of social theory. As mentioned Compared to Specht and Stefan, who put Mahler’s earlier, Adorno has suggested the underlying function music into the category of nationalism, Bekker, another of social criticism in music since the 1930s. In 1960, he supporter of Mahler, suggests a different view. He is the most philosophically and sociologically attempted to explicate important figure in the history of reception of Mahler, for musical structure in Mahler’s music. For him, music per se he offers a new sociological perspective to Mahler’s music has sociality and should protest against social irregularities. and has an exceptionally strong influence on his contem- Within the framework of discourses on New Music, porary and later critics, such as composer Ernst Krenek and the central theme in the discourses of Krenek and Adorno, philosopher and sociologist Adorno. As has become clear Mahler’s quotations were re-examined. Krenek suggests a by now, thanks to the efforts of critics from the 1920s, the couple of interesting viewpoints in his interpretation of problem of originality gradually faded away from criticism Mahler’s quotations. Above all, he claims that the style of of Mahler’s music. Furthermore, taking a formalistic stance, Mahler’s music is prophetic to New Music and, in that sense, Bekker’s 1921 publication Gustav Mahlers Symphonien views his music as the prototype of the twentieth-century provides a respectable analysis of the symphonies of Mahler. music. He sees such a feature in that the importance of As a result of Bekker’s contribution to the structural analysis the harmonic system is diminished but alternatively a new of Mahler’s music, his musical works increasingly captured counterpoint attracts attention. Here for Krenek the new the attention of critics. counterpoint means montaged-style quotations (Krenek It is worth noting that Mahler studies were done more 1941: 206–207). He also sees the essence of Mahler’s quo- actively in English-speaking countries than inside Germany tation technique from the element of stimulating listeners. during the war period. Because of the growing tension from two world wars, many intellectuals and artists exiled them- Such elements come from the way Mahler handles well- selves from Germany. Many important German scholars known or familiar materials. Krenek writes: settled in English-speaking countries and published an Seen from this angle, Mahler’s style anticipates the basic prin- increasing number of books on Mahler written in English, ciple of surrealism to an amazing extent. Doubtless, Mahler shedding new light on the subject. This interwar period was conscious of the extra-musical associations attached to reception of Mahler’s music is shaped by considering music’s many of his themes: children’s songs, folk tunes, country

50 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s

dances, bugle calls, army marches, and so forth. However, the issue has been considered primarily within the domain the associations never function according to the schedule of sociology or other areas similar disciplines. Hence, it is of an extra-musical program, as they did in the Symphonic worth rethinking within the framework of musical practice. Poem of the Liszt and Strauss school. They function by their Going through the “Age of Anxiety” post-war period of the contrast to the immense symphonic context in which they ‘50s and ‘60s, some composers were devoted to creating a appear. (Krenek 1941: 193) new style of music that mirrored the society around them, What interests me here is that Krenek associates the the so-called avant-garde movement. This international contrast effect in Mahler’s quotation technique with sur- culture for modern music has been supported by two great realism. The practice of surrealism during the interwar and disparate authorities like Stockhausen or Boulez. period was a common means of expressing social criticism. Reinterpreting (Boulez) or turning against (Stockhausen) Krenek doesn’t develop his argument further, but it is Schönberg’s twelve-tone system, they nevertheless each informative for my discussion on Ligeti’s argument in the rejected the emotional quality of music, seeking a deper- sonalization by using automated and rational procedures. second section. Against this mainstream, those who wanted music Adorno is, needless to say, the most influential figure to have some kind of meaning, such as Berio and Nono, in the twentieth century who talks about music from a asserted that music has to have a certain level of social philosophical and sociological viewpoint. Like Bekker and meaning. This group of composers again started to rely on Krenek, he also takes on formalism and positions Mahler musical materials and genres in the past, calling this move- as a progressive in the line of New Music. However, he ment Neo-Romanticism in the late twentieth century.9 describes the sociality of Mahler’s music more fully and pro- These composers, on one hand, actively used the quotation vides a pellucid analysis based on musical materials and form technique (usually in the manner of collage); on the other (Adorno 1960). It can’t be denied that later musicologists hand, they were likely to turn their eyes to Mahler’s quota- were deeply influenced by Adorno. Thanks to his works on tion technique and reinterpret it in their new context. It is Mahler, the analysis of Mahler’s music still provides a kind subtle, but it is still possible to place Ligeti into this line of of influential way to see the musical structure in Mahler. Neo-Romanticism. There remains difficulty in positioning More importantly, Adorno is the one who speaks to the him thus because he once engaged in creating avant-garde significance of the banal materials which were once received music that supported elitism and he later sought a new way negatively by early critics. He even connects these banal of composing. In the course of getting through the stylistic materials to Utopianism in a point of rebellion against the crisis period, which started from the middle of the 1970s, society of the time. For Adorno, performing such a social the radicalism in his compositional technique changes into function in Mahler’s music is not only musically relevant but more romantic idioms (Searby 2010: 29–36). By the early also expressive: heterogeneity and abruptness are key traits. 1970s, Ligeti showed an ambivalent attitude in the rela- So far, I have explored how the interpretation of tionship between music and society, but the discussion is Mahler’s music has been changed by music criticism from limited to the problem of political ideology. In his remarks Mahler’s days to the 1960s. By means of various internal and in Darmstadt in 1972, he clearly displays his opinion about external factors like the attraction to the composer, political music and politics. He comments that music should be reasons, and even the aesthetic interests of each period, it is taken as just merely sound, an acoustic level in the first place. clarified that Mahler’s music has been received many ways. But he doesn’t deny music becomes involved in social situ- There are no longer controversies over program music or ations because ontologically it is hard to define what music originality, but there is still a continuous discussion from is, for music is concerned with not only sound itself, but diverse perspectives. score, text, the composer’s intention, or the social context that often requires communication among the composer, b) The Problem of “Music and Society” players, and audiences. He acknowledges the close relation in Ligeti’s 1970s Discourses between music and society but warns about the use of music For now, in order to see how Adorno’s sociological point in the political sense. of views have developed in interpreting Mahler’s quotations, the discussion is necessarily limited to contemporary I think it would be equally infantile to make an absolute demand upon a composer or painter or poet today and to composers’ aesthetics of “Music and Society” in the 1970s. try to pin him down: “You have to do something relevant for The idea of “Music and Society” is reinforced by two world society, for social justice! If you don’t, you’re a traitor!” I think wars that caused a profound change of taste in both musical this is simply a demand for something which is not adequate. production and consumption. As confirmed from the earlier This does not mean that he closes his eyes and stops his discussion, the relationship between music and society is ears in the face of the injustice which goes on in the world— an important matter in twentieth-century music; however, this not at all. But I am against this totally naïve confusion

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of various fields and against this type of pressure: “Take a 2. Ligeti’s Reading of Mahler’s stand on political progress—and do it through your work Quotations as Collage as well. If you don’t, if you stand aside, then you’re in line with reaction and with oppression!” I think erroneous logic The practice of musical collage in the twentieth century is involved here. If someone says: “If you’re not for us, then is frequently and doubtlessly characterized as a Postmodern you are our enemy”—that is demagogy and totalitarianism. phenomenon in many studies of contemporary compos- (Ligeti 1978: 21–22) ers and their works. Ligeti’s collage in his opera Le Grand All in all, he reaches the conclusion that music should Macabre is no exception. However, most studies rarely not be used for any political purpose, and no political power provide convincing and sufficient reasons, and it seems should suppress composers to write for a certain political to have been impetuously concluded as Postmodern on ideology. In a 1974 interview by Adrian Jack, Ligeti states ground of diversity in quotations in the end. Since the term that art is not life and it should be separated from everyday Postmodernism is derived from the field of architecture and life (Jack 1974). As shown in articles from the 1970s, Ligeti indiscriminately applied to the field of music, and since it seems to hold a strong conviction about the notion of art still causes confusion in understanding styles of music, it for art’s sake. is speculation to connect collage practice in the twentieth Ligeti’s consideration of “Music and Society” is surely century to Postmodernism. What is more, since there is a represented in his poetics as well. In the 1970s, Ligeti wrote tendency to rethink Modernism in musicology, Postmod- the masterpiece opera Le Grand Macabre (1974–1977). ernism should also be reconsidered. He refers to a type of quotation used in the opera as “false As for collage, because it is typically observed only as quotation” and states: a technique or an expressive means, the prevalence of collage at the time is overlooked. In order to recontextualize There are borrowings of certain types of musical writing the practice of collage adopted among composers in the that I distort, and there are types of writing which give the late twentieth century, there is a need to have a degree of impression of being borrowed and are not. In any case, that separation from the discourses of Modernism and Post- produces the ironic distance that I wanted. (Ronsen 2003) modernism. Therefore, one should keep two tantalizing The “false quotation” is a kind of allusion composing questions in mind: “Is designating collage as the practice with a paraphrase of a certain composer-like writing. Ligeti of post-modernistic character valid?” and “What sort of demonstrates a clear intention not to use a direct quotation social meaning was considered in the Neo-Romantic move- but rather to use allusion in the manner of irony. He writes: ment?” This article analyzes Ligeti’s statements on Mahler’s quotations in the 1970s. But there were always allusions in my music. In Lontano, there As mentioned earlier, Kostka takes notice of twentieth- were also allusions to the Romantics, Mahler, Bruckner, Wa- century quotation technique and its role within contem- gner. They are not quotations in the sense of Stravinsky. The porary composers’ work. He sees it as one of the most first time that I really took existing musics by deteriorating important features of twentieth- and twenty-first-century them, it is in the Grand Macabre. It is a technique close to music. Among the most important origins of sound in Pop Art (not of Pop Music!), especially English Pop Art. I contemporary music, besides quotation, he also highlights particularly love Peter Blake, who makes collages which are exoticism. Exoticism relates to quotation in terms of creating not painted collages. It is an art which isn’t naïve [sic.], but permits a certain degree of innocence. Think of Blake’s pain- a contrast effect or heterogeneity since quoting from the ting “Self-portrait with badges,” very ironic and melancholy past (or the transcultural scene in the present) can also be […]. (Ronsen 2003) considered as exotic sonority. This heterogeneity is the key concept of Ligeti’s reading in Mahler. For the rest of this It is clear by now that the manner in which Ligeti discussion, I will focus mainly on heterogeneity in both the manipulates quotation or false quotation technique in the musical and sociological perspective in Ligeti’s comments manner of collage serves a vital role in causing a feeling like on Mahler’s music. More specifically, in order to dwell on irony or melancholy. There is more to investigate how this the particulars from Ligeti’s terms, I will discuss the histo- pertains directly to social meaning in relation to collages ricity of musical materials, what makes heterogeneity in in Pop Art, but taking a slightly different view, I will take a Mahler’s music, and its social meaning in general. close look at Ligeti’s reading of Mahler in the next section. Through scrutinizing his comments on Mahler’s quota- a) The Historicity of Musical Materials tion technique, a new light is shed on the interpretation of There aren’t many available discussions about col- Mahler’s quotations after Adorno which reveals one aspect lage technique in the 1970s, but what is there seems of quotation, to be specific, the collage technique of the late obsolete. The debate among musicologists of that time twentieth century. mainly involved judging the adequacy of applying collage to

52 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s interpreting musical works in the past, otherwise, centered Then, he adds, the raw (naïve) materials and structural in an individual composer’s quotation technique (Lissa order are inseparable and “the structural potentialities are 1966; Dömling 1972, 1974; Kneif 1973). Nevertheless, already contained in primitive ideas” (Ligeti 1971: 124). contemporary composers had already made progress in us- For him, these musical raw materials (initial or primitive ing collage technique in their pieces. As these musicologists musical ideas) have something to do with the question of and critics in the 1970s did, Ligeti tried to conceptualize taste (likes or dislikes). According to him, the initial musical collage in music by drawing inspiration from that term as materials or ideas must be influenced by a matter of taste it functioned in fine art. They found its origin in the 1910’s that is not consistent in history. cubists’ practice or Duchamp’s collage works. The first col- The structure of a piece of music is relevant only when it is lage works of fine art are found in the works of Georges consistent, not merely within the piece itself, but also within Braque and Pablo Picasso, specifically their cut-and-paste the overall historical context of musical construction. I am paper works known as papier collé. The purpose of this not suggesting that all that is necessary is to conform: on the technique was to emphasize the structural outline of picture contrary, it is only when the individual work brings about or the effect of color. After World War I, the technique some modification of the musical situation as a whole that was extended by the Dadaists, who used strings, hair, and it justifies its adherence to the existing structure. (Ligeti cans for the contrast effect against canvas. Their aim was to 1971: 125) prompt a viewer’s chain reaction by bringing a heterogeneity of materials and perspective into an artwork. An extension Here Ligeti argues that musical consistency is not only of this trend during the interwar period was photomontage, a matter of a piece actually having been composed but a which emerged as an important tool of social satire. Then historical aspect of initial materials. When it comes to the 1960s Pop Art adopted the montage and collage techniques question of historicity, eternally producing in the process using mass media. We can see that besides its purpose as of generation-transformation-perishing but newly concep- an agent of expressive means, collage also incorporates the tualizing by modulating past events, “some modification of idea of social or cultural criticism. As such, the meaning musical situation” comes about. of collage in the field of art has transformed from a purely The raw state of which I spoke previously was also not com- artistic one to a social one. Then, what about the role of pletely raw, since it included a historical pre-shaping. When collage/quotation in music? Does it occupy the same role? a composer himself modifies the musical context of a whole As pointed out previously, the social or cultural aspect era, the work in which this modification occurred exerts an of collage is often overlooked, and 1970’s discourses, influence over his later ideas, however naïve they may at first when collage became prevalent in musical works, are little appear to be. (Ligeti 1971: 126) discussed. The discussions in recent studies center far too In the course of talking about the historicity of materials much on the technical aspect of collage, so that musical or form since the 1950s, Ligeti has shown some progress collage is often characterized as a “juxtaposition of multiple in his speculation over musical quotation or collage. It quotations.” Bearing this current problem of defining and is obvious that his reference to past music or techniques understanding collage in music in mind, I will draw on indicated in his texts dedicated to his own stylistic changes Ligeti’s criticism of Mahler’s quotation. What is distinctive manifested itself in his opera Le Grand Macabre and even in and extraordinary in his discussion is that he points out the his interpretation in Mahler’s quotations in 1970s. historicity of musical materials and forms. His discourses on The historicity of musical materials becomes even more musical form appeared in his lectures at the International clarified when he interprets Mahler’s quotation as collage. Summer School for New Music in Darmstadt from 1959, In Ligeti’s 1974 aricitcle, “Gustav Mahler und die musi- in correspondence with Adorno during that time, and in kalische Utopie: II. Collage,” the term collage is defined many other interviews. The core of Ligeti’s commentaries as “composing with already formed material.”11 Here “the is the changing process of how musical form derives from already formed materials” are “the known” materials. What musical materials to create the structure of music and to he means in Mahler’s case is that the anachronic, banal impacts our perception.10 materials are heterogeneous in a new context. When these In order to understand what Ligeti means by the histo- heterogeneous fragments abruptly appear and disappear ricity of musical materials, it is necessary to examine Ligeti’s in a piece, Ligeti views this as the state of discontinuity or thoughts on structural feature in relation to musical materi- collage. Likewise, for Ligeti musical materials from the past als and form. Ligeti states: are essentially transformed in a new context and possess the Structural features worked out during the process of compo- fundamental nature of collage in music. sition transform the music from its raw state into a musically Agreeing to Adorno’s social criticism, Ligeti emphasizes consistent and linked network. (Ligeti 1971: 124) that the collage technique in music can play a primary role

53 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 You-Kyung CHO in protesting against the irrationality of society.12 In the any more. After the march, music lost such function; purely course of comparing the practices of collage in the realm of decorative function remained. Such decorative antiquity must twentieth-century art, he believes that Mahler’s quotations have attracted Mahler.13 (Ligeti 1974: 290) serve a somewhat similar function as the Pop Art artists’ Military marches, which had once served in war were collage technique. He presents such viewpoints from the us- anachronistic materials in Mahler’s time. According to age of anachronistic musical materials. As witness, Pop Art Ligeti, march music had an important social meaning in artists often use an anachronistic “phonograph” or “photo apparat,” an old type of camera, in their works to express the past, but in the time of Mahler, only symbolic meaning irony. Ligeti takes a particular note that this anachronistic was left. In this sense, Ligeti interprets this anachronistic material now provides viewers with a sense of irony, so the material that lost its original meaning as something het- crux of his argument is that the historicity of musical materi- erogeneous and decorative. als could be a mechanism for generating irony. In the fol- Another example of such allusions of Mahler is the use lowing section, to give a faithful account of the correlation of folk tune-like melodies. According to Ligeti, actual folk between the heterogeneous character and the irony effect, melodies started to disappear with the advent of industri- I will examine the concrete content of Ligeti’s analysis on alized society in the late nineteenth century. Ligeti claims Mahler’s quotations. that Mahler never missed such anachronistic tunes in his time. He points out that the folk tune-like melodies are b) The Heterogeneous and Irony Effect also banal, but they became sublimated in Mahler’s hands. Ligeti deduces a heterogeneous character from Mahler’s As for heterogeneous sonority generated by instrumen- idiosyncratic expression in the usage of quotation: by using tation or orchestration, the way Mahler uses the timbre of stylistic allusions or by producing heterogeneous sound from instruments should not be ignored. One of the predominant his distinctive instrumentation. There is always some kind of features of Mahler’s music is his choice of instrumentation. retouching when Mahler borrows existing music. For exam- As discussed in part one, the early critics in Mahler’s time ple, in the slow funeral march in his first symphony, Mahler often made negative comments on Mahler’s music about it transforms the children’s song “Frère Jacques” into a dark, being noisy or incomprehensible at an acoustic level. Not creepy funeral march by having a solo double bass play the only that, they also blamed Mahler’s instrumentation as a tune with the key changed from major to minor (see: Exam- primary generator of that noise. As is well-known, ham- ple 1). Likewise, when Mahler uses a quotation technique, it mer strokes in the sixth symphony, cowbells in the sixth is necessarily adjusted to a new context. The situation is not and seventh symphony, and a post horn in the third sym- so different even when he makes use of indirect quotations phony are examples of unusual instruments used for their or allusions. He rather frequently composes march-like or particular noise features, typically providing a memorable folk song-like melodies or rhythms in his symphonies, but impact. Ligeti states that these musical instruments or in the form of fragments that appear or disappear suddenly. even non-musical instruments are an important source for Even bird calls appear in the figure of a descending th4 , not heterogeneity. the 3rd that is traditionally recognized as bird calls. This an Ligeti asserts that these factors are supported by the important characteristic of Mahler’s quotations. All these orchestration to represent heterogeneity at the acoustic practices can be responsible for the heterogeneous character level, and in this way, ambivalent feelings are created. Ligeti because of the way they are used in music. calls the feeling an irony effect. As a whole, for Ligeti, musical collage is something heterogeneous that appears and disappears abruptly. This phenomenon at the acoustic level is considered discontinuity in music in Ligeti’s terms. However, does heterogeneity arise only from the acoustic level? What about in the level of structure? Example 1. The melody of “Frère Jacques” in D minor When it comes to Mahler’s musical language in his appeared in Mahler’s Symphony No. 1 orchestration and instrumentation, Ligeti not only notes the discontinuous character of sonority, which is achieved Ligeti also remarks on Mahler’s stylistic allusions such by abrupt changes, but also other musical elements that as march-like and folk-like melodies or rhythms. For these accompany it. In his article “Gustav Mahler und die musi- military march-like melodies or rhythms Ligeti proclaims: kalische Utopie: I. Musik und Raum,” he provides a more Although military marches were still around in Mahler’s in-depth description. Let’s take a close look at what Ligeti time, they came out of a historical period which was too old says about the tune of post horn in the 3rd symphony (see back then (in Mahler’s time). Wars weren’t led by marches Example 2).

54 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s1

55 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 You-Kyung CHO

Example 2. Usage of post horn (mm. 256–284): Gustav Mahler, Symphony No. 3, edited by Erwin Ratz, Vienna: Universal Edition, 1974

56 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s

The Scherzo (in the rd3 movement of the 3rd symphony) stops other hand, though performing Mahler’s music was banned abruptly, the tempo gets slower, and the post horn melody under the Third Reich, exiled figures such as Adorno and plays quite freely. All are antiquated phenocryst, but there Krenek continued writing about Mahler’s music and sug- are two reasons why the word antiquated was used. Firstly, gested a new view that represents considerable potential with due respect for the perfectness of instruments in the for the correlation between Mahler’s quotations and their great symphony orchestra at the turn of the century, post social meaning. It can be said that Ligeti’s statements that horn shows the unique contrast. It is primitive, simple, and connect the heterogeneous character of Mahler’s quotation almost broken. In addition, these antiquated, banal melodies are absolutely heterogeneous to musical context.14 (Ligeti to the irony effect may be derived from the ideas of Adorno 1974: 9) and Krenek. Such possibility can’t be denied, but Ligeti is the one who focused and expanded the discussion further Aside from the anachronistic tone color of post horn, through meticulous musical analysis. At this particular which intentionally doesn’t function properly as an orches- point, the notion of “the absence of originality” is no longer tral instrument in the piece, tempo and melody are also problematic. This new viewpoint came into being because designed to provide a contrasting effect. As such, melody, Ligeti is a composer who actually went through musical tempo, and instrumentation all stand in relief from the and political turmoil before and after World War II. Thus, prevailing orchestral fabric. It is self-evident that the tone it could be concluded that Ligeti’s discussion about hetero- color of the post horn contrasts with the entire orchestral geneity in Mahler’s music can be linked to the collage tech- sound. Ligeti claims that this contrast between whole nique formulized by post-war contemporary composers. In orchestral sound and an odd single instrumental sound is the following section, I will focus on the social meaning of likely to create the effect of irony. In addition to the matter quotations by continuously drawing on Ligeti’s discourses of sound, the melody and tempo in the post horn solo part but in the context of Utopia. are obviously distinctive from before and after the solo section. All these musical elements, timbre, melody, and tempo c) Utopianism thus work together to create the ironic feeling. As stated in the title of Ligeti’s 1974 “Gustav Mahler In Ligeti’s terms, reiterating a key point once again, the und die musikalische Utopie,” Ligeti seeks a musical and idea of the heterogeneous musical elements appearing and social utopia in Mahler’s music. Utopianism itself has a long disappearing abruptly can be read as a discontinuity in the history, including Thomas More’s Utopia (1516), Plato’s the temporal aspect. It might be profoundly related to Ligeti’s Republic. Utopianism can be defined, first, as a paradise that interests in departing from the thematic development of doesn’t exist and is far away from reality. Second, it can be harmony and melody in the 1960s and 1970s and in the no- described as any type of social reformation or protest that tion of discontinuity in his own compositional technique. embraces a critical thought in present-day society. It is also Ligeti states: frequently characterized as a remembrance of an idealized past. The social reformation and protest movement in the It seems to me that collage in music is the antithesis of “Long ‘60s,” including the anti-Vietnam war movement, composing logically. Such composition can be observed in the women’s movement, and the environmental move- development section of Viennese Classicism that aims for a thematic and motivic development. Collage means to deny ment, has been considered a significant phenomenon of all forms of organic growth.15 (Ligeti 1974: 290) twentieth- and twenty-first century utopianism. A number of composers in this period represent these social and For Ligeti, musical collage seems to be in opposition to cultural forces in their works. For example, in Bernd Alois organic growth or unity. As discussed earlier in the matter of Zimmermann and Hans Werner Henze’s multiple collage the relationship between “Music and Society” stated in his music, the sound from ‘60’s protests and political speeches other articles in the 1970s, he views this feature of collage are quoted. Their collage works include a kind of hybrid as a resistance to social irrationality. Not only that, in terms combination of high and low art, concert hall music, and of musical structure and form, it goes against conventional the soundscape of everyday life, philosophical texts, sounds harmonic progression, which may symbolize a hierarchy from social events, and even noise. as a system equivalent to a social hierarchy. It is plausible Ligeti must have witnessed these movements, although that his position of going against totalitarianism reflects his he uses collage in his piece with different purpose. The views on reading Mahler, as well as his poetics. reason he wouldn’t have gotten directly involved in the Once more, as discussed briefly in the first section, line of composers who actively participated in conveying Mahler’s use of quotation was badly criticized for calling a certain political and social message is understandable. up the great masters in the past, and the critics of his time As mentioned earlier in this article, his formalistic stance criticized this as proof of the absence of originality. On the meant he was reluctant to create music that directly narrates

57 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 You-Kyung CHO political situations. However, by scrutinizing his interpreta- (Ligeti 1974: 290) In essence, Ligeti acknowledges Adorno’s tion of Mahler’s quotation, it is possible to reveal what sort argument that the great barn-dance potpourri in the second of concept or view of society he had in his mind. His primary movement of the ninth symphony has a potpourri character response to music is on a purely acoustic level; however, because it serves the function of entertainment rather than at the same time, he believes in music’s intrinsic power. In an artistic one. Ligeti also admits that it is hard to distin- this sense, he is in discord with the firm formalistic stance guish the difference between potpourri and collage in the of Eduard Hanslick. case of this symphony for two reasons: first, in many cases As seen previously, from the standpoint of a composer’s potpourri has been considered in agreement with high- work, Ligeti states that musical collage consists of utilizing concept works of art. For example, potpourri per se could already-formed materials from the past and believes that a be a work of art that has an intrinsic unity, like when it is composer incorporates his or her representation (Vorstel- composed of an opera or a composer’s work(s). Secondly, lung) so that the heterogeneous juxtaposition of new and all dances used in the symphony are types of barn dances. old materials is relevant to his or her new work. As Ligeti’s They can be regarded as composed for one purpose. Con- many other articles display, he asserts that composers must sequently, unity and logic (i.e., artistic purpose) is one of work with the materials before them. In a conversation the significant features of potpourri. between Ligeti and Gottwald, Gottwald states: However, one thing that is clear is that, although Mahler’s quotation is considered potpourri in the sym- Such historical relativity doesn’t refer to the idea of collage; phony, each fragment unceremoniously flies into and to a greater degree, it is transposed into a kind of technique; away from the music. What is important for Ligeti here that is, composition itself and the opposite, decomposition. In is, as he points out, each fragment or element that are the first place, composers leach quotations from other works and then, in accordance with his or her representation, once quotations in the symphony and derived from familiar more rebuild them. Thereby, in such a way, the assembled material becomes detached from its original context and and the disparate in a new work by no means abides without is interpolated into a new context generating new content, context.16 (Ligeti 1974: 288) which is unfamiliar. Ligeti concludes that if we look at only the second movement of the symphony, it is possible to Ligeti and Gottwald are in agreement that something assign the piece to potpourri, but if we consider this move- seemingly irrelevant or heterogeneous in a new work has ment within the whole symphony, we would understand something to do with a composer’s representation; in its collage character. this regard, although heterogeneous elements seem at Lastly, Ligeti and Gottwald end with a colorful discus- odds with a new context, there is nevertheless an implied sion on Utopianism in relation to Mahler’s quotations relationship between the materials that are juxtaposed. seen as a collage. They turn their eyes from a collage that To describe this notion of relativity, both authors refer to functions as an aspect of compositional technique and turn Adorno’s term Negation (Ligeti 1974: 288). Confining instead to its function as a means to communicate social their discussion to the matter of relativity in a philosophi- meaning. Gottwald points out the possibility of Utopianism cal term, it emerges only if denying its relation. In Adorno’s in Mahler’s quotations. He comments: Mahler: Eine musikalische Physiognomik, (1960) Adorno sees Mahler’s quotations as a kind of potpourri. Accord- He (Mahler) reconciles the impossibility of reconciliation ing to Adorno, Mahler quotes melodies from the greatest through music, high and low music, something unused and something done with, although they unstoppably drift apart music in the past, banal folk melodies, pop music, and from each other.17 (Ligeti 1974: 291) so on, but they have a certain nature that stimulates the listener with feeling. What Adorno implies here is that In the end, Ligeti and Gottwald reach the conclusion the impulsion of the listener derived from the contrast that Mahler’s music holds clues for Utopianism in a sense effect by the heterogeneous effect is key to free logic. -Ac that it shows the conflict of the current reality and looks cording to Adorno, this free logic eventually becomes a to a Utopian future. When we return to their previous form called potpourri. discussion, it becomes clear that Mahler’s music would Be that as it may, Ligeti reconsiders the same spot document the absurdity of real society but simultane- where Adorno sees potpourri. Ligeti exemplifies the great ously look to the ideal world of the future. For Ligeti, barn-dance potpourri in the second movement of the ninth musical collage creates heterophony, which undermines symphony by Mahler. Preparatory for further discussion, the organic foundation of a formal structure. The result Ligeti assumes that in concurrence with potpourri, works is discontinuity, expressed in free form, that nevertheless of fantasy and variation would belong to works of collage. leads to a utopian world of order.

58 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s

Conclusions Endnotes

Music criticism has played a crucial role in shaping the re- 1 This paper is based on my presentation given at 46th Baltic Mu- ception of Mahler’s quotation technique. Ligeti’s discourses sicological Conference on October 23, 2018, organized by the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre. This research was from the 1970s interpreting Mahler’s music have been an supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP19J14482 important part of that history. Although there have been and also funded by a grant from the Musicological Society eminent composer-critics in the history of music and we of Japan (IMS 2017 TOKYO Memorial Scholarship). I am have witnessed their importance, the composers’ discourses grateful to my supervisors Hiroshi Watanabe and Edward in the late twentieth century have been inclined to cover Smaldone for all their helpful comments and suggestions. 2 mainly the monograph of an individual composer or his or The Gazette musicale de Paris, found in 1834, invited composers to write a criticism. her works. In other words, their accounts have been out of 3 It is inferred from Liszt’s statement and the situation of music the scope of music criticism. In many different senses, the criticism is valuable and practiced by too small a number of 1970s should be reconsidered. Cultural critics of that time composers. With respect to this matter, further study will started to talk about the death of Modernism and the rise investigate the musical and cultural background including of Postmodernism, social reformation movements occurred the problem of the listening culture and nineteenth-century aesthetics of music. one after another, and in the field of music the trend of Neo- 4 American aesthetician Morris Weitz in his articles from the Romanticism took form. In both the cultural and musical 1950s has questioned the practice of identifying art (or works scenes, there was a tendency to look to the past for the origins of art) and proposed using Witgenstein’s family resemblance of this pluralism. Mahler is among the composers from late theory, reaching his defense of art as an “open concept.” Romanticism seen as a founding figure of twentieth-century According to Weitz, since it is wrong to define art, it is not Modernism. Many contemporary composer-critics used feasible to evaluate it (Weitz 1952, 1956). 5 Mahler worked as a music director at the Vienna Court Opera Mahler’s music as a reference point for their own collage House from 1897 to 1907. It was a time when modern musi- practice, though often with different purposes. cal culture was already formed by a middle-class bourgeois. Ligeti’s reading of Mahler’s music also shows how he him- This emergence of the bourgeois class is strongly related to self conceives the practice of collage in his time and provides the explosion of concert reviews in multiple newspapers and a clear example of the function of the collage aesthetic of the magazines. 6 „Das Finale aber sprudelt in ausgelassener Heiterkeit. Alle late twentieth century. Taking advantage of being a composer Quellen musikalischer Lust von Haydn bis Humperdinck and having keen insight, Ligeti could have provided a remark- rieseln durch die Stimmen. Zitate, die bewußt oder unbewußt able musical analysis that earlier critics couldn’t. Ligeti viewed aufgenommen sind, schwirren durch die Partitur. Das Finale Mahler’s quotations as collage that brings about irony with Thema der sinfonischen Etüden von Schumann blitzt Note the ultimate goal of engaging in social criticism. In this sense, für Note auf. Ist das Huldigung oder Spott? Wir fragen nicht.“ Ligeti’s work reflects eclecticism in formalism and contextual- (Hirschfeld 1905: 1–2) My translation. 7 „Aber auch Mahlers Neigung zu soldatischen Rhythmen, zu ism since he admits music’s social meaning. mutigen Marschmotiven und zu volksliedmäßig erfundenen For future studies, what remains to be done is to clarify traulich-einfältigen Episoden wird durch die Lieder psycholo- the context of how other late twentieth-century Neo-Roman- gisch motiviert. Nicht nur das, was man Mahlers „Banalitäten“ ticism composers reinterpret the past and exhibit their own zu nennen beliebt hat, die kaum anderswo existierten als in idea of “Music and Society” and as well as their reception/ dem Hirn oder dem Ohr der Banalen, die sie aufnahmen.“ (Specht 1913: 169) My translation. relation to these ideas as evidenced in the work of Mahler. 8 There are three editions of Gustav Mahler written by Specht. Current studies are caught up in the argument that the Neo- He first published the book in 1905, and then with some Romantic composers of the 1970s are frequently referred to enhancement of the description of Mahler’s life and works as Postmodernism by virtue of dealing with the past, char- the second edition was published in 1913. Then, in the 1925 acterized as pluralism. This argument seems reasonable since edition an account of the tenth symphony was added (George a fundamental aspect of these composers is a stance against Cummins 2011: 413). 9 Like Neo-Classicism, Neo-Romanticism embraces many dif- Modernism. However, is it a legitimate discussion when the ferent types of content in a different context and has appeared concept of Modernism and Postmodernism is unclear, or has, many times in the history of music. In general, it represents itself, been reevaluated? Is it acceptable to simply group the return to the expression of emotion in relation to nineteenth- properties of pluralism and the attitude turning eyes into the century Romanticism. In 1923 Schloezer used this term when past together as Postmodernism? To deal with these prob- he contrasted Schönberg’s Expressionism with Stravinsky’s Neo-Classicism. After that, this term referred to the works lems, it might be worthwhile to focus on how contemporary by composers like Hindemith that attempted to return to composers in the 1970s, who were against the politicized tonality as structural or expressive elements. During the 1940s, avant-garde in the ‘50s and ‘60s, reinterpret their precedents some composers conceptualized the term Neo-Romanticism like Mahler, and simultaneously examine the cultural and in order to show their resistance against the trend of Modern- social context which surrounded them. ism. for the purposes of this paper, I am especially focused on

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the mid-1970s Neo-Romanticism movement. The aesthetics Bekker Paul, Gustav Mahlers Symphonien, Schuster&Löffler, 1921. of Neo-Romanticism in this period have a couple of important Burkholder Peter J., The Uses of Existing Music: Musical Bor- characteristics: 1. The use of quotation from the past tradition; rowing as a Field, in: Notes, Second Series, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2. The use of formal models or tonality from the nineteenth 1994, p. 851–870. century; and 3. emphasis on music such genres as symphonies Burkholder Peter J., “Quotation” and Emulation: Charles Ives’s or operas (Sadie 2001: 756–757). Uses of His Models, in: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 71, No. 10 For Ligeti, musical form is something to be heard, not to be 1, 1985, p. 1–26. pre-determined. Burkholder Peter J., “Quotation” and Paraphrase in Ives’s Second 11 „Das Wort Collage meint das Komponieren mit bereits Symphony, in: 19th-Century Music, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1987, p. 3–25. vorgeformtem Material.“ (Ligeti 1974: 288) My translation. Cummins George, Mahler Re-Composed, iUniverse Books, 2011. 12 Since Ligeti often takes an eclectic position not only in Dömling Wolfgang, Collage und Kontinuum: Berkungen zu compositional process but in aesthetic matters, more often Gustav Mahler und Richard Strauss, in: Neue Zeitschrift für than not he is regarded as being far away from the stance Musik, 133, 1972, p. 131–133. that supports the idea that music is supposed to have a social Dömling Wolfgang, A propos Mahler und Collage, in: Neue meaning. Although he clearly states that music shouldn’t be Zeitschrift für Musik, 135 (2), 1974, p. 100–101. used to serve specific political propaganda, due to his personal Hirschfeld Robert, Wiener Abendpost, December 14, 1905. experience in Hungary, he doesn’t reject the social function Jack Adrian, Ligeti Talks to Adrian Jack, in: Music and Musi- of music. cians, issue 263, Vol. 22, No. 11, 1974, http://ronsen.org/ 13 „Obwohl Militärmärsche zu Mahlers Zeiten noch aktuell monkminkpinkpunk/9/g12.html [last checked 2019 01 18]. waren, stammen sie doch aus einer geschichtlichen Periode, Kneif Tibor, Collage oder Naturalismus? Anmerkungen zu die damals schon passé war. Kriege wurden nicht mehr mit Mahlers „Nachtmusik I“, in: Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, 134, Marschmusik geführt. Nachdem die Marschmusik diese 1973, p. 623–628. Funktion verloren hatte, blieb ihr nur noch jene der reinen Kostka Stefan, Materials and Techniques of Twentieth-Century Dekoration. Solche dekorative Antiquiertheit muß Mahler Music, New Jersey: Printice Hall, 1990. gereizt haben. (Ligeti 1974: 290) My translation. Krenek Ernst, Gustav Mahler, New York: Greystone. Inc., 1941 14 „Dort wird das Scherzo plötzlich unterbrochen, das Tempo (c. 1937). verlangsamt sich, und die Posthornmelodie spannt sich, in sehr Ligeti György, and Gottwald Clytus, Gustav Mahler und die freiem Vortrag. Das Ganze ist ein antiquiertes Einsprengsel, musikalische Utopie (Gespräch): I. Musik und Raum, in: antiquiert aus zwei Gründen. Da ist zunächst das Posthorn, Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, 135, 1974, p. 7–11. das in seltsamen Kontrast zur instrumentalen Perfektioni- Ligeti György, and Gottwald Clytus, Gustav Mahler und die musi- ertheit des großen Sinfonieorchesters der Jahrhundertwende kalische Utopie (Gespräch): II. Collage, in: Neue Zeitschrift steht, es stellte etwas Primitives, Einfaches, fast Kaputtes für Musik, 135, 1974, p. 288–291. dar. Hinzu kommt, daß dieses antiquierte Instrument eine Ligeti György, Ligeti-Ligeti (1971), in: György Ligeti in Conversa- antiquierte, volkstümliche Melodie spielt, die ganz fremd tion, Eulenburg, 1983. zum musikalischen Kontext dieser Stelle sich verhält.“ (Ligeti Ligeti György, On Music and Politics, in: Perspectives of New 1974, I. Musik und Raum: 9) My translation. Music, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1978, p. 19–24. 15 „Collage in der Musik scheint mir das genaue Gegenteil von Lissa Zofia, Ästhetische Funktionen des musikalischen Zitats, in: logischer kompositorischer Arbeit zu sein, wie sie sich in der Die Musikforschung 19, 1966, p. 364–378. thematisch-motivisch bestimmten Durchführung der Wiener Niekerk Carl, Reading Mahler: German Culture and Jewish Iden- Klassik beobachten läßt. Collage bedeutet Absage an jede tity in Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, Camden House, 2010. Form von organischem Wachstum.“ (Ligeti 1974, II. Collage: Nodnagel Ernst Otto, Allegemeine Musik-Zeitung, March 3, 1905. 290) My translation. Painter Karen, ed., Mahler and His World, Princeton University 16 „Solche historische Bedingtheit meint der Begriff Collage Press, 2002. nicht, vielmehr umschreibt Collage eine Technik, in der sich Peterson Richard, and Albert Simkus, How Musical Tastes Mark Komposition und deren Gegenteil – Dekomposition – durch- Occupational Status Group, in: Cultivating Differences, dringen. Zunächst löst der Komponist Zitate aus anderen Michele Lamont and Marcel Fournier (eds.), Chicago: Uni- Werken heraus, um sie dann nach seinen Vorstellungen wieder versity of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 152–185. zusammenzusetzen. Dabei bleibt das solcherweise montierte Peterson Richard, and Roger M. Kern, Changing Highbrow Taste: Disparate keineswegs ohne Zusammenhang.“ (Ligeti 1974: From Snob to Omnivore, in: American Sociological Review, 288) My translation. Vol. 61 (5), 1996, p. 900–907. 17 „Das Oben und Unten, das Unverbrauchte und das Abgetane Ronsen Josh (transl.), György [sic.] Ligeti – Illusions and Allusions, möchte er, wiewhol es unaufhaltsam auseinandertreibt, da- interviewed by Herman Sabbe in1978, http://ronsen.org/ durch versöhnen, daß er die Unmöglichkeit von Versöhnung monkminkpinkpunk/9/g13.html [last checked 2019 01 18]. auskomponiert.“ (Ligeti 1974: 291) My translation. Sadie Stanley (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi- cians, 2nd Edition, Vol. 27, 2001. Searby Michael, Ligeti the Postmodernist?, in: Te mpo, New Series, Bibliography No. 199, 1997, p. 9–14. Searby Michael, Ligeti’s ‘Le Grand Macabre’: How He Solved the Adorno Theodor W,Mahler: Eine musikalische Physiognomik, in: Problem of Writing a Modernist Opera, in: Te mpo, Vol. 66, Die musikalischen Monographien, Schrkamp, 1960. Issue 262, 2012, p. 29–38. Bekker Paul, Die Synphonien von Beethoven bis Mahler, Searby Michael, Ligeti’s Stylistic Crisis: Transformation in His Schuster&Löffler, 1918. Musical Style 1974–1985, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2010.

60 Reading Mahler: György Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s

Specht Richard, Gustav Mahler, Berlin und Leipzig: Schuster & ir kaip konservatyvi, ir kaip progresyvi. Po kompozito- Löffler, 1913, 1925 (c. 1905). riaus mirties iki trečio dešimtmečio trys įtakingi to meto Stefan Paul, Gustav Mahler: Eine Studie über Persönlichkeit und muzikos kritikai – Richardas Spechtas, Paulas Stefanas ir We rk, Munich: R. Piper, 1920 (c. 1912). Paulas Bekkeris – savo straipsniuose gyrė Mahlerio kūrybą Taylor-Jay Clair, The Artist-Operas of Pfitzner, Krenek, and Hindemith: Politics and the Ideology of the Artist, Routledge, visiškai skirtingai vertindami jo citavimo techniką. Spechtas 2017 (c. 2004). ir Stefanas teigė Mahlerį esant vokiškos dvasios, kuri sklei- Watanabe Hiroshi, Das Bruckner-Mahler-Lexikon, Tokyo Shoseki, džiasi vokiečių muzikoje, literatūroje ir Lied žanre, tęsėją. 1993. Nors Mahlerio muzika nebebuvo taip plačiai atliekama Watanabe Hiroshi, , Chikuma Shobo, Mahler in Cultural History kaip karo metais, ji buvo ypač mėgstama anglosaksų šalyse 1990. Weitz Morris, Criticism without Evaluation, in: The philosophical gyvenančios diasporos. Ketvirtame–septintame dešimt Review, 61 (1), 1952, p. 59–62. metyje Bekkeris, Ernstas Křenekas ir Theodoras Adorno’as Weitz Morris, The Role of Theory in Aesthetics, in: The Journal of ypač susidomėjo muzikos ir socialinės kritikos klausimais. Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 15 (1), 1956, p. 27–35. Adorno’as, aiškindamas Mahlerio kūrinių muzikinę struk- tūrą filosofiniu ir sociologiniu aspektais, priėjo prie išvados, Santrauka kad muzika, kuriai savaime yra būdingas socialumas, turėtų būti naudojama kaip protesto prieš socialinę nelygybę Muzikos kritika žengia koja kojon su besikeičiančiu priemonė. Banalią Mahlerio muzikinių citatų medžiagą laikotarpiu, prisitaikydama prie pakitusių kultūrinių ir Adorno’as siejo su utopijos kaip tam tikros maišto prieš to estetinių poreikių. Kaip žinoma, kritikos praktikoje susi- meto visuomenę formos kūrimu. Kritikas taip pat teigia, duriama su tam tikromis problemomis, kurios susijusios kad šią socialinę funkciją padeda atlikti Mahlerio kūrinių su meno kūrinio apibūdinimu ir vertinimu, objektyvumu struktūros ir formos nevienalytiškumas ir aštrumas. ir subjektyvumu, netgi teorija, o tai lemia pati muzikos Nors aštuntame dešimtmetyje prasidėjęs Mahlerio prigimtis. Kadangi muzikos sąvoka apima kūrybą, atlikimą muzikos renesansas skatino įvairiausių šio muziko kūry- ir klausymą, nuolat iškyla muzikos kūrinio vertinimo proble- bos aspektų studijas, o nuo septinto dešimtmečio vidurio ma. Nors būta nemažai kompozitorių-kritikų, kurių indėlis neoromantinėje šiuolaikinių kompozitorių kūryboje buvo į muzikos kritikos istoriją labai vertingas, problemiškesnis plačiai naudojama koliažo technika, kultūriniai ir socialiniai muzikos kūrinių vertinimas lėmė tai, kad kritiniai kompo- koliažo naudojimo aspektai buvo menkai tirti. Mahlerio zitorių komentarai XX a. antroje pusėje nesulaukė deramo citatoms Ligeti pritaiko koliažo terminą, kuris, atrodytų, dėmesio, nors jų autoriai ir buvo garsūs. Kompozitorių labiau tinka XX a. antros pusės teorijai ir praktikai. Anot komentarai dažniausiai pasirodydavo daugybės straipsnių kompozitoriaus, esminė koliažo muzikoje, kaip ir bet kurioje ir paskaitų-koncertų pavidalu. Kalbėdami apie anksčiau kitoje disciplinoje, ypatybė yra daugialypumas. Personažų parašytus kūrinius, kompozitoriai ne tik perteikia savo įvairovę Mahlerio citatose jis sieja su ironija, o šią – su požiūrį į muziką ir visuomenę, bet ir atskleidžia to meto utopianizmu. Panašiai kaip Adorno’as, Ligeti mano, kad muzikinės kūrybos kultūrinį kontekstą. pasitelkdamas citatas Mahleris atskleidžia realią visuomenę Turint omenyje šiuos aspektus, darbe aptariamas Ligeti persmelkusį absurdą, tačiau kartu, išspręsdamas daugialy- pateiktas Mahlerio kūrybos vertinimas, išryškinant kitokį piškumo konfliktą, skelbia viltį apie būsimą idealų pasaulį. vengrų-austrų kompozitoriaus požiūrį į citatų vartojimą. Darbo pabaigoje keliama dabartinių, ypač į moder- Apžvelgiant nuo Mahlerio laikų iki septinto dešimtmečio nizmo ir postmodernizmo diskursus orientuotų koliažo muzikos kritikų formuotą kompozitoriaus citavimo tech- tyrimų problema. Būtina pažvelgti į šį problemos lauką nikos sampratą, atkreipiamas dėmesys į keletą aspektų. kitu rakursu, labiau gilinantis į tai, kaip kiti XX a. pabaigos Pirma, XX a. pradžios ankstyvojoje kritikoje keliamos dvi iš kompozitoriai neoromantikai interpretuoja praeitį bei žvel- principo viena kitai prieštaraujančios mintys, atspindinčios gia į muzikos ir visuomenės santykį. Be Ligeti, aštuntame to meto estetikos problematiką – autentiškumo dilemą, dešimtmetyje buvo ir keletas kitų kompozitorių, kurie, muzikinės medžiagos banalumo klausimą ir kontroversišką atsiriboję nuo tarptautinio avangardinio judėjimo, atgręžė programinės muzikos vertinimą. Įsiplieskusios diskusijos dėl žvilgsnį į praeitį. Didelė jų dalis naudojo koliažo techniką, Mahlerio muzikinės kūrybos lėmė tai, kad ji buvo vertinama išreikšdami utopinio pasaulio ilgesį.

Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 01 31

61 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Magdalena NOWICKA-CIECIERSKA In Search of Values in Contemporary Music— Andrzej Chłopecki’s Music Criticism Vertybių paieškos šiuolaikinėje muzikoje: apie Andrzejaus Chłopeckio muzikos kritiką

Institute of Musicology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, ul. Umultowska 89D, 61-614 Poznań Email [email protected]

Abstract This article is an attempt to summarize both the key and characteristic features of music criticism, which Andrzej Chłopecki practiced, as well as the critical problems that he had to deal with. In the first section, Chłopecki’s role as a music critic is presented, which, through the perception of new phenomena in contemporary music, their naming, and explanation, in essence contributed to the development of the discourse on Polish contemporary music. The auctorial definitions of composing generations, which he identified, as well as his work, The Superstitions of the fading century are discussed. Then, the problems of contemporary music that Chłopecki found important, which he repeatedly returned to in his writing, are presented. The second section of the text describes Chłopecki’s categories of novelty and originality that are important for the interpretation of contemporary music and that exist only in relation to tradition and in opposition to the old. The third part of the article presents Chłopecki’s position on the accusation of the lack of humanism that was presented by the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset regarding the music of the twentieth century. Keywords: Andrzej Chłopecki, music criticism, new romanticism, Stalowa Wola generation, contemporary music, humanism of music, egalitarianism.

Anotacija Straipsnyje siekiama apibendrinti pagrindines Andrzejaus Chłopeckio praktikuojamai muzikos kritikai būdingas ypatybes ir apžvelgti svarbiausias problemas, su kuriomis susidūrė šiuolaikinės muzikos kritikas. Pirmame poskyryje pristatomas Chłopeckio, kaip muzikos kritiko, vaidmuo: pastebėdamas, įvardydamas ir paaiškindamas naujus šiuolaikinės muzikos reiškinius, šis muzikologas prisidėjo prie diskurso apie šiuolaikinę lenkų muziką kūrimo. Minimi Chłopeckio sukurti kompozitorių kartų pavadinimai, aptariamas jo veikalas „Nykstančio amžiaus prietarai“. Kitoje straipsnio dalyje apžvelgiamos šiuolaikinės muzikos problemos, kurios ypač rūpėjo Chłopeckiui ir kurias jis nagrinėjo savo tekstuose. Antrame skyriuje aprašomos Chłopeckio apibrėžtos šiuolaikinės muzikos interpretacijai svarbios naujumo ir originalumo kategorijos, kurios egzistuoja tik siejant jas su tradicija ir priešinant tam, kas sena. Trečioje dalyje aptariama Chłopeckio nuostatos dėl ispanų filosofo José Ortegos y Gasseto išdėstyto požiūrio, kaltinančio XX a. muziką humaniškumo stygiumi. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Andrzejus Chłopeckis, muzikos kritika, naujasis romantizmas, Staliova Volia karta, šiuolaikinė muzika, muzikos humanizmas, egalitarizmas.

Introduction many important artistic events such as the Velvet Curtain festival or the Paweł Szymański music festival were founded. Andrzej Chłopecki (1950–2012) was an exceptional He specialized in the music of the twentieth and twenty- and important figure in Polish music criticism. He was first centuries. He cultivated a style of music criticism that unique and exceptional because, as the only musicologist could be described as “committed,” with this concept being and long-time journalist of Polish Radio, he devoted his understood as a commitment to insightful observation of entire professional life to contemporary music, engaging in changes and phenomena which are taking place in music numerous national and international activities and thereby and diagnosing them, and on the basis of which he was promoting and popularizing Polish contemporary music. able to foresee and predict the future of music. Chłopecki He was important because his work has left a lasting impact did not limit himself to analyzing and reviewing specific in Polish musical culture through, among other things, musical works that had already passed into music history. the enormous number of compositional orders which He also wrote about the music that was just in the making he undertook as the head of the radio editorial office of and supported music that was yet to be composed. He was contemporary music working with Polish Radio. Thanks called the “accompanying critic” (Cyz 2012) and given to Chłopecki’s devotion, many compositions that were credit for “creating the present day” (Mykietyn 2017: 20). relevant to the history of Polish music were created1 and Aware of the hermetic nature of the musicological language,

62 In Search of Values in Contemporary Music—Andrzej Chłopecki’s Music Criticism he tried to write about music in an accessible way for the Chłopecki also applied other concepts to the music of that average listener while providing reliable knowledge about generation, such as “New Romanticism.”3 Chłopecki, when music at the same time. His adamant, inquisitive attitude interpreting new phenomena in music, always tried to was motivated by the conviction that contemporary mu- identify its aesthetic values. For example, he regarded the sic should be studied and known, just like the music of category of beauty as one of the basic determinants of New historical epochs. Chłopecki also spoke about the role of Romanticism. As he wrote: criticism in culture. His writings constitute a rich collection [This trend] begins [...] to revitalize beauty, as in the ninete- of reflections on contemporary music and the problems it enth century many Romanticism began to break them down. presents to its listeners. (ed. Polony 1978: 149)

Chłopecki is also considered to be the creator of the Critic as a guide to contemporary music term “surconventionalism,” although the creators of this concept, Stanisław Krupowicz and Paweł Szymański, named “But first of all, the point is to interpret, highlight, and their composition technique in 1983 are representatives place the artistic facts into a context on a map of phenomena of this trend. Chłopecki appropriated this term and thor- and in some clearly revealed hierarchy of values” (Sułek oughly analyzed their music in terms of surconventionalism, 2007)—this is how Chłopecki described the music critic’s hence contributing to the dissemination of this concept. role in an interview given to Andrzej Sułek for Ruch Muzyc- New phenomena in music always give rise to termi- zny in 2007. Throughout his professional career, Chłopecki nological problems. According to Chłopecki, speaking played the role of guide into the world of contemporary about music of the twentieth century, we use terms that music for his readers. He made his debut in 1975, publishing are devoid of their original meanings, thereby making them the "Pasja Pendereckiego jako znak" ("Penderecki's Passion virtually meaningless. The emancipation of dissonance, as a Sign") essay in Ruch Muzyczny as a turning point that the distribution of the major-minor system, atonality, and revealed his ability to thoroughly analyze a musical piece. avant-garde—these terms are so spacious and comfortable Chłopecki proposed a semiotic analysis of Penderecki’s that critics use them to describe various phenomena that Passion, pointing to the symbolic meanings of the work, have occurred in the music of the last century. As he wrote: which he then subjected to a convincing interpretation. As Leszek Polony (1991: 331) emphasized, Chłopecki’s ...thinking of the music of this age, we do not notice that we are not thinking of music, but we instead are thinking of article initiated a discussion about the essence of music thinking of music, and words have grown up with conven- within . From that moment, the role of Ruch Muzyczny tions, thereby becoming conventional idiomatic expressions. Andrzej Chłopecki in the Polish musicological milieu be- (Chłopecki 2016: 22) came increasingly significant and noticeable. Naming both phenomena and processes as well as finding the connections The crowning achievement of his mission to organize that they share between them became the key feature of concepts that are related to contemporary music is the Chłopecki’s musical criticism. Chłopecki also had a unique publication entitled Zabobony gasnącego stulecia (The Su- writing talent that gave his writing a suggestive, very picto- perstitions of the fading century), which was inspired by the rial quality with regards to music. In addition, he had the lexicon of father Józef Bocheński (1987). The catalogue of unique gift of seeing new phenomena in music. He, as a superstitions includes a hundred slogans,4mainly trends and matter of fact, promoted Krzysztof Droba and helped to directions regarding the history of twentieth-century music bring to life the Young Musicians of a Young City Festival (including new simplicity, new complexity, new romanti- in Stalowa Wola in 1975. The festival (which took place in cism, modernism, and postmodernism) and compositional the years 1975-1980), in which a dozen or so composers of techniques and means (dodecaphony, electronics in music, the young generation took part, particularly distinguished sonorism) as well as phenomena that are related to the the music of three composers from the Academy of Music aesthetics of music (beauty, socialist realism, formalism, in Katowice: Andrzej Krzanowski, Aleksander Lason, and originality), the sociology of music (including commercial- Eugeniusz Knapik. In the work of these composers born ism, hermeticism, festivalomania, music publishing, future in the same year (1951), Chłopecki noticed a dictatorship generations), or slogans that are related to characters that of dissonance and a turn towards lyricism. Their creativity played an important role in twentieth-century music (Nadia was born within the framework of one generation and he Boulanger, Adorno, John Cage). defined them as the Stalowa Wola generation in reference Chłopecki established the goal to look at the func- to the location of the festival (Chłopecki 2014: 156).2 This tioning definitions of these particular concepts and create name was adopted by the contemporary music critics of a critical commentary regarding each particular slogan, those days and is still used in the discourse on Polish music. and if necessary, to remove them from the superstitious,

63 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Magdalena NOWICKA-CIECIERSKA superficial, or significantly broadened or changed mean- As was rightfully pointed out by the Polish researcher ing which had been assigned to them and propose a new Bogumiła Mika: definition. Chłopecki also shows primary tendencies in The twentieth century, beyond the term “new music,” in- the description of twentieth-century music. For example, troduced into circulation such words as “neoclassicism,” he analyzes the slogan of an experiment which he indicates “neoimpressionism”, “neo-avant-garde,” “neoexpressionism” was abused and used arbitrarily, which therefore “eliminates (which the polonized prefix “new” allowed the names “new the sharpness of the concept for very important artistic crea- Impressionism”, “new vanguard,” and “new expressionism” to tion” (Chłopecki 2016: 46). The concept of experiment is function as well as the terms “new lyricism,” “new simplicity,” also related to the concept of originality, and according to “new tonality,” “new humanism”,” or finally, “new roman- Chłopecki, in the twentieth century, the apologetic attitude ticism.” However, terminological ambiguity seems to be to originality, which was recognized as the primary feature returning. Because does it mean a new kind of romanticism, of artistic creation, was established. The bone of contention or does it mean that Romanticism has reappeared in music? Adding the adjective “new” in this case means assigning “new in Chłopecki’s opinion is the concept of “originality at all music” to the features of something that has ever been the- costs,” which was used to undermine a sense of innovation re—so, the characteristics of early music. (ed. Uchyła-Zroska and progress in music. 2019: 77–78)

As Mika rightly observed, the terms “new” and “neo” Novelty as an aesthetic value are not only related to the emergence of complete novelties in music, but they are also related (and perhaps, above all) Chłopecki, when asked about his criteria for the evalua- to dealing with music heritage by applying various contem- tion of an artistic work at the beginning of the twenty-first porary composing techniques. century, emphasized the role of “the criterion of novelty Chłopecki also emphasized the continuity of music and modernity” and originality (ed. Matracka-Kościelny development. For example, while interpreting the music 2003: 17). He saw novelty as an important value in music. of the new generation of Stalowa Wola, he saw continuity He looked for it. The very words “new” and “novelty” appear with tradition in its novelty: very often in his criticism. ... the primary feature of their engagement seems to be the According to Chłopecki, the words of Witold restauration of the unstable principles that were used in Lutosławski, “Nothing grows as fast as novelty in contem- creating music in the 1950s and 1960s, cultivating previously porary art” (Ibid.), which were taken out of context, were abrogated values and restoring music’s subject in question in the cause of stopping to think about it which has turned “to previous years to a doubt. (Chłopecki 2014: 157) the main counters” (Ibid.) against modernity, avant-garde, Chłopecki’s intuitions are well reflected by the words and originality. However, according to Chłopecki, the of Krzysztof Penderecki, who wrote on the category of category of modernity is not only related to contemporary novelty and the seeming deviation from tradition as given times, but rather it is related to a timeless interpretation below: criterion: When I was in my twenties, I wrote Tren. It then seemed to It is just enough to listen to many Renaissance and Baroque me as if I had completely cut myself off from tradition. Indeed, works to notice the category of modernity and originality Tren became the opposite all that I learnt during my studies that they have in them that has not diminished for centuries and the knowledge I had in music, which I had studied for over and can still fascinate us today and provide us with authentic a dozen years. Now, after years of experience, I think it cannot emotions. This category is still authentic and still remains be started from the beginning but could only be continued. obtainable. (Ibid.: 18) (Tomaszewski 2008: 191)

Novelty still remains a very significant category in today’s discourse on contemporary music. Much in this The humanity problem of twentieth-century music category that is related to the process of music perception was written by Carl Dahlhaus (1987), who observed that The humanism of new music was an important issue novelty is treated as “an essential—though lacking—condi- for Chłopecki. He questioned the theses of José Ortega y tion of aesthetic authenticity” (Dahlhaus, Eggebrecht 1992: Gasset (Ortega 1968: 3–54).), who in 1928 accused the 105). What is new in contemporary music does not exist music of the twentieth century of antihumanism. Chłopecki in isolation, we always interpret it in contrary to the old agreed with Ortega’s postulate regarding the dehumaniza- music. In the development of contemporary music, many tion which occurs within art, arguing that though the concepts have emerged that point precisely to the contrary. Spanish philosopher possessed the right intuition, it was

64 In Search of Values in Contemporary Music—Andrzej Chłopecki’s Music Criticism incomplete. His concept of dehumanization coincided was understood in the Romantic era. Each epoch, however, with our contemporaries. Chłopecki argued that Ortega’s assigns its own meaning to this notion: other six theses,5 however, were not successful intuitions. After the time of human glorification, as the real truth and According to Chłopecki, the Romantic period was idyllic instance, subject and object, after the time of humanizing, i.e. for humanistic music, but in the twentiethcentury the cul- pulling the ambition of music to express (...) the emotion of a ture of a free and romantic individual was destroyed by the single, free and tenderly embraced by the arm of a simple or experience of history and the tragic historical events of the complicated man, the music of the twentieth century—again, twentieth century imposed a crisis or crisis syndrome on the after the time of hypnosis with the vision of barricades painted music. It was not solely responsible for this phenomenon, by Delacroix—towards the universe. Sharpen using a capital because according to Chłopecki: letter: towards the Universe. (Ibid.: 108)

The crisis was just about the reception, and not the content According to Chłopecki, the music of the twentieth of the music scores. (Chłopecki 2014: 110) century became a search for the sacred: “the Universe, the Cosmos, and God.” Chłopecki points out that in the music The critic in this context gives an example of Carl of the twentieth century, a different quality of humaniza- Orff ’s reception of Carmina burana, which as a musical tion was created: work—as a musical score—may entertain, but the fact that the ideological context adheres to it causes the recipient to Music of the twentieth century—this progressive, innovative, be reluctant towards the work. Chłopecki indicated that revealing, the one that is blamed for Hermeticism, that was totalitarian power, both communist and Nazi, were against misunderstood and rejected by the masses and the philhar- art, twentieth-century music being no exception, and that monic audience—is humanistic to the measure of its time. Humanistic otherwise [...]. (Ibid.: 112) totalitarian power accused art of antihumanism, understanding humanism in other ways, opposing humanistic Chłopecki observed that just as twentieth-century art in degenerate art. totalitarian regimes tried to limit the freedom of the spirit by imposing their directives on art, democracy, under the What do we mean when we say that this age in music from the pressure of social demand, could turn high-standard and val- very beginning has started to eliminate humanistic values by itself? What are they and how do they appear in music, can ued art into ordinary and general art. Chłopecki referred to they manifest? can they—and how—eternal or just historical? the period of rebellion and the reign of the masses, thereby Do they have anything to do with humanism or humanity? siding with avant-garde elitism—he understood that by (Ibid.: 106) defending the artistic quality of music, we cannot make it more humanized, that is, make it more accessible as this He put these fundamental philosophical questions in threatens its artistry. Chłopecki’s position was in line with his essay. Being aware of the dialectical, provocative reader that of Arnold Schönberg, who had it, that if something is taking into consideration Chłopecki’s writing style, we can meant for the masses, it cannot be taken as art: “If it is art, not be astonished that he gives an ambiguous answer to it is not for all, and if it is for all, it is not art” (1984). He these questions. An indirect answer may be his interpreta- indicated his position as follows: tion of the search in the field of composition techniques of twentieth-century artists as attempts to restore music to If I am afraid of signing too easily under the call for humanized music, I am afraid of her artistic degradation towards dignity, the dignity of a great phenomenon that a person the taste of a simple person with whom the art of contact, can try to understand: supposedly, should not break up. Where would this idea When Schönberg composed Jacob’s Ladder, when Webern make him flatter? After all, we always wanted it to be free. searched for law in a magical square, when Xenakis on behalf (Chłopecki 2014: 113) of Roussel said that we all are Pythagoreans, when Grisey investigated the sound spectrum, referring to the concept of Conclusion the body movement according to Boethius, they all restored to music all the rank which was obvious for antiquity and 6 the Middle Ages: the rank—explanation and disclosure of Chłopecki talked about the issue of values in music. the law. (Ibid.: 110) Asking if and to what extent are originality and innovation values, he tried to maintain terminological purity in the Chłopecki emphasized that music was one of those field of describing contemporary music. He also wondered areas that refer to great things—they explain and cre- whether it was possible to keep the notion of beauty in ate the concept of the universe. According to the critic, today’s discourse on art, or whether there should be artistic twentieth-century music was a denial of the humanism as it truth in the music of our time, and whether it is possible

65 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Magdalena NOWICKA-CIECIERSKA to show lies in art or if art could be considered in terms of George Crumb as new romanticism, and later this concept ethics today. He courageously opposed the lie and falsehood was used in the context of the entire generation of composers in music.7 He also put forward more detailed questions, for associated with the Festival in Stalowa Wola. 4 Chłopecki completed only a list of forty-two of the one hun- example, whether the value in music today can be anchored dred slogans that he created. Originally, they were published in national tradition (patriotism), worldview (religion), in the Katowice magazine Dysonanse in 1997. They also or ideology (liberalism, communism, social criticism, or appeared in the form of a book publication in which, along anarchism). His work, written with a deep commitment with 42 slogans written by Chłopecki, missing slogans from to understanding contemporary music, is a great source Chłopecki’s list were published. Their authors are Polish musicologists, theorists, musicians, and composers. See: A. of knowledge about the problems of contemporary music Chłopecki, Zabobony gasnącego stulecia. Kontynuacje, Krakow aesthetics from the point of view of an active observer and – Warsaw 2016. music interpreter. They raise important problems that every 5 According to Ortega, in addition to striving for dehumani- musicologist and music critic who interprets contemporary zation: 2) art avoids forms that are reflected in life, 3) the music should be aware of. The problems outlined in this work of art should be nothing more than a work of art, 4) art text also show how difficult and demanding a task reliable should be treated as fun and nothing more, 5) ironic attitude from the principle, 6) falsehood and meticulous execution of musical criticism is within contemporary music. the work should be avoided, and finally, 7) according to young artists, art has no transcendent meaning (Ortega 1968: 14). 6 This issue was also the subject of discussion among young Endnotes composers and musicologists that was organized at the Poznań Spring Music Festival in 2008, which was hosted by Andrzej 1 In sum, Andrzej Chłopecki (alone or in cooperation with Chłopecki. someone else) ordered 110 new compositions. As part of the 7 He saw Krzysztof Penderecki‘s Piano Concerto as an example Polish Radio Composers Forum project in 1978–80, seven of a negation of ethical values. A critical review of this piece compositions were created: V String Quartet by Krzysztof Me- by Chłopecki brought up harsh polemics in the Polish music yer, Divertimento for strings by Marek Stachowski, Anenaika milieu. See. Sozialistischer Realismus und ‘11 September’? Über for a cappella choir by Augustyn Bloch, Harpsichord Concert Reaktionen und Überreaktionen auf Krzysztof Pendereckis Kla- by Henryk M. Górecki, Sinfonietta No. 2 by Aleksander vierkonzert (2002). Krzysztof Penderecki. Musik im Kontext. Tansman, Concerto per archi for violin and string orchestra Materials from the conference, Leipzig 2003, edited by Helmut by Zbigniew Bujarski, and 1st String Quartet by Aleksander Loos and Stefan Keym, Leipzig 2006, pp. 390–434. Lasoń. Among the orders for Polish Radio that Chłopecki submitted, from 1993 are 14 compositions, such as: Paweł Szymański—Miserere; Stanisław Krupowicz—Fin de siècle; Bibliography Zbigniew Bargielski—Trigonalia; Paweł Mykietyn—3 for 13; Tadeusz Wielecki—Egocentric poem; Tadeusz Wielecki—Id Chłopecki Andrzej, O dehumanizowaniu i dohumanizowaniu for symphonic orchestra; Martin Smolka—Three pastoral the- muzyki XX wieku intuicji kilka zugespitzt wyrażonych, in: mes; Włodzimierz Kotoński—Winterreise; Eugeniusz Kna- Andrzej Chłopecki, in: Muzyka wzwodzi. Diagnozy i portrety, pik—Up into the Silence for soprano, baritone, string quartet Warszawa 2014, pp. 105–114. and symphony orchestra; François-Bernard Mâche—Braises Chłopecki Andrzej, Prezentacja książki Bohdana Pocieja „Lu- for harpsichord and orchestra; Krzysztof Knittel—De profundis, tosławski a wartość muzyki”, in: Muzyka w kontekście kultury. psalms; Hanna Kulenty—Concerto for trumpet and symphony Spotkania Muzyczne w Baranowie: “Ars nova – ars antiqua”, orchestra; Zbigniew Penherski—Piece for string orchestra; and 1976, L. Polony (ed.), Kraków: PWM, 1978, pp. 148–149. Magdalena Długosz—Silent asphodels—the memory of Józef Pat- Chłopecki Andrzej, Wypowiedź, in: Rola krytyki w dzisiejszym kowski. Chłopecki ordered works by foreign composers as well życiu artystycznym, Alicja Matracka-Kościelny (ed.), Podkowa as Polish ones, including from Lithuania: Onute Narbutaite— Leśna-Stawisko: Stowarzyszenie Ogród Sztuk i Nauk, 2003, Melody in the olive garden, Bronius Kutavičius—Die stille Stadt, pp. 15–22. and Osvaldas Balakauskas—Meridionale, and by Yuri Laniuk Chłopecki Andrzej, Zabobony gasnącego stulecia. Kontynuacje, from Ukraine. Out of 110 orders, 40 were orders for works by Kraków, Warszawa: PWM, 2016. young artists from the “Förderpreise für Polen” project of the Cyz Tomasz, Nasłuch: Andrzej Chłopecki, http://www.dwuty- Ernst von Siemens Musikstiftung foundation, 2001–2006, godnik.com/artykul/3974-nasluch-andrzej-chlopecki.html representing Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, [last checked 15.01.2019]. Hungary, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Latvia, and Estonia. Dahlhaus Carl, Muzyka dawna i nowa, in: Dahlhaus C., Egge- 2 Chłopecki described the characteristics of the music of this brecht H. H., Co to jest muzyka?, D. Lachowska (transl.), th generation in a speech delivered in 1983 during the 17 All- Warszawa, 1992, pp. 105–109. (Was ist Musik?, Wildelmsha- Polish Musicological Conference in a paper entitled: In Search ven, 1998). of the Lost Order. The Generation of Stalowa Wola, 1983. The Dahlhaus Carl, “New Music” as Historical Category, in: Schoen- short version of the paper has been translated into English, berg and the New Music. Essays by Carl Dahlhaus, D. Puffett, see: Seeking the Lost Order. The Generation of Stalowa Wola, A. Clayton (transl.), Cambridge, 1987 [reprinted 1990]. trans. M. Vnota, in: Glissando 2014 No. 25, pp. 65–70. Mika Bogumiła, Nowość i jej wartość w muzyce, czyli podążając 3 During the music gathering in Baranów Sandomierski in 1976, tropem Dahlhausa, in: Wartości w muzyce. Zarys współczesnych Chłopecki described the music of Andrzej Krzanowski and kierunków badań nad wartościami w muzyce, Vol. III, Jadwiga

66 In Search of Values in Contemporary Music—Andrzej Chłopecki’s Music Criticism

Uchyła-Zroska (ed.), Katowice, 2019, pp. 67–79. įvairias, daugiausia XX a. muzikos istorijos tendencijas Mykietyn Paweł, Chłopecki na głosy, in: Ruch Muzyczny, 2017, apibūdinančias kategorijas (pvz., naujasis paprastumas, No. 9, p. 20. naujasis sudėtingumas, naujasis romantizmas, postmo Polony Leszek, Polski kształt sporu o istotę muzyki, Kraków: Aka- demia Muzyczna w Krakowie, 1991. dernizmas, modernizmas) bei kompozicines technikas Ortega y Gasset José, The Dehumanization of Art and Other ir priemones įvardijančius terminus (dodekafonija, elek- Essays on Art, Culture, and Literature, Helene Weyl (transl.), tronika muzikoje, sonorizmas), bet ir sąvokas, susijusias su Princeton University Press, 1968. muzikos estetika (grožis, socialinis realizmas, formalizmas, Schoenberg Arnold, Style and Idea: Selected Writings, University originalumas) bei muzikos sociologija (komerciškumas, of California Press, 1984. hermetiškumas, festivaliai, muzikos leidyba, ateities kartos), Sułek Andrzej, Czym jest krytyka? Jaka jest praktyka? Na pytania odpowiada Andrzej Chłopecki, in: Ruch Muzyczny, 2007, No. taip pat su reikšmingiausiomis XX a. muzikos asmenybėmis 5, pp. 8–12, http://www.ruchmuzyczny.pl/PelnyArtykul. (Nadia Boulanger, Theodoru Adorno’u, Johnu Cage’u) php?Id=347 [last checked 15.01.2019]. susijusias tezes. Tomaszewski Mieczysław, Penderecki. Bunt i wyzwolenie. Vol. 1: Toliau straipsnyje aptariamos dvi Chłopeckio lai- Rozpętanie żywiołów, Warszawa, 2008. kytos svarbiausiomis XX a. muzikos problemos. Viena jų – naujoviškumo ir originalumo kriterijus, kuris, anot muzikologo, yra nepavaldus laikui ir siejasi su tradicija, Santrauka nes tai, kas nauja, visada egzistuoja priešinant su sẽna. Antroji Chłopeckio išsamiai nagrinėta tema susijusi su Fenomenalus lenkų muzikos kritikas ir muzikologas An- XX a. muzikos humanizmu ir egalitarizmu. Straipsnyje drzejus Chłopeckis savo tekstuose apmąstydavo šiuolaikinę apžvelgiama Chłopeckio nuomonė apie José Ortegos y muziką. Jam būdinga stebėti muzikoje vykstančius pokyčius Gasseto požiūrį į muzikos dehumanizavimą. Lenkų muzikos ir reiškinius bei juos įvardyti, siekiant nustatyti jų vietą kritikas gynė XX a. muziką, teigdamas, kad, atsižvelgiant į istoriniame ir estetiniame kontekste. Jis buvo vadinamas tragiškų XX a. įvykių paženklintą laikotarpį, ši muzika yra „kritiku akompaniatoriumi“, „kuriančiu šiuolaikiškumą“. humaniška. Chłopeckis pabrėžė, kad įvairių naujų technikų Chłopeckis buvo apdovanotas unikaliu rašytojo talentu – paieškos XX a. muzikoje vyko jai siekiant atsigręžti į šiais apie muziką rašė labai įtaigiai ir vaizdingai. Kitas išskirtinis sudėtingais laikais žmonijai aktualius klausimus, atrasti jo gebėjimas – įžvelgti naujus fenomenus muzikoje. Dėl šių naujas prasmes. Chłopeckiui buvo artima avangardinio savybių jis buvo puikus muzikos kritikas ir turėjo didžiulį egalitarizmo idėja; jo nuomone, menas turi žmones pakylėti, autoritetą lenkų muzikų bendruomenėje. Interpretuodamas užuot susitelkęs į buitį ir kasdienybę, jis turėtų išlikti laisvas. šiuolaikinės muzikos kūrinį ir svarstydamas apie jo estetinę Taigi meno „sužmoginimas“, pasak Chłopeckio, kenkia vertę, Chłopeckis visada stengėsi aptarti kūrinį platesniame meniškumui. kontekste. Šiame straipsnyje apžvelgiami Chłopeckio Straipsnyje glaustai aptarta Chłopeckio veikla ir mintys nuopelnai lenkų muzikos raidai, tarp jų – naujų sąvokų, rodo kritiką buvus ypač atsidavusį šiuolaikinės muzikos tokių kaip Staliova Volia karta, naujasis romantizmas ar tyrinėjimams. Jis pirmiausia stengdavosi suprasti muzikos siurkonvencionalizmas, sukūrimas ir pastangos išgryninti estetiką, o tada perteikti jos reikšmę platesniam klausytojų šiuolaikinės muzikos terminologiją. Chłopeckio veiklos būriui, nes, kaip pats Chłopeckis sakydavo, muzika, apie šioje srityje rezultatai apibendrinti veikale „Nykstančio kurią nekalbama, neegzistuoja. amžiaus prietarai“: čia pateikiamos kelios dešimtys su šiuolaikine muzika susijusių sąvokų, tarp jų rasime ne tik Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 01 30

67 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Isabel PINA Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology Portugalų diktatūros propaganda penkto dešimtmečio periodinėje spaudoje: muzikos kritika, kompozitoriai ir ideologija

CESEM – NOVA FCSH, Av. de Berna, 26C, 1069-061 Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract During the Estado Novo there was a clear investment in cultural initiatives. These were mainly related to the need, stated by the dictator himself, António Salazar, and António Ferro—the head of Portuguese propaganda during the most critical years of the dictatorship—to build a solid political regime, based on traditional, regional, and Catholic values, which were supposed to be recognized by both the Portuguese and abroad. The modus operandi of Ferro,s propaganda resulted in the appropriation—or even creation—and dissemination of artistic objects that even today are recognized as inherently Portuguese symbols. Music and music criticism had an important role in this propaganda: some of the music criticism regarding the events promoted by the dictatorship was written by composers and critics that took part in the dictatorship,s propaganda, while others were against the conservative right-wing policy. In a context marked by censorship and where—not surprisingly—most articles react positively to government policy, the intention of this article is to analyze the discourses of music criticism and the way the cultural and musical changes imposed by the Estado Novo were aired—supported and criticized—by some of the most influential periodicals, composers, and critics of the Portuguese twentieth century, at the same time taking into account obvious nuances with regard to political positioning. Keywords: Estado Novo, Secretariat of National Propaganda, music criticism, Portuguese music, ideology.

Anotacija Antrosios Respublikos, arba Estado Novo, laikotarpiu buvo nemažai investuojama į kultūrines iniciatyvas. Šios investicijos iš esmės buvo susijusios su politine propaganda: kaip skelbė pats diktatorius Antonio’us Salazaras ir ypač portugalų propagandos galva Antonio’us Ferro’as – reikėjo sukurti tvirtą, tradicinėmis, regiono ir katalikų vertybėmis paremtą politinį režimą, kuris būtų pripažįstamas ir Portugalijoje, ir užsienyje. Ferro propagandos modus operandi rėmėsi perėmimu – arba netgi sukūrimu – bei sklaida meninių objektų, kurie ir šiandien pripažįstami neatsiejamais Portugalijos simboliais. Muzika ir muzikos kritika šioje propagandoje taip pat atliko svarbų vaidmenį: kai kurie į propagandą įsitraukusių kompozitorių ir muzikos kritikų rašyti straipsniai pristatė diktatūros propaguojamus įvykius, o kiti kritikavo konservatyviąją dešiniųjų politiką. Atsižvelgiant į cenzūros paženklintą kontekstą, kai daugumoje straipsnių išreiškiamas teigiamas požiūris į vyriausybės po- litiką, šiame straipsnyje siekiama išanalizuoti muzikos kritikos diskursus ir būdus, kuriais keletas įtakingiausių XX a. Portugalijos periodinių leidinių, kompozitorių ir kritikų vertina – teigiamai arba kritiškai – Estado Novo atneštas kultūrines bei muzikines permainas, neignoruodami ir akivaizdžių, su politine pozicija susijusių niuansų. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Estado Novo, Nacionalinės propagandos sekretoriatas, muzikos kritika, portugalų muzika, ideologija.

Introduction traditionalist, Catholic regime, considered by many to be fascist in its essence. For almost fifty years, Portugal saw the After the First Republic—1910-1926—Portugal lived establishment of, for instance: under a military dictatorship until 1933, and, with the Constitution of 1933, under a dictatorial regime designated 1) the law of censorship—which was imposed on all and known from then on as the Estado Novo. Between media, press, radio, and literature: them, the military dictatorship and Estado Novo, brought With the implementation of the Constitution, the reorgani- to an end by the Carnation Revolution of 1974, are known zation of earlier censorship in 1933, and the creation of the as the Second Republic. In 1928, António de Oliveira Sala- Secretariat for National Propaganda (SPN) the following zar entered the government definitively, becoming Minister September, the appropriate legal means and instruments were of Finance and later President of the Council of Ministers. created for intervention to bring these main aims into effect. In 1933, Salazar officially became Portugal’s dictator— In the actual terms of the 1933 Constitution, public opinion the dictator of a corporatist, conservative, nationalist, was considered a “fundamental element of the administration

68 Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology

politics of the Country.” But this “public opinion” then concerns were evidently economic rather than cultural, conceived by the Estado Novo was not at all related to the given his admitted willingness to sacrifice some of the po- complex formation of a “space for opinion” where ideas were pulation’s cultural needs in order to restore the country’s freely confronted. It was merely an attempt to constitute a finances. In other words, he had no qualms about sacrificing “bloc of national opinion” which served the rulers’ interests, actual people in order to be able to build roads, castles, and with the ultimate objective of faking the “national spirit.” This monuments, using the high figures obtained in these areas implied that, besides silencing the discordant voices (through as proof of success. Moreover, Salazar was quite different censorship, through the PIDE), there was an attempt to im- plant the greatness of this regime’s works into public awareness from other authoritarian leaders, such as Mussolini or as well as the notion that this was the expression and strongest Hitler, whose cultural and artistic campaigns were viewed, guarantee for the defense of the perennial values of national in a sense, as priorities. According to various researchers identity. (Tengarrinha. 2017: 383)1 currently focusing on the Estado Novo and on Salazar himself, what makes this Portuguese political dictatorship 2 2) the secret police, whose torture of prisoners and men quite different from other European cases is the figure of the and women of the political (leftist) opposition has only re- “leader”—which Salazar, by comparison with his Italian or cently become known to part of the Portuguese population: German counterparts, was not, since he lacked the charisma After a question about possible maltreatment that was being and concerns about mass politics that characterized the exercised by the police, Salazar declared that after an inquiry, other regimes. Reclaiming his image as a shy, conservative, it was “concluded that the people maltreated were always, or humble man, with a calm, isolated, monastic way of living almost always, fearsome bombers, who refused to confess, and interacting with the people, Salazar gave little value to despite the use of every means.” He added the justification the mass politics of Hitler, considering that the interest of that “only after using these violent means” did they decide the Estado Novo was principally in drawing in the upper to “tell the truth,” leading Ferro to ask “whether the lives of classes, who would subliminally guide and influence the children and defenseless people were not of sufficient worth lower ones. or did not in large part justify giving these sinister creatures half a dozen well-timed shoves. (Pimentel 2017: 25) In a society marked by the hegemony of ultraconservative social and political elites, but with a heavy weight from the oli- 3) and the deflagration of the Portuguese Colonial War garchies of rural landowners and commerce, intimately linked, or Overseas War, between 1961 and 1974 in the overseas as a strategy of preservation, to the traditional powers of the territories of Angola, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique—in Catholic Church and the Army; with a fanatical attachment these countries this war is known as the War of Liberation: to “order,” to “natural hierarchy,” to “tradition,” to “discipline,” and for that very reason, with a sense of fear and panic, which In 1961 a series of wars began between Portugal and the are essential to everything that concerns the “street,” the mas- different liberation movements invested in conquering the in- ses, social protest, unions, democracy, and even in important dependence of African territories under colonial domination. sectors of the ruling classes, and modernity in general; in a First in Angola, then Guinea and Mozambique, the war on society, moreover, in global terms little massified and with three different fronts continued as the last rattle of an already the intermediate classes having little weight; in a society, anachronistic empire. Hundreds of thousands of young men however, strongly affected by the economic, social, political, were then transported from the “metropolis” to a remote war. and ideological crisis of liberalism; in this mix of social and political culture, it was understood that the “Head” of the […] “National Revolution” would ultimately be who it was. An This extensive armed conflict, born amid the post-World War austere professor of public finance at the University of Coim- II anticolonial wars, would work, directly or indirectly, as a bra, a former seminarian and leader of the Catholic party, a defining preliminary to the independence of Angola, Cape son of rural homesteaders from the Beira Alta, a conservative Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, and São Tomé and and authoritarian elitist trained in the cultural traditions of Principe. (Cardina & Martins 2018: 11) counterrevolutionary, social Catholic, and integralist thought, someone utterly alien to the glamour of Lisbon politics. A As a logical consequence, for almost five decades, the “university dictator” who, almost without being noticed, had country went through a series of cultural impositions, which evolved from Coimbra to Finance and from that to the head were sometimes merely the official establishment of cultural of government. In outward appearance, in style, in methods, policies already in existence during the First Republic, in he is seemingly different from the Latin, populist, plebeian, order to create the image of an apparently culturally uniform and modernist virility of the Italian duce. A sort of national population with values assumed by the Portuguese people variant of the dictator and modern European dictatorships. (Rosas 2015: 166–7) themselves and perceived by other nations. However, Salazar could not act alone in order to make In this sense, and with a view to making Salazar’s and these changes or construct all this mise-en-scène. His main the Estado Novo’s ideas closer to and easily grasped by the

69 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Isabel PINA whole Portuguese population, the charismatic and influ- sometimes may even be considered “invention,” of certain ential figure of António Ferro3 became known nationally cultural objects that to this today are considered inherently on the political scene through the publication of a series Portuguese symbols. As examples mention may be made of of interviews with António Salazar in the daily newspaper the Galo de Barcelos (Cockerel of Barcelos), today sold as Diário de Notícias, considered perhaps one of the first real a national symbol throughout the country, which at first acts of political propaganda of the Estado Novo: was a chance handicraft object sold by a local artist in a local market; the regional clothes, a typification or crea- […] before 1933, the year of adoption of the new Constitution tion of local, but actually not very representative, working and of the complementary measures of organization of the apparel—which intended to show the differences between secret police and of censorship, of the creation of National people from different regions, but which also served the Unions, of the regulation of the exercise of freedoms, etc., at the end of 1932, in November, Salazar agreed to be in- purpose of showing the population as equally poor, but terviewed by António Ferro for the Diário de Notícias. He happy; and folk-music groups, with which the Secretariat was not simply any old journalist. He was perhaps the most for National Propaganda intended to do the same but international and cosmopolitan Portuguese reporter of the through music. time, travelling throughout the world of the new dictators, For fifteen years he made the country a theater and took on an interviewer of Mussolini and Kemal Atatürk, among many the role of director. He organized exhibitions of modern art, others, knowledgeable about international politics, a man of instituted literary and artistic prizes, financed various films culture close to the modernists, and an extreme right-wing and many documentaries, prepared representations at major intellectual seduced by the radical novelties of propaganda, international exhibitions, created a ballet company, drew aesthetics, and the great mise-en-scènes of fascism. An en- attention to the potential that exists in folk art, and took care counter, for all that, providential. of the organization of a Museum of the People, inaugurated The newspaper was to publish this series of interviews in 1948. At the same time, and in order to promote tourism, between 11 and 23 December 1932, and its first edition as a which at that time was still incipient, he worried about book (bringing together these five talks) appeared, with other the appearance of the streets, launched window-shopping supporting material, in 1933. contests, promoted the decoration of hotels and restaurants, It would be the first great propaganda document about collaborated in the pousada program [the installation of luxu- the regime and its head, appearing in a newspaper and then ry hotels in historic buildings], convinced that hygiene, taste collected in a book, even before the institutionalization of the and dignity were essential in the way the visitor was welcomed, Estado Novo itself. (Rosas 2015: 157–8) and launched a campaign that would tend to generalize good A year later, in 1933, António Ferro became the director taste. (Acciaiuoli 2013: 8) of the newly created Secretariado da Propaganda Nacional— One of the main initiatives of this political and cultural Secretariat for National Propaganda. From 1933 to 1949, this secretariat was the mega-celebration of the poly-centena- former journalist, enthusiast of modernism and an admirer of ries in the year of 1940. This year was, for Salazar’s regime, Hitler and Mussolini, was the person behind what he called fundamental, on both a national and international level, for the Política do Espírito—the “Policy of the Spirit”—the asserting both its own power and that of the history, value, policy of cultural enhancement of the Estado Novo. and economic evolution of the Portuguese Empire. During th The Estado Novo cannot be understood in all its length the year 1940, Portugal celebrated the 800 anniversary of and breadth, not even the singularity of the Portuguese the foundation of the country, that is to say, as a separate authoritarian regime, without knowing António Ferro, the Portuguese nation, in 1140, and 300 years of independen- man responsible for propaganda. The essence of Salazarism ce from the Spanish crown, in 1640. In 1940, countless is indissociable from the maneuvers and expedients that he events took place, various monuments were restored, built, used in the construction of the political image of the leader and rebuilt. The country was, in a sense, “cleaned up” and of the Estado Novo [...] organized for the ultimate celebration—the Portuguese In command of the propaganda apparatus, Ferro was, at World Exhibition: the same time, the rudder, the prow, and the captain of the Salazarist ship. Intelligent, creative and hardworking like The exaltation of the Discoveries is the central motif of the gre- few of his generation, he manipulated the press, radio, and at Portuguese World Exhibition, set up in Belém in 1940. [...] cinema with total disdain for the public, he falsified popular In evoking epic seaborne voyages, national pride was habits and customs, and he invented traditions that never enhanced by showing foreign visitors that the Portuguese existed, sacrificing everything for the interests of the regime. Colonial Empire was an oasis of peace in a world at war. (Raimundo 2015: 11) And the dictator was glorified, elevated to the condition of great emperor, heir, providing continuity to the heroes of the For around fifteen years, António Ferro was the sea, although this helmsman never set foot in the overseas principal figure responsible for the appropriation, which territories. [...]

70 Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology

Inaugurated on 23 June 1940 by president Óscar Fragoso would finally bring to fruition. Immediately mentioning Carmona, with Salazar at his side, the exhibition lasted more all the main artists involved in the project and with almost than five months [...] the same enthusiasm—composers, choreographers, plastic The exhibition, which stretched over a gigantic area of560 artists, fashion designers—the Diário da Manhã or its critics thousand square meters, was set up in Belém, since there were and journalists, just like other newspapers, tried, from the already three national monuments there extolling the glorious outset, to enhance the dimension of the “total work of art” past: the Jerónimos Monastery and the Tower of Belém from the beginning of the sixteenth century, and the statue of that was implied in an undertaking such as Verde-Gaio, the- Afonso de Albuquerque from 1901. For over 11 months the refore demonstrating the cooperation between the multiple operation mobilized full-time 5,000 manual workers, 1,000 artists, arts and sectors of the initiative: plasterers, 123 masons, 15 engineers, and 12 architects, joined We await with great interest the forthcoming première, at by 43 painters and 19 sculptors. (Raimundo 2015: 291–2) the Teatro da Trindade, of the ballet company Verde-Gaio. Musically speaking, 1940 was indeed a crucial year: This atmosphere is fully justified, both because of the impor- António Ferro finally managed to create a Portuguese ballet tance of the Secretariat for National Propaganda’s initiative, aiming to create a “school” of Portuguese ballet among us, company, Verde-Gaio, with which he intended to create a and owing to the fact that Francis is the artist that will bring powerful propaganda weapon across borders as well as fulfil it to fruition, as well as to the recognized merit of the people his expectations as to how dance could raise awareness of that work with him. certain moments of national history; the national opera Amongst them, it is fair to highlight, besides the composers house, the Teatro de São Carlos, was at long last, reopened, who wrote the music for the ballets—Rui Coelho, Frederico de after years of remodeling and repairs. These two events were Freitas, and Jorge Croner de Vasconcelos4—the name of Dr. Ivo integrated into the 1940 commemorations. Cruz, illustrious director of the Conservatório Nacional, who will conduct the Orquestra Filarmónica de Lisboa, a remarkable group with more that seventy invaluable members. The première of the ballet company Verde-Gaio To the success of this initiative there will equally be contributions from the plastic artists: Estrela Faria, Maria Keil The primary aim of this article is to identify and analyze do Amaral, José Barbosa, Paulo Ferreira, and Bernardo Mar- the criticism pertaining to the première of the Verde-Gaio ques, designing the scenery, the curtains, and the costumes, have afforded this work all the resources of their original and ballet company and the reopening of the Teatro de São Car- vigorous art. (Diário da Manhã 2.11.1940: 3) los, as published in the Portuguese periodical press, focusing on opposing discourses—those in favor of the Estado Novo The most important part of convincing the public of and its initiatives, and those against them. However, and this achievement was carried out immediately before the perhaps not surprisingly due to the existence of the law of show by António Ferro himself, who gave a speech about censorship under the Estado Novo, openly opposed articles Verde-Gaio on the official state broadcasting station—the were not to be found; of course, even the articles concer- Emissora Nacional.5 This “radio talk” was published in its ning the launching of Verde-Gaio and the reopening of the entirety in the Diário da Manhã the day following the bro- São Carlos published by music critics of the opposition adcast and the show itself. Beginning his talk by emphasi- were not, in essence, negative. Indeed, mention should be zing the inescapable presence of the art of dance throughout made of a notable silence, since criticism by various known human history, Ferro quickly explained, in enthusiastic and oppositional music critics, those who, despite censorship, laudatory terms, the reason behind the creation of a ballet were most openly opposed to the regime’s events in other company, presenting Portugal as a country naturally devoted situations, is non-existent. On the contrary, if we consult to dance, even if not fully conscious of the fact: the main newspapers and journals of the time, only positive criticism on these events is to be encountered. However, Portugal is, precisely, one of the richest European countries the intention of this text is to examine nuances in these in ballet motives. All over the country, from North to South, discourses, with a view to identifying further information buried or simply unknown, there are endless themes, of a high poetical quality, that can be transformed into choreography. about what the true opinions and ideologies of the critics This was the task undertaken by the Secretariat for National and the periodicals at stake might be. Propaganda from its foundation. Exhibitions of Popular Art, Chronologically, the first of these two events was the national and foreign exhibitions of our folklore, specialized première of Verde-Gaio, on 8 November 1940. It had wide publications, and the contest for the most Portuguese village publicity in the periodical press, namely in the regime’s offi- have been no more than simple excavations in order to bring cial daily newspaper, Diário da Manhã, which for days be- to the surface certain colorful and rhythmic expressions of the forehand prepared readers and the theaters’ frequenters for national soul, the eternal gestures of the race, and its interior the great event that the Secretariat for National Propaganda design made visible. […]

71 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Isabel PINA

“Verde-Gaio,” a small company of Portuguese ballets that Portuguese ballet” (Diário de Notícias 6.11.1940: 4), in a is premièred today, is the first flower produced from the seeds way implying that this initiative did not exactly constitute we found in the earth and cast back to the earth. A timid, a finished achievement, but merely a first attempt. It is also modest flower, a simple flower of the field, but which can be in the Diário de Notícias that certain difficulties and reser- transformed when carefully nurtured in Klingsor’s Garden. vations are mentioned in relation to Francis’s choreography (Diário da Manhã 9.11.1940: 1) for one of the ballets, perhaps being the only article to refer, Making constant reference to the values of the Portu- albeit subtly, to weaknesses in the artistic training of the lea- guese race and the relevance of popular and traditional, ding dancer. Although Francis tried to improve his classical almost mythological, art forms as representatives of the technique with official classes at the Conservatório Nacional true national essence, António Ferro made the point that and through private coaching with foreign teachers, he was already known as a dancer whose aim was to put popular ...in Portugal we had to start from scratch, since we have neit- dancing traditions on the map, less worried about classical her a school nor a ballet tradition. We have the raw material, technique. António Ferro himself recognized that, even if dances, and rhythms in their virginal state, but we lacked the he lacked experience, Francis was ready and willing, which impulse, the creative spirit. (Diário da Manhã 9.11.1940: 1) was, in this particular instance, more important.7 In the pages of the Diário da Manhã, the show was described as “the most beautiful moment amongst all the theatrical presentations of the poly-centenary celebrations” and as The reopening of the Teatro de São Carlos “eminently national, racially Portuguese” ( Diário da Manhã 8 9.11.1940: 4). The music itself is only briefly mentioned and As for the Teatro de São Carlos, now the Teatro Naci- seemingly in the least direct way possible, emphasizing the onal de São Carlos, it reopened on 1 December 1940, the “Portugueseness” of the themes and music—one of the pieces day of the “Restoration of Independence,” which celebrated emphasizing Portugal’s Islamic heritage while at the same Portuguese independence from the Spanish Crown, in time promoting one of Portugal’s regions (the Algarve) and 1640, during the reign of King João IV, following sixty assets (almonds); another based on a rhapsody of excerpts years of domination by the Spanish monarchy. It was not, of course, a coincidence that the country’s principal opera inspired by traditional music; and a third based on one of the house reopened on this specific day, with a performance of best-known romantic episodes of Portuguese royal history: the opera D. João IV by Rui Coelho, who was, as we have In the three ballets presented the day before yesterday, the seen, also involved in the Verde-Gaio initiative, and was lyrical motif is predominant, both in its subjective and static one of the composers most closely associated with Salazar’s expression of the delicate musical poemeto by Jorge Croner de regime. Furthermore, King João IV, who lived between Vasconcelos, which is the adorable “Lenda das Amendoeiras” 1604 and 1652 and reigned from 1640 until his death, [“Legend of the almond trees”], and in the objective and dyna- had been the object of fascination for various nationalist mic expression of the cheerful watercolor, screaming of color Portuguese composers, since he had a double significance and movement, that is Muro do Derrête by Frederico de Freitas. with regard both to his being the monarch responsible for But where this lyricism is deeper and greater is surely in the restoration of independence and to his passion for music Inês de Castro, by Rui Coelho, a magnificent interpretation and occupation as a composer. João IV was the subject of of a centuries-old Leitmotif, the theme of tragic love, for the first time choreographed in a Portuguese expression. (“J. de musicological research by the monarchist composer Luís 9 F.” 10.11.1940: 5) de Freitas Branco, whose book D. João IV Músico was published posthumously (1956) as well as of an article by Identical is the discourse published in the newspaper Rui Coelho for the periodical Revista dos Centenários—a Novidades, a Catholic newspaper that printed the very journal published by the Secretariat for National Propagan- same words as found in the Diário da Manhã. All of the da during the commemorations of 1940, with propaganda articles concerning Verde-Gaio’s première refer, for ins- and news about its initiatives—by way of promoting the tance, to the presence of leading state figures, such as the opera which reopened the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos. President or ministers; similarly, the performance of the Unlike the Verde-Gaio première, the reopening of the main dancer, Francis Graça,6 is always mentioned. But in São Carlos was not, in a sense, an event in itself, since it was other newspapers, the ones that adhered less closely to the only one of the several events that took place on the same political regime’s ethos, the focus is different. In O Século, day. On 1 December, there were many initiatives, given that for example, the presence of modernist lines in the visual it was also the closing of the Portuguese World Exhibition part of the show is stressed and praised. In the Diário de and the official final day of the poly-centenary commemo- Notícias, although making similar points, the critic refers rations; amongst other things, the final moments of the to this première as “a first decisive step to the creation of commemorations also consisted of parades by the Mocidade

72 Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology

Portuguesa10 and the Legião Portuguesa,11 a homage by the The salon for rendezvous during the intermissions, broad President beside the Restoration monument, and a solemn and beautiful, is a precious jewel that provoked in me a spon- Te Deum. Moreover, it is worth pointing out that, in a simi- taneous and uncontrollable bravo!, and it underlines all the lar way to the criticism relating to Verde-Gaio, the music good taste of the architect that imagined and brought it about. was not the most important element in the reopening of I already knew the theater, of course, as I already knew the São Carlos. It was, so to speak, more of an architectonic fragments of the opera D. João IV, because on the night of the and social event, since the São Carlos had been closed for visit there was a rehearsal, and I couldn’t resist the urge to sit several years and was now one of the projects of the Mi- and listen to a bit of music. (Pimenta 5.12.1940: 1) nister of Public Works. In the same manner as the castles, As an inherently social event, perhaps the reopening churches, universities, and hospitals, the Teatro Nacional de of the São Carlos was even more ostentatious and elegant São Carlos, at its reopening, became an architectural sym- than the Verde-Gaio première. This time, the political and bol of the country’s and of the regime’s greatness through diplomatic figures present in the audience were mentioned the reconstruction of valuable items of national heritage. with greater enthusiasm, the presence of Spain’s ambassa- As regards the relevance of the Ministry and Minister of dors being underlined, with greater or lesser subtlety, as a Public Works, mention should be made of the periodical way of showing the empathy that Portugal and Spain now Panorama, also published by the Secretariat for National shared. Also noted was the attendance of Filipa de Bragança, Propaganda, which emphasized the importance of public direct descendant of King João IV, symbolizing an evident works in its editions: compromise between the Estado Novo and the monarchic The publication, in the first issue, of an article on the “Port of factions of Portuguese society.12 Moreover, one of the most Lisbon,” which was followed, with the same emphasis, by texts characteristic traits of the articles concerning this reopening on the Coast Road, the Hidráulica Agricultural, the School of is the way the newspapers describe the reaction of the public Alfeite, the National Stadium, the Instituto Superior Técnico, towards the presence of the President, Óscar Carmona13 the Church of Fatima, and the Maritime Station of Alcântara and the President of the Council of Ministers, António as well as the extensive references that appear about the first Salazar, visible, for instance, in the pages of O Século, in a pousadas, illustrate the effort that was made to show how these undertakings rivalled the natural beauties and the exhibitions passage that also underlines the secondary role the music that had been held. [...] But there were also coded references played in this event: that were of no less importance, especially those linked to their The orchestra began the spectacle with the Hymn to the great promoter, Minister Duarte Pacheco [Minister of Public Restoration. Everyone standing. Sensation. Applause for the Works] (1900-1943). (Acciaiuoli 2013:247-8) President as well as for Dr. Oliveira Salazar, and the velvet For instance, in the Catholic newspaper A Voz, the curtain of the proscenium opened. The light entered with reopening of the theater is not only mentioned as part of its phantasmagorias […]. And maestro Rui Coelho lifted his a whole day of celebrations, but also as an architectural baton. The show on the stage is about to begin and is met with silence. In the first intermission, the great salon grows and decorative comeback, including a description of the crowded. […] In a corridor […] the Head of State passes by, building in the opening sentences of the article: the President of the Council and various ministers, Mr. Du- As a complement to the day’s ceremonies, the gala performan- arte Pacheco in front, guiding herald and creator of this fine ce at the Teatro de São Carlos consisted of an extraordinarily work. The applause is vibrant, enthusiastic and affectionate. splendid event, full of dignity. (“M.S.” 3.12.1940: 1) The old theatre, imposing and rejuvenated in its decor, evoked the atmosphere of the great festivities of the past, Only two articles mention the music in a more extended which had particular significance there. A( Voz 3.12.1940: 2) fashion. One of them was written by the Portuguese composer and critic Luís de Freitas Branco,14 with whom Rui The same newspaper, a few days after the first article, Coelho had had differences in the past, the two sometimes published a much more elaborate critical text, this time si- being by Portuguese musicology as rivals.15 Freitas Branco’s gned—one of the few that also mention the decoration, the article is short, and in a certain sense neutral, mentioning public and the music. As regards the theatre’s visual aspect, only the main parts of the opera and the traditional or Alfredo Pimenta, a known monarchist in the Portuguese popular inspiration of the composer, without going into intellectual aristocracy, stated: detail. In Alfredo Pimenta’s review for the newspaper A That symphony of white and gold coexisting in perfect ba- Vo z , the quality and appropriateness of Rui Coelho’s opera lance, which offer us a patina midway between novelty, the is highlighted, but reading between the lines we understand impertinence of the debut, and the old that requires resto- that the composer is, in a way, a problematic personality ration, that symphony is one of the most joyful happenings with whom a number of artistic and political objectors that I have witnessed. had regularly had public arguments in the press, something

73 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Isabel PINA that would have been known to the informed Portuguese devaluing the actual voice of the people, while also critici- newspaper reader: zing certain composers who, from an early stage, took on the main creative intentions of Salazar’s regime—such as It has very beautiful musical passages—some that caress our Rui Coelho. However, Fernando Lopes-Graça does not ears in sweet melody; others that thrill us with enthusiasm, write about these particular events – it almost seems that awaking in our spirit that joy that does not deceive us. It is possible that the technicians, tomorrow, holding he consciously refused to write about the subject. Indeed, their pencils with the score open, will find reasons to mention Fernando Lopes-Graça, in private correspondence, asked semiquavers or demisemiquavers, sharps and flats. I couldn’t his friend and colleague Francine Benoît, equally linked to care less about that, because I don’t know. What is true is that opposition organizations, and who was likewise severe as a down below, in the audience, there were moments when I music critic on a number of occasions, to write about the was delighted, wishing it would never end, and others when Portuguese ballet company Verde-Gaio, instead of himself, I wished to scream my love for Portugal. for the weekly periodical O Diabo, of which Lopes-Graça If, during all this time, there was a demisemiquaver more was the main music and musical theater critic. The article or a flat less, or in the wrong place, that is of no interest to by Francine Benoît, curiously, since it was written for an me. The ultimate aim of Art is to provoke reactions of the anti-Salazar periodical, just like other critics, is not nega- ear, or emotional images. That aim was achieved by Mr. Rui tive as such, with only a few points about what didn’t go Coelho—a very controversial person, but with whom I have so well in the performances: the shows were more visual no relations, let me add, for the elucidation of the critics. (Pimenta 5.12.1940: 1) than musical, the musical compositions that were more interesting were not suited to choreography, and the best choreography was not applied to the best musical works. Conclusion But throughout her article we can read that she was actually trying to understand and explain why Verde-Gaio was, Throughout this article, the main purpose has been indeed, a success, since that was not obvious. fundamentally to demonstrate how musical events served Broadly speaking, these two events were not of great the political propaganda agenda of the Estado Novo and interest to the periodical press simply as musical events. how that dimension was perceived in the publicity and They were important moments but as spectacles in all their media coverage to be found in the Portuguese periodical dimensions, consisting, amongst other things, as elements of press of the time—in all the daily non-specialist newspapers the regime’s mise-en-scène. 1940, with the poly-centenary that built up readers’ and general public’s interest before commemorations, was the ideological, propaganda and aes- the premières and emphasized in critical articles. This was thetic zenith of the Estado Novo, which until 1945 would brought about sometimes by critics and musicians related to maintain its “fascist-ish” theatrical activities, which tended the political regime, in the pages of official right-wing peri- to disappear after World War II. I could have chosen other odicals, and by others, in articles that, although positive at manifestations, such as architecture, sculpture, clothing, in- first sight, reveal to us certain details about the events which terior decoration, photography, arts and crafts, painting, or are not present in the first group. Nevertheless, we may state other musical genres, such as fado. I could even have chosen that the reviews in the periodical press mentioned in this other examples of art music specifically composed for the article are mainly positive in tone—even though severe 1940 commemorations, such as Abertura 1640, by Luís de censorship can explain the reasons why there is no actual Freitas Branco. This particular work was recently analyzed negative criticism, the silence of opposing voices is indeed by Manuel Deniz Silva (2016) as a fundamentally monar- curious, particularly from critics who, on other occasions, chic achievement, given that the monarchic composer used and despite previous censorship, do not restrain themselves the occasion as a celebration of Portuguese independence in their openly critical opposition to the intentions of the from the Spanish crown, instead of being the fascist impulse Secretariat for National Propaganda. of someone who, in fact, never supported Salazar. However, One particular silence, by the composer Fernando with these examples we can probably see that the cultural Lopes-Graça, is worth mentioning. Admittedly aligned change carried out by Estado Novo translated itself into with leftist ideologies, imprisoned by the secret police the crystallization of artistic forms of a presumably tradi- for actions that included the direction of a subversive tional character, and were, therefore, representative of an republican newspaper, and later exiled in Paris and linked authentic past that was to be perceived by everyone and to the Portuguese Communist Party, Fernando Lopes- in the building, rebuilding and restoration of monuments Graça always maintained a highly critical position with that, in a way, showed the antiquity of the Portuguese race regard to the appropriation, by the Secretariat for Natio- and assured a convenient social stratification for the regi- nal Propaganda, of Portuguese traditional music for the me. Music was only one of the instruments of the so-called creation of an image in sound of a picturesque country, “Policy of the Spirit” of the Estado Novo.

74 Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology

Endnotes the youth organization of the Estado Novo, created in 1936 and extinguished with the Carnation Revolution of 1974. 1 This and other translations are the author’s. 11 Legião Portuguesa (Portuguese Legion), like Mocidade Portu- 2 Created in 1933 and known until 1945 as the Polícia de guesa, was founded in 1936 and extinguished in 1974. It was a Vigilância e Defesa do Estado (PVDE), and between 1945 paramilitary state organization dependent on the Ministry of and 1969 as the Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado the Interior and War and responsible for the military and civil (PIDE). defence of Portuguese territories (including those overseas). 3 António Ferro (1895–1956). 12 Concerning the integration of all the rightist factions in one 4 Rui Coelho (1889–1986) was a composer, conductor, and single right-wing organization, the historian Fernando Rosas prolific music critic who came to be known as essentially a mentions the absorption of Centro Católico (the Catholic composer of symphonies and operas with national or national- right) and monarchism, for example, the movement called ist themes inspired by Portuguese poets, significant moments Integralismo Lusitano, founded in the 1910s by young men in Portuguese history, and folk or popular ideals. He was one unhappy with the Republic: -of the composers most committed to the celebrations of 1940 Te absorption of the Integralists would be more compli (Silva 2010: 301–5). cated. It should be pointed out, perhaps, that the followers of Frederico de Freitas (1902–1980) was a composer and the restoration of the constitutional monarchy were a species conductor, prolific in a variety of genres, such as symphonic in rapid extinction, not least because the exiled king himself music, religious music, operettas, and vaudeville. With regard dropped that claim […] in 1922. Indeed, the majority of the to ballet music, his output is closely linked to the Verde-Gaio restoration groups would gradually fall under the decisive ballet company (Côrte–Real & Latino 2010: 524–9). cultural and ideological influence of the anti-liberal currents Jorge Croner de Vasconcelos (1910–1974) was a music in general, and Integralismo Lusitano in particular. [...] the teacher and composer, for example, of chamber music and Monarchist Cause and most of the Integralists came to ballet music, being best known thanks particularly to the peda- support the Military Dictatorship and then become part of gogic activity to which he dedicated himself in the last years the Estado Novo and the single party, the National Union, of his life, above all as a music teacher at the Conservatório the Central Board of Integralismo Lusitano dissolving itself Nacional de Lisboa (Miranda 2010: 1317–8). in 1933. (Rosas 2015: 145–6) 13 5 The Emissora Nacional was also an initiative brought about António Óscar de Fragoso Carmona (1869–1951). 14 during the Estado Novo. Its first broadcast occurred in 1934 Luís de Freitas Branco signs this article, as many others, only and its official inauguration in 1935. Given that music, in the as “LFB.” 15 early days of the radio station, was the most primary element Rui Coelho, as a prolific music critic, became known in in its programming, a symphony orchestra was immediately twentieth-century Portuguese music history essentially as a created as well as a chamber orchestra and a department of polemicist. He initiated and maintained a number of public Portuguese music. Art music was given first place in the pro- discussions with composers and critics in the pages of the gramming of the station; however, popular culture also had to newspaper where he published his articles, Diário de Notícias, have a place in the broadcast, since António Ferro’s goal was as well as in other periodicals to which he sent open letters to reach the entire population. (Silva 2010; Ribeiro 2005). addressed to directors, editors, critics and composers, ques- 6 Francisco Florêncio Graça, known as Francis Graça (1902–1980). tioning their perspectives and explaining his own. One of the 7 Acciaiuoli 2013: 196. first controversies started by Rui Coelho is related to an ac- 8 The Teatro de São Carlos was inaugurated in 1793, first as the cusation of plagiarism against Luís de Freitas Branco, in 1911, Real Teatro de São Carlos, having been built at the initiative in an article in which Rui Coelho compares a sonata by Freitas Branco to another by César Franck. The gesture can be seen of the business elite of Lisbon. It was premièred with La balle- as the senseless act of a young composer who suffered from rina amante by Domenico Cimarosa, and, during most of the nineteenth century, the theater’s output was mainly related to being underrated when compared to Luís de Freitas Branco, Italian opera. French and German opera flourished in Lisbon but the polemical tone of Rui Coelho’s articles would remain, at the end of the nineteenth century. In 1934, the Teatro de creating more heated discussions with well–known music São Carlos closed for restoration work, which only began in critics such as Francine Benoît (1894–1990) and Fernando 1938. The theater reopened in 1940; “the opera chosen was by Lopes–Graça (1906–1994). Rui Coelho, who became the official composer of the Salazar regime” (Cymbron 2010: 1254). 9 Luís de Freitas Branco (1890–1955) was a composer, musi- Bibliography cology and composition teacher, lecturer, music critic, and researcher, who became known in the history of Portuguese Acciaiuoli Margariga, António Ferro – A vertigem da palavra, music as the introducer of musical modernism in Portugal and, Lisboa: Editorial Bizâncio, 2013. years later, of a new classicism (ideas that were prominently Cardina Miguel & Bruno Sena Martins (eds.), As voltas do passado, repeated by his students and family). With a broad output Lisboa: Tinta-da-China, 2018. of chamber and symphonic music, Freitas Branco was also Côrte-Real Maria de São José & Adriana Latino, Frederico de one of the most widely recognized music critics of the time. Freitas, in: Enciclopédia da Música em Portugal no Século During his youth, he was linked to the political movement XX, Salwa Castelo-Branco (ed.), Vol. 2, Lisboa: Círculo de Integralismo Lusitano, retaining the ideas of order, Latinism, Leitores, 2010, p. 254–259. and classicism throughout his life (Pina 2016). Cymbron Luísa, Teatro Nacional de S. Caros, in: Enciclopédia 10 Organização Nacional Mocidade Portuguesa, commonly da Música em Portugal no Século XX, Salwa Castelo-Branco known as Mocidade Portuguesa (the Portuguese Youth), was (ed.), Vol. 4, Lisboa: Círculo de Leitores, 2010, p. 1253–1255.

75 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Isabel PINA

Miranda Gil, Jorge Croner de Vasconcelos, in: Enciclopédia da “P.”. “Bailados portugueses – A estreia do Grupo «Verde-Gaio» Música em Portugal no Século XX, Salwa Castelo-Branco (ed.), no Teatro da Trindade”, Diário de Notícias, 26853, 10.11.1940, Vol. 4, Lisboa: Círculo de Leitores, 2010, p. 1317–1318. p. 2. Pimentel Irene Flunser, A história da PIDE, Lisboa: Círculo de “A récita de gala em S. Carlos foi espectáculo de rara beleza”, Diário Leitores, 2017. de Notícias, 26375, 3.12.1940, p. 3. Pina Isabel, Neoclassicismo, nacionalismo e latinidade em Luís de Nogueira de Brito, “A ópera «D. João» - música de Rui Coelho Freitas Branco, entre as décadas de 1910 e 1930, Master Thesis e letra de Silva Tavares”, Diário de Notícias, 25376, 4.12.1940, in Musicology, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, p. 2. Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2016. “Bailados portugueses”, Novidades, 14390, 2.11.1940, p. 2. Raimundo Orlando, António Ferro, o inventor do salazarismo, “O grupo de bailados «Verde-Gaio» estreia-se amanhã em Alfragide: Publicações D. Quixote, 2015. espectáculo de gala”, Novidades, 14395, 7.11.1940, p. 2. Ribeiro Nelson, A Emissora Nacional nos primeiros anos do Estado “Bailados portugueses”, Novidades, 14397, 9.11.1940, p. 6 Novo – 1933-45, Lisboa: Quimera, 2005. Palma Vargas, “Bailados portugueses «Verde-Gaio», Novidades, Rosas Fernando, Salazar e o Poder, a arte de saber durar, Lisboa: 14398, 10.11.1940, p. 5. Tinta-da-China, 2015. “A récita de gala, em S. Carlos”, Novidades, 14420, 3.12.1940, p. 1. Silva Manuel Deniz, Rui Coelho, in: Enciclopédia da Música em Francine Benoît, “Apontamentos sobre os espectáculos do «Verde- Portugal no Século XX, Salwa Castelo-Branco (ed.), Vol. 1, Gaio»”, O Diabo, 323, 30.11.1940, p. 6. Lisboa: Círculo de Leitores, 2010, p. 301–305. “O Grupo de Bailados Portugueses estreia-se depois de amanhã, Silva Manuel Deniz, Rádio, Enciclopédia da Música em Portugal no Teatro da Trindade”, O Século, 21062, 6.11.1940, p. 4. no Século XX, Salwa Castelo-Branco (ed.), Vol. 4, Lisboa: “C.A.”, “O Grupo de Bailados Portugueses «Verde-Gaio» que, on- Círculo de Leitores, 2010, p. 1080–1086. tem, se estreou no Trindade, ofereceu um espectáculo de arte Silva Manuel Deniz, Salazar’s dictatorship and the paradoxes que foi justamente aclamado”, O Século, 21065, 9.11.1940, p. 6. of State music: Luís de Freitas Branco’s ill-fated Solemn “M.S.”, “O Teatro de S. Carlos ressurgi esplendoroso de luzes e Overture 1640 (1939), in: Composing for the State: Music in de dourados num espectáculo de maravilha”, O Século, p. 1 20th-Century Dictatorships, Esteban Buch, Igor Contreras and and p. 4. Manuel Deniz Silva (eds.), Musical Cultures of the Twentieth “LFB”, “A partitura de «D. João IV» tem acentuado sabor popu- Century Series, Farnham (GB): Ashgate Publishing and Cini lar”, O Século, 21088, 3.12.1940, p. 4. Foundation, 2016, p. 144–167. Tengarrinha José, Breves considerações sobre o Estado Novo de Salazar e os , in: Media, Gar- Media Salazar, o Estado Novo e os Santrauka cia José Luís et al. (coord.), Lisboa: Edições 70, 2017, p. 381-8

Antrosios Respublikos, arba Estado Novo, propaganda Periodical press [order by newspaper and date] paveikė visas kultūros sritis – architektūrą, fotografiją, skulptūrą, kiną, interjero ir drabužių dizainą, muziką, o jos “A récita de gala no Teatro de S. Carlos”, A Voz, 4942, 3.12.1940, p. 2 galutinis tikslas buvo paskleisti žinią apie oficialiąsias verty- Alfredo Pimenta, “Tribuna livre em S. Carlos”, A Voz, 4944, bes ir jas įdiegti visiems Portugalijos gyventojams, drauge 5.12.1940, p. 1 and p. 6. “Bailados portugueses - É aguardada com interesse a estreia no kuriant unikalia, spalvinga kultūrine įvairove pasižyminčios Teatro da Trindade”, Diário da Manhã, 3420, 2.11.1940, p. 3. šalies ir jos vientisos istorijos, geografijos bei meno paveikslą. “O Grupo de Bailados Portugueses «Verde-Gaio» estreia-se Tuo užsiėmė Nacionalinės propagandos sekretoriato pir- amanhã em espectáculo de gala”, Diário da Manhã, 3425, mininkas Antonio’us Ferro’as, kuris Salazaro politiniam 7.11.1940, p. 2. režimui suteikė estetinį matmenį ir kurio veiklos pasekmės “Os bailados portugueses apreciados por António Ferro, ao jaučiamos iki pat šių dienų. microfone da Emissora Nacional”, Diário da Manhã, 3247, 9.11.1940, p. 1 and p. 3. Akademinė muzika ne tik turėjo skatinti etnografines “O Grupo de Bailados Portugueses «Verde Gaio» alcançou um studijas, daugiausia turizmo tikslais, bet ir atliko svarbų grande êxito na sua primeira apresentação, em récita de gala a vaidmenį kuriant tam tikrą Portugalijos įvaizdį. Šiame que assistiu o Chefe do Estado”, Diário da Manhã, Nº 3247, straipsnyje pasirinkta nagrinėti du reikšmingus įvykius, 9.11.1940, p. 4. susijusius su vienu iš didžiausių Sekretoriato projektų – “J. de F.”, “«Verde Gaio» - Bailados Portugueses”, Diário da Manhã, 3428, 10.11.1940, p. 5. daugybe 1940 m. surengtų šimtmečio minėjimų. Kadangi “A récita de gala no Teatro de S. Carlos”, Diário da Manhã, 3450, periodinė spauda yra pagrindinis šaltinis, norint geriau 3.12.1940, p. 5. suprasti tam tikros epochos muzikinius įvykius, ji lygiai “O grupo de Bailados Portugueses faz depois de amanhã a sua taip pat svarbi tyrinėjant ne tik konkretaus laikotarpio, bet estreia no Teatro da Trindade”, Diário de Notícias, 26849, ir straipsnį rašančio muzikos kritiko bei jį spausdinančio 6.11.1940, p. 2. “A apresentação do grupo de bailados portugueses «Verde-Gaio» leidinio ideologiją. Taigi šio straipsnio objektas – muzikos feita por António Ferro ao microfone da Emissora Nacional”, kritikų straipsniai, apžvelgiantys „Verde-Gaio“ portugalų Diário de Notícias, 26852, 9.11.1940, pp. 1-2. baleto premjerą ir pirmąjį iš naujo duris atvėrusio São “A apresentação dos bailados portugueses no Teatro da Trindade”, Carlos nacionalinio teatro pastatymą – Rui Coelho operą Diário de Notícias, 26852, 9.11.1940, p. 4. „D. João IV“.

76 Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology

Antonio’us Ferro’as idealizavo „Verde-Gaio“, norėdamas Kitaip tariant, abiem atvejais muzika laikoma tik vienu iš parodyti, kad Portugalijai niekada nestigo teminės ir daugybės komponentų, padedančių siekti kur kas didesnio muzikinės motyvacijos baleto menui, nors ši meno sritis tikslo – kurti nuolankią, tradicinę, konservatyvią, religingą, anksčiau nebuvo sulaukusi jokių oficialių iniciatyvų. tautinę kaimiškosios tapatybės šalį, tačiau sostinės socialinis 1940 m. lapkričio 8 d. „Teatro da Trindade“ scenoje įvykusi elitas „suvartojo“ šiuos renginius kaip egzotiškos, įdomios, šios baleto trupės premjera visuose pristatymuose, visuose spalvingos kultūros apraiškas. Taigi tie du kultūros įvykiai periodiniuose leidiniuose, visų kritikų buvo laikoma tikra tapo Antonio’aus Ferro ir jo vadovaujamo Nacionalinės sėkme, nepaisant keleto svarstymų, kad premjera rodo ne propagandos sekretoriato sugalvotos ir vykdomos Portu- tiek pasiekimą kiek pastangas ir kad pagrindiniai šokėjai galijos autentiškumo kūrimo programos dalimi. stokoja technikos. Muzikos prasme šis įvykis buvo menkai Kaip tik tokios išvados pateikiamos straipsnio pabaigoje, reikšmingas; nors kai kur pabrėžiama programinės ir po- tačiau čia taip pat minima vieno aršiausiai Salazaro režimo puliariosios muzikos įtaka, kituose straipsniuose muzika puoselėjamus muzikinius idealus kritikavusių muzikologų beveik neminima. Muzika – tik vienas iš spektaklio aspektų, Fernando Lopes-Graços tyla: jis, atrodytų, atsisakė rašyti apie greta scenografijos, kostiumų dizaino, choreografijos ir kitų „Verde-Gaio“ ir „D. João IV“ pastatymą, nors buvo kalbėjęs dalykų. apie kitus Estado Novo šalininkus ir programas. Kita muzikos Tą patį galima pasakyti apie 1940 m. gruodžio 1 d. pa- kritikė, Francine Benoît, nors buvo siejama su opoziciniu rodyto São Carlos nacionalinio teatro atidarymo spektaklio judėjimu ir rašė kairiesiems periodiniams leidiniams, gana muziką: nors ir giriama dėl programinės krypties, kurią teigiamai vertino šiuos renginius, šiek tiek užsimindama apie lėmė Portugalijos nepriklausomybę atkūrusio karaliaus baleto trupės kokybę ir apie tai, kad vaizdiniai sprendimai istorija, ji spektaklyje vaidina nepagrindinį vaidmenį. Todėl buvo daugiausia skirti choreografijos trūkumams ir nepa- recenzijose daugiausia dėmesio skiriama architektūriniams kankamam pasirengimui paslėpti. Pasak kritikės, kadangi aspektams ir politinei reikšmei. Į Viešųjų darbų ministerijos spektakliai pritraukdavo pilnas sales, „Verde-Gaio“ galima programas įtrauktam São Carlos nacionaliniam teatrui, laikyti tikra sėkme. Taigi akivaizdu, kad net šis konkretus kuris iki tol keletą metų buvo uždarytas, skirtas vaidmuo – straipsnis yra puikus itin efektyvaus, tiek sceną, tiek kritikų parodyti švarią, tvarkingą atkurtą šalį. straipsnius veikiančio propagandos mechanizmo pavyzdys.

Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 02 01

77 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Dāvis EŅĢELIS Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media Autoriteto diskursas ir užslėpti galios santykiai Latvijos žiniasklaidoje skelbiamuose muzikos kritikos straipsniuose

Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music, K. Barona iela 1, Rīga, LV-1050, Latvija [email protected]

Abstract According to the linguist Roman Jakobson, we use language by applying several language functions to our speech (Jakobson 1960). There- fore, we cannot expect to extract all meanings from a text by looking at it only at an explicit level. Language is a problem, and the same goes for music criticism. By using discourse analysis (DA), the reader can interpret the implicit meanings of the text, which include: 1) construction of a critic’s self-image and authority, 2) an increase or a decrease in the social distances between audiences and the classical music industry, and 3) an interpretive answer on how critics in the mass media put into words what they hear at a concert. Here, I argue that DA reveals two important aspects of music criticism: how music critics perceive the functions of music criticism and the function of language in criticism. The origin of this study lays in the interest of the situation of music criticism in the Latvian mass media. Thus, I conclude this paper with an analysis of reviews written by two Latvian music critics. Keywords: classical music criticism, authority discourse, language functions, discourse analysis, implicit meaning, mass media.

Anotacija Anot kalbininko Romano Jakobsono, kalbėdami naudojamės keliomis kalbos funkcijomis (Jakobson, 1960). Todėl nagrinėdami tekstą tik sąmoningai, visų jo prasmių nesuprasime. Kalba problemiška; tą patį galima pasakyti apie muzikos kritiką. Pasitelkdamas diskurso analizę, interpretuotojas gali perskaityti užslėptas teksto reikšmes, tokias kaip: 1) kritiko savivokos, autoriteto konstravimas; 2) socialinės distancijos tarp publikos ir klasikinės muzikos industrijos didėjimas arba mažėjimas; 3) interpretacijos, kaip kritikai žiniasklaidoje perteikia žodžiais tai, ką išgirdo koncerte. Šiame darbe teigiama, kad diskurso analizė atskleidžia du svarbius muzikos kritikos aspektus, susijusius su tuo, kaip šio meno kritikai suvokia kritikos paskirtį ir kritikoje naudojamas kalbos funkcijas. Šį tyrimą paskatino domėjimasis muzikos kritikos padėtimi Latvijos žiniasklaidoje. Darbas baigiamas dviejų latvių muzikos kritikų parašytų recenzijų analize. Reikšminiai žodžiai: klasikinės muzikos kritika, autoriteto diskursas, kalbos funkcijos, diskurso analizė, užslėpta reikšmė, žiniasklaida.

Introduction the first year of studies, I narrowed down this theme to the discourse of authority and implicit power relations in clas- The article is part of my master’s thesis, which is still sical music reviews. In this article, I focus on music reviews in development. I presented a part of it at the 46th Baltic written by two Latvian critics. Musicological Conference “Cultural Change and Music In this article, I will focus on a few aspects of music Criticism” in Vilnius, 2018. I will at times refer to the criticism: authors that spoke before me and who had insights that fit 1) music criticism is no exception to the way discourse into my theme. analysis (DA) looks at the text. It implies that: The title given in the conference booklet and on my first 2) music criticism should be considered in the context drafts of the thesis is as follows: Discourse of Music Criticism of its social properties; in Reviews about Classical Music in Mass Media: A Case 3) music critics use language to talk about music by both Study of Latvia, USA, and Great Britain. explicitly sharing their subjective views and evaluations of From the moment I began this study, I was interested in art and by implicitly trying to objectify their subjective the discourse of music criticism in the mass media. During views and evaluations.

78 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media

The structure of the text social dimension, is constantly reflecting and transforming class, institutional, national and group interests. No word or utter- First, I will continue the introductory part by giving ance, from this perspective, is ever neutral. (Graham 2000: 18) a few definitions and a brief overview of the data used in In other words, language use implicitly shows how we my thesis. represent reality. There are different ways that we can talk Second, I will point out some keywords and key con- about something, and the usage of different grammatical cepts central to DA and the discourse of authority. properties can imply different attitudes. Third, I will then use these concepts as a foundation for the qualitative analysis of two reviews written by Latvian music critics. Keywords, definitions In the fourth part—the conclusions—I will emphasize some points of concern (in my opinion) about music criti- I’ve already defined the discourse of this study and what cism (I work occasionally as a freelance music critic). During the conference in Vilnius, Aušra Kaminskaite raised one I mean by this term. Before we go further, let’s look at a few such concern in her paper “Emigrant Critics”—the humili- other central keywords and definitions. ation of an artist by the critic.” DA looks at the text as a problem, and here I refer to Criticism Teun van Dijk, who has characterized critical discourse As David Beard and Kenneth Gloag have described analysis (CDA) as analytical discourse research that pri- criticism, pinpointing the key concepts of musicology, “can marily studies the way social-power abuse and inequality be understood as the regular activity of reviewing concerts are enacted, reproduced, legitimated, and resisted by text and recordings” (Beard and Gloag 2016). In this exact sense, and talk in the social and political context (van Dijk 2015). I use the term “music criticism” in this study. Thus, I understand the meaning of discourse as the social Now, I also use the term classical music to narrow down use of language. the focus. As general, unfocused and problematic it may be, In this study, I argue that language is not a solution—so I use the term “classical music” in its most general meaning; to speak, a well-made tool we can use to communicate about that is, the sorts of music that so-called classical music crit- music, but rather a problem—a multi-functional system ics write about are quite diverse, ranging from concerts by (let’s take, for example, the six functions of language by symphony orchestras, chamber ensembles, and opera pro- Roman Jakobson (Jakobson 1960), which is filled with ductions to multimedia projects and contemporary music meanings both explicit and implicit). To paraphrase the performances. May I add, so as not to pass by this detail as words of van Dijk, CDA focuses on discourses within, not self-explanatory, that any of these terms may overlap and outside their social contexts (van Dijk 2015: 467). none of them excludes the other. That fully concerns music critics as well. The presump- From the perspective of media editors-in-chief, writ- tion that music critics— innocently, so to speak—evaluate ing reviews about classical music usually means to write concerts and recordings and selflessly serve the highest about symphonic concerts, whatever the application of ideals of art without any relation to social contexts may be terms “classical” or “popular,” “academic,” or “non-academ- suitable to the critical tradition of the nineteenth century ic” may best suit the actual music played, as well as chamber and the beginning of the twentieth century. As we will see music concerts, opera productions, and music festivals below in the examples given by Nicolas Slonimsky, the high curated by major concert venues. ideals of the critic are questionable even when we look back Thus, I may not exclude from this study a text written at those times (the earlier days of music reviews). by the classical music critic about, say, an electronic music Music critics, alongside music producers and PR special- festival or a popular music concert. ists, speak extensively about classical music publicly. Also, classical music critics implicitly construct themselves as Data authorities and experts in their reviews. I began this study by building text corpora from classical This idea stems from the work by Russian linguists music reviews written by Latvian, American, and English Mikhail Bakhtin and Valentin Voloshinov. I’ll quote a short critics. In this paper, I will show an analysis of reviews by passage by Graham Allen, one of the greatest scholars of two Latvian critics. In addition, I will show a few examples intertextuality: of similarities in the language use of American critics to Bakhtin and Volosinov argue against Saussure that “there is no provide general insight into how differently the critics de- real moment in time when a synchronic system of language scribe music and interpretation. A substantial comparison could be constructed” (1986: 66). This is because language is between the reviews of Latvian, American, and English always in a “ceaseless flow of becoming.” Language, seen in its critics is a task for future research.

79 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Dāvis EŅĢELIS

There are not many music critics in the Latvian media An activity which was initiated and performed by and even fewer regular reviewers of classical music events. miners in a specific place and time now seems to have an The majority write for the biggest local newspapers. There- autonomous existence. Furthermore, the new verb created fore, I have also chosen foreign music critics who write for by nominalization can appear as the actor in a new construc- some of the major newspapers, excluding professional music tion, thus making the decoding of its meaning even more magazines of any sort. All the reviews chosen for analysis obscure. Guntar Kress and Robert Hodges characterize were published in 2017 or 2018. nominalization as follows: Another argument of choice is that all these critics … there are two major effects associated with that transforma- write regularly about the musical events at their local cul- tion, which amount to a quite radical changing of the original tural institutions. Accordingly, the majority of the Latvian form. First, although we know that there was an actor and an music critics, particularly those who appear at my study, affected, the specific identities of both have been lost. We can write regularly about concerts organized by the main music guess about their identity, but we can never be certain. Second, institutions in Latvia, in particular, the Latvian National in the resulting surface form the only thing that meets us is the Symphony Orchestra, the chamber-orchestra Sinfonietta verbal version of the action which was performed, and in this Riga, the Professional Orchestra Riga, opera productions way, our attention is directed to what is present and directed at the Latvian National Opera, and a number of chamber away from what is no longer there. So the focus of the expres- music concerts and fewer multi-media concerts that usu- sion has been altered by the speaker, our vision has been chan- ally fall under the categories of classical music or classical nelled and narrowed. A last effect, which is perhaps somewhat contemporary music. more subtle, lies in the change in nature of the concept from A similar local context applies to American music crit- verb to noun, and all the attendant changes in meaning which that change entails. (Kress and Hodge 1979: 21) ics. For example, Alex Ross (The New Yorker) and Anthony Tommasini (The New York Times) write elaborately about the New York Symphony Orchestra. They also review the The passive transformation productions at the Metropolitan Opera and write exten- Norman Fairclough writes: sively about chamber-music concerts. Agentless passives [...] leave causality and agency unclear. In Implicit meaning in the text some cases—and this is also true for nominalization—this Teun A. van Dijk writes: may be to avoid redundancy if that information is already given in some way. In other cases, it can be obfuscation of Implications and presuppositions are powerful semantic agency and causality. (Source of quotation) properties of discourse that aim to obliquely assert “facts” that may not be true, as when politicians and the media refer to Take a look at this example: the violence of demonstrators or the criminality of minorities I wrecked the car > The car was wrecked (van Dijk 2015: 473). Here the active voice is turned into a passive voice, thus In the context of a concert review by a music critic making the action more ambiguous. “The car was wrecked” there are—I may assume, for the most part— no political is an agentless passive: the actor is removed, so we do not ideologies to submerge or hide; rather, the DA will focus know who wrecked the car. The deletion of the actor goes on critics’ points of view, attitudes, and positions, which, in hand with agentless passives and nominalizations. When even if not explicitly articulated in the text, may be revealed a music critic, for example, says: “It is presumed that…” with the DA. (instead of: “I presume that…”) they implicitly take their Before we continue with the analysis of Latvian critics’ assumption for granted: in other words, what they have reviews, I have provided in the next several paragraphs presumed ought to be general knowledge, and everybody some examples of language use that are typical criteria for else should think the same. a DA that are applied to the analyzed text. Note that these Here are two examples taken from reviews by Latvian examples of language use can be merged into one sentence critics. They may sound a little odd in English because of and overlap, as we will see in some examples. the differences in syntax and word choice,1 but the main goal is to illustrate the passive transformation in a context Nominalization of music criticism. Nominalization means actions turned into objects, For example, in one of the reviews, the Latvian critic verbal processes turned into nouns. Here is an example, writes: “There is an inkling…” But the critic could have said taken from (Kress and Hodge 1979): “I have an inkling” and it would be a different sentence. In strikers picket a factory => picketing another review, the phrase “A gratification could be felt”

80 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media appears. As I said, hardly anyone (of the English critics that A side-note: at least at this stage of the study I don’t I have read) would use such a form in their reviews. With make a generalization that Latvian critics write referentially these examples, I wanted to underline the noticeable pres- and American critics write poetically. Instead, I want to ence of agentless passives in Latvian music reviews. give the reader an idea of how differently these authors approach the discourse of music criticism. Below, I give a brief Delocution description of how the referential and the poetic functions Delocution (also the French délocution) is more a gen- of language help to interpret the implicit power relations eral term to describe a speech act where the actor and the in a review about classical music. receiver are obscured, absent, or objectified. Delocution The referential function—a message in relation to real- also implies removing the actor; so, instead of the phrase, ity. In a music review, this function helps to answer the “I think the concert was bad,” I may say, “The audience’s question: what did I hear? and to project one’s knowledge reaction showed that the concert was bad.” Here, delocution of the actual musical event—a recording or a concert. A hides the sender of a message and grounds the evaluation predominance of this function together with particular of artwork with argumentum ad populum. uses of grammar shows the critic as an objective listener or showing their judgments as implicitly objective. The poetic function (also: emotive, expressive function)— Using terminology without explaining a message in relation to oneself—in a music review, this the meaning of it function helps to answer the questions: how did I hear it?, , and ?, or The practice of using terminology without explaining how did it sound? what was it like what did I experi- by perceiving this artwork? The predominance of this its meaning obscures the meanings implied by the critic and ence function shows the critic as a or showing makes the review more vulnerable to questioning—what subjective listener their judgments as explicitly subjective. did they mean by using a certain term? Metaphor Linguistic tools The musicologist Nicholas Cook (1990) argues that In DA, I rely on linguistic classifications that can help besides judging an artwork, criticism can also contribute reveal the implicit meanings of the text (mainly language greatly to the creation or discovery of new meanings. He modalization defined by the French linguist Patrick Cha- also speaks of the evaluative function of art criticism as rauedeau [1995] and the six language functions identified excessive and unnecessary, being in opposition with the by the Russian-American linguist Roman Jakobson [1960]). American philosopher Noel Carrol, who sees the evalua- Below, I give a brief example of two of Jakobson’s language tive function—judging the artwork as good or bad—as the categories more characteristic either to Latvian or American core function of art criticism (Carrol 2009). However, it is music critics. important to remember that Cook emphasizes the differ- Two language functions in criticism ences between music criticism and (in his example) literary When the corpora of Latvian and American music criticism, while Carrol speaks of art criticism in general. reviews started to build up, the most distinctive difference Nicholas Cook refers to authors who have spoken about I noticed was the specific proportions of the referential criticism as a form of engaging with an artwork. Martyn Ev- function in the Latvian reviews and the poetic function in ans in his dissertation The Participant Listener argued that: the American reviews. I would like to quote what Jakobson … when we succeed in conveying an insight via a fruitful has said about the language functions: metaphor, what we have done is not merely to reflect on the aesthetic object but to engage in it. (Cook 1990: 20) Although we distinguish six basic aspects of language, we could, however, hardly find verbal messages that would fulfil Teun A. van Dijk, shows the power of metaphor in only one function. The diversity lies not in a monopoly of another light: some one of these several functions but in a different hierarchical order of functions. The verbal structure of a message Specific discourse structures, such as topics, arguments, meta- depends primarily on the predominant function. (Jakobson phor, lexical choice, and rhetorical figures, among many other 1960) structures [...] may influence the contents and the structures of a mental model in ways preferred by the speakers. (van This idea can also be applied to music critics. Obviously, Dijk 2015: 472) none writes completely referentially and none is completely poetic in their reviews. But a hierarchical order of functions Indeed, the metaphor can be used to convey implicit can be noticed and a predominant function can be discerned social and political meanings. However, in regard to music with DA. criticism, the metaphor and other types of figurative speech

81 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Dāvis EŅĢELIS can make the review easier to perceive for wider audiences lv on November 30, 2017 (Lūsiņa 2017). In the analysis of instead of relying on heavy usage of terminology. Thus, I Lūsiņa’s review, I also quote from the review about the 75th can argue that a critic widens or narrows the audience of anniversary concert of Aleksandrs Viļumanis, published in classical music (or the number of people who engage in diena.lv on November 24, 2017 (Lūsiņa 2017a) and the re- classical music discourse in the mass media), based on the view about the concert of Musicaeterna and Sinfonietta Riga, critic’s language use in a review. published in diena.lv on October 26, 2017 (Lūsiņa 2017b). In Table 1 are some examples of metaphorical language from reviews by American music critics. I am certain, on Analysis 1: the review by Armands Znotiņš the basis of my engagement with Latvian music criticism, The first concert of the open-air festival that appears that such diversity of figurative speech is typically alien to in Znotiņš’s review happens in a grain dry-house. Znotiņš Latvian music critics. I have sketched a brief typology of the begins by paying attention to specific details and describ- variety of comparisons used by American critics to describe ing his first impressions of the acoustics in the dry-house. music ranging from visual to physical. And there is even an Znotiņš lets the reader know as many as four times that example of music being compared to a scent. what he heard has made some kind of impression directly on him. It is typical for Znotiņš to answer the question—what Table 1. A brief typology of the comparisons used by the did music arouse in me?—by making the performance or American music critics some of the musical parameters a subject of the sentence or an actor that has done something (“the gradual change VISUAL PHYSICAL SCENT of the thematic phases sustained an unremitting attention,” hazy, shimmering steamy music of orchid-scented “the material of the musical intonations and the rhythmical music Jugendstil Vienna music structures inspired to an equal extent,” “the interpretation . . . violet harmonies liquid rhythms created an impression”[emphasis mine—D. E.). In addition to these examples, in another Znotiņš writes: glittering pano explosive opening rama of sound toccata Secondly, there’s (one has)2 an inkling that [...]. (here and complex, enveloping below quoted from Znotiņš 2017) nebulae of sound It should seem obvious that this inkling belongs to no darkly radiant mass one other than Znotiņš himself, but the actor in the sentence of sound has disappeared, thus creating an impression that such an soft, lushly diatonic inkling could happen to anyone who has listened to the chord same musical piece. In that same review, there are examples milky passagework that put the authority discourse in motion with the help of language use much more effectively. Znotiņš writes:

Analysis One should think that the composer didn’t have to be disap- pointed in the level of precision achieved by the ensemble led Let us take a closer look at some reviews of two Latvian by Normunds Šnē [emphasis mine—D.E.] music critics who are among the most regular reviewers for the classical music scene in Latvia—Armands Znotiņš and The author creates an implicit presumption that, from Inese Lūsiņa. I will focus on the implicit power relations the viewpoint of the composer, the precision level of the between the critic and the reader and the ways the critics ensemble was adequately high. This sentence would be- construct their image. In this qualitative analysis, I focus on come more neutral had Znotiņš added that he learned this the descriptions, reflections, and judgments of music and by speaking with the composer after the concert. Here, we musicians. I do not delve into general descriptions of events can do nothing else but to read between the lines. Thus, that have no direct relation to describing the artwork. In the the reader can develop a notion of the critic’s position, quotations the reader will see some sections highlighted in from which the critic can survey not only the position and italics—those are my emphasis with the intention to draw opinion of the composer but also the audience. Right after the reader’s attention to a specific aspect of language. the quote above Znotiņš continues: I chose to present the analysis of Znotiņš’s review … there’s only one problem—it is doubtful whether any of about the Sansusī open-air festival, published in satori.lv the listeners really fully comprehended the composer’s inten- on August 23, 2017 (Znotiņš 2017) and Lūsiņa’s review tion. What was described in the program as an “interactive about the concert “Courland’s Ring,” published in diena. wide-format video-projection, an abstract sound painting,

82 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media

in a way, where the four audio channels of the composition The sentence begins with an evaluation of the interpre- will play out on an oscilloscope,” in the Aknīste drying house, tation; immediately, an evaluation of the artwork follows unfortunately, turned into an optional shadow theater, but in (“a striking concert piece”) and then a subjective emotional order to understand what the composer wanted to say with experience (the reader should assume that it’s the experience the English text by Artūrs Punte the public should be given of the critic). In the meantime, Znotiņš explains what he a chance to get acquainted with the libretto in the score […]. meant by “a striking concert piece,” and he concludes with the In this quote from the review, Znotiņš continues to phrase “the tension of the creative intensity” which, we could project his opinion through a third-person view, this time assume, sums up everything else mentioned in the quote. by speaking on behalf of the listeners and audience. The On the other side, as Znotiņš describes in one sentence description given by the author is problematic because it both the interpretation of the conductor and the piece does not make clear sense of whether he shares his own per- written by Buravickis, it becomes even harder to find ception of the composition or if he deliberately assumes the logical ties from which we could deduce what is said about position of a gate-keeper, a defender of the public. In other whom or what refers to whom. Especially because Znotiņš words, Znotiņš doesn’t say that it was he who didn’t fully ascertains the musical parameters but does not explain or comprehend the composer’s intention or that he himself felt interpret them in relation to the musical piece. For exam- he should have been given a chance to get acquainted with ple, he calls the “timbral variations” a quality that’s present the libretto. From the viewpoint of DA (Fairclough and van in Buravickis’s composition but doesn’t say what exactly Dijk), Znotiņš’s ambiguous position can be interpreted as varied in Buravickis’s piece—did the timbre change from, an acknowledgement of his authority by implicitly attrib- for instance, delicate to sharp, from one orchestra group uting to himself the power to speak on the behalf of other to other, from piercing and unpleasant to warm and pleas- listeners. Yet, it does not stop him from giving a positive ing? In other words, in the description of the artwork and evaluation of the artwork. interpretation, Znotiņš puts groups of concepts one after Further in his review, Znotiņš discusses the new piece another, referentially ascertaining their presence but not by composer Platons Buravickis. There he repeats a similar interpreting their meaning. Let us reduce the same quote method, this time combining in one sentence both an evalu- to the subjects of the sentence to see more clearly how ation of the artwork and interpretation; the problem is that many constructions of concepts and terms a reader must Znotiņš’s evaluation doesn’t come from him but from the go through in a single sentence: conductor of the piece, Normunds Šnē: interpretation>balance>acoustic and electronic lines> The interpretation led by Normunds Šnē, which, by the way, striking concert-piece>thematic phases>unremitting atten this time stood out with a much better balance between tion>intonative material>rythmical structures>timbral the acoustic and electronic lines of the score, signified that variations>melodic impulses>creative intensity>tension Buravickis has achieved a striking concert-piece: the gradual Here, at least two weak points of Znotiņš’s reviews change of the thematic phases sustained unremitting attention appear—first, complicated, dense syntax combined with during the whole performance; the material of the musical intonations and the rhythmical structures suggested to an a heavy dose of music terminology. Why is that a weak equal extent and by constantly various timbral variations and point? Because such a review is difficult for the perception melodic impulses, the creative intensity expressed in “Demon- of those readers who are not acquainted with the particular tage Aesthetic” didn’t lose its tension, not for a single moment. terminology. The dense syntax and the cascades of subordinate clauses make the understanding of the message more Within the framework of one extended sentence, difficult, thus narrowing the number of potential readers Znotiņš manages, first, to dissociate himself from his evalu- and in turn narrowing the potential audience who engages ation, and second, to identify the ability of the music to sus- in the public discussion about classical music. tain unremitting attention and to suggest. Several questions The second weak point of Znotiņš’s reviews is the un- arise when we read this paragraph: did the striking quality of evenly argued use of concepts and terminology; that is, he Buravickis’s piece derive from Šnē’s interpretation, or does often uses terminology without explaining the meaning of Znotiņš’s designation dedicated to Buravickis still relate to it. We could still argue that in the example above, Znotiņš the interpretation? If the former is true, was the unremit- explains the “tension of creative intensity” with the “gradual ting attention and suggestion described below experienced change of the thematic phases,” “material of musical intona- by the conductor or the critic? In order to avoid giving the tions and rhythmical structures,” “timbral variations,” and reader a notion that this questioning is simply splitting “melodic impulses.” The explanation itself, however, consists hairs, take a closer look at the conclusion of the sentence: of a few ambiguous, unexplained concepts. … the creative intensity expressed in “Demontage Aesthetic” Further, Znotiņš continues the review with this observa- didn’t lose its tension, not for a single moment. tion: “The ‘Demontage Aesthetic’ can be perceived as none

83 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Dāvis EŅĢELIS other but an example of urban music.” The critic evaluates From the viewpoint of language use and authority dis- the piece as an “example of urban music,” not explaining course, let us take a closer look at two parts of the sentence. what he means by using the concept “urban music.” Znotiņš First, at the sentence as a whole: this is not the only review continues with a paraphrase about Buravickis’s annotation where Lūsiņa uses the modality of truth (“which is indeed for the newly written piece: “One has to conclude that to written as such”), thus stressing the conformity of her in- hear aristocratic sophistication amid the pneumatic hum- terpretation in connection with reality, in other words, im- mer thumps and to arrive at lava torrents in the final, the plicitly improving the authority of her observation. Because, interpretation of the piece must be heard in the acoustics by referring to Lūsiņa’s text, “we can not only perceive” the of the Great Guild Hall.” I cannot argue against Znotiņš’s “Latvian Ring” in the light of Lūsiņa’s interpretation but it “pneumatic hummer thumps” nor the “lava torrents,” “is indeed written as such.” because they are figurative comparisons; the only possible Second, about the subordinate clause in the last quote: argument against it would be any other form of figurative a common trait appearing in Lūsiņa’s reviews is to use the speech, another metaphor. However, it doesn’t explain the plural form of the second-person pronoun “we.” Because of concept of “urban music” or, at least, what Znotiņš makes the Latvian conjugations, Lūsiņa can insert “we” indirectly out of it. into the text, as it appears in the sentence (varam uztvert kā > (we) can perceive as). From the viewpoint of DA, Lūsiņa Analysis 2: the review by Inese Lūsiņa thus constructs her identity as an author by identifying One of the ways to implicitly support authority discourse herself (the critic) with the ambiguous pronoun “we.” For in a text is to assume that my (the critic’s) opinion corresponds Otto Jespersen and Roman Jakobson, the first-person and with the opinions of other listeners. In other words, the critic second-person pronouns constitute the primary category assumes that they understand or have a good knowledge of of the linguistics term shifters (Fludernik 1991:193). The the “general taste,” or they appeal to “common experience”—I meaning of the shifters (or “the deixis,” the term used by heard it the same way others heard it. To paraphrase Norman some Latvian linguists[Kalniete: 2016]) can be understood Fairclough: The critic is speaking on behalf of themselves, only from the context. For example, the pronoun “we” can their readers, and indeed all (right-minded?) citizens. In so contain multiple possible viewpoints (we = I and you, or doing, it is making an implicit authority claim—that they “we” as an ironic position, etc.). have the authority to speak for others. In Lūsiņa’s text the deixis “we” is undeciphered. Thus, it complicates the position of the author, which in turn helps One way the reader can recognize such implicit author- to construct the authority discourse of the author. Namely, ity claims is to notice manipulation with pronouns, which is the author doesn’t explain whether “we” means, for example, one of the basic language use problems that DA deals with. I + reader, I + other listeners of the concert, I + those having good knowledge of classical music discourse. A critic can use the pronoun “we” and turn an active into In the same review, Lūsiņa directly or indirectly uses the passive when they formulate their opinion about what they deixis “we” two more times: had heard. The more consistently such language use appears in a text, the greater the impact it deals on the message. … our most well-known, polysemantic symbol, the folksong For example, Inese Lūsiņa begins her review on Verdi’s “Blow, Wind!” Falstaff with the sentence: Because the author does not decipher the meaning of Completely unknown and surprising Verdi, whom we sud- “we” or “ours,” the reader of the review can guess different denly, for the first time in Latvia, discovered as someone who interpretations, but in this example as well as in the further embodies an opera—a lyrical comedy—with sparkling humor. text of the review, we can interpret the use of deixis as stand- (here and below quoted from Lūsiņa 2017) ardizing and simplifying the receiver of the message (the And in the next paragraph: reader of the review), equating it to the author’s criteria. In this first case, we could accept Lūsiņa’s simplified reality and Maija Kovaļevska appeared as a comic opera character, which implicitly accept that “we” here means “Latvians” because was totally unexpected to all of us […]. of the evocation of the folksong “Blow, wind!” Either way, the author makes an implicit claim that “we” are united by Lūsiņa defines these observations as if speaking on be- this specific polysemantic symbol that is most well-known half of everybody present. In another review Lūsiņa writes: “to us.” Lūsiņa implicitly presumes that there exists a certain, It is confirmed by the concert cycle “Latvian Ring,” a dedica- unnamed circle of people (“we”) who have a well-known tion to the centenary, which we can not only perceive as a symbol, the folksong “Blow, wind!” in common as a cultural musical summary of cultural history but which is indeed reference. It seems more logical to draw the conclusion written as such. that Lūsiņa speaks here about a rather narrow circle of

84 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media people, one that’s more likely to be measured in friends have deeper content; there’s also a lack of explanation about and acquaintances rather than a whole nation. Further, how we should understand the term “jazzy,” considering the Lūsiņa acknowledges the ambiguousness of the symbol: wide scope of connotations and musical style the concept “aren’t we glorifying too much the ‘drinking song’ ‘Blow, “jazz” holds. The text continues with: “The academic -ar Wind!’, which received a standing ovation in the Liepāja rangement of ‘Blow, wind!’ by composer Imants Ramiņš.” Great Amber Hall?” Lūsiņa also interprets the folk song What is the meaning of “academic arrangement”? Being with a clear-cut argument that we should treat the text of acquainted with the sound of Ramiņš’s arrangement, it’s the folksong metaphorically, but in a familiar, didactic tone, hard to accept that Lūsiņa would have used the concept by bringing the phatic function (maintaining contact) with “academic” in the sense which, in correlation with art, is of- an informal allocution: fered at the site tezaurs.lv,4 namely, “something that strongly abides traditions, something that is closely related to them.” Dear all, the message of the song isn’t about praising boozing, Similarly, we could ask what the meaning of Lūsiņa’s “inter- showing the Latvian as a constant drunkard, but rather about the Latvian’s self-dependence and self-confidence. If we’ll ludes of life-impetuosity” is in the premiere piece by Valdis read the text, not in a primitive, straight (literal) way, but Butāns. Lūsiņa doesn’t elaborate on any of these concepts; metaphorically, everything will fall into its place. she doesn’t explain what she means by them or how they should be understood in the context of the artwork. Let’s return to the beginning of the review where Lūsiņa Now we can refer to the musicologist Nicholas Cook, writes: who makes a provocative, but nevertheless noteworthy, In post-modern culture, working with different primary sourc- statement that music, as opposed to literature, offers a es, citations, stylizations, allusions, compilations, and collages considerably more restricted number of choices about is nothing new, but in the context of Latvia one can assert the aesthetic experiences we receive from a musical piece; that in the last years a new tendency—even a compositional therefore, the music critic takes a less prestigious and less model and maybe already a cliché—to combine big variety of important position than a literature critic (Cook 1990: academic and ethnic musical cultures in large collages. 171–173). Cook also explains that, in this case, he talks about crit- Although indirectly, Lūsiņa clarifies that with the con- ics who write their critiques, addressing a wider audience by cept of post-modern culture she understands a composition using figurative speech as opposed to specific terminology. model specifically with large collages, but further in the text For example, every critic can increase the possible choices she either simplifies it (“To put such a huge, diverse layer of aesthetic experience with the help of hermeneutics by upon layer in a cauldron and watch what will happen is a adding a new interpretation of how we can perceive a simultaneously tempting and dangerous challenge.”), or musical piece. And Cook justly stresses that music critics explains it ambiguously: “The specific songs and pieces in and music journalists, in particular, will always balance on the program unite in two meta-compositions.” the dangerous edge between creating an apt metaphor, a Lūsiņa explains that by meta-composition she means neat comparison, or very bad hermeneutics (he evokes as the united movement, where folk music and original pieces an example Arnold Schering’s notorious interpretation written by composers are combined together. However, it’s of Beethoven’s instrumental pieces as inspired by literary difficult to agree that different musical genres in a linear works) (Ibid.). arrangement, in a “united movement,” instantly create a Almost all concert participants in Lūsiņa’s review are meta-composition in the same meaning as meta-timbre or referentially enumerated; generally informative paragraphs, meta-instrument is created by the junction of other, already more typical of a press release or a referential enumeration existing timbres or other, already existing instruments in a of art events, are a common stylistic feature appearing in particular context. The concepts given by Lūsiņa—both Lūsiņa’s reviews. In the review of “Courland Ring,” only post-modern culture and meta-composition—stay in the the premiere piece by composer Valdis Butāns has received referential language function because she mentions both an extended description. By describing music or musicians, as present in the artwork but interprets or analyses neither Lūsiņa typically uses the objective adjectives and subjective of them—nor the meta-composition, nor the post-modern interpretive axiological adjectives. Fewer affective adjec- compositional model with the academic/ethnic collages.3 tives are present, but Lūsiņa usually attributes them not Lūsiņa also writes that “Blow, wind!”, played by pianist to herself, but to the artwork or artist by using the passive Vestards Šimkus, was toned in a “meditative-jazzy” way voice participle: and does not provide further elaboration about whether the musical meditativeness relates to her own subjective The result is vitally evocative; convincing in the content; the experience when listening to the piece or whether it is an stirring melody by Imants Kalniņš; a striking and stirring implicit, ironic judgment, implying that the music did not encounter in music; with such effectual interpretation.

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It remains unclear whether the result evoked, the con- Conclusions of analysis tent convinced, or the melody stirred the critic herself or whether she objectifies her experience of reality, presenting The analysis above highlights some of the questions it as pre-existing. In other words, Lūsiņa doesn’t explicitly about authority discourse we as readers and interpreters of show that it is “her feeling”; rather she points to what every- texts can ask and discuss: body should have felt:“… in his musical language one could •• what do the words chosen by a critic actually say about feel very clearly the particular, incomparable French school; music? it can be felt even over the acute mourning of the author; •• what do the words chosen by a critic actually say about it is perceptible and it worked also in the live broadcast; at the critic themselves? present, the voice of Kristīne Opolais palpably changes.” In the analysis, we saw how delocutive speech acts (the In a similar way, Lūsiņa uses the verb “to feel/to sense”: speech acts where the traces of the actor and the listener disappears) appear in different forms in reviews about clas- It strikingly singles out the contrasts and makes the musical sical music and how they implicitly add to the authority dramaturgy more relief, allowing to feel and understand the discourse. With the help of DA, we can interpret these process even when it’s not possible to hear (or read on the speech acts. screen) every nuance of the text. In Armands Znotiņš’s reviews, music is often the subject The next example is delocutive; in other words, the of the sentence, an actor that creates sensations in the listen- critic indirectly speaks on behalf of every member of the ers. In other words, it is the reality, the artwork that appears concert audience: as a sender of the critic’s message (the review), not the critic himself. Znotiņš explicitly speaks on the behalf of composer It was a display of stage artist’s commitment which awakened and listener, thus implicitly stating his authority. Znotiņš’s everyone and carried to other reality, genuine and heartfelt reviews are dense with complicated terminology as a way to the bone […]. to objectify his observations and strengthen his authority. There are times when Lūsiņa uses the verb “to feel/to Together with dense syntax, this forms a review that nar- sense” (or, as an adjective, in the form of “cordially”5) for a rows down the possible discourse of classical/contemporary depiction of singer’s performance: music that appears in mass media rather than contributing to the discourse. Clusters of terminology dominate the He reached the high summits naturally, self-evidently—they way Znotiņš describes and evaluates the musical pieces and were not sportive but genuinely felt. interpretation; moreover, Znotiņš rarely explains the terms and concepts in his texts, thus more easily bringing them And: under possible critical scrutiny. From the reader’s viewpoint, It was confirmed by the cordially and enthusiastically sung Znotiņš addresses the classical music discourse to a relatively the White Father’s arioso. small audience who is acquainted with the terminology used typically in music analysis. In Lūsiņa’s reviews, sometimes the emotive function Among the media that publishes Znotiņš’s reviews is of the language (the message in relation to the sender) the nationally conservative Latvijas Avīze (The Latvian explicitly appears: Newspaper); it presents itself as “the most read daily news- I was seized by a fright; I’d like to say a few words to answer the paper, standing up for Latvian population and the national 6 regular discussion that’s been stirred up again; ...I perceived interests of the state.” The review analyzed in this paper was the extended scenes of “Baņuta” as steps towards such produc- published in satori.lv, an internet journal of “culture and tion; By listening and visually observing how Vasilijs Sinaiskis independent thought.”7 Satori also underlines the youth as leads the reading of Jānis Ivanovs and Edward Elgar opuses one of the growing parts of its audience. It has also published it was clear that the conductor hasn’t lost anything from his guidelines for authors. One of the suggestions include: youth temperament and energy. We suggest you avoid verbosity, unreasonable or excessive But rarely these emotive sentences refer to the artwork usage of slang, professional jargon, and dense professional or description, or analysis, or judgment of it (in the follow- terminology.8 ing excerpt we can notice the poetic function, rarely used As we saw in the analysis, Znotiņš’s individual style by Lūsiņa: the comparison “glowing” that’s used to describe is quite the opposite of the editorial suggestion quoted the emotional experience of the artwork): above. Truth be told, those are editorial guidelines, not I doubt that it would make such an effect in every other rules. Nonetheless, Znotiņš favors viewing classical/con- concert but in the “Courland Ring” it turned out as suitable”; temporary music events in the light of the “high culture,” It spoke glowingly, directly, emotionally bare and humane. echoing DiMaggio’s analysis of the late nineteenth-century

86 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media

Boston’s upper class who founded the Boston Symphony on the matter of the authority of music critics, particularly Orchestra as a “definition of a prestigious culture that they when it is viewed it through the looking glass of critical could monopolize as their own” (DiMaggio 1982: 48). discourse studies, language use, and social context. In Inese Lūsiņa’s reviews, the deixis “we” appears either It’s insightful to pay attention to Slonimsky’s ironic and as an emotive function (“we” addresses “I,” “I heard” equals sketch-like but nevertheless apt and logical observations and “we heard”) or as a conative function (saying to the listener ideas of typology. The 669 excerpts from critical reviews what they should have heard, should have felt). Lūsiņa allowed Slonimksy to make some generalizations about often combines affective adjectives (which describe what how critics describe their, what he calls, “non-acceptance the person experienced, sensed, felt, perceived) with the of unfamiliar.” From the preface of the book, we can draw passive voice, thus creating a distance between her subjective up a brief typology of a wide spectrum of speech acts in experience and its actual appearance in the review. In other which critics described their inability to comprehend the words, Lūsiņa objectifies her review with a strong presence unfamiliar, radically new ways of musical composition of delocutive speech acts. through various types of figurative language and typical arguments (see Figure 2). Among them: •• Expressions that relate to Chinese culture Conclusions of the discursive power relations •• The complexity of mathematics within music criticism •• Argumentum ad notam falsam—for example: “Schu- mann’s harmonies were so obtrusively crude that no As I said at the beginning, I may deviate a little from my number of wrong notes would be detected by the subject in order to share some urgent concerns about music subtlest listener” criticism. Nevertheless, this deviation is about the discursive •• Physical ugliness/the “inferior” race of the composer power relations within the music criticism. •• Animal noises Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, in his lecture at the Vilnius •• Immorality conference, already raised the topic of critical assault, which •• Impotence is still alive in contemporary criticism. Nicolas Slonimsky published the Lexicon of Musical Invective—Critical Assaults Before Leech-Wilkinson’s lecture, I truly believed that on Composers Since Beethoven’s Time (Slonimsky 1953) in such extreme use of language was more representative of the the 1950s. This lexicon may not be conceived as one of criticism of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, scholarly value, but this anthology of swear-words and rude, which is the main source of this lexicon. Still, even today, discouraging, and blatantly abusive language used explicitly music criticism has preserved many conservative ideologies by music critics is more than just a series of amusing real-life and principles stemming from that time (as a practicing mu- anecdotes; rather, it provides valuable material for thought sic critic, I have faced such ideologies and principles when

Table 2. Excerpts from N. Slonimsky’s Lexicon of Musical Invective

CHINESE M ATHEM ATICS ARGUMENTUM AD PYSICAL UGLINESS OF NOTAM FALSAM COMPOSER

Strauss lets loose an orchestral The science of Monsieur Whether one sings or plays I met Debussy . . . the other riot that suggests a murder Berlioz is a sterile algebra wrong notes in such an night and was struck by the scene in a Chinese theater insalubrious style is utterly unique ugliness of the man immaterial

Schoenberg . . . as The music of Wagner IMPOTENCE Max Reger . . . an ogre of comprehensible as a lecture on imposes mental tortures composition . . . a swollen the fourth dimension delivered that only algebra has right myopic beetle with thick lips in Chinese to inflict and sullen expression ANIMAL NOISES Rimsky-Korsakov has Brahms .. die Sprache der evidently evolved a musical intensivsten musikalischen enigma which is too Impotenz complex of solution now shades of expression of which the voice of the nocturnal cat is capable

87 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Dāvis EŅĢELIS asking musicians what they expect from music criticism), Kruks Sergejs, Semiozes izprante latviešu avotos: valodnieku un and the problem of the authority of the critic and the implicit mākslas zinātnieku zīmes koncepciju kritika [Approaches to Semiosis in Latvian Sources], 2013 meanings in the text of the critics are issues much complicated Carroll Noel, On Criticism. Routledge, 2009. in today’s cultural journalism. The critical assaults by music Pêcheux Michel, Language, Semantics and Ideology. Stating the critics—the examples given both by Leech-Wilkinson and Obvious. English translation by Harbans Nahpal (1982). The by Slonimsky—give much material for thought on the Macmillan Press Ltd, London and Basingstoke, 1975 discursive power relations within the text of music criticism van Dijk Teun A., Critical Discourse Analysis in: The Handbook of and the dubious role of the critic as a gate-keeper or the Discourse Analysis, Second Edition. Ed. by Deborah Tannen, Heide E. Hamilton, and Deborah Schiffrin. John Wiley & representative of good taste. Sons, Inc., 2015.

Endnotes Online sources 1 In general, American critics use more adjectives while Latvian critics rely more on verbs to describe music or interpretation. Lūsiņa Inese, https://www.diena.lv/raksts/kd/recenzijas/ 2 I assume that both forms of English should display the Latvian lielkoncerta-_put-vejini_-recenzija.-kurzemes-gredzena- original (ir nojauta, ka) in the same way. noslepums-14185964 [last checked 2017 12 02], 2017. 3 Sergei Kruk discusses similar problematics more extensively, Lūsina Inese, https://www.diena.lv/raksts/kd/recenzijas/ focusing on texts about artworks by Latvian art historians/art dirigenta-aleksandra-vilumana-75-gadu-jubilejas-koncerta- critics in “Approaches to Semiosis in Latvian Sources” (2013). recenzija.-maestro-pieredze-un-misija-14185595 [last 4 The online thesaurus dictionary of Latvian language checked 2017 12 02], 2017a. 5 In Latvian both words share a common stem. Lūsiņa Inese, https://www.diena.lv/raksts/kd/recenzijas/vasilija- 6 In: http://abonesana.la.lv/abonesana [last checked 2018 02 07]. sinaiska-jubilejas-koncerta-ar-lnso-recenzija.-meistaru- 7 In: https://www.satori.lv/par-satori [last checked 2018 02 07]. miklas-14184631 [last checked 2017 12 02], 2017b. 8 In: https://www.satori.lv/vadlinijas-autoriem [last checked Znotiņš Armands, https://www.satori.lv/article/ieskats-festivala- 2018 02 07]. sansusi-otraja-diena [last checked 2017 10 24], 2017.

Bibliography Santrauka

Beard David and Gloag Kenneth, Musicology. The Key Concepts, Second edition. Routledge, London, 2016. Diskurso analizė traktuoja tekstą kaip problemą. Teunas Charaudeau Patrick, Une analyse sémiolinguistique du discours van Dijkas apibūdina kritiškąją diskurso analizę kaip diskur- in: Langages n° 117, Larousse, Paris, mars, 1995 syvų analitinį tyrimą, kuriuo pirmiausia siekiama atskleisti Cook Nicholas, Music, Imagination, and Culture. Oxford Uni- tai, kaip rašytinis ir sakytinis tekstas socialiniame ir politinia- versity Press Inc., New York, 1990 me kontekste įtvirtina, atkuria, įteisina ar atmeta nelygybę Eiser J. Richard, Attitudes and the words we use. in Rhetoric, Ide- ir piktnaudžiavimą socialine galia (van Dijk, 2015). ology and Social Psychology ed. by Charles Antaki and Susan Condor, Routledge, 2014 Teksto problematika aktuali ir muzikos kritikos srityje. Fludernik Monika, Shifters and Deixis. Some Reflections on Prielaida, kad muzikos kritikai – taip sakant, nekaltai – ver- Jakobson, Jespersen, and Reference in: Semiotica 86, 1991, tina koncertus ir įrašus nesavanaudiškai tarnaudami aukš- s. [193] — 230. čiausiems meno idealams ir nėra niekaip susiję su socialiniu Graham Allen, Intertextuality. The New Critical Idiom. Rout- kontekstu, galbūt ir galėtų apibūdinti XIX–XX a. pradžios ledge: London and New York, 2000. kritikos tradiciją, tačiau taip pat ne be išlygų, kaip matyti iš Jakobson Roman, Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics. Reprinted from Style in Language, edited by Thomas A. šio darbo pabaigoje pateikiamų Nicolo Slonimskio surinktų Sebeok, Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1960. užgaulių kritinių straipsnių pavyzdžių. Jakobson Roman, Shifters, verbal categories, and the Russian Muzikos kritikai kartu su muzikos prodiuseriais ir vie- verb in: Russian and Slavic Grammar. Studies 1931—1981. šųjų ryšių specialistais viešojoje erdvėje plačiai kalba apie ed. by Linda R. Waugh and Morris Halle, 41—58. Mouton klasikinę muziką. Taigi jie sukuria reikšmingą klasikinės Publishers, 1971 Jakobson Roman, Verbal Art, Verbal Sign, Verbal Time, ed. by muzikos diskurso dalį žiniasklaidoje. Recenzijose klasikinės Krystyna Pomorska and Stephen Rudy, University of Min- muzikos kritikai netiesiogiai įtvirtina save kaip autoritetus nesota, 1985. ir ekspertus. Kalniete Madara, Norādāmie vietniekvārdi kā vietas deiksi latviešu Anot kalbininko Jakobsono, kalbėdami naudojamės valodā [Demonstrative pronouns as space deixis in Latvian], keliomis kalbos funkcijomis (Jakobson, 1960). Todėl nagri- Latvian University, 2016 nėdami tekstą tik sąmoningai, visų jo prasmių nesuprasime. Kress Gunther and Hodge Robert, Language as Ideology. Rout- ledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1979. Kalba problemiška; tą patį galima pasakyti apie muzikos Kress Gunther, Linguistic processes in sociocultural prac- kritiką. Pasitelkdamas diskurso analizę, interpretuotojas gali tice. Deakin University Press, Victoria, 1985. perskaityti užslėptas teksto reikšmes, tokias kaip:

88 Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media

1) kritiko savivokos, autoriteto konstravimas; Znotiņšo recenzijose muzika dažnai yra sakinio veiks- 2) socialinės distancijos tarp publikos ir klasikinės mu- nys – veikėjas, kuris skamba ir generuoja klausytojų juti- zikos industrijos didėjimas arba mažėjimas; mus. Kitaip tariant, pats kūrinys yra tikrovė; jis, o ne pats 3) interpretacijos, kaip kritikai žiniasklaidoje perteikia kritikas, siunčia žinią (recenziją). Akivaizdžiai kalbėdamas žodžiais tai, ką išgirdo koncerte. kompozitoriaus ir klausytojo vardu, Znotiņšas netiesiogiai Šiame straipsnyje teigiama, kad diskurso analizė atsklei- teigia savo autoritetą. Muzikos kūrinių bei interpretacijų džia du svarbius muzikos kritikos aspektus, susijusius su tuo, aprašymuose ir vertinimuose gausu terminų; negana to, kaip muzikos kritikai suvokia šio meno kritikos paskirtį ir jis retai savo tekstuose aiškina sąvokas ir terminus, todėl kritikoje naudojamas kalbos funkcijas. šie tekstai veikiausiai bus dar atidžiau analizuojami. Taigi Pasitelkęs diskurso analizę, suklasifikavau būdus, kuriais Znotiņšo klasikinės muzikos diskursas adresuojamas gana muzikos kritikai apibūdina arba vertina muzikos kūrinius ir nedidelei auditorijai, susipažinusiai su dažniausia muzikos jų interpretacijas. Kritiko autoritetui įtvirtinti naudojamos analizei būdinga terminologija. tokios kalbinės raiškos priemonės kaip daiktavardinės ir ne- Lūsiņos recenzijose deiksė „mes“ atlieka arba emocinę veikiamosios rūšies konstrukcijos, autoritetingas kalbėjimo funkciją („mes“ reiškia „aš“, „aš girdėjau“ tapatus „mes stilius, sudėtingi terminai be paaiškinimų ir apibrėžimų bei girdėjome“), arba konotacinę (pasakoma, ką klausytojas ar metaforos. klausytoja turėjo išgirsti arba pajusti). Neretai derindama Darbe analizuodamas dvi šiandienos latvių muzikos jausminius būdvardžius (nusakančius žmogaus potyrius, kritikų – Inesės Lūsiņos ir Armando Znotiņšo – recenzijas, pojūčius, jausmus ir mintis) su neveikiamosios rūšies kons- parodau, kaip klasikinės muzikos recenzijose skirtingais trukcijomis, Lūsiņa atskiria savo subjektyvią patirtį nuo pavidalais reiškiasi šnekamosios kalbos aktai, kai panaiki- perteikimo recenzijoje. Kitaip tariant, gausiai naudojami nama riba tarp kalbėtojo bei klausytojo, ir taip netiesiogiai šnekamosios kalbos aktai Lūsiņai padeda objektyvizuoti kuriamas autoriteto diskursas. Diskurso analizė padeda recenziją. interpretuoti šiuos šnekamosios kalbos aktus. Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 02 11

89 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Nana SHARIKADZE

Nana SHARIKADZE Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras Gruzinų muzikos kritika sovietmečiu ir posovietiniu laikotarpiu

V. Sarajishvili Tbilisi State Conservatoire, Griboedov St. 8-10, 0108 Tbilisi, Georgia Email: [email protected]

Abstract This article examines the problem of music criticism in Georgia during the Soviet and post-Soviet eras. Criticism and music criticism, in particular, as an “art of discussion and analysis” became “destructive” and dangerous for totalitarian regimes. Authentic criticism was replaced by “quasi-criticism,” which was driven by the do’s and don’ts of the regime. Thus, the following issues are discussed in the article: how development of music criticism reflected the social-political changes in Georgia after occupation (since 1921) and to what extent musical processes have been influenced there. Consequently, attention is drawn to the decades from the 1920s to the 1950s and from the 1960s to the 1980s, and the situation is analyzed through the lens of Soviet aesthetics. In that regard, Grigory Orjonikidze’s works are identified as the most influential and mind-opening examples in the development of Georgian music criticism under Soviet rule. The reconsideration of music criticism became topical at the end of the last century (the late ‘90s, after the Soviet Union collapsed). In the postmodern reality, musical criticism had to rediscover its role, redesign its values, and regain its place through the perspective of both local and global realities. The following issues are discussed: the influence of the mass media; social media’s effects on the development of music criticism; and coexistence of “description-” as well as the “analysis-” based attitude towards the musical processes. Keywords: Georgian music criticism, “quasi criticism”, soviet and post-soviet aesthetics, products and information process, Grigory Orjonikidze.

Anotacija Straipsnyje nagrinėjama muzikos kritikos sovietinėje ir posovietinėje Gruzijoje problema. Kritika, ir ypač muzikos, kaip „diskusijos ir analizės menas“, totalitariniams režimams tampa „destruktyvi“ ir pavojinga; tikrą kritiką pakeitė „pusiau kritika“, paremta režimo nustatytais leidimais ir draudimais. Taigi straipsnyje analizuojama, kaip muzikos kritikos raidoje atsispindėjo socialiniai-politiniai pokyčiai po Gruzijos okupacijos (nuo 1921 m.) ir kokiu mastu tai veikė muzikos procesus. Sovietinės estetikos aspektu nagrinėjami praeito šimtmečio trečias–šeštas ir septin- tas–devintas dešimtmečiai. Šiame kontekste išskiriami Grigorijaus Ordžonikidzės darbai kaip įtakingiausi ir geriausiai pristatantys Gruzijos muzikos kritikos raidą sovietų valdymo laikais. Praeito šimtmečio pabaigoje (baigiantis dešimtam dešimtmečiui, griuvus Sovietų Sąjungai) tapo aktualu iš naujo įvertinti muzikos kritiką. Postmodernioje tikrovėje muzikos kritikai teko iš naujo atrasti savo vaidmenį, naujai apibrėžti vertybes ir išsikovoti naują vietą, atsižvelgiant į vietines ir globalias aktualijas. Straipsnyje keliami tokie klausimai kaip žiniasklaidos ir socialinių medijų įtaka muzikos kritikos raidai bei į aprašymą ir į analizę orientuotų muzikos procesų traktavimo formų koegzistavimas. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Gruzijos muzikos kritika, kvazikritika, sovietinė ir posovietinė estetika, informaciniai procesai, Grigorijus Ordžonikidzė.

Introduction Stalin’s death (1921–1953), after Stalin’s death (60–80), and the post-Soviet era. It does not only describe the effects from Problems concerning music criticism have been discussed Stalin’s regime or the Thaw period but explains music critics’ openly and conversation about them became essential in behavior under Soviet and post-Soviet rule as well. On the Georgia after the Soviet Union’s collapse. Consequently, is- one hand, Georgian music criticism history coincides with sues about music criticism and its value have become topical. the problem of ideological/post-ideological issues, but on the The school of Georgian music criticism was established at the other hand, it can also be placed among problems concerning beginning of the last century and has reflected the turbulence individuals’ ability to judge and decide independently. The of the country’s entire history from first independence to the line between ideology and the ability to judge independently Russian annexation of 1921, to 1992, when independence emerged as a terrifying dilemma at the beginning of the last was regained. It’s not possible to cover the full history of century; a person should have been “chosen” the “on the right music criticism development in Georgia in the framework side,” while in the post-Soviet era the idea of no control and of a single article. However, the main turning points will be “full freedom” was cultivated. Nevertheless, this does not mean highlighted from the perspective of Georgian history. that all problems inherited from the Soviet era disappeared This article will deliver a short overview of music criticism suddenly following the events of the ‘90s. Georgia continues in Georgia during the Soviet and post-Soviet eras: before to deal with the results of 70 years of totalitarianism.

90 Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras

Music criticism – its role and function What is the spirit of music propaganda? I would once in the police and post-police states again quote Honigsheim here:

Positive music criticism was to turn into a branch of political For the purpose of outlining the general definition of propaganda, a part of the overall indoctrination program aimed music criticism, I refer to Bojan Bujic in the Oxford Com- at imposing the Nazi vision on the total life experience of all panion to Music, where he treats music criticism as a product Germans… This illustrates how changes in political structure of the intellectual activity of judgments on value and the can bring about major changes in performance practice, musical degree of excellence of individual works of music or whole involvement […] Another series of examples can be offered from groups or genres (Bujic 2013). In that regard, the ability the case of the Soviet Union, which was similar in some aspects to judge and decide independently is crucial. Could it be and will be quite different in others […] Positive criticism was reduced only to the idea of expressing value judgments? to offer suggestions by the critic on how the performance of a Paul Honigsheim argues that music criticism as a part of the work would better help in building a new German music full bigger information process is a cultural model, an axiology of national feeling. (Honigsheim 1973: 207) of the contemporary culture, where various aspects and If we replace the words ‘Nazi’ and ‘Germans’ from forms and layers—such as mass culture, art, journalism, or Honigsheim’s quote in the following sentence, we won’t musicology—integrate: find any difference between the policies towards the music Art is considered to have a sphere of maximum impact, which criticism of the two police states of the twentieth century; is defined by sociohistorical parameters; moreover, the mean- furthermore, it will sound identical to the ideas of the ing of specific forms of artistic expression is characterized by socialist realism: their universal invalidity, rather than by universal validity. ‘Soviet’ vision on the total life experience of all ‘Soviet’ people (Honigsheim 1973: 38) […] Positive criticism was to offer suggestions by the critic on how the performance of a work would better help in building The importance of music criticism as a product and as a a new Soviet music full of ‘Soviet’ feeling. part of the information process was well understood by the fathers of Soviet ideology. They introduced the rules about Nevertheless, there were different stages of implementa- how music should be perceived by the “new working class.” tion of the ideology (Stalin’s period, the Thaw era, stagna- At the same time, Soviet ideologists understood that music tion, glasnost) in real Soviet life, but the cornerstone has criticism creates an information space that might be used as remained unchanged. Music criticism as a product and as a powerful tool in managing creative processes, where the information helping to build right audience, aided in creat- appraisal factor is the key element. ing the new Soviet music full of Soviet feeling; that’s what Is that the only reason why music criticism was so music criticism was for. important to the authorities of the totalitarian regime? But what about the value of the “product”? How did And what are the main duties of music critics who live Soviet ideologists define the value of a certain piece? These in a police state? questions ought to be answered through the lens of social The role and function of art criticism was to create infor- realism. I can’t agree more with the statement that: mation that would have played a crucial role in art as well as …political rather than aesthetic factors were most decisive create a public with the “right” information and values. The in the evaluation, and commentary on literature is advanced music critic as a product maker was “in charge” of doing so. succinctly in the introduction: Due to the particular status of The music critic also has only emerged recently and in relative- literature, literary criticism became a platform for the forma- ly complex cultures. He is hindered in individual expression tion of public discourse in Russia and a sphere (often the only even more that the musicologist. Police states do not permit one) of political activity. (Dobrenko, Tihanov 2011: 406) independent judgment. However, even where the press is free Although these authors explicitly describe the problems of state censorship, other powers such as church, political of the literature, it reflects the challenges of music criticism parties, and economically powerful groups restrict freedom of the press impeding the development of independent music as well. criticism. (Honigsheim 1973: 112) All criticism, not only musical criticism, had become politically driven and linked to the painful process of im- Honigsheim’s statement regarding independent judg- plementation of the “right” rules in life. What were they? ment is quite in order due to the fact that the line between Simply stated, they revolved around propaganda for socialist ideology and the ability to judge independently had concepts and anti-individualism, aiming at unifying artists emerged as a terrifying dilemma at the beginning of the last and audiences around common proletariat ideas. Further- century. The music critic should have offered ways to achieve more, these rules emphasized separation from Western the new social reality through “musical propaganda.” musical developments, adherence to Party ideology, and

91 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Nana SHARIKADZE most importantly serving and contributing to the building •• 1920–1930s: Introduction of the Soviet regime fol- of the socialist society. What did they criticize? Everything lowed by the adaptation to the requirements of a new that contradicted the above mentioned. It’s worth recall- set of rules ing that socialist realism aimed to form perception and •• 1936–1953: The Red Terror and Stalin’s purges in the appropriate language that would have been mono-stylistic 1930s, the selection of dissidents and their executions, (definition of Lotman). using criticism (including music criticism) as a symbol If the common ideas of the development of the newly of state violence. born society were not reflected by the artwork or did not Certain rules for “musical behavior” were introduced exclude the antithetical elements while representing the during the first phase of occupation of the country, at the complex ideas without any possibility of self-identification, very time the Georgian composers of the first generation that was more than enough to become a subject of criticism. faced a transitional period and the necessity to adapt to a George Orwell said it best: new reality. The adaptation went “successfully,” and as a result The peculiarity of totalitarian state is that it controls the Georgian music was “enriched” by the “musical chronicles thought, it doesn’t fix it. It sets up unquestionable dogmas, of Soviet life.” Alongside great pieces, in only a few years and it alters them day to day. It needs dogmas, because it Georgian composers of the classical era wrote so-called needs absolute obedience from its subjects, but it can’t avoid the changes which are dictated by power politics. It declares “Fact Works,” such as Glory to Zahes by Meliton Balanchi- itself infallible and at the same time it attacks the very concept vadze, Solemn Cantata on the 10th anniversary of the of objective truth. (Orwell 2018: 64) October Revolution, for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra (1927) by Zacharia Paliashvili, followed by number of How did the situation change after the fall of the Soviet hymns dedicated to the Party by various composers of that Union? A strict attitude towards music criticism, censorship, time, such as Aleksandre (Alexi)Machavariani’s oratorio and control was replaced by the idea of “full freedom.” A “no My Homeland (1954), Otar Taktaishvili’s cantata Hymn to control” approach was cultivated. From glasnost up to the fall the party (1952), and Revaz Laghidze’s Glory to the Party. of the Soviet Union, the main value of intellectual freedom As an evident example of the “successful adaptation” the was declared in the capital of the Soviet Union and its satellite collective cantata dedicated to the “Great Stalin” should be countries. Having no ideological frames had become a “new re- named. This piece was written by five Georgian composers ality” and “tradition”; Post-Soviet countries were thrown into on the basis of a text taken from a workers’ report to Stalin. the river of cultural theories without experiencing being part The number of parts (in total five) were also defined by the of the vivid cultural processes taking place in the West. What’s number of composers: the first part was written by Grigol more, it can be asserted that values were equally important for Kiladze, the second part by Andria Balanchivadze, the third both the Soviets as well as those living in post-Soviet times. part by Vano Gokieli, the fourth part by Shalva Mshvelidze, However, this did not mean that all problems inherited and the last part was written by Iona Tuskia. from the Soviet past had disappeared. Moreover, after the It’s difficult to find a critical reflection on Soviet pieces fall of the Soviet Union, the former Soviet countries still by Georgian music classicists. Furthermore, we don’t even faced the consequences of 70 years of the regime, and un- get a hint about the new Soviet cliché. I think the grounds fortunately the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic—as one for such “behaviorism” was given in a resolution released of the Soviet republics—was no exception. in 1925.

We should hold communism tight, never give up proletariat Music criticism before Stalin’s death (1921–1953) ideology, and disclose the objective, class-specific concept of the literature. The critics should fight grimly against the counterrevolutionary manifestations in the literature. The first phase (1920–1930s) (Resolution 1925) The Georgian professional composition school was established at the beginning of the twentieth century by the Now it’s clear why critics avoided open and independent time of occupation (1921) and significant works—includ- judgment about the developments. Instead of making vital ing those of classical opera, which was established during and critical notes, critics focused on the concert announce- that time—by Zacharia Paliashvili, Dimitri Arakishvili, ments, description of the program, performing technique Viktor Dolidze, and Niko Sulkanishvili were written before and style of a musician. But no critical word was said about occupation, during the country’s short independence. the quality and value of the certain musical pieces. Such In this section we examine the period from 1921 until behavior was common for all fields of art. In that regard Stalin’s death in 1953. This timeframe can be broken down the following publishing possibilities might be found in into two phases: the main musical magazines, art journals and newspapers

92 Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras s of the Soviet Union, such as Izvestia, Krasnaia Zvezda, dictator to impose an aesthetic doctrine after Gorki’s speech. and Soviet Art. On April 23, 1932, the ideology of socialist realism was Did Georgian music experience a lack of critics in this declared. The main value of the music of socialist realism field? Among the first generation of Georgian music crit- was its difference from the “formalistic,” hermetic music of ics of the Stalin era are Lado Donadze (a music history the Western elite. They (the West) were looking for atonality professor and the founder of the music history chair at the and a serial technique; they sought to break the traditional V. Sarajishvili Tbilisi State Conservatoire as well as music understanding of musical language. Contrary to them (the critic), Pavle Khuchua (a professor at the V. Sarajishvili West), socialist realism wanted to maintain tonality and Tbilisi State Conservatoire, musicologist, and professor). create music full of melodies that was able to speak to the Both were proactive in the music criticism scene, in a major- masses. Anything else and that which might have been ity of the cases the role of music critics was substituted by associated with “abstract, formalistic art” was rejected. To the censors of the Central Committee. The total control paint a clearer picture, I refer to Herta Muller2: imposed in art forced music critics in Georgia to give space to censors and hide critical reflection behind musical …it’s important to introduce a semi-true reality, to create ideological folklore with its mass songs, glorifying the Com- historiography. As soon as the music history and theory munist Party, to ban even a hint of authenticity. How can that chairs were established at the Tbilisi State Conservatoire1 be achieved? Erasing certain important issues such as religion music historiography started to make close ties with music and eliminating ‘incorrect’ symbols helps language to become criticism and tried to hide critical reflection behind the a powerful tool; that’s enough to invade and occupy minds historical approach; this process was defined by the policy through language. (Bradatan 2014) of the regime and was therefore inevitable. For instance, Pavle Khuchua focused his attention on publishing two This is the mythology of great existence, full of invented monographs about Georgian composers: Andria Karash- symbols revealed through everyday life and celebrations. vili (1948) and Meliton Balanchivadze (1950). The same Awards ceremonies as well as prize distributions needed to applies to Lado Donadze, who published musicological re- be accompanied by the relevant music. search about Shalva Mshvelidze (1946). If we were to look The Soviet propaganda machine started to group com- at those years it would be hard to find critical reflections posers according to the followers and rule breakers of social- contradicting the official ideology in culture.In regards to ist realism. Music criticism was about to show its adherence that, Gorki’s opinions are worth noting. He encouraged to Soviet dogma, willing and able to behave accordingly; Stalin to ban the literature-creative organizations and fol- thus musicians and music critics were divided into “not low up with the introduction of socialist realism, which sufficient” and “sufficient.” The obligation of critics was to was announced by the Communist Party as the only official judge artworks according and in reference to socialist real- “creative method” for Soviet artists starting in 1932. Gorki ism rules; they were identifying the elite within the elite, and wrote: “For our writers, scrutinizing the dirty crimes of thus the permanent and painful process of the selection of capitalism is of critical importance. Writers should com- the “right” artworks began. The cost of selection was even prehensively understand the history of the past as well as life. Music criticism had become wax in the hands of the present days; the writer must act as a midwife and a grave ideological fathers. Saying that government’s resolution was digger at once” (History of Russian literature 2014: 97). a just verdict is saying nothing. Everything was prepared for The process of substantial transformation affected all the total control of creative minds: in 1932 the Georgian fields of art, but strong emphasis was placed on music. On Composers Union was established with relevant subsections Gorki’s initiative, the following supplementary clause was for musicologists. That was a great rehearsal for the witch introduced: hunt, a preparatory phase for Stalin’s purges.

Revolutionary songs must be performed, especially in those The second phase (1936–1953) regions where they are unfairly and unpardonably forgotten. During the second phase, Stalin took over the arts. The Soviet composers must swiftly start working on mass songs process went through the several stages: as well as military marches. (Quoted by Gvakharia in his ra- diocast on “Radio Tavisufleba Radio[ Freedom] from 2002) 1) in 1937 the “terror of censorship” drastically entered into force in Georgia and lasted until the end of 1940s; and In this quote, it’s clear that Gorki strived to combine 2) in 1946 a cultural doctrine was developed by Andrei socialist content with the so-called “national form” that Zhdanov, the right hand of Stalin. would be an ideal musical work created for the people and According to this doctrine, the world was divided into glorify the regime at the same time. two camps: the “imperialistic” (Western block) headed by Thus, the drastic process of Stalin’s taking over the the United States and “democratic,” and that area of the arts started in the early 1930s. It did not take long for the world under the leadership of the Soviet Union. It had its

93 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Nana SHARIKADZE own “reality” with rules, status, ideology, an aesthetic basics, It should be noted that the role of critics was taken over a cultural space and a cultural center. The entire cultural by the censors of the Central Committee. policy was centered around the official status of the culture – At a glance, the opera seemed to be in accordance with Social Realism, which in return had its own integrated space the Soviet rules, as Shostakovich commented: called the Soviet Union (which included 15 republics, with Everything seems to have augured success for Muradeli. The the socialistic countries of the Eastern Europe not officially plot had ideology, from the lives of the Georgians and Osse- a part of the union) and one center, Moscow, the capital. tians. [...] Ordzhonikidze was a character in the opera; he was The Ministry of Culture as a state patron and supporter of cleaning up the Caucasus. The composer was also of Caucasian culture and art was looking to spread and disseminate the descent. What more could you ask? (Volkov 1995: 142–143) Soviet identity through culture in the masses. The same rules applied for Soviet composers and Soviet music critics While trying to understand what the reason was for Sta- from all the republics. lin’s rage, Shostakovich elaborated more on that and came What was inadmissible in the Soviet Union? The to the conclusion that a person might become the subject cultural policy of the Soviet Union determined the actual of punishment not only for modernistic musical language role of music in the real life of the Soviet Georgia and its but for problems in the libretto as well: essence: a bipolar, black-and-white world that was intro- Shostakovich goes on to itemize three aspects which in fact duced after the WW2 revealed not only the confrontation enraged Stalin. Stalin himself was of Ossetian descent and and opposition between the Western and Eastern political felt that in the opera the Ossetians were marginalized by blocks, but the dichotomy of modernism and socialist real- the Georgians, […]. Stalin also took offence at praise for ism as well. It’s well known that socialist realism showed a Ordzhonikidze; although Ordzhonikidze was officially a preference for traditional forms and approaches in terms Bolshevik hero, Stalin was reminded that he had driven his of harmony, musical language, and style. It was ardently old friend to suicide. Finally Stalin was offended that, instead against Western modernism and the avant-garde. In the of using the traditional lezginka dance melody in the opera case of “not sufficient” art, the music critics’ negative verdict (a tune which was one of Stalin’s favorites), Muradeli had 6 was as follows: formalism in music. The labels given to the composed his own lezginka tune” (Volkov 1995: 143). artwork meant that the artist failed to comply with the of- But In 1958, only after the death of Stalin, a new decree ficial Soviet cultural policy and was at risk for persecution. was announced, called “On the Correction of Errors in the These definitions were given to many Georgian composers Evaluation of The Great Friendship, Bogdan Khmelnitsky and of the Soviet 1930s and 1940s, such as Vano Muradeli3 (and 4 From All My Heart”; it was issued by the Central Commit- his opera The Great Friendship ), Andria Balanchivadze’s tee according to which Muradeli’s opera was rehabilitated Symphony No. 1, Shalva Mshvelidze, and Lado Donadze, (Wilson 1994: 292–293). the famous Georgian musicologist and musical critic. They Another case for having judged the musical piece ac- all remained alive but faced great problems and thereafter cording to prejudices of the Socialist Realism policy was never resisted the authorities. the Symphony No. 1 written by Andria Balanchivadze. Let’s expand more on Muradeli’s opera case: The idea The discussion took place at the recital hall of the Tbilisi about the opera was born in 1921 when Muradeli met Sergo State Conservatoire attended by musicians, composers, 5 Orjonikidze and decided to create an opera about Or- and members of the Georgian Central Committee of the dzhonikidze’s fight against the white army. It took Muradeli Communist Party in 1948. Balanchivadze was accused nearly 20 years to fulfill the idea, and he staged the opera in of formalism and cosmopolitism; after a long discussion, the Bolshoi Theatre only in 1947. The initial name of the Andria Balanchivadze and Lado Donadze, a musicologist opera was The special commissar, but by the suggestion of (who was the only one to support Balanchivadze) were given the censorship authorities the title was changed in 1947 to a small penalty. Donadze had said: The Great Friendship, (“Velikaia Druzhba”) emphasizing the friendship between the many peoples of the Soviet Union Although the presence of the stylistic errors, our friend Bal- (Vlasova, 2010:225). Joseph Stalin attended a performance anchivadze is a honest Soviet composer. (Toradze, 2010: 100; at the Bolshoi on January 5, 1948, and strongly disapproved quoted by Kavtaradze 2010a) of the opera. Soon, a resolution “ ( Ve- The Great Friendship It’s not clear why the Soviet authorities changed their likaia Druzhba) by VanoMuradeli” was released with the mind towards Balanchivadze. The official minutes of that following statement: day cannot be found either in Georgian national archives or Music criticism gave up voicing the opinion of Soviet soci- in the archive of the Tbilisi State Conservatoire. There are ety and evolved into the megaphone of certain composers. no critical reviews, articles, or reflections written by music (Resolution 1948) critics on Balanchivadze’s symphony. The only information

94 Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras we have from that day is the caricature by an anonymous The Thaw was remarkable in Georgian music criticism painter and stories from the spectators. The discussion at the history for several reasons: the Thaw created a very inter- recital hall was kept secret the Communist Party and kept esting sense of the global context for the cultures beyond in the archives of the KGB. Unfortunately, the majority of the Iron Curtain. The idea about the competition with those documents were lost during the brutal ‘90s. It might the rest of the world played a crucial role in both music only be assumed that Balanchivadze was “saved” because of making as well as music criticism. Musicologists and critics his brother – George Balanchivadze (the famous George got the chance to reflect on the context in its broadening Balanchine, the father of American ballet), who was already meaning. Cultural and political considerations played a living in the US. crucial role in the development of Georgian music since A short overview of music criticism “behaviorism” be- its foundation, which was reflected in music criticism, fore Stalin’s death might conclude the following: and the degree of the intersection between politics and 1. Political rather than aesthetic factors were the most culture defined the extent of freedom in the field of music decisive ones in the processes defining the cultural policy criticism. of the Soviet Union. That’s proved by the several Party The 1960s was a turning point for Georgian music decrees released in the 1930s and 1940s that made a history. This was a time when composers like Sulkhan crucial impact on the further development of art music Nasidze, Otar Taktakishvili, Sulkhan Tsintsadze, Nodar and critics in the countries under Soviet rule Gabunia, Bidzina Kvernadze, and Giya Kancheli arrived 2. Music criticism has gone through all phases of implement- on the scene. Simultaneously, Givi Orjonikidze, the opening the Soviet legacy and therefore reflected its turning minded musicologist and an influential music critic of points—from gentler times up to the Red Terror. that time, entered the field of music criticism. He swiftly 3. Music criticism strived to reveal itself and found the fol- became a leader in the Georgian music criticism school of lowing ways of existing in a world driven by the regime: the ‘60s. Orjonikidze criticized the Georgian musicological •• while building close ties to musical historiography, and music critical school harshly in his work Contemporary music criticism tried to conceal critical reflection Georgian Music through the light of aesthetics and sociology under the historical approach; thus the role of real (Orjonikidze 1985). Undoubtedly, the work gives essential critics was substituted by the censors of the Central information about the circumstances and the conditions of Committee; Georgian music criticism to the ‘80s. It also gives hints about •• music critics gave up independent judgment about the hard-pressed situation that Georgian music criticism the value of musical pieces, maintaining emphasis on inherited from the past. But Orjonikidze did not seem to the announcements of concerts, descriptions of con- feel sympathetic towards it. In spite of the severe historical cert programs, and evaluation of certain performers; circumstances, he calls on musicologists to become more •• music critics became the voice of the ideology in the flexible towards the new life standards and be more adaptive process of evaluating art pieces. to the situations that they might have faced:

…modern reality requires musicologists to overcome the inertness of being part of a certain guild; […] in order to be- Music criticism after Stalin. come healthier, we have to take care of the process of critics’ Thaw and Stagnation times revitalization. (Orjonikidze 1985: 228, 243)

The Red Terror came to the end with the death of Stalin. What are the main aspects that Orjonikidze highlight- After that period, Soviet politics went through three main ed? First, in his work Contemporary Georgian Music through stages: the Thaw period, the time of stagnation, and glasnost. the light of aesthetics and sociology (Orjonikidze 1985) he A general description of art’s position during that time might called out music critics for not having a critical approach be the following: the main idea of the Soviet legacy was kept to the art music inheritance of the recent days. Orjonikidze unchanged—culture remained politically driven, while the continued by blaming Georgian music criticism in not tendency to reject foreign music continued to flourish. being able to speak the truth towards living composers: The reconsideration of Stalin’s legacy was infused into Although the judgment had well-grounded justification, the all spheres of Soviet life. The slogan “We need critics,” which critics maintained their silence about the reason for such was created as a way to announce a verdict on recent history, an approach; he went further and explored the idea about was followed by public speeches for a “truth” and “real criti- reconsideration of already existing values. It seemed hard cal” word. Criticizing the past for not having critics was in for him to accept the fact that critics did not see the damage the spirit of the anti-Stalin campaign. But does that mean that was done by their silence towards cultural processes. that inner values changed? How did criticism benefit from Judging to what extent Orjonikidze was allowed to speak the Thaw? And did it really enjoy the freedom of creativity? about these issues seems to be a difficult task.

95 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Nana SHARIKADZE

In addition to the issues mentioned above, Orjonikidze fathers of ideology in the ‘70s. For a long time, they had highlighted the problems of music perception and the role been a part of the underground art world. Music critics, of critics in this process. In his opinion, there were only two including Orjonikidze, had their lips sealed about them. It’s main “players”—the composer and the performer—and he worth mentioning that in the work Contemporary Georgian regretted to say that, due to recent history, musicologists Music through the light of aesthetics and sociology, published and critics held a secondary position and the Georgian in 1985, Orjonikidze had not even mentioned ignorance of music criticism scene lacked outspoken critics (Orjonikidze the music critics towards the neglected composers. In my 1985). He described the situation in an explicit way, and opinion, this proves the unvarnished truth—the Soviets it’s hard to argue with the author. In an epoch of developed had had the ability and power to control the minds and the TV and radio communication, Orjonikidze outlined the “space” given for “criticism” in art still had limits. As proof, insufficiency of the work forces and the shortage of highly I would refer to the resolution of the Central Committee qualified professionals in the music criticism world. In that of the Communist Party released in 1972: regard, Orjonikidze saw an urgent need for musicologists with a creative approach to artworks; only in that case, he Criticism is still under-active in implementing the ideas of the revolution, ideals of socialist realism in the arts, in scrutiniz- admitted, the voice of critics might be heard ing the essence of bourgeois ‘mass culture’ and decadency I think that our musical culture as well as the composer tendencies, it is passive in fighting the non-Marxist aesthetical himself lost a lot when Taktakishvili’s opera Mindia was not concepts. (Resolution 1972) discussed in due season. I have offered a few critical reflections in regards to that, and my colleagues (and not only they) attacked me—how I dared to say a critical word towards Glasnost a piece with great success and international recognition. I In fact, 1985 closed the stagnation epoch with the one agree that Taktakishvili’s Mindia has been one of the most of the last documents—“Let’s unite the proletariat of all successful operas in the Georgian opera history so far. I don’t countries”—released by the regional committee of the doubt it myself; but I cannot ignore the fact about the several Youth Communist Party. The document comprised the disorders in the libretto. […] I have just mentioned them. […] names of the representatives of “other music” (from various I think, if we still keep glorifying the quality of certain pieces music subcultures —rock, jazz, pop, etc.). On the one hand, it will not be possible to describe the real situation in the arts. the list contained the names of performers such as the Scor- (Orjonikidze 1985: 251–252) pions, Pink Floyd, the Sex Pistols, and Tina Turner, and on Orjonikidze’s landmark book is a chronicle of the prob- another hand, the possible moral damage was highlighted. lems caused by the regime and yet, going through his work I Stagnation was replaced by a time of openness and trans- can say that he was critical to the outcomes of the Stalinist parency called glasnost that lasted for five years (1986–1991). era but at the same time, Orjonikidze was not critically It was the first time when Soviet citizens were allowed to reflecting and analyzing the main reasons. But maybe it’s discuss problems publicly and seek solutions. Furthermore, because, in reality, the Thaw and the following period of the stream of fresh air blowing from the West reached the stagnation was based on the same values, and the instinct capital of the “evil empire” and its satellite republics. to survive (so familiar to those living and working in the What did the picture look like in the Georgian music 1930s and 1940s) still had a strong ground. He certainly of glasnost? Let’s take a look at the end of the last century. knew about the article published in 1958 in the iconic Two generations of Georgian composers were working Soviet newspaper Pravda (Truth): simultaneously: 1) The so-called “fathers” (Nodar Mamisashvili, Giya Some astray or unfair critics started to review the principles Kancheli, Sulkhan Nasidze, Natela Svanidze, Nodar of Marxism and Leninism in regards to the commitment Gabunia, Bidzina Kvernadze), and to the people in art. They demanded “corrections” towards 2) The generation of the ‘80s (Joseb Bardanashvili, Zura twentieth-century modernistic trends. They tried to misinter- Nadreishvili, George Shaverzashvili, and others). pret the essential difference between the socialist art (with its If we could describe the process, we might do so in the progressive ideas) and the old bourgeois art. Musical society following way—“distancing” (from the Soviet rules) and gave a push back to these provisional attempts. (Pravda 1958) “adapting”/synchronizing” with the European experience. The fact that “other music” moved to the underground is How did the process of distancing and synchroniz- an evident example of the real value of Soviet ideology after ing develop? Even during glasnost, historical musicology Stalin’s death; nothing had changed. “Other music” (the took over the role of music criticism. Among musicolo- name of music not created according to Soviet dogma, even gists dealing with music criticism, the following should after Stalin) was still a case for those Georgian composers be mentioned: Anton Tsulukidze, Mzia Iashvili, Nana (Svanidze, Shugliashvili) who had been neglected by the Kavtaradze, Rusudan Kutateladze, Gulbat Toradze, Lidya

96 Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras

Gogua,Rusudan Tsurtsumia, Marina Kavtaradze, and musicological school had to find ways to overcome the Nana Loria. There is no space to provide a comprehensive Soviet legacy. picture about the role of each of these experts, but all have Let me expand on that from the above-mentioned certainly contributed to the development of Georgian music perspectives. The generation of composers from the 1990s, criticism. However, I will draw attention to specific top- which included Maya (Maka) Virsaladze and Eka Chabash- ics: reconsideration of the tradition and musical language vili, still coped with the social-political turbulence as a result through global processes; the interrelation between musi- of the fall of the Soviet Union. Pulling down the barriers of cal language and contemporary compositional principles; the old ideological system was accompanied by challenges. evaluation of the recent trends via post-Soviet challenges; However, for the process of rebirth it was important to the role and place of the traditional Georgian music as a do away with the “unique” Soviet experience, to learn and rich theme for Georgian musicology; and reconsideration adapt to the information, to learn how to swim in a space of the Soviet legacy in Georgian music history. without restrictions and make mistakes. The syncretism of music criticism and historiographi- The Chinese use two brush strokes to write the word cal musicology in a Georgian reality was one of the ways “crisis:” the first one stands for danger and the other for to bridge the gap; the question about to what extent it was opportunity. In other words, “crisis” may be described as an capable of changing the situation towards music criticism awareness of danger, but at the same time it is recognized remains unanswered, but for Georgian music, criticism link- as an opportunity. The development of art is the history of ing historiography with music criticism was an inevitable crisis and perceived possibilities. The turn of the century in fact. At the same time, it had both strong and weak sides. Georgia is often characterized as a period of deep crisis due First, let me list the strong features: to the political-economic circumstances, as well as cultural development. The crisis that Georgian music criticism ex- Musicologists identify the value of the artwork and stylistic perienced in the 1990s encompassed both danger and op- features and critically evaluate the importance and worth of it, while the music critic deals with ‘hot material’ and delivers it portunity for its further development. The opportunity was with the great effect of subjectivity. (Orjonikidze 1985: 228) seen as a chance to gain its own place on the musical map, to become a part of the vivid musical processes, to break On the other hand, this interrelation reveals the weak- free from the “semi-true reality.” Consequently, it has been ness as well; it prevented the Georgian music criticism reflected in recent works of such Georgian musicologists school from being formed separately. The historiographi- and music critics as Kavtaradze, Tsurtsumia, Loria, Gvin- cal approach did not allow the music criticism field to jilia, Dekanosidze, and Nadareishvili (Sharikadze 2017: 38). be formed separately, either, and I would assert that the What defines the danger in particular? The changes in problem mentioned by Orjonikidze has been topical for the language and perception of the role of the music critic Georgian music criticism up to this point. would not have changed suddenly. The process of disgrac- ing the critics had ended, but the result itself continued to recall that 70-year-old trauma. Music Criticism after the fall of the Soviet Union How was the crisis reflected by the Georgian music crit- Mamardashvili Merab:7 ics? How could they overcome the “musical behavior” which had become a tradition? It’s essential to understand what During the twentieth century, we have permanently been factors made an impact on the development of the music on the edge of two contradicting conjunctures, we perma- criticism concept. What was the main driver for the changes? nently experience concern, we continuously have to make The substance of the 1990s might be described as a time choice, and most importantly we face the challenge of being of immense complexity: Georgia went through several wars, involved in the entire global world. We have to understand and it was an epoch of big dreams and expectation as well relevantly all transformations but simultaneously be able as disappointments and disillusions, a time when the young to self-identify with the own cultural space and values. (Mamardashvili 2012: 16) generation lacked experience and simultaneously was not able to use the past experience of its forefathers, a time when Basically, while talking about the post-Soviet period, we the Soviet past turned out to be not useful at all. Keeping consider the period of the 1990s before the Rose Revolu- in mind all ideological rules, Georgia was thrown into a tion. However, the post-Soviet condition did not end in the completely free space “without any rules.” brutal 1990s but revealed long-lasting consequences of 70 Music critics had had to use their own ideas to find years of occupation. the way out. Unfortunately, only political change was not The new reality of the brutal 1990s had a certain amount enough. It was not about resisting or following the rules any- of tolerance towards experiments and individualism. It more but more about building a new system of values and was obvious that Georgian music criticism as well as the reconsideration of the music critic’s own role and function

97 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Nana SHARIKADZE in a newly born country. At the end of the last century, the and a way to secretly resist the standing reality. During the process of the reconsideration and redesign of values had post-Soviet era, it lost the connotation of being forbidden started and run its natural course, but it still developed in fruit. Nevertheless, few TV shows were nationally broadcast a complex way. about academic music.8 In recent years, interest has gained The turn of the century gave space to everyone in terms in professional music critics, which was a result of the estab- of development. The question about to what extent Geor- lishment of the TV show Musicologos and Unknown Music gian music broke free from the “unique” Soviet experience from the company Public Broadcast as well as the opening could not be explicitly answered. Considering recent 25- of Radio Muza, which explicitly dealt with classical music. year history, the newly gained freedom and independence Other entertainment programs had had their own space as had its hidden threats, but it had simultaneously offered well. These forms of media had their own target audience, enormous opportunities (like the Chinese word for crisis) and Public Broadcast was trying to achieve the goals of for further development. If we briefly take a look back, “inform, educate, and entertain.” then the following can be seen: the sense of freedom The situation has changed in last two years: TV pro- and no control turned on its head the approach to music grams such as Musicologos and Unknown Music have been criticism. Removing censorship and rules gave birth to new terminated, and Radio Muza has been shut down. Radio circumstances that required more flexibility and readiness Muza played a crucial role in the further development of to adapt to a new existence. However, not all problems music critics in Georgia. Several generations of radio music familiar from Soviet times disappeared. Georgia still faced critics were raised there. old but intimate problems about values in music criticism; Furthermore, societies like Komunikatori and Ko- the “old, trusted” criteria’s according to which value should muna were founded by the musicians from the so-called have been measured were not in place anymore. That was “underground” musical scene. The internet page Komuna. only one side of the problem. Another no less important ge was established with the aim of creating a space for the issue was the fact that a mismatch between the market de- Georgian-speaking society to communicate and for mem- mand and the ability to supply it with a sufficient workforce bers to express their ideas about music. created a pool for self-educated “specialists,” music lovers So, politically driven art and music criticism was with relatively good taste and knowledge about the field. replaced with market-driven ideas. Although there were Everyone became a critic; the ability to write with easy and plenty of open work positions in the media due to the understandable language was enough to gain a name as a newly established private media companies (radios, TVs, music critic. The majority of music critics did not have an newspapers, magazines), it’s not easy to find an opening academic background. They were mostly musicians coming for professional music critics so far. from the underground music scene. Having no formal music education had become a sign of the 1990s. Furthermore, the music education of Georgia was not able to fill the gap Conclusion either, since music criticism has never been offered as part of study programs within higher education, and music The history about the Georgian music critics is about criticism was not delivered as a separate study program at the history of mortification and oppression. Music critics the Tbilisi State Conservatoire until 2012. Thus, on one were politically driven for 70 years, and it took more than 20 hand, there were plenty of TV shows, radio programs, and years since the Soviet Union’s collapse to step over the line newspapers covering the entertainment industry and giv- of severe censorship and feel free in judging independently. ing opportunities to younger individuals to realize their Music criticism reflected the turbulence of the country’s potential. On the other hand, there was less interest towards political and cultural development and strived, on one hand, academic music and professionals with the proper music to survive in the period of the Red Terror through building education. The majority of those working in the music close ties between the historiography and music criticism. criticism field had never had the opportunity to receive an On the other hand, music critics became a voice of the cen- academic education; very few of those musicologists having sors in the process of evaluation of art pieces. graduated from Tbilisi State Conservatoire have found a job “Mortification of culture” (Kavtaradze’s note) prevented on TV and or at Radio Muza (2006–2017). the Georgian music criticism school from developing criti- The utmost attention was paid to music banned by the cal concepts and ideas; as it was claimed by Mamardashvili Soviets, such as rock, jazz, and electronic music . This satis- that the Soviet Union represented at country where at- fied the needs of the audience, which was given the chance tacking freedom formed the main attitude for the culture to listen to and enjoy music from the “Soviet underground.” (Mamardashvili 1987). It also created the form of its reali- During the Thaw and stagnation period, listening to the zation and transformed music critics into servants of the music of the underground was a synonym for freedom ideology with a secondary role.

98 Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras

After the fall of the regime, Georgian music critics Bujic Bojan, Criticism of Music, in: The Oxford Companion to have still been in the process of gaining back their role and Music, Oxford University Press, 2013. function. Georgian music criticism has been striving to Dobrenko Evgeny, and Galin Tihanov, A History of Russian Literary Theory and Criticism: The Soviet Age and Beyond, find strength and develop the instinct to ride the waves of University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011. a second transitional period—from the Soviet condition Frolova-Walker Marina, Stalin’s Music Prize: Soviet Culture and to post-Soviet—into opportunity, which paradoxically Politics, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016. began in the brutal ‘90s . We do hope that the better days Gvakharia Gogi, The creation of the social realism in Geor- for Georgian music critics are still to come. gia, in: Radio Freedom, 12 August, 2000, https://www. radiotavisupleba.ge/a/1522678.html (in Georgian) [last checked 2019 02 01]. Honigsheim Paul, Sociologists and Music: An Introduction to the Endnotes Study of Music and Society, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1989 (originally published in 1973 1 In Georgia, it happened in 1937 (20 years after the conserva- by John Wiley and Sons). toire was founded). Kavtaradze Marina (a), Music and Regime Through the Context 2 The Romanian born German novelist, poet, essayist and of Epoch (Mortification of Music with the Soviet Methods) in 2009 Nobel Prize receiver in literature for The Land of Green the 20th Century Art, Tbilisi: Theatre and Film University Plums(1996) publishing, 2010 (in Georgian). 3 Vano Muradeli (1908–1970), in 1946 awarded the Stalin Kavtaradze Marina (b), Problem of Self-Identification of the In- Prize. In 1948, his opera The Great Friendship was censured dividuality in Dmitri Schostakovich’s Works. Antropological by the resolution of the Communist Party Central Commit- research, Tbilisi, 2010 (in Georgian). tee. After Joseph Stalin’s death, he was restored to favor and Mamardashvili Merab, Aesthetics of Thinking, Tbilisi, 1987 granted the title of the People’s Artist of the USSR in 1968. An (Эстетика мышления, Moscow, 2000). author of mass songs, a typical “law-abiding” Soviet composer Mamardashvili Merab, Meetings with Merab Mamardashvili (Shex- 4 The Great Friendship (1947) was premiered in Donetsk on 28 vedrebi Merab Mamardashviltan), Tbilisi , 2012 (in Georgian). September 1947 and given its Moscow premiere at the Bolshoi Muller Herta, The Land of Green Plums, Rowohlt: Metropolitan Theatre, on 7 November 1947 (The first performance was in Books in the USA, 1996. Moscow at the Bolshoi Theatre on 7 November 1947, the date Orjonikidze Givi, Contemporary Georgian Music through the light of of the Revolution’s 30th anniversary). Joseph Stalin attended aesthetics and sociology, Tbilisi: Khelovneba, 1985 (in Georgian). a performance at the Bolshoi on 5 January 1948 and strongly Orwell George, Orwell on Truth, Boston, New York, 2018. disapproved of the opera. This led to a significant purge, often [Pravda] Editorial Article, in: Pravda, 8 June, 1958. referred to as the Zhdanovshchina of the musical life of the Resolution 1925: Resolution of the Central Committee of the Soviet Union. Communist Party “About the Policy of the Party in the Lit- 5 Sergo Orjonikidze, one of the leaders of the Bolshevik Revolu- erature”, Moscow, 18 June, 1925 (из Постановления ЦК tion, a friend of Stalin and his compatriot. Orjonikidze shot ВКП(б) «О политике партии в области художественной himself in 1937 anticipating arrest by his former friend; how- литературы», 18 июнья 1925 г.). ever, his death had at that time been announced as caused by Resolution 1948: Resolution of the Central Committee of the heart failure. Orjonikidze served as a commissar for Ukraine, Communist Party “About the Policy of the Party in the fighting the White Army under Anton Denikin. Literature”, Moscow, 10 February, 1948 (из Постановления 6 After the premier, Zhdanov officially met Muradeli (the ЦК КПСС «Об опере „Великая дружба“ В. Мурадели, 10 composer) and Leontiev (the director of the Bolshoi Theatre) февраля 1948 г.), http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/USSR/ After the meeting, Leontiev died due to the heart failure. music.htm [last checked 2019 02 01]. 7 Merab Mamardashvili (1930–1990), a prominent Georgian Resolution 1972: Resolution of the Central Committee of the philosopher Communist Party “About the Policy of the Party in the Lit- 8 It’s not possible to list all the musical programs aired through erature”, Moscow, 1972 (из Постановления ЦК КПСС «О the Public Broadcaster, but I will name few of them: Georgian литературно-художественной критике», 1972). voices, art club, children’s song festival, Basti Bubu, Maestro, Sharikadze Nana, Eka Chabashvili’s Works Through Some Aspects Memory, Uknown music, Saturday evening at Lisa, and Live of Musical Identity, in: GESJ: Georgian Electronic Scientific music. These are the names of the music programs from 2007 Journal, 2015, No. 2(12), http://gesj.internet-academy.org. to 2017 (Barabadze, 2017). ge/en/list_artic_en.php?b_sec=muz&issue=2015-12 pp 15-19 [last checked 2019 02 01]. Sharikadze Nana, European Context of the Georgian Music at the Turn of the Centuries, in: GESJ: Georgian Electronic Scientific Bibliography Journal, 2017, No. 1(15), http://gesj.internet-academy.org. ge/en/list_artic_en.php?b_sec=muz&issue=2017-06 pp Barabadze Nia, Musical view and other peculiarities of the Public 38-44 [last checked 2019 02 01]. Broadcaster (on the example of last 10 years), BA Thesis (in Toradze Gulbat, 2010 – inimitable Andria Balanchivadze, In the Georgian), Tbilisi State Conservatoire, 2017. Music World Tbilisi 2010 (in Georgian). Bradatan Costica, Herta Müller’s Language of Resistance, in: Volkov Solomon, Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich. Literature & Culture Boston Review, 18 March, 2014, http:// New York: Limelight Editions, 1995. bostonreview.net/books-ideas/costica-bradatan-herta- Wilson E, Shostakovich: A Life Remembered. London: Faber and muller-cristina-double [last checked 2019 02 01]. Faber, 1994.

99 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Nana SHARIKADZE

История русской литературы XX – начала XXI века. Часть II. pabaigos; 2) 1946 m. įvedama Stalino dešiniosios rankos 1925–1990гг, научный редактор и составитель Коровин Andrejaus Ždanovo sukurta kultūros doktrina. В.И., Москва, 2014. 2. Muzikos kritika po Stalino mirties, 7–9 dešimtme- Круглова Татьяна, Искусство соцреализма как культурно- tyje: atšilimo laikotarpis, stagnacija ir era. Čia ne антропологическая и художественно-коммуникативная glasnost система: исторические основания, специфика дискурса tiek aprašomi Stalino režimo ar atšilimo laikotarpio nulemti и социокультурная роль, Автореферат диссертации на faktai, kiek aiškinama muzikos kritikų elgsena sovietiniais соискание ученой степени доктора философских наук, ir posovietiniais laikais. Viena vertus, šis Gruzijos muzikos Екатеринбург, 2005. kritikos raidos etapas sutampa su laikotarpiu, kai gvildena- Троцкий Лев, Искусство и революция, Москва, 1939. mi ideologiniai ir poideologiniai klausimai; kita vertus, jis [Vlasova] Власова Eкатерина, 1948 год в советской музыке (The Year 1948 in Soviet Music). Moscow: Klassika-21, 2010. susiduria su daugybe problemų, susijusių su galimybe laisvai rinktis ir priimti nepriklausomus sprendimus. 3. Posovietinė era. Praeito šimtmečio paskutinį de- Santrauka šimtmetį iškyla įtampą kelianti dilema bandant nubrėžti liniją tarp ideologijos ir gebėjimo spręsti nepriklausomai; Susiformavusi praėjusio amžiaus pradžioje, Gruzijos žmonės buvo verčiami pasirinkti „vienintelę teisingą pusę“. muzikos kritikos mokykla atspindi neramią šalies istoriją Nors posovietinėje eroje vyrauja „visiškos laisvės“, kontrolės nuo jos Nepriklausomybės, Rusijos įvykdytos aneksijos atsisakymo idėja, tai nereiškia, kad visos iš sovietinių laikų 1921 m., iki pat Nepriklausomybės atkūrimo 1992-aisiais. paveldėtos problemos dingo. Straipsnyje glaustai apibendrinama Gruzijos muzikos kri- Gruzijos muzikos kritikos istorija – tai priespaudos ir tikos raida sovietiniais ir posovietiniais laikais. engimo istorija. 70 metų muzikos kritiką valdė politika, Autorė išskiria šiuos pagrindinius muzikos kritikos o Sovietų Sąjungai žlugus, prireikė 20 metų, kad būtų raidos laikotarpius: peržengtos griežtos cenzūros ribos ir priimami laisvi ir 1. Muzikos kritika iki Stalino mirties. Laikotarpis nuo nepriklausomi sprendimai. „Kultūros engimas“ (Marijos 1921-ųjų iki Stalino mirties 1953 m. skirstomas į du etapus: Kavtaradzės terminas) neleido Gruzijos muzikos kritikos mokyklai sukurti savo koncepcijų ir idėjų; kaip sakė Mera- •• 3–4 dešimtmetis, arba sovietų režimo pradžia, kai prisi- taikoma prie naujų gyvenimo taisyklių. Šiuo okupacijos bas Mamardašvilis, Sovietų Sąjungoje pagrindinis kultūrai laikotarpiu įvedamos ir tam tikros „muzikinio elgesio“ skiriamas vaidmuo – pulti laisvę (Mamardashvili 1987), be taisyklės, tiksliau – tuo metu pirmosios kartos gruzinų to, valstybė pati kūrė kultūros realizavimo formas, o muzikos kompozitoriai išgyvena pereinamąjį laikotarpį, susidur- kritiką pavertė nepagrindinį vaidmenį atliekančia tarnaite. dami su būtinybe prisitaikyti prie naujosios tikrovės; Griuvus režimui, Gruzijos muzikos kritika vis dar siekia atsikovoti savo vaidmenį ir svarbiausią paskirtį. Gruzijos •• 1936–1953, taip pat Raudonasis teroras ir Stalino represijos ketvirtame dešimtmetyje, kai vykdomos muzika rado jėgų ir gyvybinių impulsų paversti antrąjį nepaklusniųjų egzekucijos, kritika (taip pat ir muzikos) virsmą nuo sovietinės iki posovietinės eros galimybe; gana pasitelkiama kaip valstybės teroro simbolis. Stalinas parodoksalu, kad tai įvyko brutaliaisiais dešimto dešimt okupuoja menus. Šį procesą galima suskirstyti į kelis mečio laikais. Tikimės, kad ir Gruzijos muzikos kritika etapus: 1) Gruziją užvaldo 1937 m. drastiškai įvestos sulauks geresnių laikų. cenzūros siaubas, trukęs iki pat penkto dešimtmečio Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 02 01

100 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Jiří KOPECKÝ Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer1 Fibichas Vilniuje: 1874-ieji ir kompozitoriaus asmenybės formavimasis

Palacký University Olomouc, Univerzitni 3, 771 80 Olomouc, Czech Republic Email: [email protected]

Abstract In 1874 Zdeněk Fibich (1850–1900) lived in Vilnius, arriving September 1873, to teach music at Vilnius schools. A sequence of unhappy events—the deaths of his twin children from his first marriage, the serious illness of his wife, the death of his mother-in-law’s sister—permanently affected Fibich’s life, and he eventually decided to end his employment in Vilnius and permanently return to Prague. Although Fibich had a rather restricted musical life in Vilnius, the situation in Bohemia was favorable, for the polarizing debate concerning Bedřich Smetana, who had become deaf in 1874, was reaching its peak. Despite these unfavorable circumstances, Fibich was able to develop a remarkable creative style during this time, and even began to create his first masterworks. Keywords: Zdeněk Fibich, music life in Vilnius, symphonic poem Toman and the Wood Nymph, chamber music.

Anotacija 1874-aisiais Zdeněkas Fibichas (1850–1900) gyveno Vilniuje, atvykęs čia 1873-iųjų rugsėjį mokyti muzikos Vilniaus mokyklose. Viena po kitos nelaimės – jo dvynių iš pirmos santuokos mirtis, sunki žmonos liga ir uošvės sesers mirtis – smarkiai paveikė Fibicho gyvenimą. Galiausiai jis metė darbą Vilniuje ir visam laikui sugrįžo į Prahą. Nors Vilniuje jo muzikiniam gyvenimui stigo intensyvumo, Bohemijoje sąlygos buvo palankios – tuo metu įsiplieskę ginčai dėl 1874 m. apkurtusio Bedřicho Smetanos pasiekė kulminaciją. Nors aplinkybės susiklostė nepalankiai, Fibicui pavyko tuo laikotarpiu ištobulinti puikų kūrybos stilių ir netgi pradėti rašyti savo pirmuosius šedevrus. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Zdeněkas Fibichas, muzikinis gyvenimas Vilniuje, simfoninė poema „Tomanas ir medinė nimfa“, kamerinė muzika.

When we examine the list in the Moser catalog2 of the MK3 works that Zdenĕk Fibich (1850–1900) wrote during 1874, 1873 we immediately notice a variety and abundance that seems 337 Mass for 4-part mixed choir and soloists with accompani- inconsistent, not only with respect to the choice of subjects, ment (not orchestrated) but also of large forms and genre. While a bitter debate was 338 Othello, symphonic poem for full orchestra 4 raging in the Czech musical community, Fibich’s private life 339 Polka for piano was reaching a serious crisis. A combination of unfavorable 340 Záboj, Slavoj a Luděk [Záboj, Slavoj and Luděk], sym- circumstances, along with the turbulent romantic ideas phonic poem for full orchestra about art that were directly connected to Fibich’s music, 341 Veseloherní ouvertura [Comedy overture] for orchestra produced conditions under which a professional composer 342 Waldnacht (Hermann Lingg), [song / Lied] was born. Fibich’s artistic production around 1874 seems 343 Tragödie (Heine), [song / Lied] to be in relation with the events of his private life. We are 344 Ave Maria, for solo voice and organ convinced that this extraordinary psychological pressure 345 Jasná noc [Moonlit night], for violin and piano caused him to sort out the basic decisions of his life and 346 Theme and variations, for piano and violin the positions he would take. The goal of this study is to 347 Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh (Goethe), for men’s chorus reconstruct, as accurately as possible, the events around 348 Sterne mit den gold´nen Füsschen (Heine), for men’s chorus 1874, and to try to explain how Fibich developed to create 349 Frithjof, music drama on a text by Petr Lohmann, 2 and 1/2 his first significant works. acts in a full piano sketch, in Vilnius by the end of 1873 Before we provide an outline of this era, we will list the works that Fibich wrote from 1873 to 1875 as they are 1874 presented in Moser’s catalog: 350 Windsbraut [Bride of the wind], ballad for chorus and orchestra (G. Kinkel), Vilnius 25 January, sketch completed 18 December, 1872

101 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Jiří Kopecký

351 Piano quartet, Vilnius, February music culture, it was a shock to discover that this direction 352 String quartet, Vilnius, 6 March was arousing controversy at the very heart of its idealism: 353 Wenn Abendsroth [song / Lied] (Klaus Grothe), Vilnius, what mattered to the community. Music circles were polarized March on this issue, debating it in competing musical periodicals, 354 Nur mach mir nicht [song / Lied] (Klaus Grothe), March Dalibor and Hudební listy.11 Bedřich Smetana’s deafness 355 Ballada for violoncello and piano, beginning of the year worsened this situation. He was subjected to malignant 356 Sonata in C minor for piano 5 personal accusations and blame; he was viewed as a suffering 357 Svatební scéna [Wedding scene] for chorus, solo, and or- genius who could no longer be hailed as the obvious savior chestra on national melodies6 or messiah of Czech music. In this article, we will try to rise 358 Motetto a capella Fürchte dich nicht for six voices, Vilnius above this dispute and concentrate on one of its consequen- 359 Sonata in C major, for violin and piano 7 ces—the connection between the polemics of the dispute and 360 Fugue in c minor for 4 hands; see no. 165, 8 arranged for 2 the works written by Czech composers during this decade. hands, Vilnius The Czech community was reacting strongly to reviews 361 Fugue in F major in 4 voices, for piano, Vilnius, 22 July about the frequent use of “improper” mixtures of Wagnerian 362 Fugue in a minor in 3 voices, for piano, Vilnius, 23 July ideas and compositional processes in the circle of Czech 363 Durch die wolkige Majennacht, [song / Lied] (Geibel), national music. A vital question was emerging: would it Vilnius, 24 July be possible to find an adequate counterbalance to German 364 Wie bist du meine Königin, [Song / Lied] (Daumer nach music, especially the music of the new German school? One Hafis), Vilnius, 25 July. of the most prominent figures to jump into the debate was 365 Requiem for soloists, choir, and orchestra (fragment) Max Konopásek,12 an opponent of the authoritative aest- 366 Song without words for piano, Prague, December 12. hetician of that era, that Otakar Hostinský. Let us extract some important issues from Konopásek’s extensive articles:13 1875 367 Toman a lesní panna [Toman and the Wood Nymph], 1. The Slavs in all countries should unite to create an in- 9 symphonic tableau for full orchestra, Prague, 22 February. herently Slavonic music; it could be written with “Slavonic 368 Štědrý den [Christmas Eve], melodrama on a folk tale from melodies according to an archetype” (Konopásek, “Z jaké Erben půdy” 1874: 93). It was necessary to search for new, original 369 Festive men’s chorus in D major, Prague forms, for “the traits of the Slavonic soul” were to engage 370 Sbor lodníků z Mořské fantazie [Sailors’ chorus from the Sea with ideals, to search for something “invisible” (Konopásek, Fantasy], Prague “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 94). Konopásek respected Herder’s 371 Overture to [Fibich’s opera] Bukovín, for orchestra concept of the natural, unspoiled spirit of humanity, which 372 Fichtenbaum, song for voice, violin and piano (Heine), can be achieved calmly when a person has everything that Prague, 11 May. they needs for life, which, in the long run, is more civilized 373 Ticho kolem [Calmness around], 4 women’s voices, 24 May. than an artificially produced political and pedantic culture 374 Dívčina jak dobrá hodina [The kind-hearted maiden], (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 97). Konopásek believed 4 women’s voices (also for men’s chorus) (Čelakovský), in the future of Slavonic music (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” Prague, 25 May 1874: 105). He exhorted his readers to take a strong-minded 375 Die Sennin [song / Lied] (Lenau), Sadová, during the summer stance, and not avoid conflict: 376 Sprecht ihr mitternächtgen [song / Lied] (Herrmann Link [Lingg]), Prague, May 9 We want to elevate Slavonic music, not as something 377 Kytice [Garland], song from the Dvůr Králové Manuscript, resembling German music except for its accents, but as Prague different from German music as far as possible, in every way. (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 111) 378 Žežulice [Cuckoo], song, text from the Dvůr Králové 10 Manuscript, Prague, 1875? Konopásek continually repeated his summons to take a firm, united stand—“The tenacity with which every Slav accepts his brothers as his own is well-known throughout The 1870s: the Czech musical battleground history!”—and infers from that statement an authoritative, urgent need to surmount the present situation, to experience Events within the Czech music community during the a collective unity by “researching and organizing” Slavonic 1870s continue to attract the attention of musicologists for national melodies: important reasons. The debate about what direction Czech national music should take was becoming so intensive that There is still time—but it is already of supreme importance even its participants were surprised. At the very moment when that we step up to work for Pan-Slavonic music, and let us Czech music life was taking shape in the direction of German search! The greatest gift for music to the world of Slavonic

102 Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer1

nations would be to gain their interest with a collection of (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 170);17 while in Galicia, he “musical pearls.” I hold to the conviction that preparations sought the music of the South Slavs and the Russians, Poles, will be made and material will be collected for Slavonic music! and Czechs (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 173). (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 133)

Konopásek saw the future in Slavonic music itself: 2. Criticism of Czech songs and Czech musical approaches which did not give musical talent the opportunity to The Slavs are the only ones who do not have to worry whether develop. Konopásek identified Slavonic melodies as those their national stream of music might eventually dry up; only “that every Slav can recognize,” based on his experience the Slavs! This national stream has completely dried up in with Polish and Ruthenian songs; but Czech songs were Germany. They borrow against the “the music of the future,” (!) international music, (!) while neglecting their own true different (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 93). According German music. (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 169) to Konopásek, “The practical Czech spirit” did not assume that the musician would devote “his entire life to art” and Konopásek inferred that a single authority could de- would not demand that the musician would adhere to a termine the course of German music history (he gave the specific direction: example of Josef Haydn),14 but he believed that Slavonic music could only be developed successfully if the entire Unfortunately, German music is dominant in the Czech lands, community of Slavic nations were involved: and only German goods are sought—and valued. (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 101)18 History and our national character evidently resist the idea that a single spirit will determine our music […] Only in other Konopásek thought that one-sided demands for modern nations are authorities accepted, and they generally make music and the works of Richard Wagner were an obstruction: their determinations in unison; but among us, an individual can fight, endeavor, and persevere for his belongings and his “Only Wagner’s music can be modern now!” is the cry of the convictions, even die! […] Let us not wait for the Messiah of Czech antagonists of Slavonic music; but even this admission Slavonic music; let us set to work and contribute to attaining of musical dissent is evidently nothing other than mere boasting the great goal that we all have, according to our strength and and perfidy; for modernism, modernism and again modernism possibilities. (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 178) has always been German music— and would, in the end, be merely a German spinning wheel. Well, then, what about mo- Since Konopásek was convinced that the great musical dernism as an independent idea! It is a relative concept. In our talent of the Czechs would enable them to achieve a truly opinion, modern music is significant when is appropriate for artistic, impassive—objective—position, he did not hesi- its time, it has refined taste, and enables the next step toward tate to exhort his readers to an enthusiastic, even ruthless progress. Then German music is not the only modern music; geocentricism: in that sense, there is also modern Italian and French music; above all, the music of Chopin. We cannot permit the warlike To have a biased interest in everything that belongs to us, slogan of certain Czech theorists, who always cry: “Modernism, Slavonic—would not be faith in shame. Egoism is patriotism modernism, and again modernism!” and we never publish their in unity, and patriotism is the egoism of the multitude. Since articles. (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 144) everything conforms to this rule, I ask myself, why are my Czechs the only ones who do not conform to it? (Konopásek, Konopásek openly took a position against “Czech Ger- “Hudební…” 1875: 136) man modern traits” and believed that the mighty strength of structure would lead to success: Konopásek wanted to infer a Pan-Slavonic “rhythmic basis” from folk song; a “rudimentary melody” would then From the very first, we knew that we were not going to build necessarily be inferred from speech (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” a swallow’s nest; we had to dig the foundations for a massive 1874: 134).15 Konopásek wanted to find the traits to create work that would be feasible for others to build. But when we a model based on Slavonic folk song rather than to use a have scarcely begun in complete secrecy, a fight breaks out— model with a “German combination” of traits. To do so, he not the fault of our first, earnest approach to our calling; the opposing side marshals itself for battle with the slogan: ‘You turned to an idealized concept of archaic forms of folk song: are modern!’ and our side—behaving properly—responds We search for Czech songs, those Slavonic songs; we search with the slogan: “You are naive!”—for all honest beginnings for songs that are ancient, that would be archaic Czech songs, are naive; every true Slav is naive […] And we ungodly be- the original songs. Everything that we identify as original, ginners have to throw ourselves into the fight. I say explicitly was not, is not, and never will be anything but veiled, simple, that we have to do it. In the end, Czech music must find out modest. (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 142)16 what it actually has to do with us, and what the goal of our opponents really is; namely, we have to find out which side Konopásek thought that he had found the oldest has the truth. For our opponents, it merely, it only has to do authentic Slavonic music in the Ruthenian countryside with German music. (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 181)

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Although Konopásek positioned his battle lines on the some of his previous ideas—recalls techniques used by Leoš sharp distinction between the alternatives “Slavonic or Ger- Janáček. Here, we cannot neglect to mention that Janáček man,” he energetically turned to the future, toward young was also interested in speech fragments, identifying them men “with Slavonic hearts” (Konopásek, “Hudební…” as speech melodies: 1875: 198), who were not discouraged from their love of Within the continuing development of the melodic prose of Slavonic matters: certain languages, melodic shapes in all of their variations take The dispute about Slavonic music as a dispute of Slavonic definite, continuing shape because of their basic traits. Then artists has to be publicly fought for the sake of Slavonic honor. we must hear them not only in the language they are spoken, (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 201) but also considering what they are spoken. (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 174)

3. For a concrete example for artistic mastery that was ty- 5. Critical attacks on Bedřich Smetana. When Kono pically Slavonic, he chose Fryderyk Chopin (Konopásek, “Z pásek was thinking about the improving Czech music and 19 jaké půdy” 1874: 94), who did not fear to continue “in the about the “Czech Chopin,” he unambiguously stated: ingenious tradition of the nature of Polish-Slavonic music” (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 97).20 Konopásek’s idea Does Czech music have to be based on its Chopin? I maintain of Chopin’s significance for the development of Slavonic that it does not! To use that as the foundation for that wil- derness of a musical field, whose original crops did not have music included a reference to Wagner’s operas: the least scent of anything foreign; that it must appear that In some of his mazurkas, Chopin served Slavonic music in the midst of such its very own forms of the national spirit, immeasurably more than [Wagner] did in all of his operas. first-rank talent, and in the end must come to a position that (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 141) will help success to go all the way to a very splendid outcome. (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 98) For Konopásek, Chopin emerged victorious, even in comparison with Franz Liszt: It occurred to Konopásek—let us admit, rightly—that the group associated with Otakar Hostinský behaved in an The basis of Chopin’s music is music entirely independent overly prejudiced way. The members of the Prague “comra- from German music, […] Chopin was not as easily enticed dely union” announced: with compliments to enter the German camp as the Hunga- rian doctor Liszt was. (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 148)21 Our champion N. N. has cleared the path that leads our domestic art to its goal; may the endeavor to reach this sublime goal prosper!—Except for his path, there are no paths to the 4. Konopásek gave actual examples from folk music right or the left, and with respect to the goal for which one praxis that could be used in music composition; promi- strives, we call: “Do not go a step further! Here you have the nent solos, improvisation, “wild counterpoint,” unusual model for the Czech music style! Here is everything of you tunings for instruments (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: can desire!”—How comical it is, how out of date is that sort 97–98), novel techniques for accompanying melodies,22 of behavior! Would that be the end of music? And particularly dissonance, archaic forms of major and minor melody, Slavonic music! And we are just at the beginning. How can and the possibility of matric manipulation (particularly that we understandable, when young Slavonic musicians are changes from triple meter to duple or quadruple meter; shouting the slogan: Only by stepping into the footprints see Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 154),23 finding a variety of our champion N.N. can you go forward, if you want to of inspirations in ”the traits of national forms” such as reach a goal that is entirely true! (Konopásek, “Z jaké půdy” 1874: 110–111) the krakoviak, dumka, kolomejka (Konopásek, “Z jaké 24 půdy” 1874: 110), mazurka, kolo [Serbian round] and Konopásek’s anti-Smetanian spine is shown in his assess- polka (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 141, 154, 158, 165). ment of the value of “our” polka, which seems to indicate Konopásek expected national music to emerge where that he had never heard Prodaná nevěsta: “work always progresses more and more without end […] on the basis of successful national melody” (Konopásek, The polka is merely a national dance; it was not developed “Rozbor…” 1874: 158). Konopásek considered the analysis from a national song; […] as yet, these two forms have not emerged from a single spirit. I think that would require the of melodic motifs extremely difficult but necessary: “natio- spirit of a true poet combined with the spirit of a true com- nal songs reveal the character of the nation” (Konopásek, poser. (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 141) “Hudební…” 1875: 197). From a passing reference about the importance of speech itself, of neglecting the phrases Konopásek deliberately avoided mentioning the obvious that merge into notable speech fragments, Konopásek drew connection between the polka and Bedřich Smetana’s music inspiration for an article on “prosodic melody,” which—like to his readers:

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Who can give me the name of the man who laid a strong transformations, he had developed a technique of writing foundation with his polka for the entire field of Slavonic Czech folk melody successfully in an operatic context musical forms? I do not know his name; I have never come (see Prodaná nevěsta [The Bartered Bride]), and he had in contact with him, although I have diligently observed for experimented with modality long before (see his Polka in a long time everything that he has written in the Czech lands E-flat major, Op. 13, No. 2 from hisVzpomínky na Čechy ve about music. (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 141) formě polek [Memories of Bohemia in the form of a polkas] Yet he praised the tradition of the Czech cantors: (1859–1860). And even more, by the age of 60 Smetana had completed his own defense of incorporating folk song … the first polka was created by a Czech cantor. Glory to both, into compositionally exacting contexts and had been able success to our polka! (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 141) to recast simple types of dances into cohesive forms. In harmony with his artistic development, Smetana began the Konopásek directly referred to Smetana when evalua- 1870s with the motto “national music for the advancement ting the qualities of Chopin’s compositions: of the state of modern art” ([Procházka] 1871: 69). As In an era of German enthusiasm for Chopin, he was unders- Otakar Hostinský continued write about Wagnerism over tood there—we are glad to know it— in Czech lands there is the years, he significantly shifted the subject from national one man with a legitimate creative musical talent, a far better music to the progressive trends that followed it. During composer than the Germans. He did not imitate Chopin’s the 1870s, while Hostinský was working toward a demand mazurkas but began to work successfully on the polka, for for modernism in Czech music,26 Konopásek was offering Chopin had already excelled in ennobling the mazurka. a relatively detailed analysis of another strong feature of Before long, Smetana took refuge in deafness and left this Czech music: its inherent sound, which he recognized as a path—and we openly and honestly assert that we truly regret national trait. But he still maintained that any clarification that has happened. If Smetana had been one of the composers of the issue of national music had to be pursued with the who had set out on a path and not come back, he could have achieved his proper recognition without opposition. But he aid of folk song (see particularly Janáček’s folkloric works). will have to be content merely with a little acknowledgement, and if that is withheld from him, Germany could throw alms to him. He cannot teach us anything at all about Slavonic Folk song and dance as source material music. (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 151) for composers

According to Konopásek, Smetana had lost his way The idea that musical form could be based on folk music, because of the people who use German music as the only producing something like art songs instead of symphonic model. Smetana therefore could not be “a true genius, a man forms, seemed to be a denial of academic compositional who is aware of his ideas and a strong patriot” (Konopásek, practice. Nevertheless, this idea spurred composers to work 25 “Hudební…” 1875: 151). with fully expanded compositional techniques, approaches, and forms.. But that could raise the threat of primitivism When we examine the works of Czech composers dur- or at least reproof from professional critics, who did not ing the 1870s, we can glimpse them as creative polemics want to admit that Slavic folk songs had unusual forms that influenced by the opinions of authors on music like Max affected urban audiences more strongly than the obvious Konopásek. And at the very time that Konopásek was pro- exoticism of works like Félicien David’s symphonic ode moting extensive use of folk songs and dances and marching Le Desert did; they had known this work since the 1840s. as many Czech musicians as possible into this terrain, we For some composers, that meant experimentation that was are faced with an exceptional, extensive group of extremely soon abandoned, but the results of the experiments could varied forms and genres from the pens of perhaps all of the be used as supporting techniques for their work. During Czech composers. The group around František Pivoda and the 1870s, a broad palette of compositional approaches to Max Konopásek literally compelled Czech composers to folk music material opened up, and a place was found in it verify the possibilities of folk material. Bedřich Smetana for work with “abstractions of folklore elements” (Ottlová had an approximately ten-year head start on these issues 2006: 172–183). Reactions to the 1870s debate appeared and could read Konopásek’s sorties quite selectively. Long not only in quotations of folk songs in compositions, but before Max Konopásek appeared on the scene, Smetana also in a variety of archaic, traditional or modern (for their had used direct quotations of folk song (see his variations time) large forms and genres in combination with folk on the song Sil jsem proso [I sowed a millet] and his Lisztian material—with somewhat awkward implementations of Fantasie koncertní na české národní písně [Concert Fantasy folk elements (including performance approaches), works on Czech national songs], 1862); he knew the works of echoing folklore, and the use of dance idioms and genre Chopin, he had worked through the polka idiom in several characteristics, including their virtuosic interpretations. But

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Example 1. String quartet No. 1 in A major, without opus number, third movement, i.e. a trio from the last fifth movement of the suiteDojmy z venkova [Impressions from the countryside], Op. 54 it was the work with an abstraction itself—the intentional Fibich included the polka in their first quartets, and Max work with typical, strange turns of Czech and Moravian Konopásek and other composers were tempted to discover songs—that proved their worth for the compositional the folk roots of this dance. The polka in the third move- process. ment of Fibich’s String Quartet No. 1 in A major was trans- Prejudiced critics were most likely to object to direct ferred to his orchestral suite Dojmy z venkova [Impressions quotations of folk songs; setting a Slavic folk song with from the countryside], written in 1898 (see Example 1). conventional music usually required an exceptionally Fibich, with his habitual strict self-criticism, acknowledged resourceful approach, sometimes because of the text. But only this movement as viable. However, we consider all four it was soon found that folk songs can produce satisfactory movements to be significant: the first movement is a stylized development in variation forms and function well in the sousedská folk dance; the folk-like melody of the second genre of chamber music. Dvořák embodied the folk song movement is filled with Chopinesque runs in the first in his symphonic music in this way. His Symphonic Varia- violins (see the virtuoso groupings of 14, 12, and even 18 tions, Op. 78, are based on his own folk-like theme written notes in one beat); and the fourth movement is supported in Lydian modality; this theme dominates the last song of by polyphonic techniques, with dance-like accompaniments his Sborové písnĕ pro mužskĕ hlasy [Choral songs for male and bagpipe fifths (perhaps using the overture to Prodaná voices], Huslař [The fiddler]; it begins, “Já jom guslar [I nevěsta as his model).28 Still more expressive is the “Czech- am a wretched fiddler]. This set of songs from 1877 be- Slavonic” tone that Fibich achieved in the fourth movement came part of the international repertory about ten years of the String Quartet No. 2 in G major (1878). We could later, evidently in Dvořák’s 1887 revision (Šourek 1928: describe its beginning as the entrance of folk musicians (see 269). Perhaps Dvořák may have had misgivings about the Example 2).29 Among the many reactions to Konopásek’s disparateness between the rigorously through-composed requirements, we can also include simple forms in Dvořák’s form and the imitation of folk theme; there is a note in works that significantly appear, for example, in the third Dvořák’s hand on the binding boards of the manuscript movement of his String Quartet No. 7 in a minor, Op. 16, partitur, “composed and muddled up by Antonín Dvořák” B 45 (1874). (Burghauser 1996: 148). An entirely successful grasp of folk text with corresponding musical processes is shown in the song Zajatá [The cap- tive girl] from Moravské dvojzpěvy [Moravian duets], Op. 32 (1876). The modal conclusion (the initial D major with a Mixolydian seventh and a Phrygian second) rouses the enthusiasm of Czech musicologists.27 We find an original, “thickened” use of Moravian modulation, for example, in Dvořák’s Slavonic dance No. 7 (first set, Op. 46, written in 1878), in which the incipit of the theme is heard in three harmonically divergent variations (c minor, B-flat major, A-flat Lydian mode). A remarkable topic of the 1870s is the entry of Czech Example 2. String Quartet No. 2 in G major, Op. 8, fourth composers into the string quartet repertory. Smetana and movement

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“The Czech Chopin” surprise—with his rich harmonic thoughts and his use of timbre in chamber and orchestral compositions. In a sover- During the 1870s, composers worked toward goals eign manner, Antonín Dvořák harnessed modality and the that were imposed on them by others. This era is filled uninterrupted motivic and harmonic transformations that with unusual variety of expansion of forms and genres we find in certain forms of Slavic folk songs. Janáček felt connected with folk culture. On the other hand, as a result that Dvořák’s admirable musical concepts were absolutely of the debate, the entire community searched for all of in harmony with the requirements of national music, and he the sources from which a national style could be gleaned. did not fear to close his essay O písni národní [On national Everything that could be useful in attaining this common song] in 1891 with the words: goal was defensible. In the 1870s, Konopásek’s ideas could not disrupt the almost magical attraction of the symphonic I am convinced that Dr. Hostinský does not understand how Dr. Ant. Dvořák composes. Even though Dvořák is known poem30 or prevent Wagner’s operas from being performed by to him and close by, and folk composers unknown and so theaters throughout Europe. The group around Hostinský distant! (Janáček 2009: 44) had to accept possibilities for many paths to the development of Czech music, rather than dictating required and Zdeněk Fibich was intensively involved with the rela- idealized concept of progress, a “logically” derived histori- tionship of music and words in declamation, melodrama, cal necessity, a theoretically prepared hierarchy of musical and opera. In addition to composing, he researched material genres, and large forms with music drama as its ultimate that he would use in his compositions into the 1890s as well goal. Eloquent from this perspective is the appearance of as piano literature. During the 1880s, he was faced with an issue of the journal Varyto from the October 1, 1878. Its the exacting task of opening the National Theater as well editor Emanuel Binko filled this issue with a combination as establishing an international foothold for Czech music. of pieces that we can hardly imagine a few years earlier: No one would have been able to achieve such goals by fol- along with the belligerent Polka offensiv by Max Konopásek, lowing Konopásek’s relatively mechanical advice or Pivoda’s there appeared a very favorable review of Smetana’s opera mindset. A surviving dictionary from the 1870s contains Tajemství [The secret]: entries that are mindlessly repetitious and even comic. We quote, for example, the introduction to a proclamation from For the sake of the genius of our Smetana, acknowledged as such even by the earlier enemies of our master, I do not feel the sixteenth domestic Slavonic musical and declamatory that it is particularly necessary to repeat that, everywhere evening (December 5, 1886): else, even here Smetana has generously brought together We enhance and foster declamation, song, and music in the genuine jewels of our national art that have not appeared in Czech spirit, in the spirit of independence, Slavonic! Let us our literature and have not been equaled. There are surely protect ourselves against wretched advisors who demand that some sections of the partitur that are rather complex from a we continually ape the Germans and compose like Wagner! compositional viewpoint, one could say “higher” and perhaps Let us continue song, music, and declamation, our indepen- less transparent to the lay listener than we find in the works dent Czech path, the original path, Slavonic!33 of our earlier masters; but if we march in front as one in the spirit of the times, it is necessary that we achieve such things When we ask what remains from Konopásek’s ideas, we in art, particularly in art that is best able to speak to the heart recall his habitual praise for the piano works of Fryderyk of the public, through the art of music. And our public surely Chopin. This subsidiary theme does not have the intensity does remain silent about this gratifying progress in the work of the 1870s debate over Czech music, but it gives evidence of our domestic composers. (Č. V.: 152) of endurance and a personal style: love and admiration for Czech composers did not necessarily continue to refine the music of Chopin brings about communication of an the compositional styles that they have developed during extremely versatile individuality. Chopin’s music provided the 1870s into the next decade. But their efforts were abundant source material for Czech composers for many revitalized later by an external event again, by the Czech years. When Konopásek spoke positively about Smetana, and Slavonic Ethnographic Exposition of 1895. The top- requesting that he elevate the polka to the level of Chopin’s ics of debate now had to do with the music of the unified pianistic stylization of the dance, his comments were read by Slavonic nations,31 refining one’s position toward the oeuvre Smetana himself. Smetana did not try to debate Konopásek’s of Wagner, the plunge of the researchers into folk music,32 arguments but replied with new piano compositions: see, and the significant maturation of the individual styles of the for example, his České tance [Czech dances], Set 1, Polka in a best Czech composers. The quantity of the compositions minor No. 2 (1877). Dvořák also tried his hand at Chopin’s is overshadowed by their expansive concepts. Despite his style. Although he may not have entirely identified with it, deafness, Bedřich Smetana continued to compose. He was he never ceased to admire Chopin’s music; Dvořák’s Ma- attracted by expressivity; he surprised—and continues to zurka No. 5, Op. 56 (1880), for example, resembles Chopin’s

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Illustrations 1, 2. Photographs of Zdeněk Fibich and Růžena Fibichová, 1873 (Private archive of the Fibich family)

Prelude, Op. 28 No. 15 with respect to the similarity of The tragic events of Fibich’s private life even seem to have quoted material. Fibich was comfortable with Schumann’s accelerated his developmental phase and brought him back poetic approach to the piano, and of course, he was familiar to the turbulent Czech debate: he was prepared to fight for with the lighter aspects of piano factura through Chopin. Smetana’s ideals. These traits would influence his mature works for piano. Fibich had been negotiating for a position as music Chopin’s music was also a remarkably strong inspiration teacher in Vilnius as early as July 1872, thanks to his friend for Leoš Janáček. and supporter Ludevít Procházka.34 In February 1873, he confidently thought that he would become “the Russian czar’s professor of music in Vilnius” (quoted from the an- Zdenĕk Fibich’s paradoxical situation in Vilnius nouncement for a wedding, see Illustration 3). When Fibich signed his contract to teach in Vilnius At the very time when there was a call for “Slavonic” on August 15, 1873, the conditions seemed very favora- composers in the Czech lands and for Slavonic or Czecho- ble: as a teacher of secular vocal choruses in five Vilnius slovak color in music, Fibich must have been close to the schools, he had teaching duties for a maximum of fourteen “fundamental basis” of Slavonic music, for he found himself hours weekly and a pay of 1500 rubles.36 A few preserved in the praised Slavonic East. In contrast, Fibich’s profes- sources successively witness the unpleasant circumstances sional responsibility in Vilnius was specified as representa- of the young family when they moved to Vilnius in mid- tive of “mature” Western music. But more importantly, he September 1873. Fibich wrote to his family on December stood irresolute among burning issues. Should he compose 11, 1873 that he intended to stay for a few years, even if he in Czech, in German, or under the influence of folklore, didn’t want “to be buried in Russia forever.” A letter that or in a modern spirit like Schumann, Liszt, and Wagner? Růžena Fibich wrote to her mother on June 10, 1874 reveals How—and was it at all possible—to bring all of this to- that the financial situation of the family was not the best; gether? Without jumping to conclusions, we can state that Růžena’s older sister Anna was already deathly ill. [Was it while Fibich was in Vilnius, he came to understand where Anna or Fibich’s wife who had tuberculosis? **] 37 On top his place was, what his Prague community expected of him, of that, Fibich felt isolated; he was supposed to direct a and what he could or could not expect in Vilnius. It was a musical ensemble that did not materialize, and was unable period of searching for a creative path but also of finding a to argue effectively with the prejudiced artistic tastes of series of dead ends. He was aware of his own strength, and his surroundings.38 On the basis of letter sent to him from he demonstrated that he was able to compose intensively Vilnius, Fibich’s close friend Karel Pippich expressed the and to combine different approaches while composing. opinion in 1910 that Fibich, for his “comfort and relief,

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Illustration 3. Bilingual announcement of the wedding of Zdeněk Fibich a Růžena Hanušová (Private archive of the Fibich family)35 was very hard-working and productive in Vilnius.” In one letter, Fibich called an unnamed Vilnius director “‘a gigantic beast’, insisting with full moral strictness that the students should play The Awakening Lion and The Maiden’s Prayer.” 39 A set of letters in the Lithuanian State Historical Archive provides official communications among Fibich, the director of the Vilnius Jewish Teachers’ Institute, and the clerks of the Vilnius educational circle at the Ministry of National Culture.40 In a letter dated October 2, 1873, Sergijevskij, the curator of the Vilnius educational circle, informed the director of the Vilnius Jewish Teachers’ Institute that Fibich was already in Vilnius and asked him to accept Fibich as a teacher of secular singing with a pay of 500 rubles yearly.41 In a letter dated March 4, 1874, Sergijevskij confirmed to the director of the Vilnius Jewish Teachers’ Institute that Fibich had been granted a leave of absence for eight days to travel to Prague, beginning February 25,, 1874.42 On March 22 1874, the curator was informed by the Vilnius Jewish Teachers’ Institute that, from the beginning of the course (September 19, 1873) to the spring vacation (March 19, 1874), out of the 44 hours allotted for singing, Fibich was absent 15 hours for sickness and granted three hours of leave, for a total of 18 hours.43 A letter dated September 16, 1874, addressed to Kavaljer [spelling uncertain], the director of the Vilnius Jewish institute, is Fibich’s request to be released from his duties as a music teacher, citing “my Illustration 4. Photographs of Anna Hanušová [undated] domestic circumstances and the outdoor climate.”44 (Private archive of the Fibich family)

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Illustration 5. Photograph of Elsa Fibichová with her nanny, Illustration 7. Photograph of Betty Hanušová with the note 1874 (Private archive of the Fibich family) “To je Rosinčina [fotografie]” [“This is Rosa’s picture], 1869 (Private archive of the Fibich family)

Otakar Hostinský wrote on Fibich’s overall feelings on the Vilnius period, and thus he would influence, somewhat one-sidedly, history’s perception of this important phase of Fibich’s life:

Fibich was not satisfied in Vilnius. The town was not sympathetic to him, the residents did not have the least understanding of his artistic activity. For the entire year that he worked in Vilnius, he did not feel at home there. He did not speak of the musical activity that would have privately pleased him much, even less about his personal artistic contacts. And all of this was followed by his unlucky family life. When he took the position in Vilnius, he married Růžena Hanušová, sister of Betty Hanušová, who was an alto soloist with the Czech theater. Twins were born to the young couple on Russian soil. One soon died, and his wife did not care for the Lithuanian climate. No wonder Fibich did not come back after spending his vacation in Prague. His wife died in October 1874. No wonder that a young artist whose thoughts were full of magnificient, daring plans, did not have pleasant memories of Vilnius and Russia. He would hardly ever speak of his stay in Vilnius, and then always with bitterness. (Hostinský 1902: 105)

Fibich himself might have expressed himself otherwise about his year in Vilnius; let us quote from Fibich’s request for the position of choirmaster dated May 4, 1878, sent Illustration 6. Poster for the premiere of the opera Bukovín, to the presiding council of the royal town of Prague. In a April 16, 1874, benefit performance for Betty Hanušová, who paragraph describing his studies and subsequent activity, sang the role of Eliška (Private archive of the Fibich family) Fibich wrote:

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It was an honor for the undersigned that a great happiness In the light of these events, Fibich’s decision to break allowed him to pursue preliminary studies at institutes his contract in Vilnius seems to have been an unavoidable under the supervision of persons with an excellent musical step. Nevertheless, the impression of his eleven months of reputation and splendor; he entered the gymnasium in “isolation in Vilnius” must be corrected a bit (Hudec 1971: Prague, where the worthy Kolešovský was his teacher; the 36). For example, the possibility cannot be excluded that undersigned studied in Leipzig under Mocheles, then in the strikingly high number of chamber works that he wrote Mannheim under Lachner, obtaining substantial training. at this time attests to hopes for development of musical life After a year in Paris, where he was employed to give lessons 47 in private circles, he returned with honor to Prague, from in Vilnius. where he was called to splendid conditions as professor of Polish culture had prevailed in Vilnius during the music and singing at the middle schools in Vilnius in Russia. first half of the nineteenth century. After the unsuccessful Unfortunately, the undersigned was unable to enjoy this Lithuanian revolt during 1863–1864, Lithuanian music, position for even a year; he was compelled to leave because especially musical theater, was not able to expand under the of the illness and death of his wife as well as the unfavorable government of the Russian Empire.48 In the theater, operetta climate. (Rektorys 1910: 321) was predominately performed in the Russian language (it is known that, perhaps as an exception, Bellini’s opera Norma The compositions discussed in the introduction of our was performed in Russian in 1871). However, the theater study reflect Fibich’s activity in Vilnius and his familiarity orchestra usually presented valued instrumental composi- with the situation in Bohemia, as well as his personal life. tions before the theater performances or as entr’acte music For this reason, we provide a sequence of events for those (for example, works by Mozart, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, or years (disregarding significant gaps in the sources):45 Wagner). Independent concert life evolved very slowly, with a clear orientation toward music of the West—along with February 20, 1873, marriage of Zdenĕk Fibich a Růžena Hanušová (1851–1874) Russian composers such as Glinka, the repertory included June 25, 1873, death of the mother of the Hanušová sisters works by Beethoven, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Mendelssohn- 49 at the age of 61 years Bartholdy, Gounod, and others. This trend corresponded December 7, 1873, Prague premiere of the symphonic poem to the Germanization of Lithuania; it was customary for Othello members of the orchestra to be Germans (Bakutytė 2014: December 12, 1873, Prague premiere of the symphonic 414–465). Zdeněk Fibich surely did not disown his Czech poem Záboj, Slavoj and Luděk (in a four-hand arrangement heritage in his compositions, but he had actually been en- for piano) gaged as a teacher trained in “classic” (meaning German) January 13, 1874, birth of the twins Richard and Elsa Fibich music. We can provide some details to fill out this back- in Vilnius; Richard died the same day ground of the public cultural life that Fibich encountered March 19, 1874, Prague performance of the String Quartet during his stay in Vilnius: in A major 1) Hans von Bülow gave two piano recitals in Vilnius March 24, 1874, Prague premiere of Comedy overture (Hostinský 1902: 43) during February (February 19, 1874 and February 21, April 16, 1874, Prague premiere of the opera Bukovín 1874), in which he performed works by Bach (for example, May 25, 1874, Prague performance of the symphonic poem the Chromatic fantasy and fugue in d minor), Händel, Gluck, Záboj, Slavoj and Luděk (orchestral version) Moscheles, Weber, Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Chopin, Mo- May 26, 1874, Prague premiere of the cantata Wedding Scene niuzsko, and Liszt (Bakutytė 2014: 446–447). Since both June 19, 1874, death of Anna Hanušová in Vilnius (1840– appearances took place before Fibich’s journey to Prague, 1874) the question arises: could Fibich have taken the opportunity October 4, 1874, death of Růžena Fibichová to meet with, or at least hear, this remarkable artist? February 1, 1875, Prague public premiere of the Piano 2) In March 1874, the Vilnius music school was opened 46 Quartet by the Vilnius Department of the Russian Musical Society February 16, 1875, Prague premiere of the Sonata in C major (founded in 1873). The director of the school was Wolf for violin and piano Ebann, who was also active at the Vilnius Jewish Teacher August 23, 1875, marriage of Zdenĕk Fibich and Betty Hanušová (1846–1901) Training Institute. It is possible that Fibich taught at this 50 From the 1875/1876 season to the 1877/1878 season, Fibich school for a short time. was the assistant conductor and choirmaster of the Prague 3) According to an item in the Vilnius Journal, a charity Provisional Theater concert took place on April 21, 1874, in the General Gov- April 6, 1876, death of Elsa Fibichová, daughter of Zdenĕk ernor’s Palace Hall in Vilnius, at which Fibich performed and Růžena Fibich his Scherzo for piano. The students of the Vilnius middle September 3, 1876, birth of Richard Fibich, son of Zdenĕk schools (the gymnasiums and Vilnius real school) took part and Betty Fibichová in a “musical evening” in which the theater orchestra and

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Example 3. Piano Quartet in E minor, Op. 11, third movement. In the “piano dolce”‚ violin and viola present the passage “co by mne těšilo” [what pleases me] from the folksong Ach není, tu není musical amateurs participated. Among the works on the Fibich, in order to continue in the dramatic current, is pro- program, we find a chorus by Bellini and part of the Lacri- visionally composing the music drama Frithjof to Lohmann’s mosa from Mozart’s Requiem. Since students took part, we successful text and has reached the second half of the second cannot eliminate the possibility that Fibich prepared this act. The composer himself considers the composition as pre- work for the program, because he could have been teaching paration for his great musical drama Blaník, which is now in the hands of our excellent poet Miss Eliška Krásnohorská.52 at the Vilnius real school (see Виленсий вестникъ 1873: 2). There was enough time for composition, which enabled Fibich to try a variety of solutions and to experiment. The maturation of a composer And it is precisely the works that arose form Fibich’s Neo-Romantic longing for new discoveries that attract Fibich’s employment in Vilnius evidently determined well-deserved attention today. According to Karel Pippich, the course of this work right at the moment when the pos- Fibich commented in a letter about these compositions sibilities of his life opened up before him—in 1872. Fibich thus: “[…] he declares that his new piano quartet [Piano completed most of the compositions begun in Vilnius in Quartet in E minor, op. 11], is “crazy”; its last movement 1875 (let us recall that the premiere of the orchestral ver- combines and develops the themes of all of the movements, sion of the symphonic poem Toman and the Wood Nymph so that “the listener must put his hands over his ears.” He did not take place until 1878). It has already been shown also mentions his “less crazy” sonata for violin and his ballad that Fibich, like all other Czech composers during the for violoncello, “which is ready now.”53 The Piano Quartet 1870s, grappled with the emerging Czech-Slavonic style in E minor is today rightly considered one of Fibich’s most in chamber music. Let us demonstrate the range of Fibich’s splendid works; along with its high compositional quality, compositional activity by referring to other works that are it clearly is his personal statement. He enriched the principal less well known or were destroyed. Fibich was continually rondo themes in the last movement with the folk song Ach attracted to music drama as well as songs. He evidently není, tu není, co by mne těšilo [Ah, nothing, nothing here was considering the possibility of presenting several lesser pleases me] (see Example 3). cantatas when he began to compose the ballad Die Winds- The artistic peak of the Vilnius period isToman and braut [Bride of the wind] on a text by Gottfried Kinkel in the Wood Nymph, which is a synthesis of his interest in the 1872. The core of this cantata for orchestra, chorus and five so-called Czech-Slavonic style with modern forms such soloists (Meluzína and her suitors—the spirits of water, fire, as the symphonic poem. Here, Fibich went beyond his earth, and air) was worked out in Vilnius by the beginning previous achievements, he acknowledged his [studying] of 1874.51 There was no opportunity to present an opera compositions, and the path to his masterworks opened. under the conditions that Vilnius had to offer; nevertheless, In fact, he quoted his own song on a German text as well Fibich composed the opera Frithjof during autumn 1873. as a Czech folk song in Toman and the Wood Nymph (see A trustworthy report, by tradition evidently directly from Examples 4 and 5). He mastered Liszt’s technique of mo- Fibich, appeared in the journal Dalibor: tivic transformation without giving up the possibility of

112 Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer1

Example 4. Toman and the Wood Nymph, Op. 49

Example 5. Toman and the Wood Nymph, Op. 49 working with different contrasting themes. In addition, the Ty se mně má milá nic nelíbíš, / zarmoucená chodíš, nic folk ballad suited Fibich well with its naturalism, which he nemluvíš. / Nic nemluvíš, nic neříkáš, / ja se tebe bojím, že was glad to view as an aspect of the balladic legend. Fibich mne necháš.” [My dear, you do not please me, / you walk himself described the years 1871–1872 as a time of “hor- mournfully, you don’t say anything. / You don’t talk, you 54 rific increase in productivity” (Pippich 1910: 347) and did don’t speak. / I am afraid of you, for you are leaving me]. not rest during the immediately following years. The works written in Vilnius mark the beginning of Fibich’s career as Endnotes one of the founders of Czech national music. It is possible to agree with Fibich’s friend Otakar Hostinský, but let us 1 This article was written as part of a project under Fond correct his impression of Vilnius as a town that could not pro podporu vědecké činnosti [Institute for the Support offer anything to Fibich: of Research Activity], made possible by the Faculty of Arts of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic, with [Fibich] grew into a master in Vilnius. That was entirely the title “Fibich, skladatel, který se nebál experimentů” natural. That was less a result of his artistic efforts to respond [Fibich, the composer who did not fear experimentation] to the foreign atmosphere that he faced; he drew on his own (FPVC2017/07). Translated by Judith Fiehler. 2 Viktor Moser compiled a thematic catalog of the works of his resources, devoted himself to work more eagerly, penetrated friend Fibich that contains information about the composi- deeper into the foundations of his art, raised his efforts to a tions that Fibich destroyed in the 1890s. It is a unique source higher level […] In Vilnius, he consummated and completed that provides relatively reliable data about Fibich’s early creative his extensive and thorough studies of technique and acquired activity. It belongs to a private archive of the Fibich family; his uncommon capability for self-criticism. And from that copies are held in the musicological department of the Faculty time, an enviable and praiseworthy balance between intention of Arts of Palacký University in Olomouc. For access to this and art came into his work, […]. (Hostinský 1902: 105) archive and his considerate help, I wish to thank the great- great-grandson of the composer, the MSc Zdenĕk Fibich! Fibich took the introductory motif from his lied Som- 3 These numbers are taken from Thematický seznam veškerých merabend (1866) on a text by Heinrich Heine and used skladeb Zdeňka Fibicha od r. 1862 do 31. května 1885 sestavil Viktor Moser [Thematic catalog of most of the compositions it as the fundamental motif for the wood nymph in the of Zdenĕk Fibich from 1862 to 31 May 1885, compiled by symphonic poem (see Example 4; Hudec 1966: 46–47). Viktor Moser]. At the moment when Toman finds out that his love is 4 The symphonic poem Othello is the first orchestral composition celebrating her engagement to someone else, Fibich uses that Fibich presented in Prague musical circles and has survived. a folk wedding song that appears as a variant in Zlé tušení Another surviving work is his Fantazie ve formě ouvertury [Fan- tasy in the form of an overture] for full orchestra in E major, [Evil expectation] (see example 5): 1872 (MK 284 – Orchestrální fantasie). This composition was

113 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Jiří Kopecký

found in the private archive of the Fibich family. When it was 17 Konopásek never ceased to admonish his readers that future first discovered, Bedřich Čapek characteristically commented: generations of musicians should devote themselves to the “Fibich’s rapid development and the early maturity of his art study of the folk song, so that they would safely recognize are well known…” (Čapek 1910: 40–41). “what has to be in Slavonic music for the Slavs”… however, 5 This piano sonata was composed in three movements. A note we in the Czech lands cannot yet tell the difference between at the beginning of the first movement reads: “This movement genuine Slavonic national folk songs and other folk songs.” was completed on December 1.” See Konopásek, “Hudební i nehudební stránky,” p. 186. 6 The catalog contains a rather extensive comment by Moser: 18 Konopásek was surely aware that the Czech nation was the “This composition was finished in 1872. Orchestrated in “most musical nation in the world,” with a gift for “its mission, Vilnius, beginning on May 15.” and a unique ability to establish Slavonic music,” but he never 7 There is a remark under the incipit in the entry, “Adagio also stopped repeating that they were not creative; the Czechs arrang. for vcello.” did “not accomplish anything glorious or outstanding; they 8 Number 165 in the Moser catalog is Fughetta for 4 hands whittled everything down to mere journeyman’s work, to a from 1868. mere imitation of foreign masters.” Of course, the situation 9 In the entry is a note “Piano sketch 6 July 1874 in Vilnius.” might be different if Czech musicians would devote their Fibich worked on the piano sketch from July 3–July 6, 1874. thoughts to Slavonic music, “their talent, time and work, as The orchestration was completed in Prague on February 22, Germans devote themselves to music,” but Slovanic music 1875 (see Hudec 1971: 42, footnote 15). would have to be a joint effort of the masses, “a completed 10 The composition numbered 379 evidently was written in 1876, action.” Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 159. but the entry for number 378 is followed by a supplementary 19 Konopásek literally warned against using Chopin, “the first piano cycle numbered 512: Ofenheim Walzer for piano. Slavonic composer”, as a model to imitate: “[…] by God! Let 11 From 1870 to 1872, Hudební listy supported the works of us use a model for Slavonic music, not any model at all!”; Bedřich Smetana but also published articles criticizing him Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 202. (for example, Eliška Krásnohorská gave examples of lapses in 20 See also Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 135. correct musical declamation in Smetana’s operas). At the end of 21 Also see Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 151–152. 1872, the ownership and the publisher of the journal changed; 22 Konopásek mentioned fujara players and fiddlers. See it became the principal anti-Smetanian journal under the lea- Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 177–178. He wrote piano arran- dership of Josef Richard Rozkošný and František Pivoda. Former gements of kolomejka [Ukrainian dance] that were certainly contributors to found a refuge in the rejuvenated Hudební listy appreciated by Germans and Czechs, but not by “Ruthenians journal (whose chief editor was Ludevít Procházka; Dalibor and Poles.” He followed his own advice by using an extract from 1875, Václav Juda Novotný). See Kopecký 2016. from Chopin’s Mazurka in B major, Op. 7 No. 1, to point out 12 For concepts of other authors about the issue of Slavonic “a movement with traits of Slavonic music in an entirely simple music (such as Ludvík Ritter z Rittersberku, Ján Levoslav harmonization” (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 181). Bella, Franjo Žaver Kuhač, and František Pivoda), see Ottlová 23 About key changes (especially from major to minor), see & Pospíšil 2006: 172–183. p. 158. On page 170, Konopásek mentions “our beautiful 13 Max Konopásek (1820–1879) was already considered to be a prejudiced figure in music history during the nineteenth Slavonic minor.” For Konopásek, the first Slavonic music was century (see Ottlová & Pospíšil 2006: 178–179, footnote through and through the feminine minor, and he thought that 31). There are parallels between the careers of Konopásek the tendency for a masculine major mood in Polish and Czech and Smetana: they belonged to the same generation, were folk music and the striking alternation of major and minor in Russian music were productive traits (ibid., p. 173–174). skillful pianists, and both were associated with Josef Proksch. 24 Konopásek’s polemic articles in Hudební listy written while Afterward, Konopásek strongly emphasized the importance he was active in Galicia. Konopásek remained in contact with of the kolomejka. See Konopásek, “Rozbor otázky,” p. 174, Czech musicians to the end of his life. See Zechová 2017: 108. actual musical examples on p. 177–179, where he adequately 14 Konopásek wrote in detail about the significance of Haydn’s demonstrates how to subvert a melodic form that is clearly in music in his serially published article “Hudební i nehudební c minor through continual semitone changes (for example E- stránky slovanské hudby” [Musical and extramusical aspects flat–E, D-sharp–e, F-sharp–F, C-sharp–D, A-sharp–B, B–C). 25 of Slavonic music], p. 143. Konopásek’s lofty statements about the ideals of Slavonic music 15 Konopásek found the “traits of the Slavonic rhythmic model” were connected with claims about how unsatisfactory the entire in polkas, and compared them with other Slavonic dances situation was: “In truth, among the real Slavs, i.e those who now (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 141). behave as Slavs, there are even among us no more then fingers 16 Although Konopásek strongly promoted the study of “origi- on both hands!” (Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 164). nal” folk songs, he assumed that they would be performed in 26 Hostinský continually emphasized that any connection that the Romantic style by capable geniuses in the future. For this Czech art might have with European art must be with Ger- reason, he strongly objected to ideas about the influence of man Neo-Romanticism, particularly the compositions of Lizst archaic Russian music on [contemporary] Slavonic music, as and Wagner. But he also wrote: “there is such overwhelming well as Darwinian laws of the development of its musical forms prejudice against these artists that the mere mention of their (Konopásek, “Rozbor…” 1874: 145–147, 149–150, 153; see names seems repugnant to many—but that is a situation that also Konopásek, “Hudební…” 1875: 128). Let us recall that our national art can overcome” (Hostinský 1885: 158). [classical] Greek culture was of interest to Otakar Hostinský 27 In 1980, Jan Trojan called attention to so far unidentified and others, and that Darwinian theory was being defended scales in Moravian folk songs (see Trojan 1980: 206). Ivan in the pages of Dalibor as the basis for the developmental line Vojtěch wrote one of his best essays on Dvořák’s Zajatá from symphony to symphonic poem. (Vojtěch 1998: 57–72).

114 Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer1

28 The String Quartet in A major was completed in Vilnius on care of Fibich’s daughter Elsa, as shown in photographs from March 6, 1874. Vladimír Hudec has shown that there is a the family archive (see illustrations 4 and 5). correspondence between the second movement and the folk 38 Dissatisfaction may have also been caused by the Czech side. song Ach není, tu není [Ah, nothing, nothing here pleases me], In March 1874, Fibich left for Prague to participate in the which significantly appears in the finale of the Piano Quartet, premiere of his first opera, Bukovín, which had been scheduled Op. 11. The polyphonic structure of that work is connected for March 15, 1874. Because of the tense atmosphere in the with a folk song that Fibich used in the closing movement of theater, in the very building where the fight over Smetana the Piano Sonata in C minor—which, unfortunately, has not had come to a head, precedence was given to the premiere been handed down to us— which, according to an account of Smetana’s Dvě vdovy [Two widows]. Bukovín was only from that time, ended with a fugue on the folk song Horo, performed three times, the first performance was a benefit for horo, vysoká jsi [Mountain, mountain, you are so high] (see Betty Hanušová (see illustrations 6 and 7). The critics judged Hudec 1971: 38–39). the poor quality of the libretto very severely (see Hudec 1971: 29 The same inspirational source is used in the Violin Sonata in D 16, 41, footnote 4). 39 major (1876). Significantly, Fibich did not continue with the Fibich’s artistic direction in these years clearly explains not genre of chamber music after writing this work and soon after- only his compositions (a “Schumannesque” piano quartet, wards abandoned his intensive work with folkloric material. the “Weber-like” opera Bukovín, his adapatations of Lizst’s 30 According to Vladimír Lébl and Jitka Ludvová, the symphonic concept of the symphonic poem), but even in naming his poem was considered to be “an optimal way to raise Czech children – the twins were given the Wagnerian names of concert music to the level of the struggle for national culture. Richard and Elsa. See Pippich 1910: 347. 40 The first Czech symphonic poems gave that idea a significant The folder containing these letters is kept in the Lithuanian early consecration.” (Lébl & Ludvová 1981: 126). State Historical Archives (LVIA), F 570 (Vilnius Jewish 31 See, for example, Debrnov 1888: 218–219. Teacher Training Institute), sign. 570 Ap. 1 B. 20, Bureau 32 Janáček, for example, undertook an analysis of Wagner’s of the Vilnius Jewish Teacher Training Institute, October 6, 1873–October 23, 1874 (copies of these letters are in Tristan and Isolde, around the same time (1885), wrote choruses on folk texts and established connections with folk the Czech National Museum—Czech Museum of Music musicians. See Drlíková 2004: 36–38. in Prague). In addition to in F 570, we have found other ar- 33 The program can be found in the private archive of the Fibich chives— unfortunately, entirely without holdings identified under Fibich’s name: F 567 (Vilnius Teachers’ District), F family. 1293 (Vilnius Real School), and F 574 (Vilnius I Gymna- 34 Procházka maintained active contacts with foreign artists; sium). For her extraordinary, devoted help with research in the he especialy cared about disseminating Russian music among Vilnius archives, I want to express my profound appreciation Czech musicians and entered into the organization of the to Vida Bakutytė. life of the Prague community in many ways; for example, he 41 The letter is dated October 2, 1873 (above on the left). The arranged concert evenings, led the music journal Hudební date of October 6 is found on the paper above on the right , and later . See Hostinský 1902: 73, and especially listy Dalibor (letterhead paper, Ministry for Public Education—Curators Vojtěšková 2013. of the Vilnius Educational District, LVIA, sign. 570 Ap. 1 B. According to Hostinský, it was actually Procházka who 20, L. 1). meticulously followed Fibich’s artistic progress: 42 LVIA, sign. 570 1 20, letter 2. Fibich evidently was absent Procházka, for example, who has continued to stay in from Vilnius for a longer time than he had been granted. touch with Fibich during his entire stay in Vilnius, wrote to According to Otakar Hostinský, he participated in a rehearsal me early in October 1874 from Prague to Salzburg: “The of his opera Bukovín; its theatrical premiere was rescheduled unhappy Fibich has lost his wife, but he is now composing for April: with redoubled strength. He had taken a place in Vilnius, and On 16 [March], [Fibich] was present at a rehearsal given will undoubtedly obtain a position as professor of theory in with full musical resources, and was satisfied […] with the a musical academy in Leipzig, which would of course be very result. (Hostinský 1902: 13) advantageous for him as well as for us. He and Dvořák are 43 LVIA, sign. 570 1 20, letter 3. now developing with amazing productivity and are maturing 44 LVIA, sign. 570 1 20, letter 4. The following three letters into great masters—we can expect great things from both of from September 18, September 25, and October 23, 1874 them!” (Hostinský 1902: 91). (sign. 570 1 20, verso of letter 4, letters 5 and 6) provide a 35 This announcement was found in the private archive of the formal acknowledgement of releasing Fibich from his obliga- Fibich family. tions to teach singing at the Jewish Teachers’ Institute effective 36 According to Vladimír Hudek, the contract should have been October 1, 1874. Another letter, written by Fibich and sent to in the private archive of the Fibich family, but I unfortunately his wife from Vilnius September 12, 1874, is our last evidence did not find it there (this information is taken from Hudec on Fibich’s stay in Vilnius (Private archive of the Fibich fam- 1971: 36). According to a statistical survey of the schools and ily): Fibich assumed that he would stay approximately four instructors in Vilnius in 1874, Fibich had the following duties: days to arrange everything, including selling a piano. He Vilnius Real School (Виленское реалъное училище), teacher informed Rosa that he met his colleagues Wainer and Klineles of the chorus of singers from October 10, 1873; and Vilnius [spelling uncertain] and had to confirm again not to continue Jewish Teacher Training Institute (Виленский Еврейский in his employment. учителъский институтъ), voice instructor from October 45 This chronology is reconstructed from material in the private 16, 1873 (see Памятная книжка… 1874: 94, 105). archive of the Fibich family, and Hudec 1971. The events of 37 Anna should have taken care of her younger sister, Fibich’s family life are supplemented with the dates of premieres of wife. But Anna unexpectedly died in Vilnius. A nanny took chosen works (indented).

115 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Jiří Kopecký

46 Fibich’s friends could hear the opus 11 to the end of No- Bibliography vember 1874 by a performance at a musical entertainment in the music section of Umělecká beseda [Artist Society] Bakutytė Vida, Vilniaus miesto teatras: Egzistenciniu pokyčiu keliu (see Hudec 1971: 38). 1785–1915, Vilnius: Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institutas, 47 It is necessary to understand that testing various compositional 2011. approaches in chamber music venues had certain advantages Bakutytė Vida, Kamerinės instrumentinės muzikos koncertai and motivations. Chamber music performances are less exact- Vilniuje XIX a.: epochinė kaita ir dinamika, in: Lietuvos ing than presenting orchestral works; the composer may better muzikologija, Vol. 14, 2013, p. 8–24. able to resign himself to an unsuccessful outcome than destroy Bakutytė Vida, Vokiečių muzikų veiklos žymės XIX a. Lietuvoje: his orchestral score. We cannot eliminate the possibility that Vilniaus dominantė, in: XVI–XIX a. Lietuvos muzikinio the public premieres in Prague of Fibich’s works were preceded , Vida Bakutytė (ed.), Vilnius: Lietuvos by private tryouts in Vilnius. Chamber music was an integral gyvenino atodangos part of music in the home, and we must emphasize an the kultūros tyrimų institutas, 2014, p. 414–465. extraordinaty impulse for musical life in Vilnius was the activ- Burghauser Jarmil, Antonín Dvořák. Thematický katalog, Praha: ity of Wolf Ebann (1835–1901) (see Bakutytė 2013: 8–24). Bärenreiter, Editio Supraphon, 1996. The life of violinist, composer, teacher, and organizer Wolf Čapek Bedřich, Z neznámých skladeb Fibichových, in: Smetana, Ebann significantly demonstrates how nineteenth-century 2 December 1910, r. 1, č. 3, p. 40–41. Jews left the narrow circle of their acitivy within the Jewish Č. V., Nová opera mistra Smetany, in: Varyto, r. 1, č. 19, p. 152. community and effectively became part of public and inter- Debrnov Josef, O hudbě polské, in: Dalibor, 23 June 1888, r. 10, national life (Melnikas 2014: 466–552). An article provides č. 28, p. 218–219. information about the possiblity of direct contact between Drlíková Eva, Leoš Janáček: Život a dílo v datech a obrazech, Brno: Fibich and Ebann when Fibich was teaching in the Vilnius Opus musicum, 2004. Jewish Teachers’ Institute (Rupeikaitė 2015: 224–236). Hostinský Otakar, O nynějším stavu a směru české hudby, Praha: 48 The education reform took place during 1866–1867. Even in F. A. Urbánek, 1885. the Jewish schools, the mandatory language used in the class- Hostinský Otakar, Vzpomínky na Fibicha, in: Dalibor, 4 January room became Russian, to the detriment of Hebrew studies. 1902, r. 24, č. 2, p. 13–14, 25 January 1902, č. 5, p. 42–43, 22 Let us recall that more then 100 synagogues stood in Vilnius February 1902, č. 9, p. 73–75, 8 March 1902, č. 11, p. 90–92, until World War II, and that the city was called the Jerusalem 22 March 1902, č. 13, p. 105–106. of Lithuania (Rupeikaitė 2015: 226). Hudec Vladimír, , 49 Fibichovo skladatelské mládí. Doba příprav Vilnius benefited from concert tours from travelling virtuosi Praha: SPN, 1966. at the end of the nineteenth century. For example, the Czech Hudec Vladimír,Zdeněk Fibich, Praha: SPN, 1971. violinist František Ondříček and the Czech Quartet appeared Janáček Leoš, O písní národní, in: Leoš Janáček: Folkloristické in Vilnius. Italian opera troupes performed in Vilnius during , Jarmila 1872–1879, decisively confirmed by the engagement of the dílo (1886–1927). Studie, recenze, fejetony a zprávy Procházková, Marta Toncrová, & Jiří Vysloužil (eds.), Řada troupe of Ludovic Caroselli, at the very time when we do not have sources for Fibich’s activity in Vilnius (Bakutytė 2011: I/ Svazek 3-1, Editio Janáček, Brno 2009, p. 41–45. 251–252, 476). Karaška Arvydas, Vilniaus muzikos mokykla, in: Muzikos enciklo- 50 Ebann led this institute in its first period of operation until 1884. pedija, Vol. 3, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, It was reestablished in 1898–1918. The Lithuanian music ency- Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2007, p. 626. clopedia contains a concise entry about Vilnius music schools Kopecký Jiří, Hudební listy: Introduction, in: Répertoire Inter- that merely lists Fibich among the teachers, but it is possible that national de la Presse Musicale, Hudební listy 1870–1875 I, further information could be found in archives in St. Petersburg Volume I, Calendar, prepared by Jana Spáčilová, with the col- (see Karaška 2007: 626). The entry for Fibich is very brief and laboration of Michal Fránek, Jiří Kopecký, Vlasta Reittererová, does not mention any institutions (see Tauragis 2000: 394). with an introduction by Jiří Kopecký, Baltimore, Maryland: 51 This ballad was translated to Czech in 1876 by Josef Srb-Debrnov, The RIPM International Center, 2016, p. IX–XXVII. and another translatinon was made by Adolf Piskáček in 1911. Konopásek Max, Z jaké půdy vyrodí se hudba slovanská?, in: Zdeněk Nejedlý considered this composition to be a document Hudební listy V, 1874, No. 23, p. 93–94, No. 24, p. 97–98, of the time, although he recognized its musical quality: No. 25, p. 101–102, No. 26, p. 105, No. 27, p. 110–111. The principal subject of the ballad is certainly a bit ou- Konopásek Max, Rozbor otázky slovanské hudby, in: Hudební dated in our era of victories in avation over obstacles and air, listy V, 1874, No. 33, p. 133–134, No. 34, p. 137–138, No. the fourth element. Its poetic value consists in the legend of 35, p. 141–142, No. 36, p. 145–147, No. 37, p. 149–150, No. Meluzina, and will surely endure. When the text was written, 38, p. 153–154, No. 39, p. 157–158, No. 40, p. 161–162, No. it certainly had a political tinge; it is Kinkel’s apotheosis of 41, p. 165–166, No. 42, p. 169–170, No. 43, p. 173–174, No. freedom. (Nejedlý 1911: 139). 44, p. 177–179, No. 45, p. 181–182. 52 Quotation from an article published in (1874), cited Dalibor Konopásek Max, Hudební i nehudební stránky slovanské hudby, according to Nejedlý 1910: 338. 53 in: Hudební listy VI, 1875, No. 34, p. 135–136, No. 32, p. Fibich must have also worked on cantata called Bouře [The 127–128, No. 33, p. 131–132, No. 34, p. 135–136, No. 35, Tempest] on a text by Svatopluk Čech, a string sextet, and a requiem during this time. The Moser catalog evidently does p. 139–140, No. 36, p. 143–144, No. 37, p. 147–148, No. 38, not show all of the compositions on which Fibich worked in p. 151–152, No. 39, p. 155–156, No. 40, p. 159–160, No. 41, Vilnius (see Pippich 1910: 347). p. 163–164, No. 42, p. 165–166, No. 43, p. 169–170, No. 44, 54 Fibich may have been found this melody in Nápěvy prostonárod- p. 173–174, No. 45, p. 177–178, No. 46, p. 181–183, No. 47, ních písní českých [Melodies of national Czech songs], compiled p. 185–186, No. 48, p. 189–190, No. 49, p. 193–194, No. 50, by Karel Jaromír Erben in 1862 (see Kráčmar 2007: 132). p. 197–198, No. 51, p. 201–202.

116 Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 and the Birth of a Composer1

Kráčmar Tomáš, Rané symfonické básně Zdeněk Fibicha, diplomová Santrauka práce, Katedra muzikologie, FF UP v Olomouc, Olomouc, 2007. Nors Zdeněkas Fibichas (1850–1900) Vilniuje muzikos Lébl Vladimír, and Jitka Ludvová, Dobové kořeny a souvislosti mokytoju dirbo mažiau nei metus (1873–1874), 1872– Smetanovy Mé vlasti, in: Hudební věda, 1981, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 99–141. 1875 m. parašyti darbai turėjo įtakos jo vėlesnei kūrybai. Melnikas Leonidas, XIX a. litvakų muzika: paradigma kaita, in: Nuo 1872-ųjų pradėjęs ruoštis „rusų caro muzikos mokytojo“ XVI–XIX a. Lietuvos muzikinio gyvenino atodangos, Vida tarnybai, Fibichas planavo atlikti įvairiausių žanrų veikalus, Bakutytė (ed.), Vilnius: Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institutas, taip pat ir kantatas bei simfonines poemas. Grįžęs iš Vilniaus, 2014, p. 466–552. ėmėsi užbaigti kūrinius, kurių buvo sukurti tik klavyro apma- Nejedlý Zdeněk, Fibichova “Meluzina”, in: Smetana, 17 February 1911, Vol. 1, No. 9, p. 138–140. tai, tarp jų – simfoninę poemą „Tomanas ir medinė nimfa“, Nejedlý Zdeněk, Operní pokusy a plány Z. Fibicha, in: Dalibor kurios premjera įvyko 1878-aisiais. Pasak išlikusių šaltinių, (Památník Fibichův), 24 September 1910, Vol. 32, No. 42–47, Fibichas nebuvo patenkintas nei savo profesine padėtimi p. 338–340. Vilniuje, nei asmeniniu gyvenimu. Muzikinis gyvenimas Ottlová Marta, and Milana Pospíšil, Idea slovanské hudby, in: šiame Lietuvos mieste nebuvo toks įkvepiantis kaip jo stu- “Slavme slavně slávu Slávóv slavných”: Slovanství a česká dijų miestuose Leipcige ir Manheime. Vis dėlto šiokią tokią kultura 19. století, sborník příspěvků z 25. ročníku sympozia k problematice 19. Století, Zdeněk Hojda, Marta Ottlová, & perspektyvą muzikinio ugdymo srityje žadėjo Wolfo Ebanno Roman Prahl (eds.), Praha: KLP, 2006, p. 172–183. veikla, į Vilnių gastrolių atvykdavo ir žymių atlikėjų (pvz., Pippich Karel, Několik vzpomínek na Zdeněk Fibicha, in: Da- Hansas von Bülowas). Viena po kitos ištikusios nelaimės – jo libor (Památník Fibichův), 24 September 1910, Vol. 32, No. dvynių iš pirmos santuokos mirtis, sunki žmonos liga ir uošvės 42–47, p. 346–349. sesers mirtis – nulėmė Fibicho sprendimą grįžti į Prahą. Vis [Procházka Ludevít], Wagneriana, in: Hudební listy II, 1871, No. 9, p. 69–73. dėlto po to jis liko Vilniuje dar beveik metus ir sukaupė tiek Rektorys Artuš (ed.), Památník Fibichův, in: Dalibor, 24 Septem- vertingų kūrinių, kad galime neabejodami teigti, jog kaip ber 1910, Vol. 32, No. 42–47, p. 315–350. tik šiame mieste subrendo Fibicho meistriškumas, nes čia jis Rupeikaitė Kamilė, Muzikinis ugdymas XIX a. Vilniaus žydiš- galėjo apmąstyti drąsius kūrybinius sprendimus. kose švietimo įstaigose, in: Menotyra, 2015, Vol. 22, No. 3, Fibichas ilgėjosi Prahos, o tuo metu, XIX a. aštunto de- p. 224–236. šimtmečio pradžioje, Bohemijoje užvirė ginčai dėl Bedřicho Šourek Otakar, Život a dílo Antonína Dvořáka, Praha: Hudební matice Umělecké besedy, 1928, 2nd ed. Smetanos kūrybos ir kompozicinės technikos. Čekų vi- Tauragis Adeodatas, Fibich Zdeněk, in: Muzikos enciklopedija, suomenei karštai ir vieningai stojant prieš Vagnerio idėjų Vol. 1, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos akademija, Mokslo ir enci- ir kompozicinių priemonių veržimąsi į čekų nacionalinę klopedijų leidybos institutas, 2000, p. 394. muziką, šios diskusijos atvėrė kelią klausimams, kokia turėtų Trojan Jan, , Praha: Editio Supraphon, 1980. Moravská lidová píseň būti atsvara vokiečių muzikai, ypač neoromantinei krypčiai. Vojtěch Ivan, Antonín Dvořák: Zajatá (Moravské dvojzpěvy, op. 32, č. 11), in: Rozpravy, Praha: Dauphin, 1998, p. 57–72. Kone visi kompozitoriai, tarp jų ir patys stipriausi, tokie kaip Vojtěšková Jana (ed.), Album Jana Ludevíta Procházky z let Smetana, Dvořakas, Fibichas ir Janačekas, eksperimentavo su 1860–1888, Praha: KLP – Národní muzeum, 2013. Maxo Konopaseko ir kitų muzikos kritikų pasiūlyta medžia- Zechová Hana, Časopis Varyto Emanuela Binka a jeho klavírní ga (iš liaudies dainų sudarytomis sekomis ir Chopino šokių repertoár (1878–1891), diplomová práce, Katedra muziko- stilizacijomis). Reaguodamas į susidariusią padėtį, Fibichas logie, FF UP v Olomouci, Olomouc, 2017. kūrė neįtikėtinai plataus spektro kūrinius – nuo dainų (Lie- Виленсий вестникъ [Vilenskij vestnik/Vilnius journal], [zpráva der) vokiškais tekstais iki čekų liaudies dainų aranžuočių. o koncertu] 23. 4. 1873, No. 82, [s. 1–2]. Tarp jų buvo ir perėjimą nuo liaudies kūrybos prie kamerinės Памятная книжка Виленской губернии [Pamjatnaja knižka Vi- muzikos atspindinčių kūrinių (styginių kvartetai A-dur bei lenskoj gubernii], Вилна: Изданий Виленскаго Губернскаго G-dur ir kt.). Jis taip pat rašė kantatas, užsibrėžęs sukurti Статистическаго Комитета, 1874. vagnerišką muzikinę dramą, ėmėsi operų, tada susidomėjo Private archive of the Fibich family Ferenco Liszto simfoninių poemų idėja. Fibichas parašė visą Photographs, programs and posters, autographs, letters. pluoštą kūrinių, praplėtusių folklorinės medžiagos panaudo- Thematic catalag of most of Zdeněk Fibich’s compositions from 1862 jimo galimybes; rinkdamasis medžiagą jis visada kreipdavo to 31 May 1885, compiled by Viktor Moser. dėmesį, ar jos žanrinės ypatybės dera prie viso jo kūrybos audinio (pvz., polką laikė čekų nacionalinės muzikos simboliu). Lithuanian State Historical Archives Geriausia Vilniaus laikotarpio partitūra – simfoninė poema (Lietuvos valstybės istorijos archyvas) „Tomanas ir medinė nimfa“, kurioje sėkmingai susilieja visų F 570, Vilnius Jewish Teacher Training Institute, sign. 570 Ap. 1 anksčiau minėtų darbų kompoziciniai laimėjimai, atveria B. 20; Bureau of the Vilnius Jewish Teacher Training Institute, 6. 10. 1873–23. 10. 1874 (correspondence about Fibich´s kelią kitai, brandesnei, kūrybai. employment). Delivered / Straipsnis įteiktas 2019 08 06

117 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Vida BAKUTYTĖ Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai Some New Highlights for the Biography of Composer Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844)

Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institutas, Saltoniškių g. 58, Vilnius [email protected]

Anotacija Straipsnio objektas – Vilniuje gimusio kompozitoriaus ir dirigento Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) kūrybinė biografija, kuri lietuvių muzikologijoje bent kiek išsamiau netyrinėta, apsiribojant paminėjimais kitoms temoms skirtuose darbuose. Kompozitoriaus gyvenimu ir kūryba daugiau domėtasi Lenkijoje ir Baltarusijoje. Šio straipsnio tikslas yra pateikti daugiau žinių apie Deszczyńskio bajorišką kilmę, atskleisti patriotiškų aspiracijų apraiškas jo kūryboje, aptarti retai minimus ar visai neminimus kūrinius ir kai kurias su jo vardu susijusias vilnietiško muzikinio gyvenimo aplinkybes. Atliekant tyrimą naudotasi tarpdisciplininėmis metodologinėmis prieigomis, pasiremta loginės analizės ir hipotezės, lyginamuoju, analitiniu-kritiniu metodais. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Lietuva, Vilnius, XIX a., Józefas Deszczyńskis.

Abstract The article is dedicated to the creative biography of Vilnius-born composer and conductor Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844), which has not been thoroughly addressed in Lithuanian musicology; it has only been mentioned in studies on other topics. The composer’s life and creative legacy have drawn more interest in Poland and Belarus. The aim of this article is to provide more in-depth knowledge about Deszczyński’s noble descent, to reveal the manifestations of patriotic aspirations in his works, to discuss those works that are rarely mentioned or not mentioned at all, and to illuminate certain circumstances of the musical life in Vilnius associated with his name. The study made use of cross-disciplinary methodological approaches, logical analysis, and the hypothesis, comparative, and analytical-critical methods. Keywords: Lithuania, Vilnius, 19th century, Józef Deszczyński.

Józefas Deszczyńskis (1781–1844) – nepelnytai Lie- Kai kuriuose šaltiniuose Deszczyńskis pristatomas kaip tuvoje primirštas Vilniuje gimęs ir dirbęs kompozitorius, Lietuvos muzikas. Tokiu pavyzdžiu galėtų būti žinomų dirigentas ir muzikos pedagogas. Lietuvių muzikologijoje senosios muzikos tyrėjų ir propaguotojų Dolmetschių suda- jo biografija ir kūryba išsamiau netyrinėta, apsiribojant pa- rytas internetinis kompozitorių biografinis žinynas, kuriame minėjimais kitoms temoms skirtuose šio straipsnio autorės jis įvardijamas kaip Lietuvos kompozitorius (Lithuanian darbuose1. Didesnio dėmesio ši tema sulaukė lenkų istorio composer)6. Reikia pripažinti, kad istorinės Lietuvos sąvoka grafijoje, tačiau ir joje dažniausiai aptinkamos biogramos šiuo atveju suteikia skaitytojui tinkamą informaciją apibū- žinynuose bei kitos neišplėtotos publikacijos2; jo bažnytinė dinant kraštą, kuriame muzikas gyveno ir kūrė. muzika gvildenta Baltarusijoje3. Pažymėtina, kad Lenkijoje Józefas Deszczyńskis gimė Lietuvos Didžiosios Kuni- atlikta Deszczyńskio stambios formos kūrinių4, 2012 m. gaikštystės (toliau – LDK) ir Lietuvos sostinėje Vilniuje Nesvyžiuje nuskambėjo „Aušros Vartų litanija“; publikuota 1781 m.7, devyneriems metams praėjus po pirmojo jungtinės fortepijoninių polonezų5. LDK ir Lenkijos karalystės valstybės padalijimo (1772); kai Šiame straipsnyje norima atkreipti dėmesį į tuos, auto- įvyko lemtingas trečiasis, jam buvo keturiolika metų. Po šio rės požiūriu, reikšmingus muziko biografijos faktus, kurie istorinio įvykio, nutraukusio Abiejų Tautų Respublikos nebuvo akcentuoti anksčiau: čia ketinama aptarti kompo- gyvavimą, gimtasis muziko Vilnius ir tos LDK žemės Mins- zitoriaus bajoriškos kilmės ištakas, išryškinti patriotiškų ko vaivadijoje, kur jo daugiausia gyventa ir kurta, atsidūrė aspiracijų apraiškas jo kūryboje, detaliau pažvelgti į stambios Rusijos imperijoje. formos pasaulietinius opusus, paminėti mažai žinomas su Deszczyńskis gimė kilmingoje šeimoje. Jo sena bajorų kompozitoriumi susijusias vilnietiško muzikinio gyvenimo giminė (herbo Ślepowron; liet. Naktikovas8) kildinama iš aplinkybes. Piastų dinastijos, Didžiosios Lenkijos kunigaikštystės linijos

118 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai

Kališo žemių. Archyviniai dokumentai liudija, kad XVIII a. Minsko gubernijoje Rečycos apskrityje, bendravo su ten pat antroje pusėje to paties herbo, kaip ir kompozitorius, buvo ir dvaro orkestrui vadovavusiu Deszczyńskiu, buvo kai kurių kiti Deszczyńskiai iš Vilniaus krašto (Vilnijos) – Ignacy’as, jo kūrinių atlikėja12. Stanisławas ir Wincenty’as Deszczyńskiai9. Vienu įrodymų, kad Deszczyńskis buvo amžininkų Nėra duomenų, kur ir pas ką Deszczyńskis mokėsi gerai vertintas, galima laikyti muziką išmaniusio Moniusz muzikos. Galima spėti, kad kilmingos šeimos vaiką pagal kos operų libretų libretisto13 rašytojo mėgėjo grafo Oskaro to meto tradiciją muzikuoti mokyta namuose. Žinomo Korwin-Milewskio (1818–1906) požiūrį: svarbiame literato, leidėjo ir biografo, nuo 1856 m. Vilniaus lai- Vilniaus leidinyje „Wizerunki i Roztrząsania Naukowe“ kinosios archeologijos komisijos (1855–1865) nario („Moksliniai vaizdiniai ir tyrimai“) 1840 m., tad gyvam Dominiko Cezarijaus Chodzkos (vel Dominik Cezary esant Deszczyńskiui, autorius, pasisakydamas aktualiu Chodźko, 1796–1863) liudijimu, Deszczyńskis nuo klausimu apie tai, kad būtų sistemingai vertinami muzikos mažens pasižymėjo išskirtiniais muzikiniais gabumais renginiai ir fiksuojami reikšmingesni muzikų laimėjimai, (Pług 1859: 1). Vėliau jaunuolis muzikos įgūdžius galėjo taip sudarant prielaidas krašto muzikos istorijai rašyti, mini tobulinti pas privačiai samdomus mokytojus. Manoma, Deszczyńskį šalia kompozitoriaus, dirigento ir pedagogo kad apie 1811 m. jis ir pats pradėjo dirbti Vilniuje muzikos Hollando, pianisto virtuozo Johanno Nepomuko Lorenzo pedagogu: mokė smuiko ir galbūt fortepijono, kaip tai darė Rennerio (1785–1832) ir kitų populiarių, pripažintų ir vėliau. Verta prisiminti, kad XIX a. pradžioje Johanno pamėgtų muzikų vilniečių: Davido Hollando (1746–1827) pastangomis profesinių muzikos žinių norintys turėjo galimybę jų įgyti Vilniaus Kalbant apie muziką, liūdna prisiminti, kad apie ją beveik pamirštama mūsų mieste. Su operos pradžia Vilniuje turėjome universitete, kuriame, kai kurių šaltinių duomenimis, apie gerų muzikos atlikėjų, talentingų kompozitorių, buvo muzi- 1813 m. muziką dėstyti galėjo ir Deszczyńskis (Błaszczyk kos mokykla prie buvusio universiteto. Tačiau kurgi apie tai 1964: 53; Ахвердава 1988: 23). Tarp jo mokinių buvo Vil- parašyta? Hollandas, Deszczyńskis, Renneris, neseniai miręs niaus universiteto absolventas (medicinos srities) ir smui- Sukulskis [Antoni Sokulski, Sukulski, 1771–1840 – V. B . ] ir kininkas mėgėjas Karolis Jelskis (1780–1855) (Марачкіна kt. (Milewski 1841: 129) 1999: 53), geriau muzikos istorijoje žinomo smuikininko ir kompozitoriaus Michało Jelskio (1831–1904) tėvas. Nuo trisdešimt trečių gyvenimo metų (1814) Desz Deszczyńskis buvo populiarus ir žinomas ne tik czyńskio biografija ir kūryba daugiausia buvo susijusi su Lietuvoje ir Lenkijoje: jo kūriniai leisti ne vien Vilniuje, didiko Ludwiko Rokickio (apie 1770–apie 1830) valdose 14 Varšuvoje, bet ir Leipcige, Vienoje, Sankt Peterburge. Tai, Horodyščėje, Rečycos apskrityje , turėtu orkestru. Jam kad jis buvo įgijęs reikiamų kompozitoriui profesinių ži- vadovauti grafas Rokickis pakvietė Deszczyńskį, atkreipęs nių, liudija faktai apie pačių pirmųjų kūrinių fortepijonui dėmesį į jo išskirtinius muzikinius gebėjimus ir išsiski- (Polonezai op. 1 ir op. 2) leidybą Leipcige (Ахвердава riantį talentą. Deszczyńskio darbdavys pats buvo žinomas 1988: 23). muzikas mėgėjas, neblogai įvaldęs smuiką: šiuos įgūdžius Kompozitorių pažinojo Vilniuje gyvenęs Stanisławas tobulino pas Giovannį Battistą Viottį (1755–1824). Moniuszko’a (1819–1872): jį mini savo laiške, rašytame apie Grafas turėjo net tris Stradivarijaus instrumentus – du 1843 m. anytai Mariai Müller. Iš išlikusių laiško fragmentų smuikus ir violončelę15. galima suprasti, kad jame rašoma apie du Moniuszko’ai Grafą ir Deszczyńskį siejo ne tik darbo, bet ir kitokie pagiriamuosius žodžius išsakiusius asmenis – Deszczyńs- santykiai, kuriuos galbūt lėmė itin retai XIX a. pradžioje kį ir istoriką, rašytoją bei publicistą Julianą Klaczko’ą aptinkama aplinkybė: abu – darbdavys ir jo pavaldinys, (1825–1906). Galima spėti, kad atsiliepimai buvo skirti dvaro orkestro vadovas, – buvo kilmingi asmenys16. Įdomu pirmajam Moniuszkos „Namų dainyno“ (Śpiewnik domowy) ir tai, kad Rokickis giminystės ryšiais buvo susaistytas su sąsiuviniui, kurio leidybos reikalais tuo metu kompozitorius garsiomis Lietuvos didikų giminėmis Oskierkomis, Plia- rūpinosi ([Moniuszko] 1969: 81). Be to, Moniuszko’a ir teriais ir Prozorais. Grafo tėvas Michałas Rokickis (apie Deszczyńskis turėjo bendrų pažįstamų. Vieni jų – Win- 1730–1779) buvo Lietuvos tribunolo maršalka (1778) centos ir Adamo Zawadzkių šeima. Kaip žinoma, broliai ir Minsko kaštelionas (1778–1779), motina – Marianna Adamas (1814–1875) ir Feliksas (1824–1891) Zawadzkiai (Maria) Oskierka17. Rokickis buvo vedęs grafaitę Oną Broel- buvo pagrindiniai Moniuszkos Vilniaus laikotarpio kūrinių Pliaterytę (vel Anna Broel-Plater, apie 1770–po 1800) iš leidėjai. Adamo žmonai Wincentai Zawadzkai (de domo Lietuvos bajorų magnatų giminės, turinčios grafų titulą. Jų- Żółkowska, pseud. W. A. L. Z., 1819–1894)10 Moniuszko’a dviejų duktė Teklė Rokicka-Prozor (vel Tekla Prozorowa de dedikavo savo dainą (balsui ir fortepijonui) „Nemunui“ domo Rokicka, 1799–1860) ištekėjo už Lietuvos tribunolo (Do Niemna) pagal Adomo Mickevičiaus žodžius, sukurtą maršalkos, Lietuvos didžiojo stovyklininko (1787–1793) Vilniuje11. Wincenta, mėgėja pianistė, gyvenusi Vilniuje ir grafo Karolio Prozoro (1759–1841) sūnaus Władysławo

119 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vida BAKUTYTĖ

(g. 1793), Rečycos pakamario (žr. Korespondencja Fran- ciszka... 1958: 147, 150, 231). Akivaizdu, Deszczyńskis bendravo su minėtais asmenimis: tai liudija jo kūrinių dedikacijos ir biografijos faktai. Po Rokickio mirties (apie 1830), gaudamas jam skirtą rentą, Deszczyńskis iki gyvenimo pabaigos (1844) gyveno Rokickio dukters Teklės namuose Horodyščėje, Rečycos apskrityje, Minsko gubernijoje. Pažymėtina, kad dirbdamas dvare Deszczyńskis nenustojo dalyvauti Vilniaus kultūriniuose renginiuose. Su Rokickio orkestru muzikas dirigavo operas ir simfo- ninius kūrinius, tarp jų ir gana sudėtingus Vienos klasikų opusus. Kūrybinis jo produktyvumas (iš viso apie 100 opu- sų) leidžia spėti apie turėtas neblogas gyvenimo ir kūrybos sąlygas. Kompozitorius rašė orkestrinę, kamerinę, vokalinę, fortepijoninę, bažnytinę, sceninę muziką. Nuolatinis darbas su orkestru suteikė galimybę tobulinti įgūdžius kuriant orkestrinę muziką, pažinti atskirų instrumentų galimybes, todėl nemažą dalį jo kūrybos užėmė simfoninio ir kamerinio žanro opusai: 4 uvertiūros, 3 koncertai fortepijonui ir orkestrui, „Du polonezai“ fortepijonui ir orkestrui, op. 23. Tarp šio žanro stambios formos kūrinių šiandien labiau žinomi Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, ir Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, op. 39. 1 iliustracija. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25. Klavyras. Titulinis lapas

Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25 muzikinės lyrikos epizodų (4, 5 pav.). Virtuoziškos III d. Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, su- pagrindinę šokinę ir šalutinę (C dur) temas eksponuoja kurtas apie 1819–1820 m. ir dedikuotas Rokickio dukrai fortepijonas (6, 7 pav.). Be to, Koncertas pasižymi ekspre- Rokickai-Prozor. Pats Deszczyńskis apibūdino Koncertą syviais orkestro tutti epizodais (8, 9 pav.). kaip Concerto brillante et non difficile. Susipažinus su kūriniu18, negalima sutikti su itališka apibrėžtimi non Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, op. 39 difficile (liet. nesunkus). Kūrinį, kurio natos (klavyras) buvo išleistos Leipcige 1833 m.19, sudaro trys dalys – I. Allegro Kai kurie turimi Deszczyńskio biografijos duomenys II. ir III moderato, Adagio . Rondo. Allegro moderato alla leidžia spėti, kad jis pažinojo lenkų kompozitorių Józefą Els- Savo muzikine kalba ir forma jis artimas ana- polacca. nerį (1769–1854). Vienu įrodymų gali būti dedikacija: Els- logiškais principais sukurtiems taip pat tradicinių trijų neriui skirtas Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, dalių Johanno Nepomuko Hummelio (1778–1837) (Nr. op. 39, sukurtas apie 1827 m. Reali aplinkybė, suteikianti 2 a moll op. 85; Nr. 4 E-dur op. 110 „Les Adieux“) ar galimybę jiems bendrauti, ta, kad abu kompozitoriai buvo Johno Fieldo (1782–1837) (Nr. 2 As-dur) Koncertams Religinės ir tautinės muzikos draugijos Varšuvoje nariai fortepijonui. Muzikinės kūrinio mintys plėtojamos solisto (Elsneris prisidėjo prie šios draugijos kūrimo ir dalyvavo ir orkestro dialogo forma, jam būdinga fortepijoninių vir- jos veikloje 1814–1825 m.). tuoziškų epizodų gausa, yra ir techniškai gana sudėtingų Pažymėtina, kad netrukus, 1828 m., Deszczyńskio orkestro intermedijų. Kvartetą pristatė Leipcigo „Allgemeine Musikalische Zei- Orkestro įžangoje, kurią galima laikyti I d. pirmąja tung“ („Visuotinis muzikinis laikraštis“). Nors tai buvo tik ekspozicija, styginiai pristato pagrindinę temą (1 pav.). Vėl žinutė rubrikoje „Trumpi pranešimai“ („Kurze Anzeigen“), sugrįžusi reprizoje ji paruošia fortepijono solo, kuris pradeda vis dėlto čia pateikiamas ir trumpas palankus vertinimas. Ši antrąją ekspoziciją. Dvi jos temos, solisto atliekamos domi- nuomonė yra svarbi, nes tuo metu savaitraščio vyriausiasis nantinėje tonacijoje (C-c), traktuotinos kaip šalutinės (2, 3 redaktorius (nuo 1827 m.) buvo vokiečių kompozitorius pav.). Po temų plėtojimo kintančiose tonacijose (F, As, Es, ir muzikos teoretikas Gottfriedas Wilhelmas Finkas F) grįžtama į pagrindinę tonaciją. II dalis kupina santūrios (1783–1846). Čia rašyta:

120 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai

1 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, I d. įžanga

2 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, I d. pirmoji šalutinė tema

3 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, I d. antroji šalutinė tema 121 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vida BAKUTYTĖ

4 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, II d.

5 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, II d.

6 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, III d. pagrindinė tema

7 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, III d. šalutinė tema

122 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai

8 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, I d. orkestro tutti epizodas

9 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, III d. orkestro tutti epizodas

123 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vida BAKUTYTĖ

turime jį [kompoztorių – V. B . ] su džiaugsmu pasveikinti, dėl savo gabumų ir reikiamo meistriškumo jis vertas palai- kymo (in die Schranken tritt). Nesuklysime pasakę, kad šį Kvartetą pamėgs didžioji dalis pianistų, [ypač] tų, kuriems mielas netuščias akompanimentas. Tai labai pageidaujamas ir džiaugsmingas reiškinys. Instrumentų traktavimas rodo išla- 11 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, op. 39, I d. smuiko partija vintą skonį (gebildeten Geschmacke), melodijos ir harmonija yra malonios, neperkrautos (nicht Überladenes), netuščios. […] [Kūrinio] atlikimas turinčių didelį įgūdį ir gerą touché bus visiems malonus ir [jis] dažnai skambės. (Kurze Anzeigen 1828: 368)

Dar pabrėžiama, kad fortepijono partija (21 lapas) iš- spausdinta ant gero popieriaus, ir tai prisidėsią prie didesnio noro įsigyti natas. Kvartetą sudaro 4 dalys: I d. Allegro moderato, II d. Adagio, III d. Polonaise ir IV d. Rondo. Allegretto grazio- so20. Kaip ir Koncerte, Kvartete naudojamos ritminės ir kitos būdingos polonezo spalvos, pabrėžiant tai net dalių pavadinimais: Koncerte – III d. Rondo. Allegro moderato alla polaca, Kvartete – III d. Polonaise. Kvartetui, kaip ir Koncertui, būdinga taškuota ritmika, melodijų puošyba 12 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, melizmomis: foršlagais, mordentais, triliais. Svarbiausias op. 39, I d. šalutinė tema vaidmuo skirtas fortepijonui ir smuikui. Fortepijono partija savo reikšmingumu primena Koncerto žanrui būdingą puoš- numą, virtuoziškumą. Kvarteto I dalis – veržli, dinamiška, pagrindinę temą atlieka fortepijonas (10 pav.), dialogą su juo palaiko smuikas (11 pav.). Fortepijonui taip pat patikėta kontrastinga pagrindinei lyrinė šalutinė tema (12 pav.). Neišplėtotos II d. pagrindinę mintį išsako ją pradedantys styginiai (13 pav.). III dalis – grakštus polonezas soluojant fortepijonui (14 pav.) su įsiterpiančiu išraiškingu styginių Trio (15 pav.). IV d. sulydyta iš pasikartojančių teminių frazių. Fortepijono solo eksponuojamai pagrindinei ener- gingai, gracingai Allegro grazioso temai savitumo suteikia ak- 13 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, centuota silpnoji takto dalis (ketvirtoji ketvirtinė nata; 4/4) op. 39, II d. (16 pav.). Netikėtai pasikeitus tonacijai (iš a-moll į A-dur)

10 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, 14 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, op. 39, I d. pagrindinė tema; fortepijono partija op. 39, III d.

124 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai

įtaigiai kontrastingai suskamba lyrinė tema (Maggiore), atliekama viso ansamblio. Jos melodija gimininga pagrindinei temai, tačiau be šiai būdingo energingo charakterio ir akcento ant silpnosios takto dalies (17 pav.). Be minėto Fortepijoninio kvarteto a-moll, žinomas Deszczyńskio Sekstetas dviem smuikams, altui, dviem violončelėms ir kontrabosui, tačiau jo natos, šios dienos duomenimis, neišlikusios. 15 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, op. 39, III d. Trio Nepaisant vilniečio kompozitoriaus gana didelio as- menų, su kuriais bendrauta, rato ir nemenko amžininkų pripažinimo, darbas grafo Rokickio valdose tikriausiai teikė tam tikro uždarumo. Apie tai galima spręsti iš XIX a. viduryje Varšuvos kultūros veikėjų paskelbtõs duomenų apie Deszczyńskį paieškos. XIX a. 6 dešimtmetyje Lietuvoje ir Lenkijoje suakty- vėjo pastangos surinkti žinias apie savo krašto muzikus, jų kūrinius, ypač tuos, kurių likimas mažai žinomas. Buvo reiškiamas rūpestis dėl muzikinio paveldo išsaugojimo. Šios problemos akiratyje atsidūrė ir Deszczyńskio asmenybė, tapusi gana keistai išsirutuliojusios intrigos objektu, galbūt painiojant jį su kitu bendrapavardžiu. Varšuvoje leistame „Ruch Muzyczny“ numeryje 1859 m. (Nr. 8) pranešta:

16 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, Podolėje21 ilgai gyveno Deszczyńskis, Pawełas Podolaninas op. 39, IV d. [Paweł Podolanin], kuris turėjo įgimtą muziko talentą, gerai skambino fortepijonu, parašė daugelį išraiškingų polonezų dviem ir keturioms rankoms. Tariant pagiriamąjį žodį šiems polonezams galima pasakyti, kad jie sukurti ne galva, kaip daugelio kitų autorių, o širdimi ir pakilia siela. Šiandien nieko negirdėti apie šiuos gražius polonezus, ir galime tvirtai sakyti, kad jie dingę, kaip dingę daugelis kitų puikių kūrinių. Jei kas nors tokių turi, tegu pagalvoja, kaip juos išsaugoti, kad nebūtų prarasti. Tiek nedaug teturime mūsų muzikinio turto, kad gelbėjimas nuo sunaikinimo nors ir nedidelių kūrinėlių, tačiau kitados žmonių mėgtų, tad neabejotinai turinčių vertę, nors ir vien kaip atminties (pamiątkową), yra tinkamai suprantama patriotinė pareiga. ([Sikorski] 1859: 70–71)22

Šias mintis pakomentavo pati leidinio redakcija, nuoro doje papildydama žinias apie Deszczyńskį:

Tarp lenkų kompozitorių, gyvenusių Varšuvoje [?] iki 1830 m., taip pat buvo Deszczyńskis, bet ne Pawełas, o Józefas. Dau- gelį jo kūrinių, tarp kitų Koncertą fortepijonui, styginių Kvartetą, taip pat fortepijoninių polonezų, išleido užsienio leidyklos, daugiausia Leipcigo. Ar tas Deszczyńskis buvo tik bendrapavardis su šiuo Deszczyńskiu, ar jo giminaitis, mums nežinoma.23

Šiuos pasisakymus verta pakomentuoti pastebint, kad aptãkios ir netikslios žinios iš Varšuvos apie Deszczyńskį, praėjus vos keliolikai metų po jo mirties, kelia nuostabą ir 17 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, op. skatina mintis apie ne visais atvejais glaudų komunikavimą 39, IV d. Maggiore tarp Varšuvos ir Vilniaus bei kitų buvusios LDK vietovių: juk apie kompozitorių rašyta Vilniaus spaudoje, čia jis dirbo pedagogu, skambėjo jo kūriniai, leisti daugelyje

125 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vida BAKUTYTĖ kraštų, beje, buvo parašęs muziką ir Varšuvoje rodytam formos ir melodingi, pelnė vietą iškart po Mykolo [Kleopo] spektakliui pagal vieno žinomiausių lenkų dramaturgo Lud Oginskio polonezų. (Pług 1859: 425–426) wiko Dmuszewskio libretą „Dvaras šalikelėje“ („Dworek Šis biografinių žinių publikavimas svarbus ir tuo, kad na gościńcu“), buvo išrinktas tikruoju Religinės ir tautinės tarp Chodzkos vardijamų Deszczyńskio kūrinių yra ir muzikos draugijos Varšuvoje nariu (Pług 1859: 425). Be to, ne visur iki šiol istoriografijoje nurodomas Deszczyńskio tuo metu, kai vyko minimas susirašinėjimas per Varšuvos kūrinys – uvertiūra orkestrui „Mūšis prie prūsų Ylavos“ leidinį, Vilniuje gyveno 1840 m. apie Deszczyńskį rašęs („Bitwa pod Iławą pruską“)25. Šiuo Deszczyńskio autorys- Korwin-Milewskis bei kompozitorių pažinojusi Vilniaus tės paliudijimu galima tikėti, nes Chodzka, be kitų veiklos leidėjų Zawadzkių šeima. Žinių, ko gero, galima buvo tikė- sričių, žinomas ir kaip istoriografas, kaupęs daugelį įvairių tis iš Rokickių ar Prozorų: Rokicka-Prozor, kurios valdose Lietuvos istorijos šaltinių bei rūpinęsis Lietuvos kultūros iki mirties gyveno Deszczyńskis, mirė kitais metais po čia paveldu (Griškaitė 2003: 263–296). aptariamo susirašinėjimo. Uvertiūros „Mūšis prie prūsų Ylavos“ tematika – susirė- Nepaisant to, tų pačių 1859 m. kitame „Ruch Muzycz- mimas tarp Napoleono Bonaparto vadovaujamos Prancū- ny“ numeryje (Nr. 19) dar vieną kreipimąsi į skaitytojus zijos ir Rusijos imperijos kariuomenių bei nedidelių prūsų ir prašymą atsiliepti bei pateikti žinių apie Deszczyńskio dalinių 1807 m. – be abejo, buvo artima kompozitoriaus, biografiją paskelbė lenkų rašytojas ir publicistas Ada- Vilniaus nacionalinės gvardijos karininko, Napoleono idėjų mas Pługas (vel Antoni Pietkiewicz, pseud. Adam Pług, šalininko, pilietinei ir kūrybinei pasaulėjautai26. Deja, kaip 1823–1903), tuo metu (1858–1862) vienos Žytomyro daugelio kitų kūrinių, šio natos taip pat neišlikusios. gimnazijų direktorius: Atidžiau pažvelgus į Deszczyńskio biografiją ir kai Bobruisko paviete24 girdėjau keletą mane sužavėjusių kurių jo kūrinių atsiradimo paskatas tampa akivaizdu, kad Deszczyńskio, privataus muzikos mokytojo tose apylinkėse, kompozitorius buvo patriotiškos savivokos asmenybė. Jį polonezų. Man sakė, kad Deszczyńskio (dabar jau mirusio) domino savo krašto istorija ir politinės aktualijos. Pakanka polonezai turėjo didelį pasisekimą, jis daug jų sukūręs. Kur prisiminti reikšmingus jo gyvenime 1812-uosius. Visuome- galėtų būti jo kūrinių rankraščiai? Apie tai žinių galėtų mums ninę ir politinę muziko poziciją bei patriotiškumą liudija suteikti Bobruisko pavieto gyventojai, kurių apie tai labai buvimas minėtoje Vilniaus nacionalinėje gvardijoje, kuri maloniai prašome per „Ruch Muzyczny“. ([Pług] 1859: 162) buvo sukurta Napoleono Bonaparto žygio į Rusiją metu Tačiau čia pat nuorodoje Pługas pastebi, kad tai tikriau- 1812 m. Deszczyńskis akivaizdžiai prijautė Prancūzijos siai būsiąs tas pats Pawełas Deszczyńskis, apie kurį anksčiau Didžiosios armijos generolo siekiui kautis su Rusija, o tai, rašyta „Ruch Muzyczny“ (Nr. 8). pergalės atveju, manyta, suteiktų galimybę Lietuvai ir Len- Aiškumo į šią „painią“ istoriją įnešė didesnę savo gyve- kijai tikėtis išsilaisvinimo iš imperinių gniaužtų. nimo dalį Vilniuje praleidęs Chodzka. Jo atsiųsto laiško Priejautą šioms idėjoms įrodo kūryba: ir minėta ištrauką apie Deszczyńskį Pługas publikavo tame pačiame uvertiūra, ir vos keleriems metams praėjus po 1812-ųjų minimame leidinyje (Nr. 50). Šios publikacijos įžangoje įvykių, 1816 m., sukurti Du maršai pučiamųjų orketrui, rašoma: dedikuoti Krasińskio gvardijai. Ši dedikacija buvo neatsitik- tinė. Maršų atsiradimą lėmė kelios aplinkybės. Krasinskio ... prieš kelias dienas gavau nenusakomai mane pradžiuginusį gvardija buvo vadinami lenkų ulonai Napoleono armijoje. laišką nuo garbingojo ( ) Dominiko Chodzkos, už czcigodnego Generolas grafas Wincenty’as Krasińskis (1782–1858), kurį iš visos širdies dėkodamas jo ištrauką apie Deszczyńskį siunčiu į „Ruch Muzyczny“. (Pług 1859: 425) beje, vedęs garsėjusią savo inteligentiškumu kunigaikštytę Mariją Uršulę Radvilaitę (vel Maria Urszula ks. Radziwiłł, Pabrėžtina tai, kad, baigęs cituoti Chodzką, Pługas 1777–1822), buvo Napoleono vertintas karvedys 1812 pagaliau kreipėsi ir į kitus Lietuvos bičiulius (Litewskich metų kampanijoje (Wincenty Krasiński... 2016: 18). Jis – moich współbraci), kad parašytų tie, kas turi žinių apie pa- slaptos „Tėvynės bičiulių draugijos“ (Towarzystwo Przyjaciół skutinius Deszczyńskio gyvenimo metus ir kūrybą (Pług Ojczyzny), siekusios ugdyti patriotines tradicijas, Varšuvoje 1859: 425–426). įkūrėjas (1802) ir Ylavos mūšio dalyvis, jame buvo sužeistas Paviešinti Chodzkos duomenys apie Deszczyńskį buvo (Wincenty Krasiński... 2016: 7). Šių kautynių atgarsius, kaip reikšmingi, jie tapo atspirties tašku vėlesniems autoriams, minėta, randame Deszczyńskio kūryboje. Krasińskiai buvo minint šį muziką savo darbuose. Vardydamas svarbiausius populiarūs tarp žymių visuomenės veikėjų ir meno žmonių. kompozitoriaus kūrinius, Chodzka pateikė nuomonę ir apie Juos ir Deszczyńskį taip pat siejo garsiojo generolo Tado polonezus, sakydamas, kad jie išties išskirtiniai ir labiausiai Kosciuškos (1746–1817) kultas. Tai, kad kompozitoriui kompozitorių išgarsinę: buvo nesvetimas jo asmenybės ir deklaruotų idėjų garbi- nimas, rodo jo pavardė aukotojų Kosciuškos paminklui Žinovų nuomone, jie ne tik pasižymi tomis tikrosiomis mūsų sąraše: 1818–1821 m. rinktos lėšos įvardytos „patriotinėmis charakteringo šokio savybėmis, bet ir būdami [tinkamos]

126 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai aukomis didvyrio paminklui“ (Lista imienna osob... 1822: 99). Pažymėtina, kad Deszczyńskis įrašytas toje grupėje aukotojų, iš kurių aukas surinko grafas Karolis Prozoras: kaip jau minėta, šio Lietuvos bajorų giminės atstovo pavardė taip pat reikšmingai figūruoja Deszczyńskio biografijoje. Dėmesį istorinei Lietuvos ir Lenkijos tematikai rodo Deszczyńskio sukurta muzika dainai „Zigmantas III“ (Zygmunt III) pagal tekstą, 1816 m. išspausdintą lenkų rašy- tojo, istoriko, dramaturgo Juliano Ursyno Niemcewicziaus (1758–1841) „Istorinėse dainose“ (Śpiewy historyczne) (Niemcewicz 1816: 265). „Istorinės dainos“ buvo vienas svarbiausių šaltinių, iš kurio įkvėpimo sėmėsi kompozitoriai, turintys tikslą sukurti kūrinių patriotiniais tekstais, istorine krašto tema. Deszczyńskį, akivaizdu, inspiravo ne tik istorinis aspektas, bet ir pati poeto, tekstų autoriaus asmenybė bei visuomeninė veikla (Niemcewiczius dalyvavo rengiant Gegužės 3-iosios konstituciją, 1791). Taip pat viena pas- katų rašyti muziką šio patriotinio leidinio dainoms galėjo būti tai, kad dainų tekstų autorius, kaip ir kompozitorius, buvo Kosciuškos asmenybės ir veiklos garbintojas, jo idėjų šalininkas: per 1794 m. įvykius Niemcewiczius buvo Kos- ciuškos adjutantas ir sekretorius. Galima spėti ir apie kitas kompozitoriui imponavusias aplinkybes: visus minimus asmenis, kaip, beje, ir pasirinktõs dainos personažą – Len- kijos karalių bei Lietuvos didįjį kunigaikštį Zigmantą III Vazą (vel Zygmunt III Waza, 1566–1632) – siejo mintis apie stiprios ir nedalomos valstybės sukūrimą. Deszczyńskio 18 pav. Józefo Deszczyńskio Daina balsui ir fortepijonui kūrinių tematika, dedikacijos, ryšiai su asmenimis, su kuriais „Zigmantas III“; kn: Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Śpiewy bendrauta, asmeninio gyvenimo faktai leidžia teigti, kad historyczne: z muzyką i rycinami, Warszawa: w Drukarni No. tokia vizija jam buvo artima. 646 przy Nowolipiu, 1816 Vienaip ar kitaip Deszczyńskis buvo tarp keturiolikos autorių, rašiusių muziką trisdešimt trims šio rinkinio dainoms. Šiame projekte dalyvavo vos keli profesiona- kompozitoriaus panaudotos chromatinės slinktys. Len- lai – Deszczyńskis, Franciszekas Lesselis (1780–1838), kų istoriografijoje galima rasti vertinimą, teigiantį, jog Maria Szymanowska (1789–1831), Karolis Kurpińskis Deszczyńskio daina „skamba labiau pianistiškai (bardziej (1785–1857), kiti – daugiausia kilmingieji mėgėjai. Dai- fortepianowo) nei pianistės Szymanowskos kompozicijos“ nos „Zigmantas III“ tekstas perteikia įprastą Zigmanto III (Gabryś 1960: 93). Muzikos istorikė ir poetė Maja Tro- Vazos veiklos vertinimą: poetas neslepia to, kad šis valdovas chimczyk taikliai pastebi, kad Deszczyńskio šioje dainoje nelabai mėgtas Lenkijoje, nemokėjęs tinkamai vadovauti, panaudota žemyn slenkanti chromatinė boso linija primena tačiau pripažįsta sudėtingas istorines aplinkybes, kuriomis retorinę figūrą, kuri asocijuojasi su kančia, ji artima Baroko jam teko valdyti. Paskutiniame dainos posme teigiama, kad laikotarpio „musica poetica“ priemonėms pathopoeia27 ar Zigmanto III Vazos vadovavimo laikotarpis, „nors ir pelnė passus duriusculus28 (Trochimczyk 2014: 150). Verta pa- nenaudingų [laikų] šlovę“, vis dėlto paliko „garbingą virti- stebėti, kad šiuolaikinė tyrėja taip pat nevengia definicijos nę atmintinų vadų“, tokių kaip „iškalba garsėjęs Skarga“ ir „Lietuva“, nurodydama Deszczyńskio gyvenimo ir veiklos „aukščiau visų kitų [iškilęs] Leonas Sapiega, vienoje rankoje vietą (Trochimczyk 2014: 147). laikantis kalaviją, kitoje – teisę“ (Niemcewicz 1816: 266). Yra pagrindas teigti, kad tos pãčios patriotinės emocinės Akivaizdu, kad čia poetas turi omenyje LDK kanclerio Leo- paskatos lėmė kitą Deszczyńskio pasirinkimą – rašyti muzi- no Sapiegos (1557–1633) pastangas, vadovaujant Trečiojo ką Vilniaus miesto teatro spektakliui 3 veiksmų riteriškajai Lietuvos Statuto (1588) rengimui. melodramai (kitur vadinamai opera; žr. Chmara-Żaczkie- Deszczyńskio muzikoje „Zigmantui III“ galima matyti wicz 1984: 404) „Ekbertas, arba Anglų susijungimas į didesnį nei kitose šio leidinio dainose dėmesį harmonijai. vieną karalystę“ (Egbert czyli Połączenie się Anglików), Minorinė tonacija (c-moll) ir Andante tempas tiko san- kurios premjera įvyko 1810 m. Pagrindinė kūrinio mintis – tūriai niūrokai nuotaikai išreikšti, šiuo požiūriu padėjo ir stipriõs ir nedalomos valstybės siekis. Siužetas remiasi tikrais

127 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vida BAKUTYTĖ istoriniais faktais. Tokį tikslą iš tikrųjų turėjo Ekbertas (vel Išvados Ecgberht, 771/775–839) – Vesekso, saksų karalystės pietva- karių Anglijoje, karalius (802–839). XIX a. pradžioje Lie- Vilniuje kilmingoje šeimoje gimęs ir šiame mieste tuvos gyventojams, reikia manyti, asociatyvių minčių kėlė dirbęs kompozitorius, muzikos pedagogas ir dirigentas istorija apie šio karaliaus kovas su dominuojančia Mersijos Deszczyńskis buvo populiarus ir žinomas muzikas ne tik karalyste, kuri vertė jai paklusti kitas, mažesnes karalystes, Lietuvoje ir Lenkijoje: jo kūriniai leisti Vilniuje, Varšuvoje, kokia buvo ir Veseksas. Netenka abejoti, kad Vilniaus miesto Leipcige, Vienoje, Sankt Peterburge. Apie Deszczyńskį ra- teatro repertuare šis kūrinys atsirado dėl įžvelgiamos ana- šyta svarbiuose leidiniuose Vilniuje („Wizerunki i roztrzan- logijos: kovas už Vesekso nepriklausomybę nesunku buvo sanie naukowe“), Varšuvoje („Ruch muzyczny“), Leipcige tapatinti su tokiais pačiais Lietuvos ir Lenkijos troškimais. („Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung“). Faktų visuma leidžia Melodramos tekstą iš prancūzų kalbos į lenkų (autorius teigti, kad jį pažinojo Moniuszko’a, Elsneris, Vilniuje – René-Charles Guilbert de Pixerécourt29, 1773–1844) vertė Zawadzkiai, Moniuszkos operų libretistas Korwin-Milews- Vilniaus miesto teatro aktorius ir dainininkas Józefas Wols- kis, gretinęs Deszczyńskio vardą su kitais garsiais Vilniaus kis (1786 ar 1785–1838), beje, tas pats, kuris atliko Adomo muzikais – Hollandu ir Renneriu. Jo biografija buvo žinoma ir Rafaelio vaidmenis Josepho Haydno (1732–1809) orato- Lietuvos kultūros paveldu besirūpinusiam Chodzkai. rijoje „Pasaulio sukūrimas“ Vilniuje 1809 m. (Brensztejn: Deszczyńskis buvo produktyvus kompozitorius, sukū- 360). Iš originalios pjesės, išleistos ir pastatytos 1802 m. ręs apie 100 opusų. Jau pirmieji jo kūriniai buvo leidžiami Paryžiaus teatre Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, galima Leipcige. Vokietijos spaudoje gerai atsiliepta apie vilniečio sužinoti, kad spektaklyje buvo dainuojamų ir šokamų scenų, muziko kūrybą. Tai liudija, kad Deszczyńskis buvo įgijęs tekste išties daug nuorodų „skamba muzika“. Nemažai dainų reikiamų kompozitoriui profesinių žinių. Tą patį byloja ir atlieka vienas veikėjų Edmondas, kilmingas asmuo, prisista- įdėmesnis šio straipsnio žvilgsnis į jo pasaulietinio žanro tantis bardu. Istorinis asmuo Ekbertas (Ecbert) spektaklyje stambios formos kūrinius – Koncertą fortepijonui ir orkes- vaizduojamas ne kaip Vesekso karalius, o kaip jo sūnus, net trui F-dur, op. 25, bei Fortepijoninį kvartetą a-moll, op. 39, prisidengęs Adolfo vardu (Ecbert, Premier... 1802). kurie stilistiškai artimi Hummelio, Fieldo ir kitų panašaus Vilnietiško „Ekberto...“ spektaklio su Deszczyńskio kūrybinio braižo kompozitorių opusams. muzika recenzijoje rašoma, kad tai „geras veikalas, vien- Deszczyńskis buvo žinomas muzikos pedagogas. Gal- tisa intriga, nedidelės Bardo arijos atliekamos tinkamai būt, be privačių pamokų, jis dėstė Vilniaus universitete ir spektaklis gerai publikos priimtas“30. Teatro istoriko tuo metu, kai jame muzikos reikalais rūpinosi Hollandas. Karolio Estreicherio (1827–1908) nuomone, šiame veikale Tarp jo mokinių buvo smuikininkas mėgėjas Karolis Jelskis vyravo „nūdienos dvasia, suteikusi reikšmę riterių scenoms, (1780–1855), smuikininko ir kompozitoriaus Michało [dvasia], kuri iš [teatro] scenos peraugo į poeziją ir sukūrė Jelskio (1831–1904) tėvas. balades ar net dainas „Valenrode“31. Svarbią vietą kompozitoriaus biografijoje užima diri- Deszczyńskio pasirinkimas rašyti muziką kitam spek- gento darbas grafo Rokickio dvaro orkestro Horodyščėje takliui, komedijai-operai „Dvaras šalikelėje“ (Dworek na (Minsko gubernija) vadovu. Galima manyti, kad jį kaip gościńcu) pagal populiaraus lenkų dramaturgo Ludwiko kilmingą asmenį (bajoras herbo Ślepowron, liet. Naktiko- Adamo Dmuszewskio (1777–1847) libretą (rodyta Varšu- vas) su darbdaviu siejo artimesni nei tik darbo santykiai: ši voje 1809 m.) taip pat nebuvo atsitiktinis. Libreto autorius aplinkybė galėjo lemti žmonių, su kuriais bendrauta, ratą. garsėjo savo patriotiniu nusiteikimu ir veikla laisvųjų mūri- Grafas giminystės ryšiais buvo susietas su Lietuvos didikų ninkų organizacijoje. Būdamas septyniolikmetis, jis prisidė- giminėmis Oskierkomis, Pliateriais, Prozorais. Kai kuriems jo prie Kosciuškos sukilimo: buvo Tautinės aukščiausiosios jų savo kūrinius skyrė kompozitorius. tarybos, įkurtos Lenkijoje (Polanece), sekretoriumi. „Dvaro Nemažai Deszczyńskio kūrinių atspindi patriotišką mu- šalikelėje“ siužetas patraukė Deszczyńskio dėmesį dėl vei- ziko nuostatą, dėmesį istorinei tematikai ir visuomeninėms kale plėtojamos temos, asociatyviai lengvai pritaikomos bei politinėms aktualijoms. Uvertiūros orkestrui „Mūšis prie politinei Lietuvos ir Lenkijos realijai – Vakarų Galicijos, prūsų Ylavos“ tema buvo artima Deszczyńskio, Napoleono kuri po Abiejų Tautų Respublikos trečiojo padalijimo buvo Bonaparto žygio į Rusiją metu 1812 m. sukurtos Vilniaus atitekusi Austrijai, sugrąžinimo Lenkijos karalystei32 (1809). nacionalinės gvardijos karininko, pilietinei ir kūrybinei Įdėmesnis, nors šaltinių ir išlikusių natų stokos ribo- pasaulėjautai. „Du maršai pučiamųjų orkestrui“ dedikuoti jamas, žvilgsnis į Deszczyńskio biografiją ir pasaulietinę Krasińskio gvardijai (taip buvo vadinami lenkų ulonai kūrybą patvirtina tai, kad Vilniuje gimęs, šiame mieste ir Napoleono armijoje); generolas grafas Krasińskis buvo kitose buvusiose LDK vietovėse gyvenęs ir kūręs kompozi- Napoleono vertintas karvedys 1812 metų kampanijoje ir, torius yra Lietuvos muzikos istorijos figūra, kuri nusipelno taip pat kaip Deszczyńskis, Kosciuškos idėjų sekėjas. Dėmesį užimti deramą vietą šios srities tiriamuosiuose darbuose. istorinei Lietuvos ir Lenkijos temai rodo muzika dainai „Zigmantas III“ pagal tekstą, išspausdintą Niemcewicziaus

128 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai

„Istorinėse dainose“; ir kompozitoriaus, ir tekstų autoriaus 7 Baltarusijoje leidžiamuose kalendoriuose nurodomi Desz pasaulėjautai buvo artima dainoje apdainuoto Lenkijos czyńskio gimimo mėnuo ir diena (sausio 28 d.) dar turėtų karaliaus ir Lietuvos didžiojo kunigaikščio Zigmanto III būti tikslinami. 8 Naktikovas – garninių šeimos paukštis. Vazos puoselėta stipriõs bei nedalomos valstybės vizija. 9 Rodzina Deszczyński herbu Ślepowron, http://raczko. Tokia pati buvo pagrindinė Vilniaus miesto teatro spekta- com.pl/index.php?title=Rodzina_Deszczy%C5%84ski_ klio 3 veiksmų riteriškosios melodramos (kitur vadinamos herbu_%C5%9Alepowron [žiūrėta 2019 05 23]. Deja, nėra opera) „Ekbertas, arba Anglų susijungimas į vieną karalys- galimybės nustatyti šių asmenų giminystės santykio. 10 tę“ mintis, paskatinusi kompozitorių sukurti jai muziką. Wincenta Agnieszka Ludwika Zawadzka de domo Żółkowska (1819–1894), Vilniaus knygininko Aleksandro Żółkowskio Aliuzija į galimybę grąžinti Abiejų Tautų Respubliką ryški dukra ir leidėjo Adamo Zawadzkio (1814–1875) žmona komedijoje-operoje „Dvaras šalikelėje“ (1843). Visuomenėje geriau buvo žinomas jos slapyvardis Įdėmesnis žvilgsnis į Deszczyńskio biografiją ir kai W. A. L. Z., sudarytas iš pirmųjų vardų ir pavardės raidžių. kuriuos jo pasaulietinius kūrinius tik patvirtina nuomonę, Taip ji pasirašė ir populiariosios savo knygos „Lietuvos virėja“ kad Lietuvos sostinėje Vilniuje gimusio, šiame mieste ir pirmuosius leidimus (W. A. L. Z., Kucharka Litewska, Wilno: kitose buvusiose LDK vietose XIX a. antroje pusėje gy- nakł. Autorki, 1858, ir kt. leidimai). 11 Daugiau žr. Stanisław Moniuszko, Szósty śpiewnik domowy venusio kompozitoriaus biografija ir kūryba yra savita ir zawierający ballady i poezye Adama Mickiewicza, Wilno: nakł. svarbi Lietuvos muzikinės kultūros paveldo dalis, jo vardas Józefa Zawadzkiego, n. d. [1859] (Nr. 4 Do Niemna). dažniau minėtinas Lietuvos muzikos istorijos temoms 12 Faktas, kad Zawadzka atliko Deszczyńskio Koncertą fortepijo- skirtuose darbuose. nui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25, yra minimas Zawadzkos propro- vaikaičio Jano Chojnackio knygoje „Blues z kapustą“ (Kraków, 2016). Greičiausiai tai yra klaidingas faktas, nes nuoroda į Nuorodos šaltinį – VU Istorijos fakulteto absolventės Godos Gasiūnaitės magistro darbą „Vincenta Zavadskienė (1819–1894): moters 1 Daugiau žr.: Vida Bakutytė, Senasis Vilniaus teatras ir vilnie- balsas bajorų kultūroje“ (Vilnius, 2015) – neatitinka tikrovės. čiai, in: Krantai, 1992, Nr. 40–42, p. 74–78; Vida Bakutytė, Šiame Gasiūnaitės magistro darbe nerašoma apie Koncerto for- Melodrama Vilniuje XIX a. pradžioje, in: Lietuvos kultūros tepijonui F-dur atlikimą. Čia paminimas kitas kūrinys, galbūt tyrinėjimai, sud. Stasys Juknevičius, t. 2, Vilnius: Margi raštai, atliktas Zawadzkos kartu su jo autoriumi Deszczyńskiu, – Va- 1996, p. 190–198; Vida Bakutytė, Vilniaus miesto teatras: riacijos dviem fortepijonams (ir styginių kvartetui?) Mozarto egzistencinių pokyčių keliu 1785–1915, Vilnius: Lietuvos operos „Užburtoji fleita“ tema (Gasiūnaitė 2015: 22). Be to, kultūros tyrimų institutas, 2011; Vida Bakutytė, Orkestras kad Zawadzka skambino Koncertą fortepijonui F-dur, op. Lietuvos miesto muzikinėje kultūroje: Vilniaus atvejis 25, būdama mėgėja, išties kelia abejonių, nes tai virtuoziškas, (XIX a.), in: Menotyra, 2015, t. 22, Nr. 3, p. 237–248. išlavintos pianistinės technikos reikalaujantis kūrinys. 2 Daugiau žr. Barbara Chmara-Żaczkiewicz 1984; taip pat: 13 Pagal Oskaro Korwin-Milewskio libretus Moniuszko’a parašė Antoni Miller, Teatr dramatyczny i muzyka na Litwie jako mažąsias operas „Idealas, arba Naujoji Preciosa“, „Karmanio- strażnice kultury Zachodu (1745–1865), Wilno: nakładem las, arba Prancūzai mėgsta juokauti“, „Loterija, arba Paskuti- wydawnictwa im. Stanisława i Tekli z hr. Borchów Łopa- nioji Varšuvos loterija“. 14 cyńskich, 1936; Józef Reiss, Deszczyński Józef, in: Słownik Horodyščė – dab. kaimas pietryčių Baltarusijoje; Rečycos muzyków polskich, Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, apskritis (rus. Речицкий уезд) – buvusi LDK ir Abiejų Tautų 1964, p. 107. Kita literatūra pateikiama tolesnėse šio straipsnio Respublikos teritorija, nuo 1797 m. Rusijos imperijos sudėtyje nuorodose. Minsko gubernijoje. 3 Daugiau žr.: Святлана Немагай, Вастрабрамская літанія 15 Jarosław Zieliński, 2002. Юзафа Дашчынскага – помнік рэлігійнай музыкі Беларусі 16 Straipsnyje minimi Rokickiai buvo iš herbo Rawicz Lietuvos часоў перадрамантызму, in: Весці Беларускай дзяржаўнай atšakos (žr. Barański 2001: 143–144). 17 акадэміі музыкі, Mінск, 2010, № 17, p. 20–29; Святлана Oskierka – lietuvių bajorų giminės herbas, herbo Murdelio, Немогай, Остробрамская литания Юзефа Дещинского – atkeliavusio per Prūsiją ir Kuršą (latv. Kurzeme), atmaina. предромантическая предшественница литаний Станисла- 18 Koncerto partitūrą atkūrė čia minimų kamerinių festivalių ва Монюшко, in: Menotyra, 2013, t. 20, Nr. 3, p. 185–206. Varšuvoje pagrindinis iniciatorius ir organizatorius Andrzejus 4 2007 m. V Lenkų kamerinės muzikos festivalyje buvo atliktas Wróbelis; jis pateikė natas šio straipsnio autorei. Koncertas fortepijonui ir orkestrui F-dur, op. 25; po metų 19 Deszczynski (J.) Concerto brillant et non difficile p. Pfte av. šiame festivalyje nuskambėjo Fortepijoninis kvartetas a-moll, Accomp. de grand Orchestre. Oe. 25, in F. Ebend. 3 Thlr. 8 Gr. op. 39); 2011 ir 2013 m. Balstogėje atlikta „Aušros Vartų Informacija apie publikaciją buvo išspausdinta: Musikalisch- litanija“. literarischer Monatsbericht neuer Musikalien, musikalischer 5 [Юзаф Дашчынскі], Паланэзы [Ноты] для фартэпіяна: Schrifter und Abbildungen für das Jahr 1833, Leipzig: Fr. вучэбна-метадычны дапаможнік: Міністэрства культу- Hofmeister, 1833, No. 5, 6 (Mai/Juni), p. 36. ры Рэспублікі Беларусь, Інстытут культуры Беларусі, 20 Koncertinį Kvarteto įrašą ir instrumentų partijas, saugomas Расійская Нацыянальная бібліятэка, Wydział Kultury i Didžiosios Britanijos nacionalinėje bibliotekoje (British Nauki Konsulatu Generalnego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Library), straipsnio autorei dovanojo Andrzejus Wróbelis. St. Petersburgu, 2013. 21 Podolė – dab. regionas pietvakarių Ukrainoje ir šiaurės rytų 6 Composers biography: D–Dz, https://www.dolmetsch.com/ Moldovoje. Buvusi LDK teritorijoje Podolės kunigaikštystė, cdefsd.htm [žiūrėta 2019 05 23]. valdyta kunigaikščių Konstantino (Algirdo sūnaus), Teodoro

129 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vida BAKUTYTĖ

Karijoto, po Liublino unijos (1569) atiteko Lenkijai. XVII a. Composers biography: D–Dz, https://www.dolmetsch.com/ apie du dešimtmečius valdė Osmanų imperija. Po Abiejų Tau- cdefsd.htm [žiūrėta 2019 05 23]. tų Respublikos antrojo padalijimo Rusijos imperijos Podolės Dworek na gościńcu, komedio-opera w jednym akcie. Dla sceny gubernija. Ojczystej przerobiona z Niemieckiego, i oryginalnemi piosn- 22 Telephon Melomański – tai „Ruch Muzyczny“ redaktoriaus kami powiększona, przez L. A.Dmuszewskiego, Warszawa: w muzikos kritiko Józefo Sikorskio (1813–1896) pseudonimas; čia drukarni Xsięży Piarów, 1809. cituojama antroji tęstinio straipsnio „List z Tulczyna“ („Laiškas Ecbert, Premier roi d’Angleterre, ou la Fin de l’Heptarchie, Mélo- iš Tulčino“) dalis, pirmoji dalis spausdinta trijuose ankstesniuose drame, en trois actes, en prose, A Grand spectacle, Mêlé de „Ruch Muzyczny“ numeriuose (1959, R. 3, Nr. 1, Nr. 2, Nr. 3). Chants et de Danse. Eprésentée, pour la première fois. Sur le 23 P. R., op. cit. théâtre de la Porte S.-Martin, 1802. 24 Bobruiskas (dab. Baltarusija) – XVI a. Rečycos pavieto Mins- Gabryś Jerzy, Początki polskiej pieśni solowej w latach 1800–1830 ko vaivadijos miestas. Buvęs didikų Radvilų, Goštautų, Tryznų [w:] Janina Cybulska, Jerzy Gabryś, Z dziejów polskiej pieśni nuosavybė. Po Abiejų Tautų Respublikos antrojo padalijimo solowej, Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1960. miestas buvo Rusijos imperijos Minsko gubernijoje. Gasiūnaitė Goda, Vincenta Zavadskienė (1819–1894): moters 25 Šis kūrinys nenurodytas ir lenkų Muzikos enciklopedijoje balsas bajorų kultūroje, magistro darbas, Vilniaus universiteto esančioje pozicijoje, skirtoje Deszczyńskiui (daugiau žr.: Istorijos fakultetas, vadovė prof. habil. dr. Tamara Bairašaus- Encyklopedia muzyczna, Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo kaitė, 2015. Muzyczne, 1984, p. 403–404). Griškaitė Reda, Dominikas Cezarijus Chodzka – Simono Dau- 26 Ylavos mūšis vyko 1807 m. Prancūzijos karo su Ketvir- kanto kolega, in: Archivum Lithuanicum 5, Vilnius: Lietuvių tąja koalicija metu. Ylava – dab. Bagrationovskas (rus. kalbos institutas, 2003, p. 263–296. Багратионовск), miestas Kaliningrado srities pietvakarinėje Korespondencja Franciszka Karpińskiego z lat 1763–1825, in: Ar- dalyje, 48 km nuo Kaliningrado. Įkurtas 1325 m. 1946 m. chiwum Literackie, t. 4, zebrał i do druku przygotował Tadeusz pavadintas Ylavos mūšio (1807) dalyvio Piotro Bagrationo Mikulski, komentarz opracował Roman Sobol, Wrocław: (rus. Пётр Иванович Багратион, 1765–1812) vardu. Zakład Narodowy Imienia Ossolińskich, Wydawnictwo 1807 m. Napoleonas Bonapartas dešimt dienų gyveno šiame Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 1958, p. 147–231. mieste Landsbergo (dab. Центральная) gatvėje. Mūšyje pa- Kurze Anzeigen, Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, 1828, 28 May, sireiškė ir buvęs Vilniaus generalgubernatorius (1801–1806) Nr. 22, p. 368. Levinas Benigsenas (vel Levin August Gottlieb Theophil, Lista imienna osob, składających ofiary na pomnik Tadeusza Graf von Bennigsen vel Леонтий Леонтьевич Беннигсен, Kościuszki, Kraków: wydana przez komitet zarządający bu- 1745–1826), kurio įsakymu rusai atsitraukė. dową tegoż, w drukarni Jana Maja, 1822. 27 Pathopoeia – muzikinė-retorinė figūra, chromatinė seka, Milewski Oskar, Muzyka w Wilnie, tudzież kilka słów o Lipińskim reiškianti gedulą, skausmą, kančią. i Oll-Bull’u, in: , Poczet 28 Wizerunki i roztrząsania naukowe Passus duriusculus – chromatinis intervalas, pažeidžiantis nowy drugi, t. XIX. Wilno: Józef Zawadzki, 1841, p. 129. diatoniką. [Moniuszko Stanisław], Do Marii Müllerowej, Mińsk, 21 stycznia 29 Krokuvoje 1827 m. rodytos šios melodramos autorius nuro- [1843], [List nr.52], Stanisław Moniuszko, Listy zebrane, dytas Philippe-Aristide-Louis-Pierre’as Plancher de Valcouras przygotował do druku Witold Rudziński przy współpracy (1751–1815). Tačiau su teatru Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Mar- Magdaleny Stokowskiej, Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo tin Paryžiuje, kur įvyko premjera 1802 m., bendradarbiavo Muzyczne, 1969. René-Charles Guilbert’as de Pixerécourt’as. Niemcewicz Julian Ursyn, , 30 Śpiewy historyczne: z muzyką i rycinami Recenzija išspausdinta 1810 metais leidinyje Kurier Litewski Warszawa: w Drukarni Nr. 646 przy Nowolipiu, 1816. (12 lutego, Nr. 13, dodatek). 31 Pług Adam, O Józefie Deszczyńskim,Ruch Muzyczny, 2/14 gru- Čia turima omenyje Adomo Mickevičiaus poema „Konradas dnia, 1859, R. 3, Nr. 50, p. 425–426. Valenrodas“. Cit. pagal Witkowski 1971: 254. [Pług Adam], Wyjątek z listu Adama P ługa do Redakcyi Ruchu 32 Daugiau žr.: 1809; Wierzbicka-Michals- Dworek na gościńcu... muzycznego, in: Ruch Muzyczny, 29 kwietnia/11 maja, 1859, ka 1993: 155. R. 3, Nr. 19, p. 162. [Sikorski Józef ] Telephon Melomański, List z Tulczyna (II), in: Ruch muzyczny, 1859, 11/23 lutego, R. 3, Nr. 8, p. 70–71. Literatūra ir šaltiniai Trochimczyk Maja, History in Song: Maria Szymanowska and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz’s Śpiewy historyczne, in: Annales de Barański Janusz, Polski Słownik Biograficzno-Genealogiczny (Ma- Centre Scientifique de’l Academie Polonaise des Sciences a Paris, terialy) (Raa-Rży), 2001, p. 143–144; https://drive.google. Vol. 16, 2014, p. 142–162, http://paris.pan.pl/wp-content/up- com/file/d/0BwsVM1qLo3R2TjNSMDNVQmFzRTA/edit loads/2019/01/Maja-Trochimczyk.pdf [žiūrėta 2019 05 23]. [žiūrėta 2019 05 23]. Wierzbicka-Michalska Karyna, Teatry w Warszawie w latach Błaszczyk Leon Tadeusz, Dyrygenci polscy i obcy w Polsce działający 1806–1814, Dzieje teatru polskiego pod redakcją Tadeusza w XIX i XX w., Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, Siverta, t. II, Teatr polski od schyłku XVIII wieku do roku 1964. 1863, lata 1773–1830, Warszawa: Polskie Wydawnictwo Brensztejn Michał, Artysci i rzemieślnicy Wileńscy, t. 1: Biblioteka Naukowe, 1993. Narodowa w Warszawie Dział Rękopisów, II, 10648, p. 360 Wincenty Krasiński. Życie społeczno-kulturalne Warszawy i [rękopis]. Królestwa Polskiego, Praca zbiorowa pod redakcją Romana Chmara-Żaczkiewicz Barbara, Józef Deszczyński, in: Encyklopedia F. Kochanowicza, Tadeusza Skoczka, Warszawa-Opinogóra: Muzyczna, pod red. Elżbiety Dziębowskiej, Kraków: Polskie Muzeum Niepodległości w Warszawie, Muzeum Romantyz- Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1984, t. 2, p. 403–404. mu w Opinogórze, 2016.

130 Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio (1781–1844) biografijai

Witkowski Michał, Świat teatralny młodego Mickiewicza, (Rechitsky Uyezd; now Belarus) by actively participating Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1971. in Vilnius cultural life. That both the count and the head Zieliński Jarosław, The Poles in Music, in:Polish Music Journal, of his orchestra were from the nobility may have helped Vol. 5, Nr. 2. Winter 2002. http://www.usc.edu/dept/po- lish_music/PMJ/issue/5.2.02/polandzielinski.html [žiūrėta form the circle of the people he communicated with. The 2019 05 23]. count had family ties with such Lithuanian noble families as Oskierka, Plater, and Prozor. The composer dedicated Ахвердава Алена, Юзаф Дашчынскі, Помнікі гісторыі і куль- his works to some of these families. туры Беларусі, 1988, № 2. A considerable part of Deszczyński’s works reflects the Марачкіна Ірына, Руплівец з Замосця, Дзеля блізкіх і musician’s patriotic sentiments, his attention to histori- прышласці, Матэрыялы міжнароднай навук.-практ. канфярэнцыі «Университэты Ельских», Мінск: Белару- cal topics, and the realities of public life. The topic of his ски ун-т культуры, 1999. overture for orchestra Bitwa pod Iławą pruską (Battle near Prussian Eylau)—the battle between the French army led by Napoleon and the Imperial Russian army (1807)—was Summary definitely close to Deszczyński’s civic and creative views: the composer was a military officer of the Vilnius National Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844) was a composer, con- Guard formed during the French Invasion of Russia (1812). ductor and music pedagogue of noble descent (coat of arms He dedicated Dwa marsze na orkiestrę dętą ( Two Ślepowron), who was born and worked in Vilnius, the capital Marches for Wind Orchestra) to the Krasiński Guard (this of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Lithuanian state. is the name for the Polish lancers in Napoleon’s army). His biography and creative legacy have not been thoroughly Count General Wincenty Krasiński (1782–1858) was a addressed in Lithuanian musicology, except for several men- military leader highly esteemed by Napoleon in his military tions in studies dedicated to other topics. This topic has campaign of 1812 and, like Deszczyński, he was a supporter drawn more attention in Polish historiography. More in-depth of the ideas of Tadeusz Kościuszko. publications on his church music were published in Belarus. Deszczyński’s attention to the historical theme of Lithu- Józef Deszczyński was a popular, well-known musician in ania and Poland is revealed in the music composed for the Lithuania and Poland: his works were published in Vilnius, song Zygmunt III (Sigismund III) according to the text Warsaw, Leipzig, Vienna, and Saint Petersburg. The major printed in Śpiewy historyczne (Historical Songs) by Polish publications in Vilnius (Wizerunki i roztrzansanie naukowe), writer, historian, and playwright Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz in Warsaw (Ruch muzyczny), and Leipzig (Allgemeine Musi- 1816. The composer could have also been driven to take up kalische Zeitung) wrote about Deszczyński. The entirety of this work by his sympathy with the author’s patriotic mind- facts indicates that he was known to Józef Elsner; Stanisław set, their common glorification of Tadeusz Kościuszko’s ac- Moniuszko; Oskar Korwin-Milewski, the librettist of his tivities and aspirations, and the favorable approach towards operas; and the Zawadzki family. His biography was also the vision of a strong and undivided state. The same vision known to Dominik Cezary Chodźko (1796–1863), who was also fostered by the character of the song, Sigismund III was responsible for cultural heritage in Lithuania. Vasa, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Deszczyński’s possession of the professional knowledge There is no doubt that Deszczyński’s attention to the required by a composer is evidenced by the publication of his patriotic theme determined his choice to compose music very first works in Leipzig (Polonaises for Piano Op. 1 and for the play of the Vilnius City Theater—a three-act chiv- Op. 2). The same is confirmed through a closer look from alrous melodrama (otherwise called opera) titled Egbert the author of this article at his large-scale works of a secular czyli Połączenie się Anglików w jedno królestwo (Egbert, or nature—Concerto for Piano and Orchestra in F Major, Op. the Unification of England into a Single Kingdom) staged 25, Piano Quartet in A Minor, Op. 39— which are stylisti- in Vilnius in 1810—whose major theme is a desire for a cally close to the opuses of Johann Nepomuk Hummel, John unified and undivided state. Field, and other composers of a similar creative style. A closer look at Józef Deszczyński’s biography and Józef Deszczyński was also known as a music pedagogue. some of his secular works provides yet another proof that Some sources say that in addition to private lessons, he the biography and creative legacy of the composer, who taught at Vilnius University (1813) when Johann David was born in Vilnius at the end of the eighteenth century Holland was in charge of music affairs at the university. and lived in this city and other former places of the Grand Amateur violinist Karol Jelski (1780–1855), the father of Duchy of Lithuania at the first half of nineteenth century, violinist and composer Michał Jelski (1831–1904), who are an interesting and important part of the musical cultural is better known in music history, was among his students. heritage of Lithuania. At 33 years old (in 1814), he became the conductor of Count Ludwik Rokicki’s manor orchestra in Horodyshche Straipsnis įteiktas / Delivered 2019 05 23

131 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Laura SVIRSKAITĖ Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose The Triadic Chord and Its Expression in the Compositions of Twentieth- and Twenty-first-century Music

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected]

Anotacija Tonalumo ir konkrečių su tonaliąja muzikos kalba tapatinamų muzikos kalbos elementų apraiškos posttonaliojoje XX a. muzikoje paskatino patyrinėti konsonuojančio trigarsio (tercinės sandaros kvintakordo, įskaitant ir jo apvertimus) situaciją. Akivaizdu, kad šiuolaikinės muzikos kūrėjų santykis su šiuo akordu, kuris neretai laikomas vienu pagrindinių tonaliosios harmonijos atributų, nevienareikšmis. Straipsnyje susi- telkiama į Gérard’o Genette’o transtekstualumo teoriją, kuria remiantis trigarsis interpretuojamas kaip metatekstualus elementas. Akordas kūriniuose įterpiamas kaip svetimkūnis į atonaliąją muziką, jis įgauna prasminę funkciją modalioje struktūroje arba gali tapti organiška naujojo tonalumo harmonijos dalimi. Dėmesys atkreipiamas ir į naujai trigarsio (triados) aktualumą pabrėžiančią bei nagrinėjančią neorymaniškąją teoriją. Straipsnyje išskiriamos dvi būdingos trigarsio panaudojimo strategijos XX ir XXI a. kompozicijose: Luigio Dallapiccola’os ir Olivier Messiaeno kompozicijose trigarsiui suteikiamos tam tikrų simbolių reikšmės, o Arvo Pärto, Philipo Glasso ir Raimondos Žiūkaitės kūriniuose jis tampa reikšmingu struktūriniu kūrinio komponavimo vienetu. Reikšminiai žodžiai: trigarsis, metatekstualumas, naujasis tonalumas, neorymaniškoji teorija, Olivier Messiaenas, Luigis Dallapiccola, Arvo Pärtas, Philipas Glassas, Raimonda Žiūkaitė.

Abstract Manifestations of tonality and specific elements that are normally attributed to tonal musical expression in the post-tonal music of the twentieth century led me to explore the situation of the consonant trichord (the tertian triad, including its inversions). It is obvious that contemporary composers‘ relationship with the chord, which is often considered one of the main attributes of tonal harmony, is mixed. This paper focuses on Gérardo Genette‘s theory of transtextuality, which allows interpreting the triad as a metatextual element. The chord gets inserted into atonal music as a foreign object and takes on a semantic function in a modal structure or alternatively becomes an intrinsic part of the neo-tonal harmony. Attention is also drawn to the Neo-Riemannian theory, which redefines and sheds new light on the importance of the triad. The paper points out two strategies for using triads, which are characteristically associated with twentieth- and twenty-first-century compositions. While in the music by Luigi Dallapiccola and Olivier Messiaen the triad assumes a certain symbolical meaning, in works by Arvo Pärt, Philip Glass, and Raimonda Žiūkaitė, it becomes a structurally significant compositional element. Keywords: triad, metatextuality, new tonality, neo-Riemannian theory, Olivier Messiaen, Luigi Dallapiccola, Arvo Pärt, Philip Glass, Rai- monda Žiūkaitė.

Konsonuojantis trigarsis tris šimtmečius (XVII–XIX a.) kiekvieno teoretiko darbuose turi savų niuansų. Šiuo atveju Vakarų muzikos istorijoje buvo laikomas svarbiausia, atsiremiama į struktūralisto Gérard’o Genette’o transteks- pamatine sąskambių struktūra. Akivaizdu, kad trigarsis tualumo teoriją ir joje išskirtą metatekstualumo sąvoką, nes vienokia ar kitokia forma išliko ir XX–XXI a. kompozitorių trigarsio, kaip tam tikro muzikos elemento, komponavimas kūryboje, tačiau jo naudojimas ir reikšmė smarkiai pakito. tam tikruose muzikiniuose tekstuose yra panaudojamas Tad nenuostabu, kad posttonaliosios muzikos epochoje, nesant būtinumo cituoti ir neįvardijant šaltinio. O tercinės kuri ypač XX a. pirmoje pusėje pasižymėjo radikaliomis sandaros struktūra ir sąsajos analizuojamos remiantis neo- antitonaliomis tendencijomis (atonali, dodekafoninė, rymaniškąja teorija ir kitomis, kompozitorių sukurtomis mikrotoninė, futuristinė triukšmų, kitokia kūryba), panau- savitomis muzikos komponavimo technikomis. dotas tercinės sandaros mažorinis ar minorinis kvintakordas sukeldavo ypatingą muzikinį efektą. Šioms pasikeitusioms reikšmėms bei trigarsio simbo- Trigarsis kaip accord parfait: istorinė retrospektyva linėms ir struktūrinėms prasmėms ištirti pasitelkiamos pastaraisiais amžiais suformuluotos teorijos. Praeities Darni, konsonansiškai skambanti muzika buvo atlie- muzikinės medžiagos panaudojimą apibrėžia XX a. pir- kama ir vertinama nuo pat senųjų laikų. Įvairių teoretikų mais dešimtmečiais atsiradusi intertekstualumo idėja, kuri muzikos tyrimai rodo1, kad jau nuo senovės Graikijos laikų

132 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose galime kalbėti apie diatoninį tetrachordą, o viduramžių, Prasiplėtus tonacijos riboms, susilpnėjo akordų ryšiai su toni- ars nova bei renesanso muzikos teorija buvo paremta dia kiniu centru. Tonikos akordai ne tik kad ne akcentuojami, kaip toninių dermių sistema, kuri atspindėjo konsonansišką anksčiau, bet, priešingai, įvairiais būdais apeinami. Atskirais skambesį. Muzikos analitikų Gioseffo Zarlino, Jeano atvejais tonikos trigarsis išvis nepasirodo, o tik nujaučiamas iš harmoninio konteksto. (Ambrazas 1980: 75) Jacques’o Rousseau, Jeano Philippe’o Rameau traktatai ir šių dienų teoretikų Margo Schulter, Serge’o Guto, Algirdo Nors XIX a. muzikoje kompozitoriai pamažu ėmė atsi- Ambrazo, Danos Palionytės tyrimai pateikia, jog jau senieji sakyti trigarsio kaip tonacinės (kartu ir apskritai harmoni- kūrėjai muziką komponavo remdamiesi tam tikromis tai- nės) sistemos pagrindo, to meto muzikos teorijos veikaluose, syklėmis, kurios prisidėjo prie tonalumo atsiradimo. Anot priešingai, matomas ypatingas trigarsio sureikšminimas. Ambrazo, Renesanso epochoje palengva įsigalėjo naujas Romantizmo epochoje išgrynintos idėjos paneigė tonacijų požiūris į tercijos ir sekstos intervalus, kurie stimuliavo ir jų pagrindinių akordų dominavimą, tačiau suaktualino trigarsių paplitimą (Ambrazas 1980: 8). Kaip tik šiuo teorijas (pavyzdžiui, tonnetz, neorymaniškąją ir t. t.), kurios laikotarpiu trigarsis tapo pagrindine skambesio norma šiuos elementus analizuoja. Todėl XIX–XXI a. tonalumas arba tobulu akordu – accord parfait2 – keturbalsiuose, ir vienas iš ryškiausių šios muzikos komponavimo principo ypač choriniuose Giovannio Pierluigio da Palestrinos, elementų – trigarsis, nors gerokai rečiau, atsižvelgus į situa- Orlande’o di Lasso, Claudio Monteverdio ir kitų kom- ciją ir toliau buvo naudojami muzikos praktikoje. pozitorių opusuose. Renesanso teoretikas Zarlino’as ne tik savo kūryboje naudojo trigarsius, bet ir 1558 m. pateikė pirmuosius api- Praeities muzikos adaptacijų teorijos: bendrinimus, kuriuose atskleidė akordo sandarą ir įvardijo Gérard’o Genette’o transtekstualumo teorija jį kaip daugiabalsės faktūros pagrindą. Tercija ir kvinta, teoretiko nuomone, buvo vieninteliai esminiai kompozicijos Posttonaliosiosios muzikos laikotarpiu įžvalgos apie elementai, todėl jis pirmasis „[...] trigarsį suvokė kaip praeities muzikos įtaką naujiems kompozitorių kūriniams vientisą harmoninę struktūrą – daugiabalsumo pagrindą“ tapo naujo požiūrio į muzikinį tekstą pagrindu. Praeities (Daunoravičienė 2003: 439). Svarbu pasakyti, kad XVII a. muzikinės medžiagos ir elementų panaudojimą apibrėžia pradžioje Johannesas Lippiusas traktate „Synopsis musicae intertekstualumo (pranc. intertextualité, angl. intertexua- novae“ (1612) pirmą kartą panaudojo ir akordo kaip trigar- lity) sąvoka, kuri radosi literatūros žanre. sio sąvoką (angl. triad). Galiausiai akordas tapo ir tonacijų, [...] reiškinys, vadinamas intertekstualumu, pačia plačiausia kurias muzikaliai pavaizdavo ir apipavidalino Johanno prasme yra ne kas kita kaip savo ir svetimo žodžio sąveika arba Sebastiano Bacho kūrinių rinkinys „Das wohltemperierte tekstų dialogas. (Melnikova 2003: 5) Klavier“ („Gerai temperuotas klavyras“, 1722), parašytas visoms 24 tonacijoms, pagrindu. Tiesa, intertekstualumo sąvoka nėra tolygi, dar XX a. Klasicizmo laikotarpiu įsigalėjus tonalumo principams, pabaigoje šis terminas buvo ypač netiksliai vartojamas. Anot kai muziką imta komponuoti remiantis nebe dermėmis, o Lauros Kaščiukaitės: tonacijomis, akordinė harmonijos samprata perėmė lini- Pastebime, jog šį reiškinį nagrinėję tyrinėtojai, nors ir nenu- jinį mąstymą, pagrindiniu šios naujai besiformuojančios klysta nuo pagrindinės apibrėžimo reikšmės, tačiau savaip ją harmonijos sistemos dariniu tapo galiausiai įtvirtintas interpretuoja. [Tačiau] intertekstualumo teorijos tyrinėtojai trigarsis. XVIII a. kompozitorius ir teoretikas Jeanas (R. Barthes’as, M. Foucault, J. N. Strausas, M. Bachtinas, Philippe’as Rameau ypač pabrėžė tonikos akordą, kurį M. L. Kleinas ir kt.) laikosi vieningos nuomonės, teigdami, savo traktate „Traité de l’harmonie reduite à ses principes jog kiekvieną naujai kuriamą tekstą įtakoja jau egzistuojan- čios kūrybinės erdvės kontinuumas, t. y. „tekstų tinklas“ [...]. naturels“ (1722) pavadino tobulu akordu – accord parfait. (Kaščiukaitė 2010: 3) Tercinės sandaros akordas virto ne tik pagrindiniu kūrinį reprezentuojančiu sąskambiu, kuris eksponuoja kūrinio Telkiantis į elementų panaudojimą muzikoje, verta dermę, tonaciją ir jos komponavimo pagrindą, bet ir pateikti ir prancūzų teoretiko Genette’o intertekstualumo akordu, kuriuo dažniausiai pradedamas ar užbaigiamas teorijos klasifikaciją. Kaip teigia Voicu’as M. Simandanas, opusas; sąskambis buvo traktuojamas kaip pagrindas, iš maždaug nuo 1960 m. buvo išplėtota daug įvairių teorijų, kurio kildinami kiti akordai. o tarp jų svarią poziciją užėmė ir šiuolaikinis prancūzų Skirtingai nei klasicizmo laikotarpiu, romantizmo kū- teoretikas ir kritikas Genette’as (Simandan 2011). Jis buvo rėjai harmonijos parametrą pasitelkė emocijoms išreikšti, pirmasis teoretikas, kuris puoselėjo struktūralistinį požiūrį muzikos pobūdžiui intensyvinti ir muzikinėms spalvoms į intertekstualumą. Savo teorijoje Genette’as siūlė trans- perteikti. Todėl romantizmo periodu pradėta sąmoningai tekstualumo sąvoką, kuri iš esmės yra intertekstualumo pamažu atsisakyti trigarsio akordo. sąvokos sinonimas, tik apima dar platesnį idėjų spektrą.

133 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Laura SVIRSKAITĖ

Pasak jo, transtekstualumo teorija apima „viską, kas nu- Pasak teoretiko, trigarsis moderniojo laikotarpio pra- stato ir pažymi akivaizdžius ar abejotinus teksto ryšius su džioje tapo muzikos elementu, kuris išprovokavo senos ir kitais tekstais“ (Genette 1992: 83–84). Teoretikas vartoja naujos muzikos konfliktą. Kompozicijose klasikų kūrėjų transtekstualumo sąvoką siekdamas parodyti, kad tekstas charakteringiausius ir esminius muzikos kalbos elementus gali būti sistemingai interpretuojamas ir jį galima lengvai minėti autoriai interpretuoja remdamiesi naujais muzikos suprasti (Simandan 2011). bruožais. Keisdami trigarsio funkciją jie siekia neutralizuoti Genette’as transtekstualumo sąvoką išskaido į penkias jo tonacinę reikšmę ir atnaujina jį posttonaciniame konteks- kategorijas: intertekstualumą, paratekstualumą, metateks- te (Straus 1990: 74). Tad ir Strausas į tercinės sandaros ele- tualumą, hipertekstualumą ir architekstualumą. mentą žvelgia per metateksto prizmę, kai akordas įterpiamas į XX ir XXI a. kompozicijas įvairiais netradiciniais būdais. •• Autorius teigia, kad jo klasifikacijoje intertekstualumo sąvoka yra labiau apribota, palyginti su paradigminiu Panaikindamas trigarsio tradicinę prigimtį, demons- Julios Kristevos apibrėžimu, mat jo teorijoje inter- truodamas naujų muzikos komponavimo priemonių tekstualumas apibrėžia ryšio tarp kelių tekstų buvimą: galimybes apimti ir perkurti ankstesnius elementus Bergas tai paprastas ar vaizdingas vieno teksto panaudojimas sukuria Koncertą smuikui ir orkestrui (1935), kuriame kon- kitame. sonuojantis kvintakordas taip pat pasireiškia kaip praeities muzikos elementas. Šiame kūrinyje trigarsiai atsiranda ir yra •• Paratekstualumas – santykis tarp teksto visumos ir gausiai interpretuojami per dodekafonijos karkasą. Kom- visapusiškai su juo susijusio parateksto, pavyzdžiui, pava- pozitorius profesionaliai mėgdžioja tonaliosios muzikos dinimo, antraštės, pratarmės dedikacijos, padėkos ir t. t. harmoninius procesus, demonstruodamas dvylikos tonų •• Hipertekstualumu Genette’as vadina „bet kokį santykį, galią apimti pagrindines tradicinės tonaliosios muzikos kuris vienytų B tekstą (aš [Genette’as – L. S.] linkęs ji ypatybes. Knygoje pateikiamas šio koncerto pavyzdys – kva- vadinti hipertekstu) su ankstesniu A tekstu (aš jį linkęs zitonalus kelių trigarsių junginys, nuskambantis po 10 taktų vadinti hipotekstu), prie kurio prijungiamas metodas, įžangos (1 pvz.). Ištraukos harmonijoje vaizduojama, jog kuris nėra komentaras“ (Genette 1997: 5). plėtojama tonalių trigarsių seka – g minorinis, D mažorinis, • Dar vienas tipas, kurį autorius vadina abstrakčiausiu, a minorinis ir E mažorinis akordai. Taip pat šią seką galima • 6 46 6 yra architekstualumas – sąvoka susijusi su teksto kaip interpretuoti ir funkcijomis g-moll tonacijoje: I–V –II –V žanro dalies ar žanro žymėjimu. (g-moll antrojo giminingumo tonacijoje). Kaip rašo Strau- sas, dar akivaizdžiau trigarsiai pasireiškia įžangos taktuose, •• Metatekstualumas žymi vieno teksto tikslias ar numa- kuriuose eksponuojamas smuiko skambesys kvintomis – nomas nuorodas kitame tekste (Simandan 2011). g-d-a-e-h, taip apibrėždamas tų pačių akordų (g, D, a ir E) Toliau straipsnyje pristatomas tyrimas buvo atliekamas ribas. Akivaizdžiausiai matomos trigarsio apraiškos pasireiš- pasitelkiant Genette’o teoriją ir remiantis metatekstualu- kia 15–20 taktuose, kuriuose pirmą kartą smuiko partijoje mo sąvoka, kuri apibrėžiama kaip teksto ir „komentaro“ eksponuojama dodekafoninė serija. 1 pavyzdyje matyti, santykis. Ji jungia vieną tekstą su kitu tekstu, kuriame šis jog dabar trigarsiai papildo vienas kitą, vieno trigarsio pa- komponuojamas nesant būtinumo cituoti, iš tiesų net skutinis garsas tampa kito pirmuoju garsu. Šiame kūrinyje nenurodant šaltinio (Genette 1997: 4). Šiuo atveju trigar- trigarsiai prisitaiko prie dvylikos tonų komponavimo ir yra sis, kaip tam tikro muzikos elemento komponavimas tam kaip artefaktas bei rodo ryšį su praeitimi. tikruose muzikiniuose tekstuose, yra panaudojamas nesant būtinumo cituoti ir neįvardijant šaltinio. Šis muzikos komponentas nepriklauso konkrečiam autoriui ar tekstui, bet yra klasicizmo epochoje prasidėjusios funkcinės harmoninės teorijos pagrindas. Apie praeities muzikos kalbos elementų panaudojimą XX a. pirmos pusės kūriniuose kalba Josephas N. Strausas knygoje „Remaking the Past: Musical Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition“ (1990). Jis pateikia 1 pvz. Albano Bergo Koncertas smuikui ir orkestrui, 11–14 t. kritišką požiūrį į kompozitorių Igorio Stravinskio, Arnol- do Schönbergo, Béla’os Bartóko, Antono von Weberno Itin plačiai trigarsis XX a. muzikoje buvo naudojamas ir ir Albano Bergo muzikoje panaudotas įvairias aliuzijas. pasitelkiant oktatoninę dermę. Stravinskio „Psalmių simfo- Gerai žinomi mažoriniai ir minoriniai trigarsiai yra plačiai nijos“ (1930) pirma dalis parašyta remiantis minėta derme, naudojami skirtinguose posttonaliosios muzikos stiliuose, kurioje ryškiai pasireiškia trigarsio pamatas. Kompozicija įskaitant neoklasicizmą, neotonalumą ir minimalizmą prasideda diatoniniu akordiniu sąskambiu, kuris nurodo (Straus 2005: 134). e-moll tonacijos trigarsį. Tačiau, kaip rašo Strausas, visame

134 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose kūrinyje vyksta harmoninis konfliktas tarpe ir G tonacijų, Mažorinis / minorinis tonalumas kūrinyje „Vingt Regards“ nes ir pirmame akorde g nata pabrėžiama net keturiose pasirodo daug kartų [...]. (Walker 1989) skirtingose oktavose. Pradinio akordo sandara ir supantis Motyvo kraštiniai sąskambiai sudaryti iš sekst muzikos kontekstas gana aiškiai nusako, jog tai nėra įprastas Fis akordų, ketvirtasis akordas pateikia kvartekstakordą, e-moll tonikos akordas. Kompozitorius kuria harmoninį Fis o trečiasis akordas sudarytas iš garsų , ir , kuriuos konfliktą remdamasis poliškumu, o tai pagrindžia, jog akor- ais dis g dą girdime, jis komponuojamas oktatonikos kontekste, kuris enharmoniškai pakeitę (es vietoj dis ir b vietoj ais) gauname sutrikdo trigarsio ir vėliau skambančio dominantseptakordo Es mažorinio trigarsio kvartsekstakordą, o antrajame galima tradicinę funkciją. Akivaizdus dominantseptakordas, kuris išskirti a minorinį sekstakordą his (enharmoniškai – c), eksponuojamas po pirmojo akordo, išplečia garsų rinkinį e ir a, kuris skamba su papildomu garsu ais skirtingose ir suteikia kontekstą pirmojo akordo interpretacijai – tai oktavose (2 pvz.). Dievo tema skirtingai eksponuojama ne e-moll tonika, o oktatonikos poaidis. Šių dviejų akordų šešiose fortepijoninio ciklo pjesėse – tiksliai, harmoniškai buvimas oktatonikos dalimi ir arpeggio garsai pateikia du ir ritmiškai tema panaudojama pirmoje dalyje, V pjesėje svarbius motyvus, as-g ir b-h, kurie muzikaliai apdainuoja e- ši tema pateikiama šiek tiek pakeista, o ilgojoje VI dalyje moll trigarsį. „Psalmės akordas“ taip įtvirtinamas oktatoni- ji apima tik labai trumpą atkarpą, kur muzikos medžiaga kos karkase. Kaip teigia knygos autorius, kūrinio užbaigimas smarkiai kinta ritmiškai ir harmoniškai (smulkios natų G tonacijoje taip pat rodo oktatonikos poaidį. Remiantis vertės, mažinamas akordų garsų skaičius ir pan.). XI pjesėje šiomis ypatybėmis galima teigti, jog šis Psalmės akordas keičiami sąskambiai, šioje dalyje vietoj Fis sekstakordo ir Es girdimas oktatonikos kontekste, o tai sutrikdo trigarsio ar kvartsekstakordo skamba B ir G akordai, XV pjesėje panau- kokio kito tonaliojo akordo tradicinę reikšmę. dojami tik sąskambiai iš dviejų garsų (tercijos), o finalinėje dalyje tema pripildoma naujų garsų.

Trigarsis kaip simbolis atonaliojoje muzikoje

Verta pabrėžti, kad trigarsio naudojimas atonaliojoje muzikoje reikalauja kruopštaus kritiško dėmesio, nes kla- 2 pvz. Olivier Messiaeno „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“, sikų kūrėjų būdingiausius ir esmingiausius muzikos kalbos Dievo temos akordai elementus kompozitoriai interpretuoja įvairiausiais būdais ir tikslais bei remdamiesi naujais muzikos bruožais. Keisdami Ypač reikšmingas ir aktualus yra Dievo temos eksponavimas trigarsio funkciją jie siekia neutralizuoti jo tonacinę reikšmę pirmoje dalyje, nes temai būdingas stiprus tonalumo pojūtis, bei atnaujina jį posttonaciniame kontekste (Straus 1990: aiškiai nurodant Fis ne kaip pagrindinį akordą, o kaip toniką. 74). Tai viename, tai kitame kūrinyje aptinkamos konso- (Bruhn 1997: 273) nuojančio kvintakordo (ar jo apvertimų) apraiškos skatina mėginti užčiuopti jų prasmę ir tikslą, kruopščiai ištirti Pirmoje pjesėje „Regard du Père“ Messiaenas pasinaudo- atsižvelgiant ir į visiškai naujas muzikos teorijos įžvalgas. ja tikslia Dievo tema, dalis skamba itin konsonansiškai, nes ir kitų balsų muzikos medžiaga atitinka temos sąskambius. Olivier Messiaeno „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“ Verta pasakyti, kad tema ne tik sukomponuota iš trigarsių Sąmoningai trigarsį kaip simbolį pasitelkė žanrų įvairove akordų, bet ir paremta oktatonine derme. Kompozitorius pasižymintis Messiaenas. Jo kūryboje neabejotinai vienas savo modalinę techniką pagrindžia paties sukurtomis septy- iš ryškiausių fortepijoninių kūrinių yra „Vingt Regards niomis „ribotos transpozicijos dermėmis“3, o šiame kūrinyje sur l’Enfant-Jésus“ („Dvidešimt žvilgsnių į Kūdikėlį Jėzų“, galima išskirti dirbtinę antrąją – oktatoninę dermę. Šį garsa- 1944). Kompozitorius kūrinyje labai akivaizdžiai pasiremia eilį sudaro 8 gamos garsai (t. y. pakaitomis komponuojami metatekstualiais praeities elementais, t. y. trigarsiais vienoje pustonis ir tonas arba tonas ir pustonis). iš kūrinio temų – vaizduojamas šventumas, akordai simboli- Peržvelgus Dievo temą ir pirmojo takto boso partiją, zuoja stabilumą, Dievo meilę Sūnui. Messiaenas ne tik įpina galima matyti, kad šis harmoniškai sukomponuotas taip trigarsius į muzikinę medžiagą, bet ir pasinaudoja dirbtine pat kaip ir temos šablonas, kurį sudaro antrosios Messiaeno oktatonikos derme, kurioje minėtas muzikos elementas dermės eilėgarsis – ais-c-cis-dis-e-fis-g-a-ais, o kitame balse užima svarią poziciją. pateikiamas akustinis temos sustiprinimas (dubliavimas) Fortepijoninį ciklą sudaro 20 dalių, jas jungia religinė arba ritminė figūracija (3 pvz.). Tonalumo ir pagrindinio tematika ir trys trumpos temos – Dievo, žvaigždės ir kry- konsonansiško akordo apraiškos būdingos ne tik temai, bet žiaus bei akordų. Didžiausias dėmesys šiame cikle skiriamas ir dermei, kurioje natūraliai pasireiškia C, c, dis, Es, fis, Fis, Dievo temai, kuri sudaryta iš tonalumą simbolizuojančių a ir A trigarsių kontūrai (4 pvz.). trigarsio akordų.

135 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Laura SVIRSKAITĖ

dermė susideda iš garsų b, h, cis, d, e, f, g, as, boso linija skamba itin konsonansiškai, primena tonalių akordų seką, o viršutiniame balse sąskambiai įvairūs, jie muzikai suteikia atonalumo apraiškų, nors ir skamba itin tylioje dinamikoje ir aukštuose registruose, o tai slopina atonalų įspūdį. Siglind Bruhn teigimu:

[...] dermė nuolat pasikartodama išlieka artimai susijusi su 3 pvz. Olivier Messiaeno „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“, bendra šio kūrinio idėja, kuri akcentuoja Dievo visapusiškos pjesė „Regards du Pére“, 1 t. meilės pasireiškimą [...]. (Bruhn 1997: 255) Visiškai tikslūs temos akordai abiejuose balsuose skamba 10–15 taktuose, kur muzikos medžiaga komponuojama vien iš oktatonikos garsų ir trigarsinių akordų (5 pvz.). Kūrinyje „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“ Messiaenas akivaizdžiai pasiremia metatekstualiais praeities elementais, t. y. trigarsiais vienoje iš kūrinio temų, kurioje perteikiamas 4 pvz. Olivier Messiaeno „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“, šventumas, akordai simbolizuoja stabilumą, Dievo meilę pjesė „Regards du Pére“, oktatoninė dermė ir galimi jos Sūnui. Pats autorius partitūroje apie kūrinį rašo: trigarsiai Mintys apie Dievo Kūdikį ėdžiose ir į jį nukreipti žvilgsniai: nuo neapsakomo Dievo Tėvo žvilgsnio, daugkartinio Bažny- Apie tai kalbėjo ir Wai Ling Cheong. Pasak jos, kiekvie- čios meilės žvilgsnio, neįtikėtino džiaugsmo dvasios ar švel- nos Messiaeno dermės sudėtyje slypi tercinės sandaros akor- naus Mergelės žvilgsnių, iki angelų, išminčiaus ir nematerialių, dai (Wai Ling 2002), kurie bet kuriuo atveju (sąmoningai arba simbolinių, būtybių žvilgsnių (laiko, aukštybių, tylos, ar ne) pasireikš kompozitoriaus komponavimo eilėgarsiais žvaigždės ar kryžiaus). (Messiaen 2008: 1) paremtoje kūryboje. Visiškai identiškai sukomponuotas ir antras taktas, o trečiame įterpiami sąskambiai, kurie suside- Vokiečių muzikologė Bruhn taip pat pastebi ir pabrėžia, da iš gis, h, cis, f ir cis, d, e, gis garsų, dalis jų priklauso kitai jog kūrinyje pagrindinis dėmesys skiriamas Dievo ir Sūnaus oktatoninės dermės transpozicijai. Šiame takte oktatoninė santykiui (Bruhn 1997: 235). Pavyzdžiui, pirmoji šio ciklo dermė pakinta – ketvirtame takte muzika komponuojama pjesė „Regard du Père“ vaizduoja ilgą Tėvo kontempliaciją, iš garsų cis, d, e, f, g, gis, ais ir h, jie sudaro jau kitos transpo- susitelkimą į Sūnų, čia įtaigiausiai ir tiksliausiai panaudo- zicijos oktatoninę dermę. Šiek tiek pakeista, visa dalis apima jama kaip tik Dievo tema. O kitų žvilgsniai – Mergelės Dievo temą ir kelias oktatoninių dermių transpozicijas. (vertėtų pabrėžti, jog nepateikiama kaip motinos), kryžiaus, žvaigždės ir t. t., – nėra taip akcentuojami, todėl autorė tei- Dievo apmąstymo (angl. The Father’s Contemplation) dalyje gia, kad „šiame kūrinyje akivaizdžiai kalbama apie meilę, tai O. Messiaenas taiko tris antrosios dermės transpozicijas tokiu yra paremta netgi nuorodomis kompozicijoje, kur kūrėjas būdu, jog gana aiškiai kuriamos Fis kvazitonacijos klasikinės pažymi opusą atlikti „paslaptingai, su meile“ (angl. – mys- funkcinės harmonijos akordų iliuzijos. Pirmoji transpozicija terious, with love) (Bruhn 1997: 235). eksponuojama nuo Fis (I garsaeilio nata, kuri siejama su tonika), antroji Cis (V laipsnis – dominantė) bei trečioji nuo B (IV laipsnis – subdominantė) garsų. (Bruhn 1997: 238) Luigio Dallapicola’os „Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera“ Kitaip Dievo tema suskamba XI pjesėje „Première Sąmoningos trigarsio apraiškos gali būti derinamos communion de la Vierge“ („Pirmoji Mergelės Komunija“), ne tik su muzikos komponavimo technikomis, kurios jau čia ji transponuojama ir vietoj akordų Fis, a ir Es skamba turi šių akordų struktūrų, bet ir su muzikos kalba, kuri B, cis bei G trigarsių sąskambiai. Šioje dalyje oktatoninė remiasi visišku tonalumo atsisakymu. Nors dodekafonijos

5 pvz. Olivier Messiaeno „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“, pjesė „Première communion de la Vierge“, 11–14 t.

136 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose

6 pvz. Luigio Dallapiccola’os „Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera“, pjesė Nr. 1 „Simbolo“, 1–8 t., 12 garsų serija (1–6 t.) ir tonalumo derinimas yra gana paradoksalus reiškinys, juk 9 t. Ges trigarsis atonaliosios muzikos komponavimo būdas sukonstruotas 11 t. enharmoniškai Ges trigarsis kaip visiška tonalaus mąstymo, klasikinės harmonijos 14 t. C trigarsis priešingybė, kai kurie kūrėjai vis dėlto rado būdą suderinti 15 t. Ges trigarsis tonalumą su atonalumu ar posttonalumu. 16 t. es6 ir F trigarsiai 17 t. trigarsis Fortepijoniniame cikle „Quaderno Musicale di Anna- E 21 t. h trigarsis libera“ italų kompozitorius Luigis Dallapiccola labai aki- 25–27 t. fis trigarsis vaizdžiai derina du skirtingus tonaliosios ir posttonaliosios 32 t. fis trigarsis muzikos komponavimo būdus, kai į 12 lygiaverčių garsų 36–37 t. D trigarsis skalę įterpia gana nemažai trigarsių sąskambių. Kūrinys ne 38–41 t. a trigarsis tik pripildytas tonalių akordų, bet pavadinimu, forma ir 42 t. enharmoniškai Ces trigarsis turiniu atspindi Baroko epochos kompozitoriaus Johanno Sebastiano Bacho kūrybą. Tad kompozicijoje galima įžvelgti Pjesėje kvintakordai ir jų apvertimai gali būti pateikti ne tik metatekstualumą (tam tikrų praeities muzikos ele- dvejopai – suskambant ne vienu metu arba maskuojant mentų apraiškas), šiuo atveju trigarsius, BACH motyvą ir sąskambio aiškumą kitais garsais, todėl verta pabrėžti, kad muzikos komponavimo būdus (polifoniją, kontrapunktą), nors pjesėje ir pateikiami gana aiškūs ir akivaizdūs tona- bet ir intertekstualumą, nes kompozicija parašyta remiantis lumo sąskambiai, o jų pjesėje labai daug, vis dėlto darnų Bacho opusu „Das Klavierbüchlein für Anna Magdalena skambesį išgirsti itin sunku, nes akordai atliekami kartu su Bach“. Pavyzdžiui, jau pirmuose penkiuose pjesės „Simbolo“ kitais garsais. taktuose Dallapiccola naudoja minėtą motyvą BACH, taip Skirtingai nei pirmoji, pjesė Nr. 2 „Accenti“ pasižymi pat pavadinimas nurodo, jog šioje dalyje kompozitorius pa- itin greitu tempu, joje daug įvairių artikuliacijos ženklų sitelkia simboliką, o, kaip teigia Romanas Vladas, pjesėje jis (staccato, tenuto ir t. t.), pjesę sudaro 16 taktų, ji trunka pasirenka išreikšti pagarbą Bachui (cit. iš: Mann 2002: 14). įprastai vos 27 sekundes, o tai dar labiau maskuoja meta- „Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera“ parašytas remiantis tekstualių trigarsių akordų skambesį. Kaip ir visos ciklo 12 garsų serija ir tonalumo apraiškomis, kurios pasireiškia dalys, ši grindžiama 12 garsų serija, sukomponuota pasitel- tercinės sandaros trigarsio pateikimu kūrinio vertikalėje ir kiant dodekafoninę techniką. Visi 12 garsų suskamba jau retsykiais horizontalėje. Kompoziciją sudaro vienuolika pirmuose dviejuose taktuose (7 pvz.). dalių, jos visos skirtingos savo pobūdžiu, skambesiu, artikuliacija, turi net skirtingus pavadinimus ir pan. Kaip teigė pats kompozitorius, kiekvienas kūrinio pjesės pavadinimas suteikia nuorodą į muzikos turinį (Barfoot 1998: 1). Pirmosios kūrinio pjesės „Simbolo“ muzikinė medžiaga sukonstruota iš aiškiai pateiktų dvylikos garsų, kurie beveik identiškai eksponuojami ir kūrinio pradžioje (6 pvz.), ir kūrinio paskutiniuose taktuose. Gana aiškiai serijos pabaigoje suskamba a trigarsis, 6 tak- 7 pav. Luigio Dallapiccola’os „Quaderno Musicale di te ais sąskambis, 7–8 taktuose e trigarsis ir t. t. Pasitelkiant Annalibera“, pjesė Nr. 2 „Accenti“, 1–2 t., 12 garsų lygių dvylikos garsų sistemą, kuri derinama su itin dažnai pasirodančiais trigarsiais, komponuojama visa autoriaus Kaip tik šioje pjesėje trigarsiai atliekami ir maskuojami kompozicija. Įvairūs tonalūs trigarsiai sąskambiai skamba: ne tik greito tempo ar artikuliacijos ženklais, bet ir tuo, kaip

137 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Laura SVIRSKAITĖ

8 pvz. Luigio Dallapiccola’os „Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera“, pjesė Nr. 2 „Accenti“, 7, 11 ir 13 t. jie įpinami į muzikos medžiagą. 8 pavyzdyje matyti, jog visų Iš pateiktų analizių matyti, kad abu kompozitoriai garsų muzikinę medžiagą sudaro tik skirtingi trigarsiai. trigarsio akordą pasitelkia tam tikrai simbolikai atskleisti. Pirmasis akordas apima garsus b-g-as-c-dis-e, iš jų galima Messiaenas šį sąskambį naudoja, kad parodytų stabilumą, sudaryti skirtingus tercinės sandaros sąskambius: ramybę, Dievo meilę Sūnui, nes ir tema pasireiškia dalyse, kurios akcentuoja Dievo ir Sūnaus santykį, o Dallapiccola Es46 → b-g-dis (enharmoniškai es) konsonuojančiais akordais sukuria ryšį su Baroko epochos C → 46 g-c-e kompozitoriaus Bacho muzikos komponavimo principais. c46 → g-c-dis (enharmoniškai es) As → as-c-dis (enharmoniškai es) Naujojo tonalumo teorijos: Sunkiai darniai skambančios muzikos apraiškų galima iš- trigarsis kaip struktūrinis vienetas girsti ir pjesėje Nr. 7 „Andantino Amoroso e Contrapunctus Tertius“. Pirmuose taktuose 12 natų serija išdėstyta vertikaliai Nors metatekstualūs tonalumo elementai yra daugiau (9 pvz.) ir taip susidaro nemažai trigarsių sąskambių, pavyz- ar mažiau akivaizdūs ir kai kuriose atonaliose, modaliose džiui, trys kvintos antrame takte. Iš pirmųjų serijos garsų, ar net radikaliai dodekafoninėse XX a. pirmos pusės kom- išdėliojus juos paeiliui, taip pat būtų galima atsekti kelių pozicijose, vis dėlto svarbiausios modernaus skambesio trigarsių pėdsakus: 2–3–4 garsai b-es-ges (ges), 6–7–8 garsai vizijos didžiąją XX a. muzikinio palikimo dalį paženklino as-des-f (Des). Jei anksčiau dar galėjo kilti abejonių, ar kom- kategoriško tonalumo atsižadėjimo ir novatoriško žvilgsnio pozitorius trigarsius išskiria sąmoningai, šios dalies 15 takte į pačią harmoniją idėjomis. Pasitraukus neoklasicizmo c trigarsis yra ypač pabrėžiamas ir klausantis girdimas, nes stilistikai, tonalioji muzika vėl atgijo XX a. antroje pusėje, aiškiai atskiriamas kableliais ir yra akcentuojamas (10 pvz.). kai kompozitoriai ėmė muziką kurti pagal minimalistinius, „naujojo paprastumo“4 (vok. Neue Einfachheit) ir „naujojo tonalumo“ (angl. New tonality) komponavimo principus. Tad kaip tik neoklasicizmo ir minimalizmo stilistikų atstovai muziką kūrė atsigręžę į praeities muzikos komponavimo būdus ir tendencijas, tik tai darė skirtingai. Mini- malizmo stilistikos kompozitoriai, priešindamiesi jau domi- nuojančioms avangardinėms ir eksperimentinėms muzikos 9 pvz. Luigio Dallapiccola’os „Quaderno Musicale di tendencijoms, siekė „sugrąžinti muziką prie elementarių jos Annalibera“, pjesė Nr. 7 „Andantino Amoroso e Contrapunctus Tertius“, 1–2 t. pagrindų“ (Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė 2003: 445) ir „atsigręž- ti į save tokius, kokie kartą jau buvome“ (Fisk 1994: 410). Kita vertus, būtina pasakyti, jog kompozitorių minimalistų santykis su klasicizmo ar kitų „senųjų“ epochų stilistika vis dėlto smarkiai skyrėsi nuo neoklasikams būdingo siekio metatekstualiai moderniomis priemonėmis rekonstruoti praeities epochų muzikos kalbos principus (nuo formos iki harmonijos). Net ir kalbant apie harmoniją, skirtumas akivaizdus, nes „minimalizmo kūriniai yra neteleologiniai – juose nėra tonaliai muzikai būdingos nepastovių laipsnių traukos į pastoviuosius, nėra poreikio judėti link atomazgos. Atsisakoma tonacinio centro, kaip tikslo, kurio siekiama, 10 pvz. Luigio Dallapiccolos „Quaderno Musicale di idėjos“ (Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė 2003: 445). Annalibera“, pjesė Nr. 7 „Andantino Amoroso e Contrapunctus Žinoma, kiekvieno autoriaus muzikos žanrų inte- Tertius“, 15–16 t. resai ir muzikos komponavimo pobūdis skiriasi, tačiau

138 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose

„Metamorphosis „Metamorphosis „Metamorphosis „Metamorphosis „Metamorphosis One“ Two“ Three“ Four“ Five“

e garsaeilis a garsaeilis d garsaeilis c garsaeilis e garsaeilis

1 lentelė. Philipo Glasso „Metamorphosis“ dalių pagrindiniai tonaciniai laukai pagrindiniai muzikos komponavimo principai buvo bendri. Vieno iš minimalizmo pradininkų Terry’o Riley’o kūrybos kelias prasidėjo nuo taip pat atonalių opusų, tačiau „[...] susipažinęs su L. M. Youngu bei išgirdęs jo ilgų konsonansiškų tonų muziką pasuko naujos stilistikos 11 pvz. Philipo Glasso „Metamorphosis One“, 1–5 t. keliu“ (Strickland 2001: 395). Riley’o kūryba dažniausiai komponuojama remiantis kvazitonaliu garsaeiliu, kurį Visas Glasso fortepijonui parašytas ciklas sukompo- jis išdėsto trumpuose, dažniausiai vieno ar kelių taktų nuotas iš keturių trigarsių ir jų harmoninių transformacijų. muzikos segmentuose. Puikiai šiuos bruožus atspindi dar Atsižvelgiant į pavadinimą, tokias transformacijas galima ankstyvuoju kūrybos periodu parašytas chrestomatiniu būtų vadinti akordo metamorfozėmis. Kiekviena pjesė tapęs opusas „In C“ (1964). Kūrinys, be abejonės, susijęs su pradedama konkrečiu trigarsiu akordu, kuris periodiškai metatekstualiais elementais – harmoniniu lauku ir garsams kartojasi visame kūrinyje, todėl opusas tarsi pasižymi sta- c-e-g tenkančiu svorio centru, t. y. trigarsiu, nes šis akordas biliu tonaciniu centru. Pateiktų pagrindinių akordų suskamba atlikimo metu keliais būdais: tiek grynu pavidalu, „metamorfozės“ ryškiai pasireiškia visose dalyse, kai vieno tiek maskuojamas papildomais garsais kituose sąskambiuo- akordo garsai keičiami mažiausiais atstumais ir atveda prie se. Verta pasakyti ir tai, jog kompozitorius pasirenka pačią kito trigarsio sąskambio. Pavyzdžiui, trečios pjesės krašti- šabloniškiausią tonaciją, kuri reprezentuoja konsonansišką, nėse dalyse beveik visa muzikos medžiaga susideda tik iš d švariausią baltos diatonikos muzikos lauką. trigarsio ir jo modifikacijų, iš kurių susidaro g, Es, C ir A Labai ryškios tonalumo apraiškos, įvairūs pasikartojan- tercinės sandaros akordai. Nors tercinės sandaros akordai ir tys modeliai, konkretūs tonacijų laukai būdingi fortepijonui jų metamorfozės eksponuojamos visose pjesėse, kraštinėse skirtam Philipo Glasso ciklui „Metamorphosis“ (1989), ku- ciklo dalyse pateikiami įvairesni sąskambiai (pavyzdžiui, ris yra albumo „Solo piano“ rinkinio dalis kartu su kūriniais jau pradžios motyve nuskamba c-g-h sandaros akordai) (11 „Mad Rush“ ir „Wichita Sutra Vortex“. Šiuo atveju trigarsis pvz.), o kitose dalyse muzikos medžiaga sukomponuojama ir išvestiniai akordo variantai tampa viso kūrinio pagrindu vien iš trigarsės harmonijos. Pavyzdžiui, „Metamorphosis ar net, galima sakyti, metatekstuali trigarsė harmonija Two“ būdingi trigarsiai, kurie pateikiami be jokių papildo- tampa kūriniu. Kaip tik čia atsiskleidžia visiškai akivaizdi mų garsų, visas kūrinys sukomponuotas vien iš a, A, C, F Glasso puoselėjama „klasikinė“ muzikos tradicija, nes kū- ir G akordų, o tolimesnę dalį sudaro d trigarsio faktūriniai rėjas muziką komponuoja pasitelkęs patį paprasčiausią ir variantai ir pagrindinio akordo modifikacijos, kurių metu primityviausią harmonijos elementą. susidaro g6, A, C, Es46, Fis46 sąskambiai (dalyje vos keliuose Rinkinys susideda iš 5 dalių („Metamorphosis One“, taktuose suskamba kitokios sandaros akordai), o „Meta- „Metamorphosis Two“ ir t. t.), kiekvienoje pjesėje dermė morphosis Four“ dalyje skamba c trigarsio keli faktūriniai keičiama remiantis minimalistine moduliacija, todėl kiek variantai ir pagrindinį akordą varijuojant susidarantys C, vienas opusas turi gana aiškų pagrindinį tonacijos lauką, Des6, Des46, d, f, G ir a6 sąskambiai, užpildantys visą kūrinio kurį nustatyti padeda trigarsiai akordai (žr. 1 lentelę), bei po muzikos medžiagą. kelis skirtingus faktūrinius-harmoninius muzikos modelius, Ilgainiui šalia minimalizmo išryškėjo ir „naujojo papras- kuriais konstruojamas visas muzikos kūrinys ar net ciklas. tumo“ judėjimas, kuriuo sekė Europos kūrėjai, pavyzdžiui,

12 pvz. Philipo Glasso „Metamorphosis Two“, F ir G akordų susidarymas 13–14, 77–78 ir 47–48 t. grupėse

139 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Laura SVIRSKAITĖ

Michaelis Nymanas, Louisas Andriessenas, Arvo’as Pärtas, ir ryškiausiai reprezentuojančių šį stilių, yra dviejų dalių Bronius Kutavičius, Veljo’as Tormis ir kt. Šių kompozitorių concerto grosso dviem smuikams, styginių orkestrui ir prepa- muzika nuo amerikiečių skyrėsi tonalia muzikos medžiaga, ruotam fortepijonui, simboliškai pavadintas „Tabula rasa“ pinama su tam tikrais estetiniais ar kitokiais techniniais („Švari lenta“, 1977). Kurdamas konsonansišką ir darniai sprendimais. skambantį opusą kompozitorius pasitelkė minimalistinę muzikos kalbą, pasikartojančius motyvus ir tintinnabuli [...] šalia repetityvinės minimalizmo linijos, siejamos su stilių bei faktūrą. Pärtas ne tik rėmėsi gana konkrečiais meta- T. Riley, S. Reicho, Ph. Glasso ir kitų muzikiniais opusais, „šventieji minimalistai“ atstovauja paraleliai koegzistuojančiai tekstualiais harmoniniais laukais (minorinės diatonikos nuo „ilgų trukmių“ minimalizmo šakai. (Kaščiukaitė 2012: 10) a ir d garsų), bet ir pasitelkęs paties sukurtą tintinnabuli teoriją visame kūrinyje intensyviai eksploatavo tercinius Baltijos šalių kontekste itin ryškus šios muzikos kompo- trigarsius nuo a ir d garsų. Iš esmės minorinis trigarsis šia- navimo technikos atstovas yra kompozitorius Arvo’as Pärtas. me kūrinyje tampa pagrindiniu elementu, kuris pasireiškia Savita muzikos kalba ir įvairių muzikos komponavimo būdų tintinnabuli balse, imituoja varpų skambesį ir apibrėžia individualia traktuote pasižymėjo kaip tik estų šalies kūrėjas, diatoninės dermės lauko ribas, kurios pasiekamos pasitelkus kurio muzikoje gausu metatekstualių elementų – „archaiš- adityvų komponavimo principą. kų įtakų, grigališkojo choralo bei XIV–XVI a. polifonijos Ritminius-faktūrinius pasikartojančius modelius plė- kūrėjų muzikos apraiškų“ (Ramoškaitė 2007: 64). Pärtas ne tojančią kompoziciją „Tabula rasa“ sudaro dvi dalys – „I. tik pasisėmė tam tikrų bruožų iš kitų kompozitorių, bet ir Ludus“ (liet. žaidimas) ir „II. Silentium“ (liet. tyla). Pirmoji nuo 1976 m. kūryboje trigarsį ėmė taikyti kaip originalios pasižymi nuolatiniu a minorinio trigarsio eksponavimu komponavimo technikos – tintinnabuli (lot. – varpeliai) – tarp balsų. Anot Hillerio, šioje muzikoje kompozitorius svarbiausią dalį, imituojančią varpo garsus. Šio išskirtinio pasirenka trigarsio sąskambį kaip prigimties reiškinį (Hiller stiliaus muzika pagrįsta paprasčiausiais metatekstualiais 1989: 134). muzikos elementais, t. y. trigarsiu ir diatoninėmis slinktimis Ryškiausios ir stabiliausiai išlaikomos metatekstualios (Ramoškaitė 2007: 64), yra lėta ir meditacinė, tačiau sukurta trigarsio apraiškos būdingos tintinnabuli balsui, kuris pir- griežtais, minimalistiniais principais. Apie tintinnabuli moje dalyje „Ludus“ apima diatonikos lauką nuo garso a Pärtas samprotavo interviu, kurį davė Paului Hilleriui: (13 pvz.), o antroje dalyje d eolinės dermės trigarsių sąskam- Tamsiomis gyvenimo valandomis mano viduje kirbėjo mintis, bius. Dalyje „Ludus“ tercinės sandaros akordas faktūriškai jog viskas šių jausmų išorėje neturi prasmės. Sudėtingumas ir pateikiamas slenkant per styginius instrumentus žemyn, o daug aspektų mane sujaukia ir esu priverstas ieškoti santarvės. modelio pabaigoje viskas sugrįžta lyg veidrodiniu principu. Kas tai yra, tas vienas dalykas, ir kaip aš jį randu? Pėdsakai Abiejų dalių muzikos medžiagoje aiškius a ir d minorinius iki šio tobulo dalyko pasirodo įvairiausiais pavidalais – o trigarsius pateikia ir fortepijono partija. viskas, kas nesvarbu, išnyksta. Būtent tintinnabulation (liet. Kūriniui būdingas pasikartojantis bazinis modelis skambinimas varpais) visa tai apima [...]. Aš dirbu su keliais pereina per skirtingas fazes ir atitinkamai patiria įvairias elementais – su vienu ar dviem balsais. Komponuoju pasi- transformacijas bei yra atliekamas 7 kartus, tačiau modelio telkdamas pačią primityviausią medžiagą – trigarsį, vieną trukmė pamažu kinta, naudojamas adityvus muzikos kom- konkretų tonaliosios muzikos elementą. (Taruskin 2009: 407) ponavimo principas, pavyzdžiui, pirmoji atkarpa trunka 11 Vienas iš daugelį minėtų bruožų turinčių opusų, para- taktų (pirmieji du taktai pradžioje, kuriuose eksponuojamos šytų ankstyvuoju tintinnabuli kompoziciniu laikotarpiu kelios natos smuikų partijoje, bei pauzės lyg pavaizduoja

Dalis I. Ludus

Dermė eolinė dermė nuo a Modeliai 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Taktai 1–11 t. 12–25 t. 26–43 t. 44–66 t. 67–93 t. 94–125 t. 126–161 t. 162–191 t.

Cadenza II. Silentium

a-moll eolinė dermė nuo d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 192–230 t. 1–4 t. 5–12 t. 13–24 t. 25–40 t. 41–60 t. 61–84 t. 85–112 t. 113–168 t.

2 lentelė. Arvo Pärto „Tabula rasa“ struktūra

140 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose

13 pvz. Viršuje Arvo Pärto „Tabula rasa“ tintinnabuli motyvas I dalyje (1–5 t.), apačioje – II dalies „Silentium“ antrojo smuiko melodinė linija (1–3 t.) kūrinio pradžią), o 7 kartą pakartotas modelis trunka jau virsta viso kūrinio elementu, kuris sukomponuojamas su tam 30 taktų (žr. 2 lentelę). tikromis transpozicijomis, o Pärto opusuose trigarsis tampa Adityvus principas aiškiai atskleistas ir teoretikės savitos ir paties autoriaus sukurtos tintinnabuli sistemos Annos Shvets matematiniuose tyrinėjimuose. Nors Pärtas pagrindiniu elementu. neigė savo muzikos ir matematikos sąsajas, Shvets įrodo, jog kompozitoriaus kūrybos technika paremta tiksliais visų kūrinio parametrų skaičiavimais (Shvets 2014: 88). Tikslius Sintaksinio vieneto idėja: neorymaniškoji teorija skaičiavimus galima įžvelgti ne tik komponuojant frazes ir pan., bet ir diapozono skalėje. Pavyzdžiui, Shvets atlikti Kol dalis kompozitorių pasitelkė savitą trigarsių kom- tyrimai parodė, jog „I. Ludus“ dalyje melodiniame balse ponavimo techniką arba naudojo šiuos akordus pagal savo vyrauja tikslus melodinio balso diapozono apskaičiavimas sugalvotas taisykles, romantizmo laikotarpiu vis dažniau (14 pvz.). Pavyzdyje galima ryškiai matyti ne tik diapozono netonaliame kontekste imti naudoti trigarsiai „paskatino apimtį, bet ir adityvaus principo plėtojimą. teoretikų – įskaitant ir M. Hauptmanną, A. von Oettingeną Tonalūs sąskambiai akcentuojami taip pat ir kūrinio ir O. Hostinský’į – entuziastingą susidomėjimą identifikuoti kulminacijoje Cadenza padaloje, kurioje po 23 taktų su- tam tikrus nuo tonacijų nepriklausomus harmoninius skamba greiti ir intensyvūs a trigarsį arpedžiuojantys solo ryšius, kurie remiantis akordų sekomis apima tonalumą“ smuikų pasažai. Panašiu principu komponuojama ir „Tabula (Engebretsen 2011: 357). Kaip tik šio judėjimo padarinys rasa“ antroji dalis „Silentium“. Čia minorinis sąskambis išryškėjo XX a., kai Amerikos muzikos teoretiko Davido plėtojamas nuo garso d, kuris jau drąsiau užpildomas kitų Lewino dėka 1980 m. kilo neorymaniškoji teorija. Ji suteikė garsų. Pasitelkiamas ir adityvus principas, tačiau muzikiniai galimybę tyrinėti chromatinę vėlyvojo romantizmo muziką modeliai išilginami dar akivaizdžiau – pirmasis modelis (pvz., Richardo Wagnerio, Ferenco Liszto ar Césaro Franc- sutelpa į 4 taktus, paskutinis užima net 56 taktus. ko ir kt.), paremtą netradicinėmis trigarsių sekomis (Berry, Tad minėtų autorių Glasso ir Pärto kūrinuose trigarsis Solkema 2013), bei vėliau ir modernias kompozicijas. Tačiau tampa struktūrine dalele, iš kurios sukomponuojamos ilgos neorymaniškosios teorijos atstovai turėjo skirtingą nuomo- ir charakteringos kompozicijos. Glasso kūrinyje akordas nę, kaip turėtų būti komponuojami trigarsių ryšiai, todėl

14 pvz. Arvo Pärto „Tabula rasa“, pjesė „Ludus“, 8 melodinio balso diapozono grafikas

141 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Laura SVIRSKAITĖ išryškėja dvi šios teorijos kryptys. Dalis autorių, pavyzdžiui, c-G). Slide (liet. slinktis) (S) pateikia dviejų trigarsių ryšį, Lewinas, Richardas Cohnas, Brianas Hyeris ir kt., propagavo grindžiamą bendra tercija (C-cis), o Hexatonic (H) nubrėžia trijų pagrindinių operacijų, kurios gali būti atliekamos su trigarsių heksatoninius ryšius tarp akordų. trigarsiais akordais, sistemą: parallel (liet. lygiagrečioji arba Heksatoninius ryšius plėtojęs teoretikas Cohnas paste- paralelinė), leittonwechsel (angl. leading tone; liet. kintančio bėjo, jog minėta sistema apima matematines ir muzikalias vedamojo tono) bei relative (liet. giminingų arba susijusių PLR trigarsių struktūros konstrukcijas. Matematiškai akordų) (15 pvz.). heksatoninė sistema kilo iš neorymaniškų P (parallel) ir L (leittonwechsel) operacijų ir jų ryšių, o ją apima 4 heksato- ninės pozicijos, kurios pasižymi šešių sąskambių rinkiniais (17 pvz.).

15 pvz. Neorymaniškosios teorijos pagrindinės trigarsio transpozicijos

Trigarsių jungimas paprastai grindžiamas dviejų bendrų gar- sų išsaugojimu, o likęs balsas juda minimaliu žingsniu […]. (Berry, Solkema 2013)

Parallel operacijos pagrindas – tarp akordų susidaranti bendra grynoji kvinta, todėl jei kalbėtume apie mažorinį kvintakordą nuo garso C, bendra kvinta su šiuo akordu dalijasi minorinis trigarsis nuo to paties garso. Operacija relative pažymi bendrą didžiosios tercijos intervalą, todėl garsai c-e (d3) bei sekunda į viršų pakeičiama kvinta (g garsas į a) sukomponuoja a minorinį sekstakordą. O leittonwechsel virsmas nusako bendrą mažąją terciją, todėl jei akordai dalijasi e ir g garsais (m3), tuomet šalia esantį akordą sudarys 17 pvz. Heksatoninė sistema garsai e-g-h ir t. t. Visi akordų ryšiai parodyti 3 pavyzdyje, kur pateiktas neorymaniškosios teorijos šalininkų naudoja- Sistemos yra komponuojamos remiantis didžiosiomis mas tonnetz, sudarytas remiantis parallel (P), relative (R) ir tercijomis ir pustoniu. Pavyzdžiui, pirmoji sistema nuo ma- leittonwechsel (L) operacijomis. 16 pavyzdyje galima matyti žorinio akordo C pateikia šešis skirtingus tercinius akordus. minėtų trijų pagrindinių (PLR) transformacijų rezultatą – Santykiai tarp jų komponuojami šitaip: C ir c dalijasi bendrą visos trys sujungtos operacijos sudaro po trikampį, o 24 kvintą, todėl akordas nusako parallel santykį, o minorinis trikampiai – geometrinį modelį tonnetz. Verta paminėti, trigarsis nuo c ir As akordas nutolę didžiosios tercijos jog šioje teorijoje egzistuoja ir antraeilės transpozicijos, žingsniu žemyn ir žymi bendras mažąsias tercijas bei yra kurios rečiau naudojamos ir taikomos analizėje. Pavyzdžiui, apibrėžiamas leittonwechsel santykiu. Šitaip komponuojami nebenverwandt (liet. šalutinio giminingumo) (N) santykio ir toliau esantys akordai – gis ir As pažymi ne tik enharmo- atveju bendras tėra vienas tonas, o trigarsį sudaranti mažoji nizmą, bet ir tariamą sekundos santykį, didžiąją terciją gis-E tercija slysta pustoniu aukštyn (iš mažorinio akordo į mi- ir leittonwechsel, pustonį tarp akordų E-e III akordų laipsnių norinį, pvz., C-f) arba žemyn (iš minorinio į mažorinį, pvz., (gis-g) ir parallel santykį. Tačiau kaip pastebėjo šiuos ryšius

16 pvz. Neorymaniškosios teorijos atstovų tonnetz remiasi PLR transpozicijomis

142 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose nagrinėjęs teoretikas Kennethas Oshita, nors heksatoninė vienu svarbiausių ir labiausiai išgrynintų muzikos parametrų sistema susideda iš trigarsių, vis dėlto ji skamba atonaliai, šiose kompozicijose, nes viskas turi būti sukomponuota todėl dėl šių atonalių savybių sistema nėra tinkama tona- remiantis vien iš tercijų sudarytais trigarsiais sąskambiais. liosios muzikos analizei (Oshita 2009: 2). Organza (šilko audinio atmaina) susijusi su kūrinio harmonine medžiaga, kurioje akordai vieni su kitais jungiami į vientisą PLR operacijos (Lewin, Cohn, Hyer): audinį, triadų5 tinklą. Tokį itin laipsniškai besijungiančių akor- I. Parallel – žymi bendrą kvintą (C-c; D-d; E-e ir t. t.) dų tinklo pasirinkimą lėmė panašumo į medžiagos (organzos) II. Relative – žymi bendrą didžiąją terciją (C-a; D-h; E-cis ir audinį siekimas, norėta imituoti pynimąsi. (Iš pokalbio su t. t.) Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23) III. Leittonwechsel (angl. leading tone) – žymi bendrą mažąją Kompozicija pagal faktūros dinamiką akivaizdžiai skyla terciją (C-e; D-fis; E-gis ir t. t.) IV. Nebenverwandt (angl. next related) – šalutinis į tris dalis. 4 lentelėje parodyta grafinė kūrinio harmonijos giminingumas schema atskleidžia, kaip nuosekliai ir tiesiogiai vienus trigar- V. Slide – žymi bendrą trigarsių terciją (C-cis; D-dis ir t. t.) sius pakeičia kiti. Pavyzdžiui, penktame takte pirmųjų smuikų VI. Hexatonic – žymi trigarsių heksatoninius ryšius partijoje suskamba e minorinis trigarsis, kol kiti vis dar griežia H akordo garsus. Tačiau kiekviename takte e minorinio 3 lentelė. Neorymaniškosios teorijos tipai trigarsio garsai vis pasipildo – šeštame takte suskamba 3–4 smuikuose, septintame 5–6 smuikuose bei aštuntame 7–8 Tačiau verta pabrėžti, kad esminis sistemos elemen- smuikų partijose. Šitaip komponuojama visa kompozicijos tas – atsisakyti bet kokių ryšių su tonacijomis bei tonikos, pirma dalis, kai trigarsių perėjimas pateikiamas galiausiai ne subdominantės, dominantės ar kitų funkcinių struktūrų tik smuikų, bet ir visų kitų instrumentų partijose. pėdsakų, „pabrėžti harmonijų sekose tonikos nebuvimą Šioje kompozicijoje pagrindiniu akcentu tampa trigarsių (angl. Tonic-blind) bei apibūdinti tik vietinius ryšius tarp sąskambių tarpusavio ryšiai, o ne trauka į toniką ar hierar- akordų, nieko nesakant apie jų reikšmes remiantis tonaci- chiškai organizuota vieta konkrečios tonacijos struktūroje. jomis“ (Engebretsen 2011: 355). Kūrinyje tonalūs sąskambiai komponuojami remiantis Kaip tik šia teorija dar bakalauro studijų metu susi- neorymaniškosios teorijos operacijomis, pavyzdžiui, jau domėjo kompozitorė Raimonda Žiūkaitė. Didelį dėmesi pirmame takte vertikaliai eksponuojami H ir h sąskambiai autorė skiria trigarsiui – bene „populiariausiam sąskambiui išreiškia parallel (P) virsmą, smuikų partijoje 5 takte po H muzikoje“. akordo horizontaliai įsiterpia e akordas, o šį ryšį galima api- Kūrinyje siekiu idėjos grynumo (nerašyti nė vienos nerei- būdinti nebenverwandt (N) virsmu, kai gretinamos šalutinio kalingos natos), ieškau muzikinėje struktūroje glūdinčių giminingumo tonacijos (H-e). Tačiau pati kompozitorė principų, iš kurių būtų galima „išskleisti“ kūrinį tarsi fraktalą. šiuos ryšius apibrėžia kiek kitaip. Pavyzdžiui, minėtą H (Iš pokalbio su Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23) ir e akordų šalutinio giminingumo ryšį nebenverwandt ji apibūdina remdamasi trimis pagrindinėmis operacijomis. Kūrinys „Levituojanti organza“ (2014) atspindi šios teorijos įtaką, o susidomėjimas ja, kaip teigia autorė, neišblėso Nuo H akordo garsų iki e trigarsio nueiti reikia trijų opera- ir iki šiol – Žiūkaitė ir toliau kuria muziką pasitelkdama tik cijų – H-gis (relative), gis-E (leittonwechsel) bei E-e (parallel) trigarsio sąskambį. Kūrinyje harmonijos parametras tampa arba – H-h (parallel), h-G (leittonwechsel), G-e (relative)

1–4 t. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1–2 smuikai e c C As cis e c C As cis 3–4 smuikai e c C As cis H e c C As cis 5–6 smuikai H e c C As H e c C As 7–8 smuikai H e c C As 1–2 altai Fis B b d Fis B b d 3–4 altai Fis B b d h Fis B b d 1–2 violončelės h Fis B b h Fis B b 3–4 violončelės h Fis B b Kontrabosas h

4 lentelė. Raimondos Žiūkaitės „Levituojanti organza“, 1–21 t. susidarančių trigarsių lentelė

143 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Laura SVIRSKAITĖ

18 pvz. Raimondos Žiūkaitės „Levituojanti organza“, operacijų schemos

(18 pvz.). Įdomu tai, kad abiem keliais gaunamas toks pat verta pasakyti, kad pirmoje kūrinio dalyje lentelėje išdėstyti akordas, o kadangi tarpiniai akordai praleidžiami, svarbiausia akordai pasireiškia be papildomų sąskambių ypač aiškiai, o tampa rezultatas. (Iš pokalbio su Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23) kitose dalyse jie pasireiškia jau tirštesniame harmoniniame lauke kartu su kitais trigarsiais. Šitaip komponuojama visa kompozicija, kurioje pagrin- Taigi kūrinys „Levituojanti organza“ ir apskritai visa du tampa harmoninis, konsonansiškas skambesys. Ilgainiui autorės kūryba yra paremta racionaliais sprendimais, aiškia kūrinyje šie sąskambiai ima kisti vis dažniau, todėl galima struktūra ir idėja: būtų teigti, jog kompozitorė plėtoja harmoninę kulminaciją. Harmoninis planas pildomas lyg minimalizmo technikoje Svarbi aiški, gryna kūrinio idėja – ar tai būtų sistema, ar naudojant adityvinį principą, kol galiausiai 148–154 tonų vienalytė garsinė atmosfera. Kiekviename kūrinyje sistema akordų kaita tampa dar intensyvesnė, kai viename takte kitokia, laikausi principo nekartoti savęs. (Iš pokalbio su pakeičiami keli tonalūs sąskambiai. Verta pasakyti, kad la- Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23) biau sutirštėja ir trigarsių vertikalus sluoksniavimas – vienu Šioje kompozicijoje autorė pasitelkia neorymaniškosios metu gali būti eksponuojami net aštuoni skirtingi tonalūs teorijos principus ir mažųjų sekundų santykius kompo- akordai, dėl kurių konsonansišką skambesį pakeičia ryškūs nuodama muzikos medžiagą. Svarbiausias kompozicijos disonansai arba klasteriai. elementas – trigarsiai, kuriais paremtas ir išrašytas visas Kaip ir visame kūrinyje, C dalyje pasireiškia neoryma- opusas. Trigarsių pasirinkimą Žiūkaitė pagrindžia tuo, jog niškieji virsmai. Interviu metu kompozitorė minėjo, jog jai buvo nepaprastai įdomu, ką galima sukomponuoti vos didelis dėmesys skiriamas ir komponavimui pustoniais. iš vieno visos harmoninės įvairovės elemento. Anot Žiūkaitės: Kūrinyje norėta tiek maksimaliai nuoseklios balsovados, Tai bene populiariausias sąskambis muzikoje. Atrodo, negi tiek kryptingos progresijos, bet tuomet būtinas žengti tono įmanoma dar ką nors iš jo išpešti? O pasirodo, sisteminės žingsnis atrodė per grubus. Norint išvengti tono žingsnio, jungtys, šis trigarsių nuoseklios balsavados, matematinės naudojamas tik pustonis, o būtinas tonas pakeičiamas dviem grupių teorijos potencialas, kurį atranda neorymanistai, ir pustoniais. (Iš pokalbio su Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23) yra toji kita, mane dominanti trigarsio pusė. (Iš pokalbio su Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23) Tačiau daugiausia dėmesio autorė skyrė harmonijai, pasireiškiančiai horizontalėje, o nuoseklumo vertikalės parametre nedaug. Išvados Autorės teigimu, visos kompozicijos muzikinę me- džiagą sudaro pasikartojantys tercinės sandaros akordai. 5 Tyrimui pasirinktuose XX–XXI a. kūriniuose galima lentelėje matyti, jog smuikų partijose atliekama muzikinė aiškiai matyti skirtingus trigarsio panaudojimo būdus, kai medžiaga, t. y. H-e-c-C ir t. t., vėliau inversijos principu eks- akordas pasireiškia kaip simbolis arba struktūrinis vienetas, ponuojama žemųjų styginių muzikinėje medžiagoje. Tačiau iš kurio komponuojama visa kompozicija.

I dalis II dalis III dalis

H e c C As cis Des fis d D B es Es gis e E C f F b fis Fis D g G c gis As E a A d b B Fis h

h Fis B b d A a E As gis c G g D Fis fis b F f C E e gis Es es B D d fis Des cis As C c e H

5 lentelė. Raimondos Žiūkaitės „Levituojanti organza“, kūrinio harmoninė struktūra

144 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose

Trigarsio simbolinės išraiškos labai aiškiai pateikiamos vieną iš svarbiausių klasikinės muzikos akordų. Taigi tyrimas Messiaeno kūrinyje „Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus“. rodo, kad praeities elementai ir šiomis dienomis aktualūs Jame eksponuojama tik iš kvintakordų ir apvertimų bei naudojami įvairioms reikšmėms perteikti. sudaryta Dievo tema ir oktatoninė dermė, kurios struk- tūroje natūraliai pasireiškia trigarsio pamatas. Autorius sąmoningai konsonansiškai skambantį trigarsį pasitelkia Nuorodos kaip elementą vaizduoti šventumą, Dievo egzistenciją, 1 Pavyzdžiui, prancūzų muzikologo Serge’o Guto viduramžių akordas atlieka ramybės ir stabilumo funkciją. Visai tyrimai „La Tierce Harmonique dans la Musique Occidentale“ kitokiame kontekste savo kūrinį „Quaderno Musicale di (1969), Margo Schulter straipsniai („Where there triads in me- Annalibera“ pateikia italų kompozitorius Dallapiccola. dieval music?“, http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/harmony/ triad.html, žiūrėta 2019 02 24; „Chord structure in medieval Tercinės sandaros akordų apraiškos akivaizdžios ciklo 1, music“, http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/harmony/chords. 2, 3 ir 7 pjesėse, kur šios derinamos su antitonalia tech- html, žiūrėta 2019 02 24). nika – dodekafonija. Kaip ir Messiaenas, Dallapiccola iš 2 XVIII a. terminą pavartojo Jeanas Philippe’as Rameau žymia- tonalios epochos paveldėtą metatekstualų konsonuojantį jame savo darbe „Traité de l’harmonie reduite à ses principes tercinės sandaros akordą naudoja kaip simbolį. Be to, šiuo naturels“ (1722). 3 atveju kūrėjas, Baroko epochos kompozitoriui Bachui Kaip buvo minėta, Messiaenas sukūrė 7 dermių sistemą. Pirmoji – pilnų tonų gama sudaryta vien iš tonų; antroji – skirdamas dedikaciją (pasireiškia paratekstualumas), oktatonikos dermė (paaiškinta tekste); trečioji dermė sudaryta sąmoningai nurodo šios epochos kompozitoriaus mu- iš tono ir dviejų pustonių, vėl tonas ir du pustoniai (pvz., c-d- ziką ir konkrečiai opusą „Das Klavierbüchlein für Anna es-e-ges-g-es-b-h-c). Ketvirtoji sudaryta taip: c-des-d-f-ges-g-es- Magdalena Bach“, todėl šį kūrinį itin paranku nagrinėti h-c (t. y. pustonis, pustonis, mažoji tercija, pustonis, pustonis, intertekstualumo aspektu. pustonis, mažoji tercija, pustonis) ir t. t. 4 „Naujasis paprastumas“ (vok. Neue Einfachheit) – tai trumpa- Vadinamojo tonalumo atgimimo laikotarpiu (pradedant laikis muzikos judėjimas, suklestėjęs XX a. 8–9 dešimtmečiais. XX a. 7–8 dešimtmečiais) trigarsis muzikoje pasireiškė Jis buvo lyg atsakas pokario avangardo muzikai. Šio judėjimo dar kitais aspektais. Išanalizavus Glasso „Metamorphosis“ pirmtakai – jaunoji vokiečių kompozitorių karta, pavyzdžiui, ir Pärto „Tabula rasa“ galima teigti, jog minimalistai gana Hansas-Jürgenas von Bose’ė, Hansas-Christianas von Da- akivaizdžiai puoselėja „klasikinę“ muzikos tradiciją pasitelk- delsenas, Detlevas Müller-Siemensas, Wolfgangas Rihmas, dami primityviausius harmonijos komponentus, tačiau šiuo Wolfgangas von Schweinitzas ir t. t. Kompozitoriai atsigręžė į paprastumą, siekė sugrąžinti Einfachheit (liet. paprastumo) atveju trigarsis pasitelkiamas kaip struktūrinis elementas. aidą. Šios krypties kompozitoriai nusigręžė nuo XIX a. mo- Abu opusai sukomponuoti remiantis konkrečiu ir gana dernėjimo ir stengėsi puoselėti tradicinius žanrus ir įprastą aiškiai vienareikšmiškai eksponuojamu harmoniniu lauku instrumentų sudėtį, pavydžiui, styginių kvarteto, simfoninio („Metamorphosis“ dalyse plėtojami minorinės diatonikos orkestro ir t. t. Verta pridurti, jog „naujojo paprastumo“ mu- (e, a, d, c) kvazitonacijos; „Tabula rasa“ paremta a minoriniu zika taip pat klasifikuojama įNew Romanticism (liet. naujasis romantizmas), (liet. naujasis geidulingumas), garsaeiliu ir t. t.). Pärto kūryboje tercinės sandaros akordas New Sensuality New Tonality (liet. naujasis tonalumas) ir t. t. Neilgai trukus, yra vienas pagrindinių jo sukurtos ir plačiai naudotos tintin- 9 dešimtmetyje, taip pat Vakarų muzikoje įsivyravo ir terminas nabuli technikos elementų, o Glasso kūrinyje šis elementas New Complexity, kuris, galima numanyti, buvo kaip atsakas tampa vieninteliu muzikos komponavimo vienetu, kurio paprastumo judėjimui. Šis terminas atstovauja atonaliosios transpozicijomis kuriamas visas opusas. muzikos krypčiai, kur taikomos sudėtingos muzikos užrašymo Tik iš trigarsių kūrinį „Levituojanti organza“ (2014) priemonės ir technikos, pavyzdžiui, mikrotonalumas, paini sluoksniuota ritmika ir t. t. komponuoja ir lietuvių autorė Žiūkaitė. Susidomėjusi neo- 5 Pasak Raimondos Žiūkaitės, triados sąvoka yra trigarsio atitik rymaniškosios teorijos principais, ji pradėjo juos taikyti ir muo. Remtis šiuo terminu kompozitorė nusprendė siekdama savo kūryboje. Kūrinyje pagrindiniu, labiausiai išgrynintu atsiplėšti nuo įprasto funkcinės harmonijos konteksto (iš muzikos parametru tampa harmonija, kuri sukomponuota pokalbio su Žiūkaite, 2017 12 23). vien iš trigarsės harmonijos. Autorė pasitelkia struktūriškas, matematiškais skaičiavimais paremtas pagrindines trigarsio operacijas (P, L, R, N, H). Kompozicijoje galima matyti, jog Literatūra akcentuojamos kaip P, N ir H operacijos, kurios dominuoja Ambrazas Algirdas, Nuo Carlino iki Rymano, Vilnius, 1980. kūrinio vertikalėje, o šių virsmų komponuojami pirmos Barfoot Terry, Notes to Luigi Dallapiccola: The Solo Piano Music, dalies trigarsiai vėliau veidrodiniu principu sugrįžta antroje in: Dallapiccolla. 5 Piano Pieces, Compact Disc, released on ir trečioje dalyse. ASV, CD DCA-1034, 1998. Detalesnis žvilgsnis į kai kurias XX–XXI a. kompozi- Berry David Carson; Solkema van Sherman, Theory, in: Grove Music Online, 2014, https://www-oxfordmusi- cijas, fiksuojant jose aptinkamų konsonuojančių trigarsių conline-com.ezproxy.lmta.lt/grovemusic/view/10.1093/ būsenas ir raišką, leidžia pamatyti, kaip ir kokiems tikslams gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-1 kiekvienas kompozitorius pasitelkia ir savo kūryboje taiko 002258426 [žiūrėta 2019 11 04].

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Bruhn Singlind, Images and Ideas in Modern French Piano Music: Straus Joseph N., Remaking The Past: Musical Modernism and The Extra-Musical Subtext in Piano Works by Ravel, Debussy the Influence of the Tonal Tradition, Cambridge, Harvard: and Messiaen, Pendragon, 1997. Harvard University Press, 1990. Cohn Richard, An Introduction to Neo-Riemannian Theory: A Straus Joseph N., Introduction to Post-tonal Theory, Courier Com- Survey and Historical Perspective, in: Journal of Music Theory, panies, University of New York, 2005. 1998, p. 167–180. Strickland Edward, Terry Riley, The New Grove Dictionaty of Cohn Richard, Tonal Pitch Space and the (Neo-)Riemannian Music and Musicians, London: Macmillan Publishers Limi- Tonnetz, in: The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Riemannian ted, 2001, p. 395-397. Music Theories, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, Taruskin Richard, Music in the Late Twentieth Century: The p. 322–348. Oxford History of Western Music, Oxford University Press, Cohn Richard; Brian Hyer, Carl Dahlhaus, Julian Anderson, and 2009. Charles Wilson. Harmony, in: Grove Music Online, 2001, Wai Ling Cheong, Messiaen’s Triadic Colouration: Modes as In- https://www-oxfordmusiconline-com.ezproxy.lmta.lt/gro- terversion, in: Music Analysis, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2002, p. 53–84. vemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/ Walker Rosemary, Modes and Pitch-Class Sets in Messiaen: A omo-9781561592630-e-0000050818 [žiūrėta 2019 11 04]. Brief Discussion of ‘Premiére Communion de la Vierge’, in: Engebretsen Nora, Neo-Riemannian Perspectives on the Har- Music Analysis, Vol. 8, No. 1/2, 1989, p. 159–168. monieschritte, in: The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Riemannian Music Theory, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 351–381. Summary Fisk Josiah, The New Simplicity: The Music of Górecki, Tavener, and Pärt, The Hudson Review 47, no. 3 (Autumn 1994). Genette Gérard, The Architect: An Introduction, Berkeley CA: In Western music, for three centuries (the seventeenth University of California Press, 1992. through the nineteenth) a consonant triad was treated as Genette Gérard, Palimpsets: Literature in the Second Degree, the core structure on which all sonorities were built. Obvi- University States of Nebraska Press, London, 1997. ously, the triad in one or another form has remained in the Hyer Brian, Tonality, in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. 25, London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, music of the twentieth and twenty-first century; however, 2001, p. 583–594. its meaning and use have undergone great change. The paper Hiller Paul, Arvo Pärt: magister Ludi, in: The Music Times, Vol. concentrates on the era of post-tonal music, characterized 130, No. 1753, 1989, p. 134–137. by radical anti-tonal tendencies, which is the reason the Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė Inga, Minimalizmas, in: Muzikos en- use of a tertian major or minor triad in such music calls for ciklopedija, t. 2, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003, p. 445–446. special attention and a critical approach. To explore mani- Kaščiukaitė Laura, Praeities muzikos adaptacijos lietuvių neoro- festations of the consonant triad and its inversions, Gérard mantikų kūryboje, bakalauro darbas, darbo vadovė Gražina Genette’s theory of transtextuality, which treats the chord Daunoravičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akade- as a metatextual element, is employed along with other mija, 2010. theories developed and cultivated by different composers Kaščiukaitė Laura, Minimalizmas: komponavimo doktrina ir of the twentieth century. praktika Lietuvoje, magistro darbas, darbo vadovė Gražina Daunoravičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akade- Usage of musical expression elements of the past in mija, 2012. compositions of the early twentieth century is studied in Mann Rachel Elice, Tonal References in Luigi Dallapiccola’s the book by Joseph N. Strauss, Remaking the Past: Musical Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera, Texas Tech University, 2002. Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition(1990); Melnikova Irina, Intertekstualumas: teorija ir praktika, Vilnius: the author expresses criticism of various allusions employed Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2003. by Stravinsky, Schönberg, Bartók, Webern, and Berg in their Messiaen Olivier, Vingt regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus: pour piano, Paris: Durand, 2008. music. According to the theoretician, early modernism saw Oshita, Kenneth. The Hexatonic Systems Under Neo-Riemannian the triad become a musical element provoking a conflict Theory: An Exploration of the Mathematical Analysis of Music, between old and new music. The key and most distinctive 2009. Semantic Scholar, https://www.semanticscholar.org/ elements of classical musical expression are interpreted by paper/THE-HEXATONIC-SYSTEMS-UNDER-NEO- the above-mentioned composers on the basis of new features RIEMANNIAN-THEORY%3A-OSHITA/7678310997 eb75034e6aa79c81a308825e28be84 [žiūrėta 2019 11 04]. of musical expression. By changing the function of a triad, Ramoškaitė Živilė, Pärtas Arvo, in: Muzikos enciklopedija, t. 3, Vil- they aim to neutralize its tonal significance and refresh it nius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2007, p. 64. in a post-tonal context (Straus 1990:74). Shvets Anna, Mathematical Bases of the Forms Construction in The twentieth- and twenty-first-century compositions Arvo Pärt’s Music, in: Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 15, Vilnius, selected for this study clearly reveal different ways of using 2014, p. 88–110. Simandan Voicu Mihnea, Genette’s elements of intertextua- a triad, whereby a triad serves as a symbol or structural ele- lity. Writing Projects for The Matrix and the Alice Books, ment out of which the whole composition is woven. The 2011 02 21, http://www.simandan.com/genettes-elements- symbolic expression of the triad is evident in Vingt Regard of-intertextuality/ [žiūrėta 2019 11 04]. sur l’Enfant-Jesus by Olivier Messiaen, which displays the

146 Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX–XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose theme of God made of triads and inversions and the octa- While some composers have developed their own triadic tonic scale, whose structure is naturally based on trichords. compositional technique or tend to use chords in accord- The consonant sound of a triad is purposefully employed ance with their own rules, the Lithuanian composer Rai- by the composer to convey sacredness and the presence of monda Žiūkaitė’s work Levitating Organza (2017) displays God, while the chord produces a sense of peace and stability. her interest in the Neo-Riemannian theory, which emerged Luigi Dallapiccola places his work Quaderno Musicale in the nineteenth century. The harmony, based entirely on di Annalibera (1952) in a completely different context; the triads, is the key, most refined musical parameter of this metatextual consonant tertian triad inherited from the tonal composition. The composer makes use of the principal epoch is intentionally used here with reference to Baroque triadic operations (P, L, R, N, H), treated as mathematically music by Johann Sebastian Bach. calculated structures. An emphasis is placed on the P, N and The so-called rebirth of tonality (from the 1960s–70s H operations, which dominate the vertical of the composi- onward) saw the triad manifest in other shapes. Analysis tion; after their introduction in the first part, the return of of Philip Glass’s Metamorphosis (1989) and Arvo Pärt’s triads connected by these transformations in the second Tabula Rasa (1977) has shown that although minimalists and third part of the piece is based on a mirror principle. quite explicitly cultivate the “classical” music tradition by A closer look into a number of compositions written employing the most primitive elements of harmony, the between the twentieth and twenty-first centuries with compositions in question treat the triad as a structural ele- a focus on the states and expression of consonant triads ment. Both works are based on a specific and quite explicit found in them reveals in what way and for what purpose harmonic field, which in Pärt’s oeuvre is presented through each composer uses one of the key chords of classical music. his own, widely exploited tintinnabuli system, while for In conclusion, the study indicates that elements of the past Glass the triad is the sole compositional element whose have retained their importance to this day and are used in transpositions become the basis of the entire piece. contemporary composition to realize various meanings.

Straipsnis įteiktas / Delivered 2019 03 11

147 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje– XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje Conversion of Microtonality in the Second Half of the Twentieth and Twenty-first Century Manifestation of Microintervals in the Creations of Mārtiņš Viļums and Gabrielius Simas Sapiega

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected]

Anotacija Tyrimo objektas yra mikrointervalikos konversija XX a. antros pusės–XXI a. muzikoje. Avangardo kūryboje pradėjusios formuotis naujosios mikrointervalikos apraiškos paskatino komponavimo principų kismą, transformavo senąsias muzikos idiomas, perkeitė kūrėjo ir kūrinio santykio lauką. Siekiant detalizuoti skirtingas komponavimo technikų strategijas naudojant mikrointervalus pasitelkiamos taksonominės kategorijos: transferencija, sinkretizmas, sintezė (pagal Yayoi Uno Everett). Be to, į pirmą planą iškeliama mikrochromatikos vieta reflektuojančioje kūrėjo sąmonėje kaip istorinio, teorinio palikimo ryšių komunikacijos tinklas. Galutinis ir visapusiškai įtvirtinantis mikroprocesų konversijos ratas atskleidžia transformacijos aspekto paveiktus muzikos kūrinius kaip radikaliausias priešpriešas ne tik mikrointervalų panaudojimo strategijomis, bet ir funkcionalumo prasminėmis reikšmėmis. Siekiant atskleisti, kaip mikrosistemos transformuojasi į galutinį konversijos variantą, pasitelkiant filosofines-estetines įžvalgas ir mikrochromatikai pritaikytus analizės metodus, analizuojami Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūriniai. Reikšminiai žodžiai: mikrointervalika, mikrochromatika, mikrotonalumas, postspektralizmas, konversija, Mārtiņšas Viļumsas, Gabrielius Simas Sapiega.

Abstract The research object is the conversion of microintervalics in the music of the second half of the twentieth through the early twenty-first century. The manifestations of the new microintervalics that began to form in avant-garde music stimulated changes in the principles of composition, transformed the old idioms of music, and reconstructed the relationship between the composer and the composition. When we look through the prism of the theory of music and seek to detail different strategies of compositional techniques employing microintervals, the taxonomic categories, that is, transference, syncretism, and synthesis (proposed by Everett & Lau), will be used. Moreover, the place of microchromatics in the composer’s reflective consciousness will be brought to the foreground as a network of communicative relationships of historical and theoretical heritage. The final and comprehensively consolidating circle of microprocess conversion reveals the compositions affected by the transformation aspect as the most radical oppositions not only in terms of the strategies of the use of microintervals but also of the notional meanings of functionality. To disclose the transformation of microsystems into the ultimate completion of conversion, different compositions by Sapiega and Viļums will be analyzed using philosophical-aesthetic insights and the methods of analysis adapted to microchromatics. Keywords: microintervalics, microchromatics, microtonality, post-spectralism, conversion, Mārtiņš Viļums, Gabrielius Simas Sapiega.

Įvadas idėja paveikė ne tik XX a. muzikos, bet ir kitas meno sritis, tarp jų vaizduojamąjį meną ir naują performansų reiškinį. XX a. antros pusės–XXI a. kūryboje ir muzikos tyrinėji- Avangardo kūryba pasižymėjo ne vien istorinių refleksijų, muose labai ryškiai iškyla mikrointervalikos problema kaip bet ir kuriamų naujų teorijų, vis labiau ir glaudžiau susijusių inovatyvios kūrybinės perspektyvos ar utopijos klausimas. su filosofinėmis idėjomis, integracija. Nuo pat XX a. pra- Nors dauguma XX a. kūrėjų šio amžiaus antroje pusėje buvo džios kiekvienas autorius, kalbėdamas apie savo kūrinius, aiškiai veikiami ankstesnių muzikos tradicijų, noras atsinau- mini ir išpažįstamą estetiką, filosofija grindžiamas patirtis jinti ir žengti į priekį sudarė sąlygas naujiems požiūriams į ir t. t. Tokios tendencijos skatina į mikrointervalikos ap- muziką formuotis, muzikos kalbos elementams perkeisti ir raiškas muzikoje žvelgti plačiau, t. y. ne tik analitiniu, bet muzikinei medžiagai perinterpretuoti. Visas to meto mu- ir filosofiniu, estetiniu požiūriais. zikos kontekstas buvo smarkiai paveiktas filosofinių idėjų. Nagrinėjant mikrointervalinės muzikos fenomeną Viena ryškiausių – kūrėjas ir jo santykis su meno kūriniu. Ši XX–XXI a. kūryboje nepakanka vien tik analitinio tyrimo

148 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje metodo. Tokie regos laukai skatina vertinti meno kūrėjo ryšį atsižvelgiant į pačią žodžių junginio semantinę prasmę, nes su meno kūriniu kaip daiktu, kurio interpretavimo kryptį sąvoka „tonalumas“ siejama su tonalia sistema. Tad termi- nustato istoriškai besikeičiantis kūrėjo ir kūrinio santykis. nas „mikrotonalumas“ tinkamesnis tada, kai kalbama apie Tad visos interpretacijos, žvelgiant šiuo aspektu, yra mate- tonalios sistemos varijavimo būdus kūrybiniame procese, rialistinės, kaip „objektyvus daiktas šalia kitų objektyvių pasitelkiant mikrointervalus ar mikrochromatines sistemas. pasaulio daiktų“ (Šliogeris 2017: 7). Mikrotonas (gr. mikros + lot. tonus) – tiesiogine reikšme XX a. kompozitorių kūryba, išpažįstama filosofija, „mažas tonas“ arba „mažas garsas“, tai tarsi metaforiška mu- analitiniai darbai tampa svarbiu atspirties tašku randantis zikinė abstrakcija, nekonkreti, kontroversiška ir nenusakanti naujoms kompozicijoms ir jų tyrinėjimams. Mikrointer- esmės, nes, kalbėdami apie atitinkamus garso „dydžius“, juos valikos klausimas muzikologijos diskurse vis labiau aktu- galime apibūdinti tik siedami su kitu tonu. alizuojamas, jis jau yra nebeišvengiamas, tarsi natūraliai Pats terminas „tonas“ muzikoje, koreliuojant istoriniam suvokiama šiuolaikinės muzikos materijos dalis, tarsi ir teoriniam aspektui, yra gan kontroversiškas savo metafo- filosofinė žiūra – kūrėjo ir meno kūrinio santykio specifika. riškumu: „Tonas – tai intervalas, lygus dviejų pustonių sumai Todėl labai svarbu atnaujinti ir praplėsti mikrointervalikos ir dar kitaip vadinamas „grynuoju tonu“1, kuris paprastai tyrinėjimų kontekstą, pasitelkiant galimą sąlytį su senąja suprantamas kaip didžioji sekunda; lygioje temperacijo- muzika, XX–XXI a. kūryba ir filosofija. je – oktavos 1/6 dalis (Drabkin 2001). Žvelgiant į sąvoką XX–XXI a. muzikoje mikrointervalika skleidžiasi įvai- „tonas“ istoriškumo žvilgsniu, atkreiptinas dėmesys, kad riausiomis formomis (formalistinėmis, ekstramuzikinėmis, pitagoriškoje derinimo sistemoje „grynasis tonas“ – dviejų tembro, garsaeilio praplėtimo ar atnaujinimo, tradicinės grynųjų kvintų „perviršis“ virš oktavos, t. y. skaičiuojant muzikos formos perkūrimo ir kt.). Visi šie pasikeitimai, nuo c garso, intervalas c1–c2, kurio santykis lygus 9 : 8. Ki- tikėtina, neatsiejami nuo istorinės, estetinės-filosofinės bei taip tariant, natūraliai derėdami egzistuoja dviejų dydžių muzikos sąrangos raidos, todėl iškyla pagrindinis klausi- „tonai“: pagrindinis (dydis toks pats kaip pitagoriškojo mas – kaip per pastarąjį šimtmetį kito mikrointervalika grynojo tono) ir mažasis (variantas tarp pagrindinio tono pagrįstos kompozicijos raiškos kokybė (funkcijos, prasmės) ir didžiosios tercijos, kurio santykis 10 : 9). Tai reiškia, kad ir kokios yra jos įtvirtinimo šių dienų kūryboje perspektyvos. Antikos laikų muzikoje didžioji sekunda labiau traktuojama Vienas iš šio staipsnio tikslų – ištirti mikrointervalinės kaip platesnis tarpas tarp ištemptos stygos dalių nei semi- muzikos apraiškas bei strategijas avangardo ir XXI a. muzi- tonas2, o jos smulkesnis skirstymas suvokiamas kaip dviejų kos kūrybos laukuose. Tikslui pasiekti keliami trys pagrin- semitonų suma. Tad jei svarbiausias ir atskaitingas taškas diniai uždaviniai: 1) apžvelgti mikrointervalo definiciją ir Antikoje buvo „tonas“, tai bet koks mažesnis semitoninis problematiką; 2) išanalizuoti ir apibendrinti XX–XXI a. garso skaidymas siejamas su mikrointervalikos transgresija muzikoje figūruojančius mikrointervalinius procesus, (lot. transgressio). Taip pat pabrėžiant semitono skirtumus, nustatyti / suformuoti jų vystymosi etapus, įvertinant peršasi išvada: mikrointervalika negali būti vienintelis teoriniu, istoriniu ir filosofiniu požiūriais; 3) pasitelkiant idealus archetipinis terminas šiems muzikos reiškiniams išanalizuotų darbų rezultatus, įvietinti XX–XXI a. muzikos apibūdinti. Mikrointervalus, atsižvelgiant į esamus semitono kūrėjų atliktus darbus mikrointervalikos konversijos lauke. genos, galima skirstyti į: 1) tuos, kurie mažesni už pustonį, ir 2) tuos, kurie didesni už pustonį. Mikrochromatikos terminą pirmą kartą pavartojo Ju- Mikrotonalumo definicija ir jos problema rijus Cholopovas apibūdindamas intervalinių genos rūšis (Холопов 1976: 589). Rusų muzikologas terminą taikė Mikrotonalumas, mikrointervalas, mikrotonas – są- visoms galimoms mikrotonalioms sistemoms: senosioms vokos, nusakančios XX a. muzikos fenomeną, siejamą su (enharmonic genus – γένος ἐναρμόνιον – graikų) ir moder- Juliáno Carrillo, Aloiso Hába’os ir Charleso Iveso kūryba. nioms (Aloiso Hába’os ketvirtatonių sistema). Mikrochro- Žvelgiant plačiau į mikrotonalumo termino atsiradimą, matikos sąvoka padeda išvengti netikslių išvestinių darinių, pastebima, jog jis pradėtas vartoti tik kaip sąsaja su Edgaro tokių kaip mikrotonalumas ar mikrotonika. Varèse’o darbais. Šis terminas žodyne „Grove Music Online“ Plačiai paplitęs ir įvairioje literatūroje įsigalėjęs su mik aiškinamas kaip „bet koks muzikos intervalas arba skirtumas rotonalumu siejamas terminas „mikrotonas“ galėtų būti tarp dviejų skirtingo aukštumo garsų, kuris yra mažesnis už apibūdinamas aiškesniu variantu – mikrointervalas. Atkreip- vieną pustonį“ (Griffiths et al. 2001). Enciklopedijoje „Bri- tinas dėmesys, jog mikrotonas reiškia beprasmį pavienį garsą. tannica“ terminas įvardijamas gan lakoniškai, o pavadinimas O muzikoje bet koks intervalas ar garsas yra įkontekstinamas, nusakomas viena bendrine sąvoka – „mikrotonali muzika“ apsupant jį kitais garsais, kitaip tariant, dažniausiai žmogaus arba „mikrotonalumas“, kur „naudojami tonai, mažesni klausa garsų skirtumus identifikuoja tik kontekste (interva- už įprastinius pustonius įprastinėje derinimo sistemoje ar liniu atžvilgiu). Šios sąvokos problemiškumas yra gvildena- garsaeilyje“ (Nettl 2016). Abu šie apibūdinimai nėra tikslūs, mas ir Gražinos Daunoravičienės-Žuklytės monografijoje,

149 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA pabrėžiant intervališkumo aspektą. Autorė perima kompozi- Toks muzikinės medžiagos suvokimas peržengia paties toriaus Ryčio Mažulio pasiūlytą praplėstą mikrodimensinės suvokimo ribas, t. y. dauguma mikrodimensiniuose kūri- muzikos suvokimą, tad prie mikrointervalikos priskiriami niuose naudojamų mikro-, makroprocesų nėra girdimi klau- tokie aspektai kaip ritmas, tembras, dinamika. sytojo ausimis. Tad savaime suvokiama, jog tokio radikalaus kūrėjo sąmonė ne pasineria į girdimų garsų kontempliaciją, Muzikinių mikrodimensijų ideologija (ir sąvokos etimolo- o sąveikauja su tam tikromis tradicijomis arba teorijomis. gija) [...] pabrėžia įvairių laike realizuojamų kompozicinės Atsižvelgiant į visus šiuos aspektus, reikia pabrėžti, kad tokia medžiagos fenomenų – garsų aukščių (intervalų), trukmių bei dinamikos gradacijų ir pan. – radikalią santykių minima- muzikinė medžiaga negali būti analizuojama arba suvokia- lizaciją. (Daunoravičienė-Žuklytė 2016: 320) ma vienareikšmiu šių dienų teorinės žiūros aspektu. Dėl šios priežasties, pradėdami aptarti mikrochromatinius kūrinius, O Walteris Gieseleris siūlė atsisakyti klaidinančių sąvokų pirmiausia juos apžvelgsime atitinkamame kontekste, t. y. ir pateikė santykio aspekto apibrėžtį – „mikrointervalai“ laiko ir minties, siedami su to meto idėjomis. arba „mažieji intervalai“ (Kleinesintervallen, žr. Gieseler Pirma kryptinga keltina užduotis – išskirti mikroin- 1991: 172). tervalinių kūrinių tendencinius etapus XX a. muzikinėje Peržvelgę šių dienų teorinius veikalus apie mikrotona- praktikoje. Tam galime pasitelkti Vitalijos Mockutės-Alek lumą ir jo keliamas problemas, prieiname prie išvados, jog nienės skirstymą (2009: 44–60): mikrotonalumas nėra tiksli ir universali sąvoka, apibūdinan- •• XIX a. pab.–1920 metai – ryškaus nepasitenkinimo ti „intervalinių genos“ rūšis. Todėl greta jos, kaip labiausiai ribotomis pustonių sistemos galimybėmis laikotarpis paplitusios (ypač nagrinėjant Hába’os sistemą), šiame (Ferruccio Busoni, Richard H. Stein, Jörg Mager); straipsnyje pasitelkiamas Cholopovo pasiūlytas bendrinis •• nuo 1920–1925 m. iki Antrojo pasaulinio karo – este- terminas „mikrochromatika“. Taip pat koreguotinas ter- tinių kategorijų nykimas, mikrointervalikos progresavi- minas „mikrotonas“ keičiamas semantiškai ir struktūriškai mas ir kompozicinių elementų demonstravimo svarba tikslesne definicija „mikrointervalas“. (Georgi Rimski-Korsakov, Charles Ives, Alois Haba, Ivan Višnegradski / Wyschnegradsky); •• nuo 1945 m. – akustinis-matematinis fenomenas, pa- Analizės strategijos grįstas grynojo derinimo atnaujinimu, kai oktava dalija- ma daugiau nei į 12 dalių (Adriaan Daniël Fokker, Bjorn „Muzikinė erdvė“, arba kitaip „mikrodimensinė mu- Fongaard, Ton de Leeuw, spektrines muzikos kūrėjai). zika“, – gan nauja sąvoka, pradedanti įsigalėti šiuolaikinės muzikos suvokimo ir analizės srityse: Ieškant įrankių teoriniams mikrointervalikos aspektams susisteminti, išskleisti ir apibendrinti, galima pasitelkti [...] mikrodimensinės muzikos konceptas apibendrina pagrin- istorinio muzikinės erdvės ir analizės aspekto koreliacijų dinių garsų meno medžiaginių elementų santykių (intervalų) minimalizavimą. (Daunoravičienė-Žuklytė 2016: 321) taksonomijos schemą:

1 schema. Istorinio muzikinės erdvės ir analizės aspekto koreliacijų taksonomijos schema

150 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

kultūros elementų difuzionavimo procesu, kuris inicijuoja vertės ir formos pokyčius:

Sinkretizmas įgauna artimiausią matmenį tarp muzikos sude- rinamumo ir tipinės krypties rezultatyvių pokyčių predikcijos (Nettl 1955: 107).

Visi šie aspektai, ypač norint tinkamai įvertinti ir iša- nalizuoti mikrointervalinę muziką, yra svarbūs atspirties taškai, žvelgiant muzikos teorijos žvilgsniu ir turint mintyje santykių visumos ir kompleksų tinklo perspektyvą. Everett pasiūlo septynias kategorijas (šiame straipsnyje dviejų atsisakoma). Jos grindžiamos kompozicinėmis strategijomis ir trimis pagrindiniais aspektais – 1) transferencija 2 schema. Mikrointervalinių kūrinių tendencijų cirkuliacijos (perkėlimu), 2) sinkretizmu, 3) sinteze, eliminuojant keletą schema esamų porūšių, kurie pritaikytini tik egzotizmo krypties muzikai. Pateiktoje mikrointervalinių kūrinių tendencijų cirkuliacijos schemoje kiekvienas etapas tampa išskirtinai svarbus (1) Estetiniai principai ar ir reikšmingas net ir už istorijos užribių, o drauge – formuoja formali sistema be aiškių nuorodų į tiesioginį atitinkamą naują, bet neeliminuojamas iš bendrojo konteksto. Pirma- kultūrinį skambesį sis kampas, kuriuo reikia įvertinti mikrointervalinį kūrinį (2) Išryškintas muzikinis kaip bet kurį kitą meninį darbą, yra istorinių tendencijų iliustratyvumas be kultūrinių cirkuliacijos aspektas, o antrasis – šiek tiek gilesnis ir labiau citatų nusakantis paties reiškinio ir jo komunikacijos atžvilgį (3) Literatūrinės arba ekstramuzikinės citatos uždarame idėjinės apykaitos rate. Dėl panašios priežasties (4) Tembro, artikuliacijos Yayoi Uno Everett veikale „Locating East Asia in Western ar garsaeilio moduliacijos Art Music“ (2004) pateikia „komunikacijos ir reikšmių perprasminimas tinklą“, kuris padeda įprasminti ir stabilizuoti atitinkamus (5) Tradicinės muzikos „šifruotojo“ ir „iššifruotojo“ santykius. sistemos, formos ir tembro perkūrimas naujomis Everett pažymi, kad „tyrinėjant įvairius „filtrus“ svarbu muzikinėmis idiomomis suvokti, jog muzikos „skaitymas“ tampa daugiakultūris, kai atlieka (nebūtinai derina) įvairias kompozitorių (auditori- 4 schema. Mikrointervalų diegimo muzikos kūrinyje jų), teoretikų, muzikologų ir etnomuzikologų pozicijas. Jų kategorizacija3 strategijos centrai suteikia, galbūt izoliuotai, papildomas perspektyvas ieškant kultūrinių aspektų sąveikos, kuri Kiekvienam iš aspektų, atsižvelgiant į jo specifiką ir formuoja mūsų supratimą apie hibridinį muzikos meno santykių koreliacijas, taikomi analizės metodai: transfe- repertuarą“ (Everett 2004: 12). Atkreipdami dėmesį į šias rencija – derminė analizė, sinkretizmas – spektrinė, der- mintis, susiduriame su gan opia ir svarbia problema: anali- minė analizė, sintezė – derminė, spektrinė ir šių analizių zuojant įvairiausius santykius lieka neatsakyta dėl kultūrinio redukcinė santykių koreliacija, jog būtų tinkamai atskleista sinkretizmo, dar kitaip sintezės, aspekto žmogaus ir daikto mikrointervalikos „drama“ – gigantomachija hominizuoto esencijos kuriamoje realybėje. Taigi čia sinkretizmas tampa daiktiškumo situacijoje.

3 schema. Komunikacijų ir reikšmių tinklas (schema sudaryta pagal Everett 2004: 12)

151 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

Mikrotonalumo apraiškos XIX a. pabaigos– Prie mikrointervalinės muzikos kontekstų plėtotės ryš- XX a. pirmos pusės muzikoje kiai prisidėjo Ferruccio’as Busonis. Praėjus dvylikai metų nuo Carrillo „Sonido trece“ pasirodymo, italų kompozito- Mikrotonalumo problema ir aktualumas labiausiai išryš- rius paskelbia esė apie naujosios muzikos estetiką (1907). kėja avangardo laikotarpiu, o XXI a. tai dar labiau įtvirtina- Vienas svarbiausių šios publikacijos ypatumų – Busonio ma muzikologų, muzikos filosofų, kompozitorių diskusijose kritikuojama tonali mažoro / minoro sistema: (Stiebler 2003: 213). Žvelgiant šių dienų žvilgsniu, nors Tai, ką dabar vadiname tonalia sistema, yra niekas kitas, tik vis atsiranda naujų teorinių diskursų, galima teigti, kad ženklų rinkinys; šiek tiek gudrokas įtaisas įsivelti į amžinosios mikrotonalumo ir jo sklaidos XXI a. muzikoje klausimas harmonijos pinkles; menka kišeninė enciklopedija, dirbtinė dar nėra iki galo ištyrinėtas, o ypač šio reiškinio tradicijos šviesa vietoj saulės. (Busoni 1962: 89) ir mokyklos. Mikrointervalų panaudojimas kompozitorių kūryboje XX a. Vakarų muzikoje predominantiškai iškyla Savo kritiką Busonis orientavo į tonalumo keliamas pro- kaip individualios komponavimo sistemos fenomenas. blemas: nors yra 24 serijos (12 mažoro ir 12 minoro), iš esmės Dar XIX a. pabaigoje išryškėjo mikrointervalikos paieš- kokybiniu aspektu esti dvi – mažoras ir minoras, visa kita tik kos, pasireiškusios praktiniu mikrointervalų panaudojimu transpozicijos (Bussoni 1962: 90). Ši tonalios sistemos kritika muzikos kūriniuose. Mikrointervalikos lauko implikacijas paskatino jį sukurti iš viso 113 skirtingų garsaeilių rinkinių, daugiausia tyrinėjo du asmenys. Nors ir siejami panašių sie- kurie atsirado iš eksperimentų sintezės. Priešingai nei Carril- kių, jie nieko nežinojo apie vienas kito darbus. Tai – Juliánas lo’as, Busonis pasiūlė naudoti trečiatonių ir šeštatonių sistemą, Carrillo’as (1875–1965) ir Ferrucci’as Busonis (1866–1924) identifikuodamas „trišalius tonus“ kaip žingsnį „amžinosios bei jo vadovaujama kompozitorių ir muzikos teoretikų grupė. harmonijos“ link (Bussoni 1962: 90). Busonis labiausiai Juliáno Carrillo mikrointervalikos tyrimus paskatino domėjosi pilnųjų tonų garsaeiliu, trečiatonius laikydamas jo gana paprasti siekiai – praplėsti garsų skalę lygioje dvilika- patobulinimu. Kaip ir Carrillio’as, jis kėlė panašų klausimą – garsės sistemos temperacijoje, ieškant mažiausio intervalo, kaip mikrointervalus parodyti penklinėje. Tam jis pasitelkė ne kuris būtų girdimas. 1895 m. Carrillo’as atliko eksperimentą penkių, o šešių linijų penklinę, kur pilnieji tonai yra ant linijų, su smuiku, mėgindamas rasti įmanomą mažiausią oktavos pustoniai – tarp linijų, alteracijos ženklai – indikuojantys intervalą (Zeller 2003: 25). Pasinaudojęs gautais rezultatais, trečiatoniu žeminti ar aukštinti. netrukus Carrillo’as ima rašyti teorinį veikalą „Sonido tre- Priešingai nei Carrillo’as, Busonis niekada neišbandė ce“4, kuriame pateikia nemažai įvairių mikrotonų sistemų. savo sukurtos teorijos praktiškai. Pasak jo mokinio Hába’os, Šis veikalas apima visą intervalinę gradaciją nuo pilnųjų iki Busonis laukė, kol bus sukonstruota šeštatonių fisharmonija šešiolikos tonų – pilnasis tonas tarnauja kaip mikrointer- (Hába 1927: XIV). Nelaimė, jis mirė to nesulaukęs. Vis valinės subdivizijos intervalas5. 1922 m. Carillo’as pirmą dėlto Busonis aktyviai teoriškai mokė grupę jaunų mikroin- kartą savo veikalo teorijas ir muzikos pavyzdžius perkelia tervaliką eksplituojančių kompozitorių iki savo mirties. į komponavimo praktiką: pjesėje „Preludio a Colón“ pa- Dar vienas ryškus XX a. pirmos pusės kompozitorius, sitelkiama ketvirtatonių, aštuntatonių ir šešioliktatonių padėjęs tvirtus pamatus mikrointervalinės muzikos plėto- sistema. Carrillo’as gan pragmatiškai vertino savo mikroin- tėje, buvo Harry’s Partchas (1901–1974). Jis intensyviai tervalinės sistemos panaudojimą: tokiai muzikai atlikti vystė natūraliosios darnos teoriją ir kūrybinėje, ir mokslinėje reikėjo paties sukonstruotų instrumentų. Jų neturėdamas, veikloje. Partchas manė, kad problema kyla dėl netikslios jis bandė sistemą pritaikyti konvencionaliems instrumen- intonacijos (palyginti su „natūraliaisiais intervalais“), kuri tams, sujungdamas dvi skirtingas sistemas – „semitoninę“ ir iš esmės yra būdinga atitinkamoms sistemoms. Jis gana „mikrointervalinę“. Tai akivaizdžiai koreliavo su radikalumo kritiškai vertino Carrillo ir Busonio / Haba’os pasirinktus sampratos suvokimu: nuo įprastos, tradicinės chromatinės metodus. Knygoje „Genesis of a Music“ (1946) kompozito- sistemos staiga „peršokti“ prie „hipermikrointervalikos“ rius pateikia keletą svarbių tokio pasirinkimo aspektų, saky- (Benjamin 1967: 47). damas, jog nei Carrillo ketvirtatonių, nei Hába’os šeštatonių Carrillo veikalo „Sonido trece“ indėlis yra ryškus ne vien sistema negali būti panaudota kaip bazinė aukščių sistema. dėl kompozicijų, kurios atveria naujuosius kontekstus, pasi- Partchas mėgino sukurti originalią sistemą, pagrįstą telkus mikrointervalų ir įprastinių intervalų koreliaciją, bet ir natūraliosios intonacijos koncepcija, kuri suvokiama kaip dėl tokios muzikos notacijos keliamų iššūkių: vietoj tradicinės muzikos intervalų ir garsaeilių sistema, suformuota sveikųjų penkių linijų, natų galvučių ir alteracijos ženklų sistemos skaičių santykių teorijos. Tokie intervalai žmogaus klausai pasitelkiamos skaitinės išraiškos (Benjamin 1967: 50–58). lengvai suvokiami6. Ši konsonanso ir disonanso teorijos Po penkiolikos fortepijoninių pjesių premjeros 1958 m. Briu- perspektyva, be abejo, yra tik viena iš daugelio, kurios buvo selyje, susidūrus su Edgardo Varèse’o „Poème électronique“, sukurtos per pastaruosius keletą šimtmečių, tačiau, kad tampa akivaizdu, jog tokia kompleksiška mikrointervalinė ir kaip vertintume, išlieka aktuali ir svarbi „natūraliosios ateities muzika įsilies į elektroakustikos plotmes. intonacijos“ suvokimui7.

152 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

Vienas iš Partcho pagrindinių tikslų – išplėsti šį garsa- Bandymas komponuoti ketvirtatonių muziką yra visuomet eilį, taikant dar mažesnius intervalus, kad būtų užpildytos eksperimentas. Jis nepriimtinas institucijai, kuri ugdo kompo- minėtų intervalų spragos. Jis išmėgino 29, 37, 39, 41 ir 55 zitorius ir atlikėjus gerai išbandytais metodais pagal mokymo laipsnių sistemas, prieš pasiūlydamas 43 laipsnių garsaeilį, planus, nesusijusius su ketvirtatonių sistemomis. (Stanevičiūtė vadinamą „monofonine struktūra“ – tai simetriška struktū- 2015: 151–152) ra, sukonstruota obertonų ir pustonių serijos proporcijomis. Dėl didelės Rudolfo Steinerio dvasinio mokymo įtakos Iš esmės Partchas praplėtė Zarlino pasiūlytus 5 „natūralaus Hába’os darbuose išryškėja meninio mąstymo įtampa – 8 intonavimo“ garsaeilius . Toks metodas leido garsaeilį suda- „spontaniško kūrybiškumo ir kompozicinės tvarkos aporija“ 9 ryti iš 29 laipsnių . Tik vėliau, pridėdamas dar, jo nuomone, (Stanevičiūtė 2015: 152), labiausiai pasireiškianti kom- galimus trūkstamus garsus, Partchas sudarė ne tik 29, bet pozitoriui konkretinant atematizmo sampratą, aiškinant ir 43 laipsnių garsaeilį, kuris pasireiškė panašia proporcija, jo taikymo galimybes13. Nors žiūrint į šias idėjas Hába’os 10 tik smulkesne dalyba . amžininkų akimis, ketvirtatonių „mokyklos“ atmetimo Šie mikrointervalinės srities tyrimai persikėlė ir į Partcho reakciją suformavę veiksniai yra gana pagrįsti – nauja žiūra kūrybą, tačiau bandymai nesulaukė išskirtinio klausytojų į kūrybinį komponavimo procesą, t. y. laisvės muzikos ar atlikėjų dėmesio. Kad ir kaip būtų, vis dėlto Partchas koncepcijos kaip Steinerio laisvės filosofijos alternatyva: lieka vienas ryškiausių kompozitorių teoretikų, kūrusių individualias mikrointervalinės muzikos sistemas, kurios iki Naujoji absoliuti moderni muzika gali išaugti tik teisingai mūsų dienų įkvepia kompozitorius, muzikos instrumentų išsprendus kosmoso dėsnius; iš jų vedami ne tematinio gamintojus ir muzikologus. stiliaus principai, kurie charakterizuojasi naujomis gyvybės situacijomis, nuolatiniu keitimusi vienos padėties į kitą. (Hába 1931: 5)

Mikrotonalumas ir avangardas: Hába’os atvejis Hába savo teorijas grindė senovės graikų teoriniu diskur- su – graikai „suformavo sąmoningos Europos muzikinės kul- Aloisas Hába (1893–1973) – čekų kompozitorius, teo- tūros pagrindą, t. y. sąmoningo, o ne atsitiktinio kūrybinio retikas ir pedagogas, vienas labiausiai išgarsėjusių avangardo proceso pagrindą“ (Hába 1927: 5). Čekų kompozitorius ir kūrėjų, mėginusių įtvirtinti ketvirtatonių mokyklą čekų muzikologas buvo gerai susipažinęs su Antikos muzikos sis- muzikoje. Hába’ą galima vadinti didžiausiu ketvirtatonių, tema, graikų pagrindinius tetrachordus jis laikė „pirminėmis šeštatonių iniciatoriumi Vakarų muzikoje. Eksperimen- formacijomis“. Nuodugniai ištyręs graikų dermes, Hába pa- tuodamas, kaip realizuoti naująją muziką, kompozitorius darė išvadą, jog iki XIX a. suformuota harmoninės teorijos pasinėrė ne tik į muzikos kalbos elementų, skambesio sistema yra labiausiai priskirtina Jeano-Philippe’o Rameau ar harmonijos atnaujinimą, bet ir į naujų instrumentų, teorijai, kai T, S ir D funkcinės sistemos formuojamos per kuriais būtų galima skambinti ketvirtatonius, šeštatonius, bendrąjį toną atliekant dermių transpozicijas: konstravimą11. Bendrai vertinant Hába’os mikrotonalios muzikos kompozicinę sistemą, pastebima, kad kompozitorius naudojo tuos pačius komponavimo principus kaip ir kurdamas pustonių sistemoje, juos aktyviai skleidė, o kitas galimas interpretacijas eliminavo12. Tačiau Hába’os gyvenamuoju laikotarpiu požiūris į tokias iniciatyvas buvo gana kon- troversiškas. Antai „New York Telegram“ kritikas Pittsas Sanbornas 1925 m. teigė: „Aloisas Hába, atrodo, yra vienas 1 pvz. Per bendrąjį toną sudaromos funkcinės sistemos pirmaujančių šių dienų kompozitorių“ (Stanevičiūtė 2015: 151–152; percit. Sanborn 1925: 16), o Lotte Kallenbach- Rameau buvo pirmasis teoretikas, padalijęs mažorinius Greller 1927 m. straipsnyje sveikino Hába’ą kaip „mūsų ir minorinius garsaeilius į tris pagrindines tercinės sandaros dienų Vicentino’ą“ (Stanevičiūtė 2015: 151–152; percit. funkcijas, jungiamas bendrojo tono. Pasitelkęs jų konstruk- Kallenbach-Greller 1927: 484). Nors tuo pačiu metu tus, Hába galėjo jas transformuoti į netercines struktūras, Albertas Wellekas paskelbė, jog „visa [Hába’os] teorija ir įtraukdamas garsaeilius, išplėsdamas nonakordų, undecim harmonijos metodai yra pastatyti ant smėlio“ (Stanevičiūtė akordų ir tercdecimakordų inversijas. 2015: 151–152; percit. Wellek 1926: 235). Kompozitoriaus Tonalumą, politonalumą ir atonalumą Hába aptarė kny- idėjoms nepritarė ir tuometiniai čekų muzikologai bei goje „Neue Harmonielehre“. Joje išdėstytos mintys skatina konservatorijos kolegos: 1931 m. Prahos konservatorijos diskutuoti. Pavyzdžiui, apibūdindamas tonalias kompozi- rektorius Karelas Hoffmeisteris laiške švietimo ministrui cijas Hába gretina du terminus – „tonalus“ ir „diatoninis“ teisinosi, kodėl nesuteikęs Haba’ai profesoriaus vardo: ir jų pagrindu daro išvadą, kad „kompozicija yra „tonali

153 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

[...], nes joje egzistuoja tik diatoniniai garsai“ (Hába 1927: dalijimą ir manipuliuoja susidarančiais naujais skambesiais, 24–25). Politonalumą Hába traktuoja kaip transpozicijų neperžengdamas sąlyginių tonalumo ribų. superinpozicijas to paties garsaeilio atžvilgiu.

Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad tonalumas teoriškai gali Hába’os Styginių kvarteto Nr. 2 analizė būti nuvestas atgal į inversijos principą, o politonalumas – į transpozicijos principą. Todėl atonalumas gali būti reprezen- tuojamas tokiais trigarsiais, kurie, pavyzdžiui, susidaro per Pirmasis publikuotas Hába’os mikrointervalinis kū- superimpoziciją trijų skirtingų garsaeilių, kurie neturi nei rinys – Styginių kvartetas Nr. 2 (1920) – buvo vienas inversinio, nei transpozicinio tarpusavio santykio, bet yra pirmųjų kompozitoriaus mėginimų kūryboje pritaikyti laisvai sumąstyti. (Hába 1927: 24–25) mikrotonalumo teorijos principus. Bene svarbiausias muzikos kalbos elementas – mikrointervalas – šiame kūrinyje Taip pat Hába atkreipė dėmesį į du konceptus, susijusius įgauna derminės funkcijos reikšmę ir be jos negali niekaip su harmonijos formavimu. Tai – polifonija ir polifoninė egzistuoti. Mėginimas nutolti nuo tematizmo pagrindo harmonija. Keliems tarpusavyje vienu metu judantiems bal- priverčia koncentruotis į sistematingai kuriamas dermes. Šio sams apibūdinti jis vartojo sąvoką mehrstimmige Polyphonie, styginių kvarteto derminis pagrindas yra simetrinis oktavos reiškiančią, kad balsų judėjimas nėra tas pats, kas polifoninė dalijimas į ketvirtatonius (2 pvz.). Toks dalybos principas harmonija, kai vienu metu lineariai judantys keli balsai leido sudalyti tetrachordus į garsaeilius, turinčius nuo 6 vertikalėje suformuoja akordinius sąskambius. Kai kuriais iki 24 garsų. Pasitelkus redukcijos metodą ir eliminavus atvejais, Hába’os nuomone, didžiausią reikšmę polifoninėje tų pačių garsų pasikartojimą, pastebima, jog iš esmės har- faktūroje atlieka ne melodija, o harmonija. monija ir dermė – gana ribotos, kūrinyje taikomi pustonių Savo svarstymus apie mikrotonalumą Hába skirstė į dvi sistemos, harmonijos organizavimo principai, gretinant kelis dalis: 1) ketvirtatonių ir 2) trečiatonių, šeštatonių, dvy- intervalus vienu metu, tarsi sudarant politonalius akordus. likatonių sistemą. Lyginant mikrointervalinę ir pustonių Itin ryškus polichordų panaudojimas, kai vienu metu sugre- sistemas, bene vienintelis skiriamasis bruožas – oktavos tinami akordai iš kelių simetrinių dermių. Redukcija parodė, dalijimas į dvidešimt keturis garsus. O toliau, komponavimo jog sudarant dermes naudojama simetrinė dermių inversija procese, manipuliacijos dermėmis ir harmonijos sistemo- su transpozicija, tuo pačiu metu parenkama bendra dermės mis atliekamos tokiu pačiu principu kaip ir semitoninėje ląstelė, kuri išlaiko tas pačias proporcijas tarp pagrindinės sistemoje. Kompozitorius nurodė ir priežastis, kurios lėmė ir inversija pakeistos dermės dalių (3, 4 pvz.). mikrotonų, ypač ketvirtatonių, naudojimą jo kūryboje – tai akustinės aplinkybės ir istoriškumo ištakos. Apžvelgus Hába’os teorines koncepcijas, galima teigti, kad traktatuose pateikiami harmoninės plėtotės principai nėra originalūs, žvelgiant į juos, kaip iš konversijos per einama į tonalią muzikos sistemą, pozicijos, matyti, kad veikaluose išdėstytos teorinės įžvalgos apie dermes lieka ne- 2 pvz. Simetrinis oktavos padalijimas išplėtotos. Kompozitorius pasitelkia paprasčiausią oktavos

3 pvz. Redukuota partitūros dalis; polichordų sankaupos 154 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

4 pvz. Iki dermės redukuota partitūra; derminių ląstelių sąveikavimas

Styginių kvartete Nr. 2 mikrointervalai pasireiškia Kritiškai vertinant tokią mikrointervalų kaip proce- gana pragmatiškai. Akivaizdžiai matyti noras pabėgti nuo sionalaus veiksmo muzikos kūrinyje klasifikaciją, ją verta teminės medžiagos ar teminio branduolio, bet kūrinyje papildyti pastaruoju metu išryškėjusiais mikrochromatinės naudojamos tokios priemonės kaip intervalinė diminucija, muzikos atvejais. Atsiradus daugiau tyrimų ir pasirodžius augmentacija, rotacija, simetrinės, gretutinės dermės, greta naujiems muzikologijos kontekstams, Haaso skirstymą esančios ašies įtvirtinimas vis dėlto leidžia išgirsti galimas papildo: muzikinės temos užuomazgas. 5) apibrėžtos derinimo sistemos naudojimas, pvz., pitago- riškojo derinimo, paties kompozitoriaus sugeneruoto derinimo, neeuropietiškosios tradicijos tonų derinimo Mikrotonalumo sklaida XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. sistemos eksploatacija; 6) garso aukščių hierarchijos įtvirtinimas, pasitelkus Po Antrojo pasaulinio karo Europos muzikos kultūra obertonų konfigūracijas iš (instrumentinio) spektro įgavo naują veidą: naujosios muzikinės sistemos ne tik tel- resintezės; kėsi į mikrointervaliką, o tai iš esmės buvo labai ryškus ir 7) mikrointervalų kaip struktūrinės priemonės panaudo- netikėtas posūkis XX a. pirmu dešimtmečiu, bet ir pasuko jimas; link dar labiau neištyrinėtos srities – pokario avangardo, 8) nekonkrečių mikrointervalų eksploatacija kaip koloris- kuris tapo muzikinių parametrų serializacijos, naujų elek- tinis paįvairinimas. troakustinių galimybių ieškojimo lauku. Ketvirtatonis išliko gan populiarus šiuolaikinės muzikos materijos kontekstuose ir funkcionavo XX a. kompozitorių kūrybinėje praktikoje14. Spektralistų kūryba Mikrointervalų sklaida matoma tokiose muzikos srovėse kaip konkrečioji, elektroninė, spektrinė muzika, „naujasis Ryškus posūkis link mikrointervalikos integracijos įvyko sudėtingumas“. Ypač XX a. antroje pusėje pakrypstama 1973 m. susibūrus grupei „L’Itinéraire“15, kuri domėjosi naujosios estetikos paieškos kryptimi, ir mikrointervalai tembrinių moduliacijų paieškomis. Šis sambūris puikiai tampa natūraliai suvokiami kaip šiuolaikinės muzikos pažįstamas kaip la musique spectrale, „prancūziškoji spek- dalis. Nagrinėjant avangardo kompozitorių kūrybą, įma- tralistų mokykla“ (Dufourt 2000: 88), kuriai būdingas ne noma retrospektyviai identifikuoti keletą mikrointervalinės tik estetinis, bet ir tam tikras filosofinis požiūris į muzikos muzikos estetikai ir technikoms būdingų bruožų. Austrų kūrinį ar patį garsą. kompozitorius Georgas Friedrichas Haasas nurodo keturis Muzikoje vartojamas terminas „spektras“ iš esmės gali pagrindinius, būdingiausius mikrointervalų sklaidos atvejus būti apibūdinamas įvairiai, bet šiuo atveju turima omeny- (Haas 2003: 59): je sinusines bangas (partials). Kiekviena sinusinė banga 1) lygiavertė oktavos subdivizija į daugiau ar mažiau nei charakterizuojama dažnio, amplitudės ir fazės. FFT (Fast, dvylika garsų, pvz., 19 vienodo atstumo garsų oktavoje Fourier, Transform) parodo, kokios sudedamosios dalys ir pan.; įeina į spektrą, suskaidžius garsą į sinusoidinius elementus 2) garsų aukščių sistemos sudarymas pasitelkiant natūralųjį (Sethares 2005: 15). Kitaip tariant, visi šie elementai spek- garsaeilį, obertonų serijas; tralizmo atstovams tampa pagrindiniai, jie formuoja spektrą. 3) harmonikų impulsų generavimas, taikant labai mažus, Kita vertus, nors iš pirmo žvilgsnio grupės „L’Itinéraire“ tačiau klausa skiriamus intervalus; atstovų estetinis požiūris aiškus, išryškėjo ir prieštara – ne 4) mikrointervališkumo raiška įvairiais atsitiktiniais būdais, visi šio stiliaus atstovai vienodai suvokė spektralizmo ter- pvz., fortepijono preparacijos, perkusiniai garsai, glissan- mino prasmę: do, ad libitum perderinant instrumento stygas ir t. t.

155 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

5 pvz. Harmoninis ir inharmoninis spektrai

Jie visada mūsų muziką vadina „spektrine“. Nei aš, nei sudaro elementai, kurie nėra vien sveikieji skaičiai, t. y. tarp Gérard’as Grisey’s nesame atsakingi už šį priskyrimą, kuris natūraliųjų proporcijų ar dalinių tonų yra ir kitų garsų (pvz., mums atrodė netikslus. (Murail 2005: 149) daugelio mušamųjų instrumentų spektras yra inharmoni- nis20). 5 pavyzdyje pavaizduota laipsniška spektro progresija Remiantis Calesu J. Biehlu (Biehl 2011), galima išskirti nuo harmoninio iki vis labiau inharmoninio spektro. O keletą spektrinei muzikai būdingų bruožų: subharmoninis spektro plėtojimo metodas pasižymi tuo, • naujos muzikinės kalbos plėtotė grindžiama mokslinė- • kad apverčiama intervalų eilė iš virštonių serijos. Tokiu mis žiniomis apie akustiką ir psichologiją (technologi- atveju dideli intervalai atsiduria aukštame registre, mažes- niai metodai); nieji – žemame. •• skepticizmas kompozicinių modelių atžvilgiu (serializmo kritika); •• emfazinis garso / tembro kaip „gyvo“ organizmo cen- trizmas (natūralistinė žiūra); •• garso aukščių, kurių savybes formuoja virštonių serijos kaip pagrindinis atskaitos taškas, hierarchijos nusta- tymas.

Vienu svarbiausių atskaitos taškų spektrinėje muzikoje tampa virštonių serija. Spektralistai, pasak Garaldo Rescho, 6 pvz. Harmoninis ir subharmoninis spektras pasirinko labiau „biomorfinį“ modelį (Resch 1999: 17), kuris apima FFT spektrinę (instrumento) analizę, siekdami Apibendrinant spektrinių metodų dėsningumus, galima nustatyti dalinių tonų hierarchiją, formančių sritis (t. y. daryti išvadą, jog spektriniai metodai iš esmės generuoja daliniai tonai, turintys stiprią akustinę energiją spektre), hierarchinius mikrointervalinių aukščių santykius, kurie pa- dažnius, pulsaciją, triukšmų ribas, garso saturacijos ar dis- sireiškia įvairiais pavidalais: natūralieji intervalai iš virštonių torcijos elementus. Analizės rezultatai pasitelkiami spektro serijos, instrumentų skleidžiamo spektro sudedamosios dalys, resintezavimui, paskirstant dalinius tonus įvairiausiems ins- garso aukščiai susiformavę pasitelkus algoritmines procedūras. trumentų deriniams. Ši „orkestravimo technika“ spektralis- Kitaip tariant, spektralistų kūryboje naudojami mikrointer- tams leido iš naujo resintezuoti ir komponuoti tembriškai16. valai – atitinkamų spektrų analizės ir skaičiavimų padarinys. Spektrinėje muzikoje vyraujančią ir susidarančią harmo- Kita vertus, Partcho ar Beno Johnstono metodai ak- niją puikiai iliustruoja Tristano Murailio posakis „harmoni- centavo mikrointervalinius garsų ryšius, o spektralizme ja-tembras“, pabrėžiantis tembro svarbą ir neatsiejamą ryšį mikrointervalika inkorporuojama į pačius muzikinius para- su harmonija. Iš esmės pats Murailis teigė, kad tarp tembro metrus ir jų procesus. Nei Grisey’s, nei Murailis neteikė itin ir harmonijos sąvokų nėra jokio skirtumo. Kompozitorius didelio dėmesio mikrointervalų preciziškumui, pasitelkiami dažnai naudojo resintezės veiksmus, generuojančius hibri- ketvirtatoniai, aštuntatoniai, o neretai jie tiesiog praleidžia- dines struktūras. mi. Mikrointervalus naudoja ir postspektralistai, priskirti Pasitelkus spektrines analizes, vis dėlto laikui bėgant ne- antrajai prancūzų spektralistų kartai“21, nors dauguma pakako gauti vieno instrumentinio garso; imta eksperimen- XXI a. kūrėjų ne tik eksploatuoja tiesiogiai ar fragmentiškai tuoti su algoritmais, dirbtinai sukurtų spektrų „gamyba“, spektrinės muzikos keliamus muzikinio garso estetinio, kaip t. y. FM17 ir RM18 / CT19 (trys pagrindiniai metodai, nau- „gyvo organizmo“, suvokimo metodus muzikos audinyje, dojami garso aukščių generacijai). Komponuojant muzikos bet pasitelkia ir sisteminių struktūrų integravimą, neišveng- kūrinį buvo taikomi ir kiti trys metodai: harmoniškumas, dami priešinimo ir vidinio dramaturginio konflikto tarp inharmoniškumas ir subharmoniškumas. Šie konceptai asociacijos „nešvariai“ skambančios muzikos. Žvelgiant į nulemia harmonines virštonių serijos savybes. Spektrinės tokį reiškinį objektyviai, išryškėja postspektralistams labai muzikos kontekste „harmoniškumas“ reiškia spektrą, ku- svarbus bruožas: spektras, kaip atspirties taškas, o ne kaip rio elementai yra sveikieji skaičiai. O inharmoninį spektrą pagrindinis dominuojantis elementas, perinterpretuojamas

156 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje ir funkcionuoja it deklaruojamas estetinis muzikos garso Žvelgdami atidžiau į Viļumso kūrinio derminę sarangą, suvokimo kampas. matysime esminius, išskirtinius derminės sandaros bruožus, Toliau straipsnyje aptariami mikrotonalumo taikymo taip pat ir mikrointervalikos panaudojimo strategijas: XXI a. komponavimo praktikoje pavyzdžiai, analizuojant •• simetrinė derminė transpozicija glaudžiai sąveikauja Viļumso ir Sapiegos kūrinius mikrointervališkumo aspektu. su virštonių erdve, sudarydama bendrą kondensuotą derminį rezultatą; •• vertinant tarpkultūriniu muzikiniu aspektu dermės fuk- Mikrotoninės postspektralizmo praktikos cionavimas ir sąveikavimas su visais kitais muzikos kalbos elementais turi glaudžias aliuzijas į arabų senąsias dermes; 3 Mārtiņšo Viļumso „Gāw ēk-dād kard“ mišriam •• Viļumsas „sukabina“ dvi simetrines dermes per 14 tono chorui (2001) sąntykį. Latvių kompozitoriaus ir muzikologo Mārtiņšo Viļumso (g. 1974) kūrybai būdingi postspektralistinės muzikos kom- Dėl ryškiai polifonizuotų muzikos kalbos elementų ponavimo metodai, paties kuriama mikrosonorikos techni- sąveikos ir transpozicinių simetrinių dermių panaudojimo ka. Autoriaus kūrybos principai pasireiškia daugialypiais Viļumso kūrinyje aiškiai matomi Hába’os teorijai būdingi skambesio kaip formos, vidinės skambesio hierarchijos bei polichordiškumo principai, kai vienu metu sutampa kele- artikuliacijos, muzikinio audinio „išspalvinimo“ aspektais. tas iš dviejų dermių sudarytų muzikos kalbos elementų, Šiuos kūrybos bruožus atspindi „Gāw ēk-dād kard“ dvidešimt susijungdami į vieną kokybinį objektą – mikrointervalikos keturių balsų chorui (2001). Kompozicijai, kaip ir daugeliui prisotintą dermę ar akordą. spektralistinių kūrinių, būdingas tembro, artikuliacijos ar Tokioje postspektralistinėje kūryboje ne tik dermė, bet garsaeilio moduliacijos perprasminimas. Redukavus šio ir kiti, t. y. formos, harmonijos, garsų artikuliacijos, mik kūrinio partitūrą ir išskyrus pagrindinius dermės aukščių rochromatiškumo, tembro ir dinamikos, klausimai nelieka elementus, ryškėja simetrinės dermės transpozicijos metodas nuošalėje. Visi šie parametrai jungiasi į muzikinį audinį, (7 pvz.). Kitas akivaizdus spektralizmo bruožas, kuris Viļum- išreikšdami esminius Viļumso kūrybai būdingus estetikos so kompozicijoje pasitelkiamas perprasminant muzikinės bruožus, priartėjančius prie tarpkultūrinio konteksto lauko, erdvės skambesio harmoniją, yra natūralaus garsaeilio nuo F kuris charakteringas arabų šalių archajinei muzikai: išraiškų panaudojimas su mikrointervalų apraiška (kaip Si) (8 pvz.). poetiškumas ir viršmuzikinių reiškinių implikacijos. „Gāw ēk-dād kard“ pasižymi kelių transformuotų tarpkultūrinių bruožų samplaika: pitagoriškoji garso suvokimo ir tvarkos organizavimo sistema – ne vien kaip matematinė, skaičiavimų prisotinta tvarka, bet ir kaip filo- sofinė, doktrininė muzikos kūrinio ir žmogaus gyvenimo idėja. Šiame kūrinyje išryškėja ir makamų (derminė arabų tradicinės muzikos sistema) elementai. Mikrointervalika 7 pvz. Simetrinė dermės transpozicija užima reikšmingą vaidmenį formuodama garsinius išspal- vinimus, kurie būdingi Viļumso kūrybai, t. y. pagrindiniai garsų artikuliacijos principai – garso pagrindinių savybių reartikuliacija; tembrinis, dinaminis, įvairiais štrichais ar kitais specifiniais atlikimo būdais modeliuojamas trans- 8 pvz. Virštonių erdvė formavimas.

9 pvz. Harmoninė erdvė

157 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

10 pvz. Harmoninis spektras nuo garso E

Žvelgdami į šį kūrinį, matysime esminius sinkretizmui virštonių serija. Performuoti spektrai juda ekvivalentiškomis būdingus bruožus: bendrą dviejų muzikinių ir filosofinių kryptimis vienas link kito tranzicijos metodu, keisdami pažiūrų plėtotę ir susiliejimą, išlaikant pagrindinius bruožus, spektrą dinamikos aspektu. Harmoninis spektras moduliuo- siejamus su mikrointervalikos panaudojimo strategijos sukur- ja į inharmoninį spektrą, šis kūrinyje parodomas tik keletą tomis skambesio kokybėmis ir jų reartikuliacinėmis savybėmis. kartų. Prieš „išnykdamas“ paskutinį kartą jis tarsi ištrinamas triukšme, kaip ir jame pradedamas harmoninis spektras. Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos „Aux charmes ignores“ Tembrinės moduliacijos kūrinyje atliekamos pasitelkus simfoniniam orkestrui (2018) spektrinę analizę, kai nuo to paties garso, kaip ir pagrindinis Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos (g. 1990) kompozicija „Aux spektras, garsai nuimami keičiant tik grojimo instrumentu charmes ignores“ („Nepažintas grožis“) – tai tradicinės mu- techniką, o galiausiai keičiant instrumentus ir pagrindinį zikos sistemos, formos ir garso tembro perkūrimas naujomis garsą. Spektro moduliacijoms pasitelkiami atitinkami gro- muzikinėmis idiomomis. Kompozicija pagrįsta spektraliz- jimo kontrabosu būdai – pizz., sul pont, ordinario. Spektras mui būdingomis garsų organizavimo sistemomis, o neįprasti kūrinyje taip pat traktuojamas kaip dermė, t. y. derminis skirtingų instrumentų deriniai papildo orkestro spalvų pale- spektro variantas, kuris gali formuoti harmoniją. tę tembru ir garso masių vystymu. Kompoziciniame procese autorius pasitelkė du atspirties taškus – transformaciją ir sinkretizmą, siekdamas įprasminti ir išreikšti sintezės reiški- nį, tradicinės muzikos sistemų, formų ir tembro perkūrimą naujomis muzikinėmis idiomomis. Kūrinys pagrįstas spektralistų pamėgtu įkvėpimo, iškvėpimo ir poilsio principu. Poilsio parametras kūrinyje įgyvendinamas reguliariu, periodišku E harmoniniu spek- tru. Intensyvumą ir jo atoslūgius manifestuoja tranzicija ir inharmoninis spektras, kuriuose harmoninis spektras 11 pvz. Performuotas harmoninis spektras nuo garso E, labiausiai priartėja ir supanašėja su natūralaus garsaeilio dinamika forte

12 pvz. Harmoninio spektro moduliacijos nuo bendro garso 158 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

1) aukštis: trilis tarp mažyčių intervalų arba glissando; 2) garsumas: tarp crescendo ir diminuendo; 3) ritmas: ilgų ir trumpų verčių keitimasis; 4) tembras: kismas nuo stryko spaudimo arba tarp konkretaus ir nekonkretaus garso.

Iš kūrinio mikrointervalikos prisotinto spektro panaudojimo strategijos matyti vienas ryškiausių postspektralistams būdingų bruožų: spektras – atspirties taškas, bet ne 13 pvz. Iš derminio spektro išskirtas akordas22 iki galo kontroliuojantis kompozicinį procesą (tai buvo būdinga spektralistams). Tokią postspektralizmo stilistiką Žemą tembrą imituoja įvairiūs instrumentų grupių pasirinkę autoriai spektrą išpažįsta tik tiek, kiek jis gene- deriniai, siekiant išgauti įvairią sonorinę / spalvinę atakos ruoja kūrybinę medžiagą, t. y. dermę, akordiką, šiuolaiki- tekstūrą, jos mikrointervalinę sudėtį, kartais pasitelkiant nei muzikai būdingą mikrointervališkumą, orkestravimo tvinkčiojantį garso debesį, integruojantį mikrointervalus. principus ir t. t. Laipsniškai keičiant sudėtį, kinta ir mikrointervalų funkcija: Mikrointervalika muzikos kūrinyje, ypač postspektra- nuo spektrą „palaikančių“ mikrointervalų iki harmoninio listinėje muzikoje, gali pasireikšti įvairiais būdais. Galima plano praplėtimo. Atitinkamai mikrointervalikos eksploa- išskirti keletą pagrindinių mikrointervališkumo bruožų ir tacija šiame kūrinyje pasireiškia kaip: funkcijų:

14 pvz. „Aux charmes ignores“, 1–5 t.; spektro perinterpretavimas

159 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

5 schema. Mikrointervalikos prisotinto spektro panaudojimo strategija „Aux charmes ignores“ (fone – M. K. Čiurlionio paveikslas „Ramybė“, 1903)

1) tiesioginės mikrointervalikos apraiškos: a) tiesiogiai iš spektro išgaunami mikrointervalai muzikos kūrinyje funkcionuoja kaip tikslūs skaičiavimai; b) tiksliai apskaičiuoti mikrointervalai yra supaprastinami iki tokių reikšmių, kurias būtų kur kas patogiau atlikti atlikėjui;

15 pvz. „Aux charmes ignores“, 91–95 t. c) gali būti praleidžiami sudėtiniai mikrointervalai, o vietoj jų parašomi paprastesni, nors ne to paties garso.

16 pvz. „Aux charmes ignores“, 51–55 t.

160 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

2) netiesioginės mikrointervalikos apraiškos: a) naudojant įvairias sonorines priemones ir grojimo būdus išgaunamos iš dalies kontroliuojamos mikrointervalikos apraiškos dėl skambesio kokybės rezultato;

17 pvz. „Aux charmes ignores“, 61–65 t. b) naudojant įvairias sonorines priemones ir šalutinius garsus, tokius kaip triukšmas, išgaunamos netiesioginės mikrointervalikos apraiškos, sunkiai apibrėžiamos ir kontroliuojamos muzikiniame audinyje;

161 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

18 pvz. „Aux charmes ignores“, 16–20 t.

3) pasitelkus įvairias, ypač spektralizmui būdingas, orkestravimo technikas, išgaunama tokia skambesio kokybė, kuri suponuotų mikrointervalikos prisotintų kūrinių skambesio kokybę.

19 pvz. „Aux charmes ignores“, 81–85 t.

162 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

Išvados •• sinkretizmas – tembro, artikuliacijos ar garsaeilio perprasminimas eksploatuojant mikrointervalus, Apžvelgę mikrochromatikos apraiškas įvairių laikotar- muzikinio garso suvokimas kaip „gyvo organizmo“, pių muzikoje, galime daryti tokias išvadas apie nagrinėjamo sisteminių mikrostruktūrų integracija, mikrochroma- reiškinio sampratos raidą ir transformaciją XXI a.: tikos inkorporavimas į muzikos procesus, kaip galimas •• senosios muzikinės kultūros: garso aukščių organizavimas šalutinis sisteminis efektas, cirkuliacinis Rytų ir Vakarų mikrochromatinėse struktūrose labiau kaip garsų aukščių žiūros ratas: tarp tapsmo ir būties fiksavimo ( Grisey’s, hierarchijos santykį ir proporciją išreiškiantis skaičius tiek Murailis, Viļumsas); filosofinio, tiek struktūrinio mąstymo principu; •• sintezė – tradicinės muzikinės sistemos, formos, tembro •• XX a. avangardas: mikrosistemos traktuojamos kaip perkūrimas naujomis muzikinėmis idiomomis, mik struktūriniai tarpkultūrinės transformacijos aspektai, rochromatikos funkcionavimas it beformio intelekto praplečiantys įsigalėjusias tonalias sistemas, remiantis formos, jusliškumo ir intelekto konfliktas, muzikos senosios muzikos teoriniais veikalais ir gilinantis tik į kūrinio kalbos elementų visuma ir raiška nebeatitinka struktūrinius mikromuzikinius garso parametrus, juos baigtinės daikto formos, viršderminis, harmoninis, eksponuojant muzikiniame audinyje; tematinis kontūras (Saariaho’as, Sapiega). •• XXI a. muzika: mikrosistema suvokiama ne tik kaip sonorinė raiškos priemonė, garso aukščių organizavimo Mikrointervalika muzikos kūrinyje, ypač postspektra- sistema, bet ir kaip naujoji estetinė-filosofinė sampra- listinėje muzikoje, gali pasireikšti įvairiais būdais. Šiame ta – muzikos garsas prilyginamas „gyvo organizmo“, straipsnyje išskirti šie mikrointervališkumo bruožai ir emfazinio centrizmo sampratai, siekiama išgauti garse funkcijos: slypinčius mikro- ir makroparametrus, procesus. 1) tiesioginės mikrointervalikos apraiškos: a) tiesiogiai iš spektro išgaunami mikrointervalai muzi- XX–XXI a. mikrotonalumo reiškinys įgavo naujų bruo- kos kūrinyje funkcionuoja kaip tikslūs skaičiavimai; žų, o pokyčius galime traktuoti kaip mikrotonalumo konver- b) tiksliai apskaičiuoti mikrointervalai yra supapras- siją. XX–XXI a. muzikai būdinga mikrotonalumo konver- tinami iki tokių reikšmių, kurias būtų kur kas patogiau sijos prielaida ir kartu rezultatas – autorius kūrybiniais ir atlikti atlikėjui; teoriniais ieškojimais sprendžia meno kūrinio identiteto c) gali būti praleidžiami sudėtiniai mikrointervalai, o problemą, išreiškia autorizuotą sąlytį su mikrosistemomis. vietoj jų parašomi paprastesni, nors ne to paties garso; Vienas pagrindinių tikslų, būdingų mikrotonalumo konver- 2) netiesioginės mikrointervalikos apraiškos: sijos paveiktai muzikai, yra meno kūrinio identifikavimas a) naudojant įvairias sonorines priemones ir grojimo bū- su jo būtimi, t. y. noras pakeisti klasikinę meno kūrinio sampratą ir jo struktūrą garsų aukščių ir jų vidinių / išorinių dus išgaunamos iš dalies kontroliuojamos mikrointervalikos proporcijų organizavimo ir suvokimo lygmenyje. apraiškos dėl skambesio kokybės rezultato; Remiantis tarpkultūrinės muzikos analizės metodo b) naudojant įvairias sonorines priemones ir šalutinius kategorijomis ir XX–XXI a. mikrointervalinės muzikos garsus, tokius kaip triukšmas, išgaunamos netiesioginės peržvalga galima teigti, jog nagrinėjamu laikotarpiu mikrointervalikos apraiškos, sunkiai apibrėžiamos ir kon- funkcionuoja trys konversijos apraiškos ir galimi analizės troliuojamos muzikiniame audinyje; metodai: transferencija, sinkretizmas ir sintezė. Nagrinėjant 3) pasitelkus įvairias, ypač spektralizmui būdingas, pasirinktus kūrinius, nustatytos kompozicinės estetinės- orkestravimo technikas, išgaunama tokia skambesio koky- filosofinės ir analitinės strategijos ir įvardyti pagrindiniai bė, kuri suponuotų mikrointervalikos prisotintų kūrinių bruožai, kuriuos pasitelkus atitinkami opusai priskiriami skambesio kokybę. konkrečioms mikrosistemų konversijos kategorijoms. Tuo Nustatytos konkrečios mikrotonalumo konversijos remiantis galima išskirti tris XX–XXI a. mikrotonalumo apraiškos ir jo viduje slypinčios funkcionalumo prasminės konversijos rūšis, jų būdinguosius bruožus ir įvardyti kom- reikšmės gali būti pasitelkiamos tolesniems mikrointer- pozitorius, kurių kūriniuose nustatyta atitinkama raiška: valinės muzikos tyrimams, analizuojant mikrosistemų konversijos paveiktus kūrinius, taip pat kūrėjo santykį su •• transferencija – estetiniai principai ar formali sistema, neturinti aiškių nuorodų į tiesioginį atitinkamą kul- meno kūriniu ir pačiu menu. Išanalizuotuose istoriniuose, tūrinį skambesį, išryškintas muzikinis mikrointervalų teoriniuose ir konkrečiuose muzikos pavyzdžiuose mato- iliustratyvumas be kultūrinių citatų, literatūrinės arba mas mikrotonalumo konversijos aspektas siejamas ne tik ekstramuzikinės citatos, garso „atgaivinimo“, „atnauji- su konkrečios muzikinės medžiagos eksploatavimu, bet nimo“ siekis, mikrochromatiškumas, kaip struktūrinis ir su santykių stichija. Tačiau yra apstu ir kitų sisteminių derminis elementas, ribojamas tonaliosios muzikos tra- mikrointervališkumo inkliuzų, skatinančių tolesnius tyri- dicijos ir muzikinės medžiagos, ikitonaliosios muzikos nėjimus, dar labiau konkretizuojant ir apibrėžiant mikro- praktikos (Hába, Carrillo’as, Partchas); tonalumo konversijos žiūros lauką.

163 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA

Nuorodos orkestrui (1946–1947) panaudojo aiškiai girdimus ketvirtatonius, tačiau po to, kai kūrinys buvo atliktas, kompozitorius 1 „Grynasis tonas“ – sinusoidinė garso banga. nusprendė daugiau ketvirtatonių nenaudoti (Zeller 2003: 56). 2 Turima omenyje pustonį. Iannio Xenakio (1922–2001) kūryboje ketvirtatonių 3 Originali schema pateikiama Everett 2004: 16. naudojimas būdingiausiai pasireiškė per neapibrėžtumą 4 Sonido trece – isp. „tryliktas garsas“. Pirmasis Carrillo kūrinys, atliekant glissando. kuris reprezentavo šią teoriją, buvo „Preludio a Colón“ (1922). Johnas Cage’as (1912–1992) mikrointervalus pasitelkė 5 Carrillo’as pasirinko gana empirinį metodą, kad patvirtintų kūriniuose preparuotam fortepijonui (pvz., „Sonatas and savo teorijas: jo iniciatyva nuo 1917 m. sukonstruota šešiolikos Interludes“, 1946–1948), kai grojant instrumentu išgaunami tonų arfa (vienos oktavos apimties), ketvirtatonių styginiai, nenuspėjami mikrointervalai. Tai buvo vienas iš būdų pabėgti mediniai pučiamieji instrumentai ir šešiolikos tonų variniai nuo lygaus derinimo sistemos (Zeller 2003: 56). pučiamieji (Benjamin 1967: 47). Karlheinzas Stockhausenas (1928–2007) elektroninėje 6 Jie yra trumpesnio periodiškumo nei tie, kurių sveikieji skaičiai pjesėje „Studie II“ plėtojo lygiojo padalijimo sistemą, kai 3 25 didesni, pvz., kombinuota garso banga 2 (gr 5) pasikartoja atstumai tarp gretimų garsų lygūs tai pačiai proporcijai √5 47 po šešių periodų, o kombinuota garso banga 32 (kvinta, kuri (Fritsch 2007: 118). 3 skamba 36 centais aukščiau, palyginti su gr 52) pasikartoja po Luigi’s Nono’as (1924–1990) mikrointervalus savo 1504 periodų. Tokį periodiškumą žmogaus klausa suvokia kaip kūryboje pradėjo naudoti gana vėlai. Pirmą kartą panaudoti labiau disonansišką. mikrointervalai [ketvirtatoniai] styginių kvartete „Fragmen- 7 Natūraliosios darnos teoriją 1558 m. aprašė Giuseppe’ė Zar- te – Stille – An Diotima“ (1980); vėliau, be ketvirtatonių, lino’as. Natūralią darną sudarė natūralaus garsaeilio obertonų būta ir aštuntatonių, šešioliktatonių panaudojimo apraiškų 1 9 5 4 3 5 15 2 (pvz., 1984-ųjų pjesėje orkestrui „A Carlo Scarpa, architetto, seka: 1, 8, 4, 3, 2, 3, 0 , 1. Tokia seka paaiškina tris skirtingus intervalinius žingsnius, t. y. „mažorinis tonas“ skamba aštun- ai suoi infiniti posibili“). tatoniu aukščiau nei „minorinis“, o skirtumas yra vadinamas Mikrointervalus išmėgino ir György Ligeti (1923–2006). „sintonine koma“. Jam atskaitos tašku tapo ketvirtatonis. Įdomu, jog Styginių 8 Partchas pridėjo 7-, 9- ir 11 dažnių santykius. kvarteto Nr. 2 (1968) anotacijoje (György Ligeti, String Qu- 9 Partchas šiuos intervalus vadino „pirminėmis proporcijomis“, artet No. 2, Schott ED 6639, 1971) nurodoma, kad atlikėjai jos galėtų būti išreikštos tokia santykių seka: gali laisvai produkuoti nenustatyto garso mikrointervalus, 1 12 11 9 8 7 6 11 5 14 9 4 11 7 kurių dydis kur kas mažesnis nei ketvirtatonio. Vėlesniuose 1 – 11 – 10 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 9 – 4 – 11 – 7 – 3 – 8 – 5 – jo darbuose išryškėjo ir kitas mikrointervalų panaudojimo 10 16 3 14 11 8 18 5 12 7 16 9 20 11 2 7 – 11 – 2 – 9 – 7 – 5 – 11 – 3 – 7 – 4 – 9 – 5 – 11 – 6 – 1 principas – skirtingų temperavimo sistemų eksploatacija Daugiau žr. Fritsch 2007: 120. (pvz., numanomo tono temperacija pritaikyta „Passacaglia 10 Vienas ryškiausių Partcho laimėjimų, susijusių su mikroin- ungherese“, 1978; natūralaus derinimo sistema būdinga tervalais, yra intervalų klasių apibrėžimas: didieji intervalai Smuiko koncertui, 1990–1992). 15 (oktava, kvinta, kvarta), mažieji intervalai (tritonio inter- Grupę sudarė Huguesas Dufourt’as, Gérard’as Grisey’s, Tris- valai), emociniai intervalai (tercijos, sekstos) ir pasiekiamieji tanas Murailis, Michaëlas Levinas ir Rogeris Tessier. 16 intervalai (pustonis, pilnieji tonai, septimos) (žr. Partch 1949: Vienas ryškiausių pavyzdžių – Grisey’o „Partiels“, paremtas 155). spektro resintezavimu. Spektras suformuotas iš trombono 11 1924–1931 m. sukonstruoti trys ketvirtatonių pianinai, išgaunamo garso E. 17 1928 m. – ketvirtatonių, 1936 m. – šeštatonių fisharmonija, Dažnių moduliacija (angl. frequency modulation). 18 1924 m. – ketvirtatonių klarnetas, 1931 m. – ketvirtatonių Skambesio moduliacija (angl. ring modulation). 19 trimitas, 1943 m. – ketvirtatonių gitara. Kombinuoti tonai (ang. combination tones). 20 12 1934 m. Hába’ai gavus tikrojo konservatorijos profesoriaus Čia turima omenyje paprasčiausiai susidarantį triukšmą. 21 statusą, kaip atskiras padalinys įkurta ketvirtatonių klasė. Antrajai prancūzų spektralistų kartai priskiriami kompozi- Paminėtina, jog Hába, dar 1923 m. grįžęs į Prahą po studijų toriai Philippe’as Hurelas (g. 1955) ir Manfredas Stahnke’ė (g. 1936), su išlygomis – Hansas Zenderis (g. 1936). Vienoje ir Berlyne, pradėjo dėstyti ketvirtatonių muziką. 22 Jo iniciatyvą sukurti atskirą padalinį čekų muzikai sutiko Natos juodomis galvutėmis yra pridedamos tik spektrui nu- priešiškai dėl elementarių priežasčių: kaip tik tuo metu kū- skambėjus. Spektro garsai taip pat redukuojami. rėsi moderniosios čekų muzikos kultūra, o tokios iniciatyvos atrodė ne tautinės, labiau susijusios su vokiečių muzika. Rūta Stanevičiūtė pažymi, jog, kai kurių tyrinėtojų duo- Literatūra menimis, iš pradžių Hába ketino steigti ketvirtatonių muzikos skyrių Berlyno aukštojoje akademinėje muzikos mokykloje, Benjamin G. R., Julian Carrillo and „Sonido Trece“ (Dedicated tačiau nėra aišku, kodėl šis sumanymas nebuvo įgyvendintas to the Memory of Nabor Carrillo), Texas: University of Texas (Stanevičiūtė 2015: 151). Press, 1967. 13 Hába atmetė tematizmui būdingą pasikartojamumą muzikos Biehl Cales J., Microtonality in the Post-Spectral Era: Developing kūriniuose, nesutiko su tradicine tematizmo plėtojimo logika, New Pitch Hierarchies, D. Mus. Thesis, Royal College of bet tai nereiškia, jog jis neigė patį tematizmą: „Kaip gyvenime Music, 2011. niekas nesikartoja, taip ir mano kūryboje niekas neturi karto- Busoni Ferruccio, Sketch of a Esthetic of Music. Three Classics in tis“ (Stanevičiūtė 2015: 161). the Aesthetic of Music, New York: 1962. 14 Pavyzdžiui: Daunoravičienė-Žuklytė Gražina, Lietuvių muzikos moder- Pierre’as Boulezas (1925–2016) savo pjesės antrojoje nistinės tapatybės žvalgymas, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir versijoje „Le Visage nuptial“ sopranui, altui, moterų chorui ir teatro akademija, 2016.

164 Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje pusėje–XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje

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Sethares William A., Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale, London: a system of pitch organization, but also as a new aesthetical- Springer, 2005. philosophical concept: a musical sound is equated with the Stanevičiūtė Rūta, Modernumo lygtys, Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės concept of a "live organism" and emphatic centrism, and akademijos leidykla, 2015. attempts are made to extract both the “micro” and “macro” Stiebler Ernstalbrecht, Mikrotonalität – eine zweite Avantgarde?, parameters and processes hiding in the sound. in: , Musik der anderen Tradition 1: Mikrotonale Tonwelten In the summary and evaluation of the dissemination Heinz-Klaus Metzger, Rainer Riehn (eds.), München, 2003, p. 213–220. and the changes in microtonality from the qualitative and Šliogeris Arvydas, Daiktas ir menas. Du meno kūrinio ontologijos quantitative viewpoints, we conclude that it was specifically etiudai, Vilnius: Margi raštai, 2017. in the twentieth and the early twenty-first century that the

165 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Gabrielius Simas SAPIEGA phenomenon acquired new features and angles of viewing, the conflict between sensuality and intelligence; the totality while the changes that occurred can be regarded as a con- and expression of the elements of the language of a musical version of microtonality. composition no longer corresponds to the finite form of the Microsystems became established both in the avant-gar- thing; an over-modal, harmonic, and thematic contour— de and twenty-first century music contexts. When viewing Saariaho, Sapiega. such phenomena from the compositional perspective, a The microintervalics in a musical composition, and merely analytical viewpoint does not suffice: we must appro- especially in post-spectral music, can manifest themselves ach a corresponding phenomenon—the thing, that is, the in various ways. Several key features and functions of mi- work of art—in which microintervals or michrochromatic crointervalics can be identified: systems are exploited both in the direct (analytical) and 1) Direct manifestations of microintervalics: figurative (philosophical) sense. The affected works by the a) the microintervals obtained directly from the conversion of microtonality as the being of a substantial spectrum function in musical compositions as pre- individual: that is not just the implementation of the ide- cise calculations; alized schemas of the thing, but also the direct expression b) the precisely calculated microintervals are simplified of the meanings of the thing (the work of art). to meanings that are much more convenient for the Based on the categories of the intercultural music analy- performer to play; sis technique (proposed by Everett & Lau), upon the review c) compound microintervals can be omitted, and more of twentieth- and twenty-first-century microinterval music simple ones written instead, although not of the and the analysis of specific compositions, we can argue that, same sound. over the period in question, three manifestations of conver- 2) Indirect manifestations of microintervalics: sion and possible techniques of analysis were functioning: a) through the use of different sonoric means and transference, syncretism, and synthesis: playing techniques, partially controlled mani- transference means aesthetic principles or a formal sys- festations of microintervalics are obtained for the tem without explicit references to a corresponding direct outcome of the quality of sound; cultural sound; highlighted musical illustrativeness of b) through the use of different sonoric means and side microintervals without cultural quotations; literary or extra- sounds as noises, indirect manifestations of microin- musical quotations; an aspiration to “revive” and “update” tervalics are obtained and are difficult to define and the sound; microchromatics as a structural modal element control in the musical texture; limited by the tradition of tonal music and musical material 3) by means of various, and especially typical of spectralism, as well as pre-tonal music practices—Hába, Carrillo, Partch; orchestration techniques, such a quality of sound is syncretism means changing the meaning of timbre, obtained which presupposes the quality of sound of the articulation, or the tone series through the exploitation of compositions saturated with microintervalics. microintervals; the perception of musical sound as the integration of a “live organism” and systemic “micro” structures; Straipsnis įteiktas / Delivered 2018 10 01 the integration of microchromatics into musical processes as a potential systemic side effect; and a rotating circle of the Finansavimą skyrė Lietuvos mokslo taryba (LMTLT), sutarties Oriental and Occidental viewpoints: between the recording Nr. S-LIP-18-39, projektas „Garsinės utopijos: lietuvių muzikos of becoming and being—Grisey, Murail, Viļums; (trans)avangardo kultūriniai impulsai ir instituciniai kontekstai“. | This project has received funding from the Research Council synthesis means recreation of a traditional musical sys- of Lithuania (LMTLT), agreement No S-LIP-18-39, project tem, form, or timbre by new musical idioms; the functioning “Sound Utopias: Cultural Impulses and Institutional Contexts of microchromatics as a form of amorphous intelligence; of Lithuanian Music (Trans)avant-garde”.

166 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Vita ČESNULEVIČIŪTĖ Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje Codes of Interpretation of Musical Analogies in Poetry

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected]

Anotacija Straipsnyje aptariami muzikinės, poetinės ir kalbinės raiškos sankirtų aspektai kartu aktualizuojant keletą ryškesnių XX a. susiklosčiusių poezijos ir muzikos giminystės pavyzdžių, kurie iliustruoja tam tikras poetinio teksto muzikos komponavimo principų, struktūrinės ir seman- tinės sąrangos principų bendrumo apraiškas. Atskleidžiama poetinio teksto analizės strategija, išskiriami Alfonso Nykos-Niliūno ir Nijolės Miliauskaitės eilėraščių analizes formuojantys (formalusis skaidymo ir montavimo, motyvinės plėtotės, tonacinis) skaitymo parametrai. Reikšminiai žodžiai: poezija, eilėraštis, analizė, analogija, motyvas, tonacija, veiksmažodis, Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, Nijolė Miliauskaitė.

Abstract The article discusses the aspects of intersections of musical, poetic, and language-related expression, thus actualizing several more vivid examples of the relationship between poetry and music of the twentieth century that illustrate certain manifestations of affinity shared by the principles of musical creation of a poetic text and that of a structural as well as semantic composition. This article reveals the strategies of textual analysis. It also distinguishes various parameters of reading (a formal parameter of decomposition and arrangement, the parameter of motif development, the tonal parameter) that constitute the analysis of poems presented in the article. Keywords: poetry, poem, analysis, analogy, motif, tonality, verb, Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, Nijolė Miliauskaitė.

Įvairialypis ir daugiaaspektis poezijos muzikalumas a) kaip semantinio tikslumo susilpnėjimą ir žodžio pagrįstai reikalauja muzikinių interpretacijos kodų. Nors fonikos bei grynosios išraiškos (pvz., Kurto Schwitterio muzikos prigimtis neturi referentinių reikšmių, muzika „fonetiniai eilėraščiai“) sustiprėjimą; tampa referentiška ją suvokiant kaip kultūros tekstą. Ref- b) kaip muzikos darybos priemonių – refreno, leitmo- lektyvus poetinio teksto ir skaitytojo-muzikologo santykis tyvo ir t. t. – panaudojimą (pvz., Thomo Stearnso Elioto gali atverti naujas muzikos funkcionavimo sampratas, eilėraščiai); muzikos analizę įveiksminti poetinio teksto analizėje. Šis c) kaip atspindimos tikrovės nuotaikos sustiprinimą, muzikologinę tapatybę pristatantis straipsnis orientuotas padedant eufonijai ir euritmijai (pvz., simbolistų poezija). į tarpdiscipliniškumo terpę, kurioje savo vietą yra radusi Anot Tomaszewskio, „su šia tendencija susijęs įžymusis naujoji muzikologija, aktyviai besikreipianti į kitų mokslų Walterio Paterio pareiškimas, kad slaptas kiekvienos poezi- sritis, postmoderniąsias teorijas. Vienas iš intermedialumo jos troškimas yra pavirsti muzika“ (Tomaszewski, 1991: 28). koncepcijos, skatinančios ieškoti poetinio teksto ir muzikos analogijų įvairiais aspektais, pavyzdžių – Wernerio Wolfo literatūros ir muzikos ryšių klasifikacija (žr. 1 schemą). Muzikinės, poetinės ir kalbinės raiškos sankirtų Originaliąją Wolfo schemos versiją1 sudaro Steveno P. aspektai Schero2 sistema (dalis A) ir Wolfo sistematika (dalis B), kuriose šio straipsnio temos aspektai fokusuojami į mu- Galimybę interpretuoti muzikinių analogijų apraiškas zikos literatūroje apraiškas3. Kalbos ir muzikos santykių, poetiniuose tekstuose nulemiančios kategorijos yra: muzikinių poetinio teksto aspektų klausimus tyrinėjantis •• fonika – eufonija ir instrumentuotė, per kurias įvairiais muzikologas Mieczysławas Tomaszewskis žodžio muzi- būdais poetinis tekstas generuoja muzikinės kalbos kalizacijos sistemoje išskiria keturias kategorijas: pridėtinę analogijas5; muzikalizaciją, muzikalizaciją-vertimą, integralią muzika- •• muzikinio mąstymo plotmė, glūdinti giliuosiuose lizaciją, imanentinę literatūrinio kūrinio muzikalizaciją. eilėraščio sluoksniuose ir įžvelgiama per muzikos dary- Pastaroji atspindi kai kuriuos Wolfo iškeltus imitavimo / bos, dramaturginio plėtojimo, formos ir struktūrinių literatūros muzikalizavimo aspektus4. Tomaszewskis ima- analogijų prizmę6. nentinę literatūros kūrinio muzikalizaciją aiškina trejopai Iš poezijos ir muzikos giminystės problematikos kylan- (Tomaszewski 1991: 28): čios diskusijos ir eksperimentai dažnai kreipiasi į poezijos,

167 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vita ČESNULEVIČIŪTĖ

1 schema. Werneris Wolfas. Pagrindinės muzikos ir literatūros studijų sritys (Wolf 1999: 70).

168 Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje kaip garsų meno, idėją, kad žodis-garsas (t. y. kalbos muzika) („Эмигранты“) prašė skaityti balsu, nes kitaip eilėraštis yra pirmesnis nei žodis-prasmė. Kalbos garsyno tyrinėjimai, „dings“ (Платек 1989: 141): įvairios muzikinės-poetinės teorijos radosi kaip atsakas suvokimui, jog dviejų menų sąveika yra imanentiška ir neabe- Здесь, межвами: домами, деньгами, дымами, jotina. Vienas iš pavyzdžių – kompozitoriaus ir muzikologo Дамами, Думами, Leonido Sabanejevo studija „Kalbos muzika“ („Музыка Неслюбившись с вами, незбившись с вами, речи“, 1927), kurioje eksperimentuota su poetinės kalbos Неким – garsyno užrašymo galimybėmis išskiriant verbalinio garso Шуманомпроносяподполойвесну: fiksacijos būdų atitikmenis muzikos kalbos priemonėmis Выше! Извиду (Бирюков 2006: 579): Соловьинымтремолонавесу – Некий – избранный.

verbalinis garsynas = muzikinis garsynas Боязливейшый, ибо, взявнадыб – ↓ ↓ Ногилижете! garso stiprumas = dinamika Заблудившийсямеждугрыж и глыб garso trukmė (laiko talpa) = metrika Бог в будилище. garso aukštis = intonacija garso tembras = tembras Лишний! Вышний! Выходец! Вызов! Ввысь Неотвыкший… Виселиц Ryškus pavyzdys – viena simptomatiškesnių XX a. pra- Непринявший… В рванивалют и виз džiai Fedoro Platovo studija „Balsių gama“ („Гамагласных“, Веги – выходец9. 19168), kurioje autorius siekė pagrįsti muzikos perkėlimo į poeziją galimybę. Rinkdamasis tam tikras balses Platovas Tai, kad Cvetajevos poetiniai vaizdiniai gimsta klausan- sudarinėjo įvairias tonacijas atitinkančius garsaeilius, t. y. tis, patvirtina pati poetė: „Aš ne galvoju, aš klausau, paskui mažorines, minorines ir chromatines gamas (pvz., viena ieškau tikslios išraiškos žodžiu, [...] girdžiu melodiją, žodžių jų – УОЫЕАЭЯЮЕИ). Platovo siekis išleisti fonoknygą, negirdžiu, žodžių ieškau“ (Платек 1989: 136–137)10. papildytą ištarimo (atlikimo) nuorodomis, nebuvo įgyven- Ariadnė Efron (poetės dukra) prisimena, jog įkvėpimo dintas, tačiau eksperimentinės įžvalgos byloja, kad: valandomis Cvetajeva rašydavo tai, kas svarbiausia, o vė- •• ypatingas skaitymo būdas turi remtis žinojimu, jog mu- liau ji dirbdavo „juodą“ poezijos darbą: ieškodavo žodžio zikos garsų aukštinimo ir žeminimo principai atitinka prasmės, rimo, „nusegdama“ nuo teksto tai, ką manė esant fizikinius principus, pagrįstus eksperimentinės fonetikos daugiažodžiavimu. Ieškodama tikslios minties ir skambesio duomenimis; sintezės, Cvetajeva prirašydavo dešimtis strofų variantų, pre- •• vadovaujantis harmonijos ir kontrapunkto taisyklėmis ciziškai konkretizuodavo sumanymą, nuo kurio neleisdavo galima kurti eiles. Taip jo kūryboje radosi vadinamosios sau nukrypti, kad nepasiduotų savavališkam žodžių srauto „dainuotės“ (петы, nuo žodžio „петь“; eilės-dainuotės tekėjimui (Эфрон 1989: 37–38). Apie Cvetajevos poeziją / стиxи-петы), kurias Platovas vadino opusais jiems su- Andrejus Belas rašė: „Aš visą vakarą skaitau – beveik garsu teikdamas pavadinimus (pvz., „Prelude No. 2“, „Poeme ir beveik dainuoju“ (Платек 1989: 133). No. 1“) (Бирюков 2006: 574–575). Kalbos garsų mokslą – fonetiką, tiriančią kalbos garsų susidarymą ir jų akustines ypatybes, įprasta skirti į grynąją Ypatingo poezijos skaitymo būdo kategorijai priskir- fonetiką ir fonologiją. Grynoji fonetika tiria visus tiesiogi- tume ir mąstymo klausàfenomeną, kurį galėtų iliustruoti nius ar netiesioginius (įvairiais prietaisais išmatuojamus) Marinos Cvetajevos poezija. Poetė „Pabaigos poemos“ kalbos garsus ir jų požymius kaip tam tikrus fizinius (akus- („Поэмаконца“) juodraštyje rašė: „Mano skaitytojas turi tinė fonetika) arba fiziologinius (artikuliacinė fonetika) būti kaip muzikos kūrinio atlikėjas“ (Платек 1989: 141), reiškinius; svarbiausi fonologijos objektai yra fonemos ir o siųsdama Borisui Pasternakui eilėraštį „Emigrantai“ prozodiniai elementai:

Grynoji fonetika Fonologija

Aspektai Artikuliacinis Akustinis Funkcinis (tembras, tono aukštis) (tiria fonemų funkcijas kalboje, jų distinktyvinę funkciją – prozodinius elementus, t. y. kirtį, priegaidę, intonaciją) Pagrindinis vienetas: kalbos garsas Pagrindinis vienetas: fonema

1 lentelė. Garsiniai kalbos sandaros nagrinėjimo aspektai (sisteminta remiantis šioms sritims skirtais lietuvių tyrinėtojų darbais: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, 1997; Antanas Pakerys. Lietuvių bendrinės kalbos fonetika, 1995; Aleksas Girdenis. Fonologija, 1981) 169 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vita ČESNULEVIČIŪTĖ

Akustinis požymis Muzika Kalba Pagrindinis dažnis Melodijos aukščio komponentas Prozodijos aukščio komponentas Laiko reguliarumas ir kvantavimas Melodijos ritminis komponentas Prozodijos ritminis komponentas ilgesnės trukmės skalėje Trumpos pauzės Artikuliacija Sprogstamųjų priebalsių dalys Pastovios formantės Instrumentinio tembro komponentai Nepertraukiamų fonemų komponentai Kintamos formantės Retai naudojama Sprogstamųjų priebalsių komponentai Trumpalaikės spektro detalės Tembro komponentai Konsonansų komponentai

2 lentelė. Muzikos ir šnekamosios kalbos (angl. speech) akustinių požymių atitikmenys (Wolfe 2002: 12)

Nors žodžio ir muzikos menai informaciją koduoja abiem procesams būdingas grupavimo veiksmas – smulkes- skirtingos rūšies – raidžių ir notografijos – kalbomis, vie- niųjų elementų jungimas į aukštesnio lygio vienetus. Šiuos na neabejotinai jas jungiančių sąsajų yra fizikinės kilmės mentalinius vyksmus pagrindžia struktūrinėje psichologi- akustika. Anot Joe Wolfe’o, dauguma jų akustinių savybių joje aktualizuoti universalieji sąmonės ir pasąmonės kore- panašios, nors vartojamos skirtingais būdais (Wolfe 2002: liacijos principai, pasak psichologo Edwardo Titchenerio, 10). Remdamasis eksperimentinio tyrimo duomenimis „sudarantys visų proto išteklių šaltinį“ (Gjerdingen 2002: Wolfe’as susistemina muzikos ir šnekamosios kalbos akus- 960). tinių požymių atitikmenis: Rusų poetas Belas (mokęsis muzikos teorijos pas Sergejų Tanejevą) buvo vienas pirmųjų, XX a. muzikos Tarpdisciplininė poetinio teksto analizės strategija ir poezijos ryšių tyrinėjimuose bandžiusių nurodyti tie- siogines muzikos ir poezijos sąsajas11. Tvirtindamas, kad Kūrybiniai kalbos organizacijos procesai apibrėžia teks- verbalinės instrumentuotės principai poezijos teorijoje to santykį su kalbos sąvoka. Esmingas šios problematikos turi remtis muzikos teorija (Белый 1994: 221), 1929 m. formuluotes Jurijus Lotmanas pateikia dviem požiūriais: 12 pasirodžiusioje studijoje „Ritmas kaip dialektika ir „Varinis •• laikantis pirmojo požiūrio, kalba suvokiama kaip tam raitelis“ („Ритм как диалектика и „Медный Всадник“) tikra pirminė esmė, kuri įgauna materialią būtį įsikūny- jis pateikė naują poezijos ritmo analizės metodą. Ritmo dama tekste; savitumo išraiškos autorius ieškojo panašių ir nepanašių •• pagal antrąjį požiūrį, tekstas suvokiamas kaip atskiras, pagal skambesį eilučių kaitoje (Акимова, Ляпин 1998), uždaras baigtinis darinys, turintis specifinę imanentinę poemos tekstą skaidė į formaliai ar temiškai savarankiškus struktūrą. Imanentiškai organizuoto ir uždaro teksto epizodus, kurių ritminės įvairovės koeficientą apskaičiavo atžvilgiu aktyvuosis jo neužbaigtumo ir atvirumo pagal specialią formulę, o skaičiavimų rezultatus pateikė požymis, ypač kai kodavimo sistema organizuota grafinėje kreivėje13. Siejant muzikos ir poezijos sritis, ritmo hierarchiškai ir vieno iš jos lygmenų rekonstrukcija lygmens aktualumas užima ypatingą vietą ir dažnai tiriamas negarantuoja kitų supratimo. Pasak Lotmano, šiuo kaip tam tikro darbo objektas14. požiūriu tekstas ir kalba susikeičia vietomis – keičiasi Kalba ir muzika garsų modeliavimo sistemas formuoja teksto ir kalbos santykis. Tekstą kolektyvas gauna anks- laiko, akcentuotės ir frazavimo parametrų pagrindu. Jų ver- čiau nei kalbą, ir kalba „išvedama“ iš teksto (Lotman balinių ir muzikinių operacijų proceso panašumą atspindi 2004: 211–213).

Formalizmas Tekstas – stabilus, uždaras vienetas; statistinis / formalusis teksto (nuo XX a. 2 deš. vid.) skaidymas. ir struktūralizmas „Konstrukcinis“ reikšmių pobūdis, tekstas – dekonstruojama struktūra; analizės ir sintezės simbiozė. Poststruktūralizmas Struktūralizmo dinamizavimas; struktūra ne egzistuoja, bet šiuolaikinės interpretacijos sudaroma kitos struktūros atžvilgiu; vienos teisingos interpretacijos ir galimybės eliminavimas. recepcijos teorijos (nuo XX a. 9 deš.)

3 lentelė. Formalizmo, struktūralizmo ir poststruktūralizmo požiūrio į tekstą sandai

170 Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje

Siedami formalistines ir poststruktūralistines tiek poe- Teksto interpretaciją suvokiant kaip tam tikrą kūrybos tinio, tiek muzikinio teksto interpretacijos prieitis, galime veiksmą, Iserio siūlomi teksto kombinavimo „įrankiai“ gali manyti, jog formalusis teksto skaidymo metodas atliepia tapti struktūrinės poetinių tekstų analizės ir interpretacijos pirminį teksto struktūros analizės veiksmą, o „postformalis- proceso atsklandos pagrindu, todėl kuriamojo teksto mobi- tinės“ interpretacijos teorijos šiam analizės procesui padeda liųjų struktūrų atrankos ir kombinavimo procesui būdingus rasti prasminius kodus: veiksmus atitinkamai galime pasitelkti analizuojamo poeti- Universaliosios mąstymo struktūros egzistuoja todėl, nio teksto suvokimui atskleisti. kad jų išgyvenimas ir suvokimas pasireiškia mąstymo ope- racijų nuoseklumu; atitinkamai skaitytojo-suvokėjo atveju tai reiškiasi kaip veikla15. Roland’o Barthes’o žodžiais, Poezijos muzikalumo galimybės sintaksės ir „bet kokios struktūralistinės veiklos tikslas – nesvarbu, tonalumo požiūriu ar ši veikla refleksyvi, ar poetinė – rekonstruoti „objektą“, kad jis šioje rekonstrukcijoje tam tikru būdu atskleistų Verbaliosios kalbos gramatikos ir sintaksės sričių tyrinė- šio objekto veikimo („funkcijų“) taisykles (Bartas 1991: jimai aktualizuoja giminingą, tačiau kitokios medžiagiško- 159). Barthes’as analizės ar interpretacijos veiksmą siūlo sios sudėties muzikos meną. Muzikos kalbos ir verbalinės pradėti nuo teksto skaidymo, kurio metu įvyksta reikš- kalbos sintaksės priemonių sistemoje esama charakteringų mingų teksto vienetų atranka. Vėlyvuosiuose mokslininko panašumų. Ir verbaliojoje, ir muzikos kalboje struktūravimo veikaluose16 teigiama, jog struktūralistinė analizė sujungia funkciją atlieka kalbos morfemos ir muzikos submotyvai, t. y. dvi tipines operacijas: skaidymą ir montavimą (disperser, ženklinimo elementai, valdantys potencialių reikšmių lauką ir montage). Anot autoriaus, skaidant objektą (tekstą) išski- konkrečią ar pastovią reikšmę įgaunantys sintaksiniame viene- riamos jame esančios mobiliosios dalys, kurių išsidėstymas te – žodyje ir motyve17. Muzikinio motyvo terminą, reiškiantį įgyja tam tikrą prasmę: pačios savaime šios dalys neturi mažiausią teminę struktūrą, pasiūlė Adolfas Bernhardas prasmės, bet jos yra tokios, kad menkiausi pakitimai jų Marxas („Allgemeine Musiklehre“, 1839). Motyvo teoriją konfigūracijoje sukelia visumos pakitimus (Bartas 1991: muzikos mokslo tyrimuose plėtojo I. K. Lobe (1844), L. Bus- 161). Galime formuluoti prielaidą, jog mobiliosios dalies sleris (1878), H. Riemannas (1903), T. Wiemeyeris (1927), dydis priklauso nuo to, kokios rūšies tekstas skaidomas ir rusų muzikologai L. Mazelis (1934, 1979), P. Sposobinas koks atskaitos vienetas reikalingas tolesnei montavimo (1947), V. Cholopova (1983) ir kt. Pasak Marko Aranovs- operacijai, pavyzdžiui, fonema – fonetinei analizei, mor- kio, skirtingais istorijos etapais muzikos teorija siūlė įvairias fema – žodžio darybos analizei, submotyvas – muzikos muzikinio motyvo apibrėžtis (Арановский 1991: 52–53): motyvinei analizei. •• garso aukščio; Teksto struktūravimo analitinės pozicijos sampratą •• funkcinę; papildo sąveika su Wolfgango Iserio teksto pažinimo stra- •• metrinę; tegija. Iseris kūrybiškojo kombinavimo veiksmą įvardija •• semantinę; kaip reikšmingai atrinktų teksto elementų struktūravimą •• skirtingų požiūrių derinius. ir siejimą. Pasak autoriaus, tekste kombinuojami įvairiausi Tyrinėdamas muzikos sintaksinę sandarą muzikologas elementai – nuo žodžių ir jų reikšmių iki užtekstinių reikš- išryškino motyvo ir struktūrinių melodinės linijos elementų minių nuorodų. Atranka ir kombinavimas tekste sukuria sąsajas su verbaliosios kalbos sintaksės elementais. Muzikinio tam tikrus santykius. Atrankos procese šie santykiai atveria motyvo analogijai Aranovskis priskiria žodį, nes motyvui ir teksto intencionalumą, kombinavimo procese jie iškelia žodžiui galima suteikti reikšminę mikrostruktūros funkciją teksto „faktiškumą“ (Iser 2002: 16–17, 19–22): (Арановский 1991: 130). Susana Gonzáles Aktories savo 1) santykių procesas tekste „sutvarko“ atrinktas užtekstines studijoje, skirtoje muzikos ir poezijos ryšiams18, siūlo hierar- nuorodas; chinių kalbos ir muzikos sruktūrų lygmens analogijas pagrįsti 2) santykiavimo lygmenys matomi pagal tai, kaip tekste muzikinę natą prilyginant žodžiui, o daiktavardį – akordui išsidėsto konkrečios semantinės erdvės; santykių proceso (Hočevar 2003: 162). Pasak Drinos Hočevar, tokia analogija gebėjimas perteikti save rodo, kiek daug ir kokie įvairūs nepateisinama, nes lyginami vienetai nėra ekvivalentiški. santykiai gali būti tarp elementų, kiek gali būti transfor- Anot Hočevar, muzikinis ekvivalentas žodžiui gali būti muoti elementai, esantys skirtingų santykių tinkluose; muzikinis motyvas (Hočevar 2003: 162). Muzikos moty- 3) kombinavimas daro ypatingą poveikį estetinei teksto vo analogija leidžia perkelti ir adaptuoti muzikos motyvo vertei, išblunka tiesioginė žodžių prasmė ir jų denotacinė analizės principus eilėraščio analizei ir interpretacijai, todėl funkcija; santykiavimas – kaip veiksmo padarinys – muzikos ir kalbos sankirtų gramatiniu aspektu sisteminimas pasireiškia paveikdamas kalbą, bet pats tas poveikis skatina ieškoti muzikinės sintaksės analogijų muzikos anali- neišsakomas (Iser 2002: 15–31). zei poezijoje įveiksminti (žr. 4 lentelę).

171 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vita ČESNULEVIČIŪTĖ

4 lentelė. Muzikos ir kalbos sankirtos gramatiniu aspektu

Siekdami konkretizuoti muzikinės ir verbalinės kalbų Spindulių motyvas: struktūrinės sąrangos bendrumus bei aktualizuoti analitinę Pirmųjų spindulių nubudintas (I: 7) teksto prieitį kaip tarpdisciplininę poetinio teksto analizės ↓ strategiją, pateikiame Alfonso Nykos-Niliūno „Vasaros simfo- Ir milijonai saulės spindulių nijos“ (1941)19 motyvinę analizę. Reikšminiu teksto skaidymo Atbėga /…/ (II: 6–7) ir montavimo vienetu pasirinkę verbalųjį motyvą ir išanalizavę ↓ motyvų įvairovės, jų plėtojimo, transformacijos ir semantinių /…/ pirmųjų spindulių ryšių koreliaciją, galime įžvelgti variantinio pakartojimo ana- prajukintas /…/ (II: 13–14) logiją. „Vasaros simfonijos“ motyvų atrankos ir montavimo ↓ operacijos procese įvairi motyvinė medžiaga jungiasi atskleis- /…/ ryto spindulių dama motyvinio-variantinio plėtojimo technikos analogiją, Prajukintas /…/ (IV: 17–18) sykiu ir simfoninį mąstymą – vieną svarbiausių Nykos-Niliūno „Vasaros simfonijos“ ypatumų. Išskirsime mobiliuosius moty- Šauksmo motyvas: vus, kurie „Vasaros simfonijos“ ciklo analizėje funkcionuoja Ir šaukia vėl mane /…/ (I: 18) kaip variantiniai pakartojimai – vasaros ir miego, spindulių, ↓ šauksmo, varpo, džiaugsmingo klyksmo motyvai: Ilgai taip šaukdavau /…/ (III: 15) ↓ Vasaros ir miego motyvas: Iš Juodabrasčių šaukia /…/ (IV: 14) Kuriam labai giliai miegojo Užburtas vasaros šaltinis (I: 3–4)20 Varpo motyvas: ↓ /…/ bažnyčią kelia (Kai dar visi miegodavo) (I: 8) Rasos išmaudytas varinis varpas (I: 16–17) ↓ ↓ Klausytis, kaip ateina šventas vasaros sekmadienis Kažkur toli varpams prabilus (III: 8) Kaip keliasi ir aidi iš pradžių mieguista /…/ (I: 11–12) ↓ Džiaugsmingo klyksmo motyvas: Mano pasauly vasara. /…/ (II: 11) Vėsioj srovėj iš džiaugsmo klykaudamas prausias kėkštas ↓ (II: 3) Ir mėlyna kaip vyturėlio akys vasaros tyla (III: 22) ↓ ↓ Bekraščio džiaugsmo apimtas, aš po kolonomis suklyk- Įmigus statiškame vasaros sapne (IV: 4) davau (III: 11)

172 Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje

„Vasaros simfonijos“ motyvų sklaidoje įžvelgta moty- II vinio-variantinio pakartojimo technikos analogija keturių 4 pro juodus dalių eilėraščių cikle pasiekiama simfoniniam mąstymui 5 perregimus nėrinius būdingu vientisumo, sąryšingos elementų priklausomybės 6 žvelgia vėjuota naktis struktūravimo procesu. Pasak Aranovskio, „simfonizmas 7 ir garsiai neįsivaizduojamas be skaidymo funkcijos, nes muzikinė 8 ošiantys medžiai simfonizmo dramaturgija, tarsi prasiskverbianti virš ho- mofoninės formos, susideda iš intonacinių-teminių įvykių, III kurie sukuria tam tikrą simfoninį siužetą“ (Арановский 9 be gailesčio 1991: 253). 10 nusikirpau ilgus plaukus Muzikos ir poezijos (nepaisant sintaksės materijos 11 į ugnį sumečiau, tegul sudega skirtumų) struktūrinių elementų priklausomybės ryšius 12 tegul lemia funkcinio mąstymo operacijos: veiksnys–tarinys IV kalboje, tonika–dominantė funkcinėje harmonijoje. Anot 13 sapnavau kad sapnuoju Aniruddho Patelio, tiesioginės analogijos tarp veiksnio– 14 kad siuvu juodą suknią tarinio ir tonikos–dominantės nėra, tačiau abiem sritims 15 juodą suknią krintančią būdingi funkcinės sintaksės dėsningumai reikšmę įgauna 16 sunkiom giliom klostėm abipusių santykių ir sąryšių sąveikos ir simbiozės pagrindu (Patel 1998: 29). Ši mintis aktyvuoja muzikologo ir litera- V tūrologo Boriso Kaco tonacinės analogijos literatūroje ir 17 tegul sudega poezijoje metodą21. Tyrinėjimais autorius prieina išvadą, jog 18 kad tik nenusineštų į lizdą tonacinių formos santykių analogiją turėtų pagrįsti poeti- 19 rupūžė nei medžiagai reikšmingi ir tik kalbai būdingų sisteminių 20 kur gyvena prie šulinio elementų santykiai, lygiai kaip tonaciniai santykiai būdingi tik muzikinei medžiagai (Кац 1997: 39). Anot tyrinėtojo, VI tokio specifiškumo reikalavimą atitinka veiksmažodžio laiko 21 ko bijaisi formos, todėl analogiški tonaciniams santykiams poezijoje 22 klausia manęs, ko bijaisi gali būti veiksmažodžio laikų santykiai. 23 pelių, pelėdų, gyvačių, vorų Lietuvių kalboje skiriamos trys pagrindinės laiko formų 24 šikšnosparnių grupės: esamasis, būtieji ir būsimasis laikas. Išskirsime tona- 25 tai mieli sutvėrimai lumo analogijas ir tonacinių pokyčių kaitą galinčias sąlygoti VII ir pagrįsti lietuvių kalbos gramatines formas (remiamasi 26 siuvu juodą suknią Ambrazas 2006: 354–369, 410–424, 394–401): 27 juodą suknią krintančią •• dalyvis; 28 sunkiom giliom klostėm •• laiko prieveiksmis (žodžiai, pasakantys laiką, metą, 29 siuvu juodą suknią kuriuo kas būna, yra, vyksta, darosi, atsitinka; tas laikas gali būti suvokiamas kaip momentas ir kaip tam tikras VIII tarpas); 30 sunkūs 31 garai kyla virš tiršto viralo, viršum pelkių •• veiksmažodiniai vediniai (iš veiksmažodžių padarytus priesaginius veiksmažodžius galima suskirstyti į penkias 32 kurį maišo sudžiūvus ranka darybos kategorijas: kartotinius, priežastinius, trun- 33 tik oda ir kaulai kančios rezultatinės būsenos, mažybinius ir akimirkos veiksmažodžius). Eilėraščio analizė suponuoja dvi semantines „aš“ ir sapno erdvėlaikio sferas (erdvėlaikio dėmuo padeda paaiškinti Kaip tonacinės analogijos ir motyvinės analizės pavyzdį veiksmažodžio laikų, kaip tonacinio plano analogijų, san- pateiksime Nijolės Miliauskaitės21 eilėraštį „sapne siuvau tykius). Nuo pirmosios iki trečiosios strofos su įvardžiu23 aš juodą suknią...“ (1981)22: siejamas būtasis kartinis laikas: siuvau (I strofa), nusikirpau, sumečiau (III), o sapno erdvėlaikis siejamas su esamuoju lai- I ku: krintančią (esamojo laiko dalyvis, I), žvelgia (II), sudega 1 sapne siuvau juodą suknią (III). Pirmoje ir trečioje strofose dviejų laikų kaita prilygsta 2 juodą suknią krintančią gretinimo principui. Ketvirtoje strofoje laikų gretinimas per 3 sunkiom giliom klostėm atstumą „suspaudžiamas“ į vieną, t. y. tryliktą eilutę, po kurios toliau, iki eilėraščio pabaigos, vartojamas esamasis laikas.

173 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Vita ČESNULEVIČIŪTĖ

Laikų, kitaip tariant, tonacinio plano, požiūriu eilėraštį sudaro dvi dalys. Nuo ketvirtos strofos antros eilutės įsi- tvirtinęs esamasis laikas sujungia „aš“ ir sapno erdvėlaikio sferas. Esamojo laiko kaip pagrindinės eilėraščio tonacijos analogijos įžvalga paskutinėms strofoms (VII–VIII) leidžia priskirti semantinę kodos funkciją: 5 schema. Arkų jungčių schema Nijolės Miliauskaitės eilėraštyje „sapne siuvau juodą suknią“

Veiksmažodžių santykiavimo analizė pagrindžia Mi- liauskaitės eilėraščio „sapne siuvau juodą suknią“ prieitį tonacinės analogijos požiūriu. Teksto reikšmę iš dalies sudaro atvirumas neapibrėžtam skaitytojų, todėl ir interpretacijų, skaičiui. Ši daugeriopo perskaitymo galimybė dialektiškai papildo semantinę teksto 2 schema.Tonacinio plano analogijos schema Nijolės autonomiją (Ricoeur 2000: 43). Į žmogaus, užmezgančio 24 Miliauskaitės eilėraštyje „sapne siuvau juodą suknią“ kontaktą su tekstu, atmintį galima žiūrėti kaip į sudėtingą tekstą, su kuriuo kontaktuojant sukeliami kūrybiški pasi- Struktūrinę laikų kaitos funkciją pagrindžia ir motyvi- keitimai informacijos grandinėje (Lotman 2004: 209)25. nių ryšių analizė: Visuomet egzistuoja daugiau nei viena interpretacija, bet teks- I strofa IV strofa tas atveria ribotą galimų interpretacijų lauką. Interpretatorių 1 /.../ siuvau juodą suknią 14 /.../ siuvu juodą suknią žiūros taškai ir kūrinio aspektai susilieja, susiduria ir papildo vieni kitus, todėl tam tikras požiūrio taškas gali atskleisti visą 2 juodą suknią krintančią 15 juodą suknią krintančią kūrinį tik pataikęs į tam tikrą jo aspektą, o šis aspektas, kuris 3 sunkiom giliom klostėm 16 sunkiom giliom klostėm naujai atskleistų visą kūrinį, savo ruožtu turi laukti galinčio jį ir pagauti ir parodyti žiūros taško. (Eco 2004: 87) III strofa V strofa 11 /...... /, tegul sudega 17 tegul sudega Išvados

Siekinys išryškinti muzikos ir poezijos suartinimą lemiančius sandus atskleidžia muzikines analogijas galin- čius generuoti interpretacijos kodus. Tyrimas parodė, kad skirtingus poetinio teksto lygmenis atrakinantys kodai yra: •• garsynas (pvz., analogija garsas–intonacija); 3 schema. Motyvinių ryšių schema Nijolės Miliauskaitės •• ritmika (pvz., analogija akcentas–kirtis); eilėraštyje „sapne siuvau juodą suknią“ •• sintaksė (pvz., analogija motyvas–žodis); •• žodžio daryba (pvz., analogija veiksmažodžio laiko Tryliktosios eilėraščio eilutės laikų santykio konstruk- forma–tonacijos). cija – sapnavau kad sapnuoju – tonacinio plano ir formos požiūriu ženklina eilėraščio simetrijos ašį. Susiformuoja A Konstruojant formalistinės ir poststruktūralistinės ir B dalių (iki kodos) eilučių skaičiaus simetrija ir strofas teksto analizės ir interpretacijos teorijų koegzistavimo jungiančios arkos: modelį sukuriama tarpdisciplininė poetinio teksto analizės strategija: •• formalusis teksto skaidymo ir teksto vienetų atrankos procesas sukuria montavimo operacijos poreikį. Analizės procese šie veiksmai skatina kūrybiškojo kombinavimo veiksmą, t. y. atrinktų teksto elementų struktūravimą 4 schema. Eilučių simetrijos schema Nijolės Miliauskaitės ir siejimą į reikšminius santykius. Reikšminių santykių eilėraštyje „sapne siuvau juodą suknią“ semantizavimas implikuoja poetinio teksto struktūros dėmenų semantizavimą ir aktualizuoja muzikos kalbos ir muzikos formos komponavimo principų bei jų analogijų apraiškas poetiniame tekste;

174 Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje

7 Л. Сабанеев. . . •• kreipiantis į muzikos suvokimo patirtį, muzikos kūrinio Музыка речи Эстетическое иследование analizė, apimanti skirtingų jo lygmenų integracijos į Москва: Работник просвещения, 1923. Knygos radimąsi sąryšingą struktūrą veiksmą, gali būti aktualizuojama lėmė ir L. Sabanejevo bendravimas su Aleksandru Skriabinu. 8 Ф. Платов. Гамма гласных. Москва: Центрифуга, 1916. poetinio teksto analizėje muzikos kalbos ir muzikos Ši studija buvo perspausdinta 1988 m. rinkinyje „Забытый komponavimo principus konvertuojant į poetinės авангард“ („Užmirštasis avangardas“). kalbos ir poezijos komponavimo principų analogijas. 9 Eilėraštis publikuotas: М. Цветаева. Стиxотворения, поэмы. Москва: АСТ, 2003, p. 221. Muzikos analizės patirties įveiksminimas poetinio teks- 10 Maksimas Gorkis Cvetajevą kaltino menku rusų kalbos mo- to analizėje veda intertekstualumo teorijoje aktualizuojamos kėjimu ir negailestingu jos darkymu: „Ji mano, kad fonetika erdvinės estetinės komunikacijos schemos link: tekstas tai jau muzika“ (Платек 1989: 138). (poetinis tekstas)–kultūra (kiti tekstai, tarp kurių muzika 11 Savo literatūrinėse simfonijose Belas sonatos formą bandė kaip kultūros tekstas)–skaitytojas26. Straipsnyje gvildenta įkūnyti ją analogizuodamas teminių santykių požiūriu, ta- čiau nusprendęs, kad tai bus nenaudinga žodžiui, sumanymo problematika leidžia konstatuoti, kad tarpdalykinės teksto atsisakė. analizės ir interpretacijos koncepcijų paieškos gali būti 12 Nors Belo studiją sukritikavo S. Malachovas (Малахов), rezultatyvios, tad tikslinga pabrėžti, kad dėl aptariamos V. Žirmunskis (Жирмунский) ir B. Jarcho (Ярхо), matema- temos komplikuotumo tam tikrų aspektų, reikalaujančių tinį ritmo formos analizės metodą literatūrologas M. Gaspa- išsamesnio tyrimo, aktualizavimas liko straipsnio užribyje. rovas (Гаспаров) pavadino gana objektyviu ir vertu dėmesio. 13 Aleksandro Puškino poemos „Varinis raitelis“ ritmo kreivės schemą žr. Белый 1929: 170. 14 Nuorodos Pavyzdžiui, muzikos ir poezijos ritmo problematikos tyrimą, pasitelkiant semiotinę prieitį, pateikia Drina Hočevar (Ho- 1 Wolfo schemą į lietuvių kalbą vertė šio straipsnio autorė. čevar 2003). 15 2 Schero literatūros ir muzikos tyrinėjimų svarbą intermedialu- Pasak Barthes’o, struktūralizmo esmė yra modeliuojanti veikla mo teorijos raidai liudija 2004 m. publikuota darbų rinktinė (tiek mokslo, literatūros, tiek meno apskritai sferose), susijusi „Essays on Literature and Music: 1967–2004“. su mimeze, pagrįsta ne substancijų analogija (pvz., realistinia- 3 Išsamiau apie literatūros ir muzikos ryšių klasifikacijas bei me mene), o funkcijų analogija (kurią Claude’as Lévi-Straus- tipologijas žr. Scher Steven P., Einleitung: Literatur und sas vadina homologija; žr. Bartas 1991: 160). Pavyzdžiui, Musik – Entwicklung und StandderForschung, in: Literatur Gioseffo Zarlino (1517–1590) darbuose iškelta imitatione und Musik: Ein Handbuch zur Theorie und Praxis eines kom- sąvoka manierizmo poetikoje atsiplėšia nuo platoniškosios paratistischen Grenzgebietes, 1984, p. 9–25; Scher Steven P., mimezės traktuotės. Anot literatūros kritiko, recepcijos te- Melopoetics Revisited: Reflections on Theorizing Word and orijos atstovo Wolfgango Iserio, šis atotrūkis nuo tradicinės Music Studies, in: Word and Music Studies Defining the Field: mimezės sampratos baigiasi poezijos mimeze – pati poezija Proceedings of the First International Conferenceon Word and tampa mėgdžiojimo objektu ir pirmą kartą atsiskleidžia, kas Music Studies at Graz 1997, 1999, p. 9–24; Wolf Werner, Mu- esanti arba kaip ji suprantama: sicalized Fiction and Intermediality: Theoretical Aspects of Atotrūkis nuo tradicinės mimezės vyksta kartu su atotrūkiu Word and Music Studies, in: Word and Music Studies Defining nuo konvencijų reguliuojamo santykio tarp signifikanto ir the Field: Proceedings of the First International Conferenceon signifikato, leidžiant signifikantui sukurti iki tol nenumatytas Word and Music Studies at Graz 1997, 1999, p. 37–58. signifikacijas, galiausiai paverčiant žodžių ryšius / idėjas meta- 4 Žr. Wolfo klasifikacijoje. foromis. [...]. Šis pokytis poezijai suteikia naują tikslą: poezija 5 Plačiau žr. Daujotytė 2005; Girdenis 1981; Седых 1973. tampa nemimetine (konvencine prasme), kadangi tyrinėdama 6 Pavyzdžiui, šio lygmens muzikalumo problemos sprendimą savo pačios galimybes, ji susiduria su pasauliu, kurį reikia nebe Anos Achmatovos kūrinyje „Poema be herojaus“ („Поэма mėgdžioti, o perskrosti. (Iser 2002: 42) без героя“) pateikia Borisas Kacas ir Romanas Timenčikas. 16 Barthes’o perėjimą iš struktūralizmo į poststruktūralizmą Kūrinyje įžvelgiama sonatinio simfoninio ciklo analogija, atspindi Honoré de Balzaco apysaką Sarrasine nagrinėjanti begalinės melodijos raiškos būdas siejamas su kūrinio strofikos, studija S / Z (1970). Literatūros kūrinys čia jau nebelaikomas sintaksės, ritminių ir fonetinių struktūrų ypatybėmis (plačiau nekintamu objektu ar apibrėžta struktūra, o kritikos kalba at- žr. Кац, Тименчик 1989: 232–270). Minėtina Calvino S. sisako visų pretenzijų į mokslinį objektyvumą. Patys įdomiausi Browno studija „Muzika ir literatūra“ („Music and Literatu- kritikui ne tie tekstai, kuriuos galima skaityti, o tie, kuriuos re“), kurios skyriuje „Conrado Aikeno poezija“ („The Poetry galima „užrašyti“ – kurie leidžia kritikui juos išskaidyti, of Conrad Aiken“) autorius aktualizuoja Aikeno poezijai perkelti į kitus diskursus ir pademonstruoti pusiau arbitralų būdingą variacijų technikos analogiją, tridalumo (A B A) reikšmių žaismą, peržengiantį kūrinio rėmus. Skaitytojo ar pavidalų įvairovę ir skirtingų lygmenų reprizinės struktūros kritiko vaidmuo pasikeičia – vartotojas tampa gamintoju. raišką, pvz., eilėraščio „The Coming Forth by Day of Osiris Tai dar nereiškia, kad interpretuojant „viskas įmanoma“, nes Jones“ fragmentas: Barthes’as neužmiršta priminti, jog kūrinys negali reikšti bet weak hand that touched, strong hand that held, weak hand ką, tačiau literatūros jau nebegalima laikyti objektu, kuriam that touched; kritika privalo paklusti – tai veikiau nevaržoma erdvė, kur eyes that forgetting saw, and saw recalling, kritika gali darbuotis savo malonumui (žr. Terry 2000: 145). and saw again forgetting; memory moving 17 Lietuvių kalbos žodžių morfemos yra šaknis, priešdėlis, from wonder to disaster, and to wonder... priesaga, galūnė, sangrąžos dalelytė. Morfeminė analizė rei- Plačiau žr. Brown 1948: 195–207. kalauja išskaidyti žodį į morfemas, t. y. mažiausius reikšminius

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vienetus. Vadinasi, analizuojant žodį morfemiškai, svarbu dėl to viena sistema gali atspindėti kitą. Tai leidžia vienos išsiaiškinti, ar jis skaidomas į morfemas, ar neskaidomas, ir kalbos tekstą adekvačiai išreikšti kitos kalbos priemonėmis jei skaidomas, kokios morfemos jį sudaro, kaip jos pasiskirs- (žr. Lotman 2004: 173). čiusios. Morfemiškai skaidomais laikomi tokie žodžiai, kurių 27 Erdvinis estetinės komunikacijos modelis, kuris keičia tradi- atskiros morfemos, turinčios tą pačią reikšmę, pasikartoja cinį linijinį modelį (išsamiau žr. Melnikova 2011: 25–26): kituose žodžiuose. Morfemiškai neskaidomais vadinami tokie siuntėjas (autorius) → pranešimas (kūrinys / tekstas) → suvokėjas žodžiai, kuriuos sudaro viena morfema (žr. Ambrazas 1996). (skaitytojas / žiūrovas). 18 Aktories Susana Gonzáles, Sensemaya: Un Juego De Espejos Entre Musica Y Poesia. JGH Editores, 1997. 19 Eilėraštis publikuotas: Alfonas Nyka-Niliūnas „Eilėraščiai: Šaltiniai 1937–1996“ (1996, p. 27–30). Ciklas „Vasaros simfonija“ yra iš eilėraščių rinkinio „Dainos apie mane, vaikystę ir daiktus, Miliauskaitė Nijolė, Sielos labirintas, Vilnius: Vaga, 1999, kurie buvo mano draugai“. Nykos-Niliūno poezijos rinkinys p. 85–86. „Praradimo simfonijos“ išleistas Vokietijoje, Tiubingene, Nyka-Niliūnas Alfonsas, Eilėraščiai, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 1996, 1946 m., jame greta kitų eilėraščių išspausdinti didelės apim- p. 27–30. ties kūriniai: „Pavasario simfonija“, „Praradimo simfonija“ ir Цветаева Марина, Стиxотворения, поэмы, Москва: АСТ, „Iš Kraujo simfonijos“. Jų kūrimo metai apima neilgą inten- 2003, p. 221. syvios kūrybos laikotarpį, t. y. 1941–1944 metus. 20 Romėniškais skaičiais žymimos strofos, arabiškais – eilutės. Literatūra 21 Anot E. G. Etkindo, nei žodžiai, nei ritmas tonacijos neturi. Tonacijos analogija galėtų būti stilius, jo ekspresija, intonacijos, Ambrazas Vytautas (red.); Kazimieras Garšva; Aleksas Girdenis, tačiau leksikos, žodžių junginių, sintaksės, ritminių bei strofinių Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir figūrų funkcijos yra gana tolimos tonaciniams muzikos dės- enciklopedijų leidykla, 1996. niams (Эткинд, 1985, p. 405). Pavyzdžiui, siekdamas surasti Bartas Rolandas, Teksto malonumas, Vilnius: Vaga, 1991. sonatos formą Aleksandro Puškino eilėraštyje „К велможе“ Brown Calvin S., Music and Literature: A Comparison of the Arts, L. E. Feinbergas, nurodydamas pagrindinės partijos perėjimo į The University of Georgia Press, 1948. šalutinę partiją vietą, tiesiog kreipiasi į skaitytojo emocijas: „Jūs Daujotytė Viktorija, Mažoji lyrikos teorija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir jaučiate, kaip aiškiai keičiasi tonacija?“ (Фейнберг 1973: 287). enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2005. Apie sonatos formos analogijos tonacinių santykių požiūriu Eagleton Terry, Įvadas į literatūros teoriją, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, negalimumą žr. Соколов 1979: 227–228. 2000. 22 Atsakydama į klausimą, kuris impulsas svarbesnis rašant eilė- Eco Umberto, Atviras kūrinys: forma ir neapibrėžtumas šiuolaiki- raštį, poetė teigia, kad „viskas svarbu, o svarbiausia ne pačios nėje poetikoje, Vilnius: Tyto alba, 2004. sudedamosios dalys (vaizdas, garsas ir pan.), bet jų kompo- Girdenis Aleksas, Fonologija, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1981. navimas. O dar toliau – jau ir minčių, prasmių ir reikšmių Gjerdingen Robert, The Psychology of Music, in:The Cambridge žaismas. Kartais tai vos vos apčiuopiama, beveik neįvardyta History of Western Music Theory, Thomas Christensen (ed.), nei poeto, juo labiau kritiko. Bet juntama; vien užuomina jau Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 956–981. daug duoda, o jeigu rizikuotum, ūgteltum iki aukštesnio žais- Hočevar Drina, Movement and Poetic Rhythm: Uncovering the mo, muzikavimo – garsais, vaizdais, prasmėm?“ […] „Mano Musical Signification of Poetic Discourse via the Temporal skonis nėra gerai išlavintas nei dailėj, nei muzikoj, nes nesu Dimension of the Sign, Helsinki: International Semiotics to mokiusis, tik domėjausi savarankiškai, tačiau šie menai (ir Institute, 2003. kinas) daug padeda rašant“ (Peluritytė 2003: 246). Iser Wolfgang, Fiktyvumas ir įsivaizdavimas, Vilnius: Aidai, 2002. 23 Eilėraštis publikuotas: Nijolė Miliauskaitė, „Sielos labirintas“ Lotman Jurij, Kultūros semiotika, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 2004. (1999, p. 85–86). Eilėraštyje naudojami šriftai – straipsnio Melnikova Irina, Intermedialumo žemėlapis, in: Colloquia, Nr. autorės. Romėniškais skaičiais eilėraštyje žymimos strofos, 26, Vilnius, 2011, p. 17–34. arabiškais – eilutės. Pakerys Antanas, Lietuvių bendrinės kalbos fonetika, Vilnius: 24 Įvardžių reikšmingumą poetinio teksto struktūrai atskleidė Mokslas, 1986. Jakobsonas, teigdamas, jog „esminė funkcija, kurią poetinės Patel Aniruddh D., Syntactic Processing in Language and Music: gramatikos faktūroje atlieka įvairių rūšių įvardžiai, pagrįsta Different Cognitive Operations, Similar Neural Resources?, kaip tik gramatinės priklausomybės, reliatyvumo ypatybėmis, in: Music Perception, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1998, p. 27–42. kurios įvardžius išskiria iš kitų autonomiškų žodžių“ (Якобсон Peluritytė Audringa, Tai, kas nebūtinai išreikšta žodžiais, in: Mo- 1961: 409). teris su lauko gėlėmis: knyga apie Nijolę Miliauskaitę, Vilnius: 25 Čia ir toliau eilėraščio analizės schemose vartojami sutrum- Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla, 2003, 240–246. pinimai: es. (esamasis laikas); būt. (būtasis laikas); būt. k. Ricoeur Paul, Interpretacijos teorija: diskursas ir reikšmės perteklius, (būtasis kartinis laikas); būs. (būsimasis laikas). Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 2000. 26 Anot Lotmano, tiek individualioje, tiek kolektyvinėje są- Tomaszewski Mieczysław, Dvigubas įgarsinimas ..., in: Krantai, monėje slypi dviejų tipų tekstų generatoriai: vieni paremti Nr. 6, Vilnius, 1991, p. 25–29. diskretumo (netolydumo, kintamumo) mechanizmu, kiti Wolfe Joe, Speech and Music, Acoustics and Coding, and What tolydūs. Nors kiekvienas iš šių mechanizmų savo sandara Music Might Be‚ For, in: Proceedings of the 7th International imanentiškas, jie nuolat keičiasi tekstais ir pranešimais. Šitas Conference on Music Perception and Cognition, Sydney, 2002. pasikeitimas vyksta semantinio vertimo forma. Tačiau bet Wolf Werner, The Musicalization of Fiction. A Study in the Theory koks tikslus vertimas suponuoja, kad tarp kokių nors dviejų and History of Intermediality, Amsterdam-Atlanta: Rodopi, sistemų vienetų nusistovi abipusiškai vienaprasmiai santykiai, 1999.

176 Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai poezijoje

Wolf Werner, Intermediality Revisited: Reflections on Word and The article discusses aspects of intersections of musical, Music Relations in the Context of a General Typology of poetic, and language-related expression. Examples of more Intermediality, in: Word and Music Studies. Essays in Honor of interesting musical-poetic theories that came into being Steven Paul Scher on Cultural Identity and the Musical Stage, Suzanne M. Lodato, Suzanne Aspden and Walter Bernhart at the beginning of the twentieth century are presented (eds.), Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, 2002, p. 10–34. (Белый 1929, Сабанеев 1923, Платов 1916). We actual- ize several more important categories, such as the phonic Акимова М.; С. Ляпин, Стих и смысл „Медноговсадника, in: that investigates the peculiarities and laws of euphony and Philologica, Vol. 5, No. 11/13, 1998, p. 255–276. instrumentation. The expression of musical perception Арановский Марк, , Синтаксическая структура мелодии can be added to another category and searched for in the Москва: Музыка, 1991. Белый Андрей, Ритм как диалектика и „Медный Всадник“, deeper layers of a poem, seen through the prism of analogies Москва, 1929. of music creation and its dramaturgic development, form, Бирюков Сергей, О музыкально-поэтических теориях, in: and structure. Семиотика и авангард, Москва: Академический проект, The research combines the interpretational strategies 2006, p. 574–601. of Roland Barthes and Wolfgang Iser as well as formalistic Кац Борис, Музыкальные ключи к русской поэзии, Санкт- Петербург: Композитор, 1997. analysis methods. The interconnectedness of these meth- Кац Борис; Роман Тименчик, Ахматова и музыка, Ленинград: ods and the actualization of the musicological experience Советский композитор, 1989. of musical text analysis constituted the interpretational Платек Якоб Моисеевич, Верте музыке, Москва: Советский character of poems presented in this article. While trying композитор, 1989. to concretize the strategy of poetic text interdisciplinary Соколов Олег, О „Музыкальных формах“ в литературе. Эсте- analysis realized in this article as well as the similarities of тические очерки, bып. 5, Москва, 1979. Фейнберг Л. Е., Музыкальная структура стихотворения Пуш- structural composition of musical and verbal languages, we кина „К велможе“, in: Поэзия и музыка: сборникстатей и provide the example of an analogy of motif analysis of the исследований, Москва, 1973, p. 281–301. poem Summer Symphony (1941) by Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas Эткинд Ефим, Материя стиха, Париж, 1985. (1919–2015). A musical analogy using the continuous Эфрон Ариадна, О Марие Цветаевой, Москва: Советский motif-variant-related development technique is expressed писатель, 1989. Якобсон Роман, Поэзия грамматики и грамматика поэзии, in the process of motif selection and arrangement. In this in: Poetics. Poetyca. Поэтика, Warszawa, 1961, p. 397–417. way, the integrity typical of symphonic perception as well as a coherent interdependence of all elements are achieved in the four-part series of poems Summer Symphony. Summary In this article, we use the idea of tonal analogy in literature and poetry proposed by musicologist and literary The multifarious and multifaceted musicality of scholar Boris Katz (1997). The researcher’s conviction is poetry requires musical interpretation codes. Here the that time relations can be analogous to tonal relations of musicological approach is of great importance in the way musical form in poetry. Appealing to Katz’s theory of tonal that the nature of music, having no referential phenomena analogy in literature and poetry, we provide the poem In the nonetheless becomes referential, recognizing the latter as Dream I Sewed a Black Dress… (1981) written by Nijolė a cultural text and considering it in its context. This article Miliauskaitė (1950–2002) as an example of tonal anal- about musicological identity focuses on an interdisciplinary ogy as well as motif-related semantic analysis. The “tonal” environment wherein new musicology has found its way. In analysis of the poem reveals that in this case we can treat order to prove the field of research on literature and music, the principle of the relationship between verb tenses as the one of the most distinctive studies, that of the classification main principle of textual structuring. of the relation between literature and music by Werner Wolf (1999), is discussed. Straipsnis įteiktas / Delivered 2018 01 29

177 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ

Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis Funeral Repertoire and the Identity of the Periphery Population: The Case of the Raseiniai District

Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, Antakalnio g. 6, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lietuva El. paštas: [email protected]

Anotacija Straipsnio autorė nuo 2004 m. tyrinėja iki šiol Žemaitijoje gyvuojančią pučiamųjų instrumentų ansamblių / orkestrų tradiciją, kuri glaudžiai susijusi su šio krašto šermenų apeigomis ir jų muzikine išraiška. Ji, kaip ir dauguma Lietuvos etnologų, manė, kad Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kálnai – pagrindinis katalikiškų laidotuvių kūrinys, kurį atliekant tradiciškai dalyvauja pučiamieji instrumentai, būdingas visam Žemaitijos regionui ir gali būti laikomas netgi jo simboliu. Tačiau 2015 m. Raseinių rajone atlikti lauko tyrimai parodė, kad taip nėra. Čia, kaip ir kitose Žemaitijos vietose, gyvavo stipri pučiamųjų instrumentų ansamblių / orkestrų tradicija, tačiau pagrindinis laidotuvių kūrinys – Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis, o ne Kalnai. Taigi šio straipsnio tyrimo objektas – laidotuvių repertuaras ir jo skirtumai didžiojoje etnografinės Žemaitijos dalyje ir jos paribyje – Raseinių rajone bei šį skirtumą nulėmusios priežastys. Pasitelkusi istorinį, analitinį, pusiau struktūruoto interviu ir geografinį kartografavimo metodus bei pastarųjų metų ekspedicijų duomenis autorė aptaria Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnus ir Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinį, jų atlikimo savitumus, trumpai apžvelgia Raseinių krašto istoriją ir tarminę situaciją, gilinasi į gyventojų tapatybės ir savimonės klausimus. Atliktas tyrimas atskleidė, kad Raseinių rajone, ypač jo pietrytinėje dalyje, susipina žemaitiška ir aukštaitiška tradicijos, todėl gyventojams sunku tapatintis vien tik su žemaitiškąja tradicija. Tai patvirtina ir šio regiono šermenų repertuaras bei muzikavimo papročiai. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kálnai, Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis, Žemaitija, Raseinių rajonas, šermenys, pučiamųjų instrumentų ansambliai / orkestrai, regioninė savimonė, tapatybė, kultūrinis regionas.

Abstract The brass band tradition, which has survived to this day in Žemaitija (Engl. Samogitia) and is closely linked to the wake customs of this region and their musical expression, has been researched by the author of this article since 2004. Like most Lithuanian ethnologists, she used to think that the Kálnai of Žemaičių Kalvarija (Engl. Samogitian Calvary Hills)—the main hymns of a Catholic funeral traditionally accompanied by brass instruments—were spread throughout the Samogitia region and could even be considered its symbol. However, field research conducted in the Raseiniai District in 2015 showed that was not the case. Although like other places in Samogitia, it boasted a strong brass band tradition, the main funeral chant was not the Kalnai, but the Rosary of the Blessed Name of Jesus there. Thus, this study is concerned with the funeral repertoire and its variations in the greater part of ethnographic Samogitia and on the periphery of the region, the Raseiniai District, as well as with factors that had determined the differences. Along with the findings of the most recent fieldwork, historical and analytical methods as well as those of the semi-structured interview and geographical cartography are used to explore the Kalnai of Žemaičių Kalvarija and the Rosary of the Blessed Name of Jesus as well as the specificity of their performance. A brief overview of the history of the Raseiniai District and the dialect situation in the area is also given; identity and self-awareness issues of the area’s population are discussed. The study revealed that in the Raseiniai District, especially in its southeastern part, both Samogitian and Highlanders (Lith. Aukštaitijos) traditions co-exist, which makes it difficult for the residents to identify with the Samogitian tradition alone. The repertoire for wakes and musical performance customs prevalent in the area corroborate this assumption. Keywords: Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai (Samogitian Calvary Hills), Rosary of the Blessed Name of Jesus, Samogitia, Raseiniai district, brass bands, vernacular cultural region, identity, [regional] self-consciousness.

Įvadas dar ir šiandien giedamos tradicinės šermeninės giesmės ir Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai, per atlaidus ir laidotuves galima Laidotuvės sulaukia nuolatinio etnologų, etnomuzi- išgirsti pučiamųjų ansamblio (dūdomis / trūbomis) pučia- kologų, istorikų dėmesio, nes velionio išlydėjimas amži- mas giesmių melodijas. Šaltinių duomenimis, pučiamieji nybėn – viena konservatyviausių šeimos ir bendruomenės instrumentai jau prieš keletą šimtmečių Lietuvos Didžiojoje apeigų. Kaip tik Žemaitijos regione, kuriam nuo seno Kunigaikštystėje buvo svarbūs ne tik karinėje, bet ir religinė- priklausė Raseinių kraštas, Lietuvos etnologų nuomone, je muzikoje. Jais buvo grojama lydint parapiją į piligrimines išliko archajiškiausios laidotuvių, tiksliau, šermenų, apeigos keliones (taip pat ir į Žemaičių Kalvarijos didžiuosius at- ir papročiai (žr. Garnevičiūtė 2012; Stumbra 2011). Čia laidus), didžiųjų bažnytinių švenčių (Devintinių, vyskupų

178 Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis sinodų ir pan.) metu; jais grota net atokiose provincijose upės. Jį sudaro 19 koplyčių, kuriose yra 20 stočių, arba stacijų tituliniuose ir parapiniuose atlaiduose (Gričiūtė-Šverebienė (lot. statio – buveinė). Galbūt todėl, kad koplyčios buvo pa- 2011: 135–138). Deja, ši tradicija beveik visiškai išnyko statytos ant kalvų, žemaitiškai vadinamų kálnais, stotys taip kituose Lietuvos regionuose, ji liko gyvuoti tik Žemaitijos pat imtos vadinti Kálnais. Pasak menotyrininko Augustino liaudiško pamaldumo papročiuose (Žarskienė 2015). XIX a. Vitėno, kad Kančios kelio stotys vadinamos tiesiog Kalnais, antroje pusėje–XX a. pirmoje pusėje nedideli pučiamųjų ins- yra žemaitiškas savitumas, šis pavadinimas atitikmenų trumentų orkestrai buvo itin populiarūs vėl atgimstančios ir neturi jokioje kitoje šalyje (Vitėnas 2005: 237). Kryžiaus, jau atsikūrusios Lietuvos sodžiuose ir miesteliuose, jais grota arba Kančios, kelių vaikščiojimas – viena iš Romos katalikų vestuvėse, laidotuvėse, per bažnytines ir valstybines šventes, bažnyčios pamaldumo formų. Juo tarsi atkartojama vedamo kaimo ir miesto šokiuose ir pan. Tačiau vis dėlto kaip tik Že- nukryžiuoti Jėzaus Kristaus kelionė Jeruzalėje į Kalvarijos, maitijoje pučiamųjų ansambliai ar nedideli orkestrai, kuriuos arba Golgotos, Kalną1. Manoma, kad vienos pirmųjų Kal- paprastai sudarydavo 4–7 ir daugiau muzikantų, tapo neat- varijų Europoje pradėtos steigti XV a. pradžioje Ispanijoje siejama tradicinės gyvensenos dalimi ir išliko iki pat XXI a. (Vasiliūnienė 2010: 49), tačiau bandymų būta jau kur kas Etnologų nuomone, Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnų giedojimas, anksčiau2. Abiejų Tautų Respublikos teritorijoje pirmosios ypač kartu su dūdomis, ir suteikia šio regiono laidotuvėms Kalvarijos 1604 m. įsteigtos Lenkijoje netoli Krokuvos – išskirtinį žemaitiškumą (Stundžienė 2007: 42; Žarskienė Zebžydovos Kalvarija, antrosios pradėtos kurti 1628 m. 2013: 89; plg. Mardosa 2003: 275). Tačiau prieš keletą Pakoščėje, o trečiosios – 1637 m. Žemaitijoje3. Pirmosios metų Raseinių rajone atliktų lauko tyrimų metu tradicinio Lietuvos Kalvarijos buvo apipintos įvairiais regėjimais ir „Laidotuvių orkestro“ muzikantai pareiškė, kad jie niekada stebuklais, jau nuo pat jų įrengimo rinkdavosi didžiuliai negrojo Kalnų. Pasak jų, pagrindinis šio krašto laidotuvių būriai maldininkų ir piligrimų, apie visa tai buvo pasako- kūrinys – Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis. Taigi šiame straipsnyje ir jama istoriniuose ir poetiniuose 1648–1649 m. tekstuose bandoma pasiaiškinti, kaip muzikavimas šermenyse gali būti (Vasiliūnienė 2010: 87–91). Įrengus Kalvarijas, miestelis susijęs su krašto istorija ir gyventojų tapatybės formavimusi. buvo pavadintas Jeruzale, arba Naująja Jeruzale, tačiau šis Žemaitijos laidotuvių papročių muzikinius aspektus pavadinimas neprigijo, ir ilgainiui tą vietą, norint atskirti savo darbuose aptarė Saulius Stumbra (2011), Rimutė nuo 1662 m. pradėtos kurti Vilniaus Kalvarijos, imta vadinti Garnevičiūtė (2011, 2012), Rūta Žarskienė (2012, 2013). Žemaičių Kalvarija (Vaišnora 1958: 372–373). Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnus ir kitus liaudiško pamaldumo Taigi žemaičiai Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnais vadino ir aspektus tyrinėjo Alfonsas Motuzas (2003, 2017 ir kt.). iki šiol vadina tiek pačias kalvarijas – Kryžiaus kelio stotis, Apie Žemaitijos pučiamųjų orkestrų tradiciją rašė Albinas tiek ir giesmes-maldas, kurios giedamos apvaikštant šį kelią. Batavičius (Tauragės krašto, 1995) ir šio straipsnio autorė Kalvarijas lankantiems maldininkams buvo rašomi Kančios (2009, 2013, 2015, 2018 ir kt.). Nuo 2004 m. ji atlieka kelio vadovėliai, jie buvo skiriami Kalvarijoms apvaikščioti, lauko tyrimus šiame regione, o 2015 m. surengė ekspediciją iš jų žmonės mokėsi, kokias maldas kalbėti ir kokias gies- Raseinių rajone, kuris šiuo požiūriu buvo visiškai netyrinė- mes giedoti prie kiekvienos Kančios kelio stoties (Vitėnas tas. Pastarojo lauko tyrimų duomenys ir paskatino autorę 2005: 231). Pirmas toks „vadovėlis“ lankantiems Žemaičių atidžiau pažvelgti į šio krašto muzikines tradicijas, jo istoriją, Kalvariją lietuvių kalba pasirodė 1681 m. Dominikono pagvildenti šio krašto gyventojų tapatybės klausimus. Jurgio Kasakauskio parengtoje maldaknygėje „Rožančius Švenčiausios Marijos Panos ir saldžiausio vardo Jėzuso“4 greta kitų maldų ir giesmių taip pat išspausdintos maldos Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai – žemaičių tradicinės ir giesmės, skirtos lankantiems Žemaičių Kalvarijos stotis. kultūros simbolis Skyrius pavadintas „Kialej kruwini Jezusa Christusa arba maldas, kurios atsiprowinie pri koplicziu Žiemaitiu Kalwa- Tradicinės laidotuvės Žemaitijoje ar net žemaitiškos rijos“ (Kasakauskis 1849: 157–208). Ši maldaknygė buvo laidotuvės Vilniuje, Kaune ar Marijampolėje dar ir šiandien tokia populiari, kad iki XIX a. vidurio išleista net 47 kartus beveik neįsivaizduojamos be Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnų (Vaicekauskas 2005: 184). Vėliau Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kal- giedojimo. Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnus galima pavadinti nų maldos ir giesmės perspausdintos ir kitose maldaknygėse. pagrindiniu žemaitiškų katalikiškų laidotuvių kūriniu, XIX a. antroje pusėje ypač išpopuliarėjęs „Aukso altorius“ tiksliau – tradicine apeiga. Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai arba tapo vienu pagrindinių Kalnų, šiandien vadinamų Senaisiais sutrumpintai tiesiog Kalnai – vientisas maldų ir giesmių vė- Kalnais, giedojimo šaltinių. Apie Kalnų giesmių tekstų kil- rinys, skirtas Žemaičių Kalvarijai – Kryžiaus keliui (vietinių mę rašė literatūrologas Mikas Vaicekauskas (2005), tekstų gyventojų ir kitų žemaičių taip pat vadinamam Žemaičių ir melodijų – Alfonsas Motuzas (2003, 2017). Maždaug per Kalvarijos Kalnais) apvaikščioti ir Kristaus Kančiai apmąsty- keturiasdešimt metų nuo tada, kai Žemaičių Kalvarija buvo ti. Kryžiaus kelias buvo įsteigtas XVII a. pirmoje pusėje šiau- įsteigta, Kalnai jau buvo susiformavę kaip vientisa maldų rės Žemaitijos Gardų miestelyje, įsikūrusiame prie Varduvos ir giesmių sistema, todėl galima manyti, kad maldininkai,

179 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ apvaikščiodami naujai įsteigtas Kalvarijas, jau iki pasirodant Kasakauskio leidiniui, giedojo giesmes ir maldas, kurias galė- jo būti išmokę iš anksčiau išleistų maldynų5 arba rankraščių, perteikiamų iš lūpų į lūpas (Žarskienė 2012: 377). Senuo- siuose Kalnuose buvo daug slavizmų, pasenusių, kasdienėje kalboje XX a. nebevartojamų žodžių, todėl nuspręsta tekstus atnaujinti. Pasak Motuzo, Vatikano II visuotinis susirinkimas (1962–1965), jo sprendimų įgyvendinimas plačiai atvėrė duris gimtajai kalbai liturgijoje ir liaudies pamaldumo praktikose, susirinkimo dokumentų direkty- vos reikalavo laikotarpio dvasią atitinkančių maldaknygių (Motuzas 2017: 423). Taigi 1968 m. kunigo Jono Paliūko redaguotame „Liturginiame maldyne“ pasirodė naujoji 1 pav. Budynėse. Rėžgalių k., Platelių sen., Plungės r. Fotografuota 1975 m. LMTA Etnomuzikologijos skyrius Kalnų redakcija (vadinamieji Naujieji Kalnai), kuri galutinę savo versiją, giedamą ir šiandien, įgijo 1984 m. leidime6. Kai kurių Žemaitijos vietovių Kalnų melodijos pirmą kartą minėta, tradiciškai atliekant Kalnus su dūdomis kas antras išspausdintos 1993 m. (žr. Motuzas 1993). posmas (pusė posmo) yra grojamas, t. y. praleidžiama dalis Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai7 gali būti meldžiami ne teksto. Taigi muzikantų atliekama funkcija nėra estetinė, jie tik apvaikštant Kryžiaus kelią. Parapijos bendruomenė, ne atkartoja pirmo posmo melodiją, o ją išgroja, t. y. muziki- giminės ar kaimynai šias maldas ir giesmes taip pat meldžia niais garsais išsako antrą posmą kaip žodinį tekstą, nes paskui ir gieda už gyvus ir mirusius per adventą, gavėnią ar kitu giedamas jau trečias posmas. Žiūrint formaliai, dingsta dalis metu, už mirusį bei giminės mirusiuosius per šermenis, giesmės teksto ir atskiruose Kančios kelio pasakojimuose metines ir kitus mirties datų paminėjimus. Kalnų giesmės nebelieka logiškos sekos. Tačiau Žemaitijoje šitoks atlikimo atliekamos vokaliniu arba vokaliniu-instrumentiniu būdu. būdas nieko nestebina, nes tuo metu, kai grojama, žmonės XVIII–XX a., gal ir ankstesniais laikais procesijose, taip pat mintyse perskaito likusią posmo dalį ar akimis seka tekstą apvaikštant Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnus tradiciškai buvo ir susikaupę laukia savo eilės giedoti (žr. Žarskienė 2012). naudojami variniai pučiamieji instrumentai (plačiau žr. Žarskienė 2015). Neturint prestižinių varinių pučiamųjų, procesijose galėjo būti grojama mediniais trimitais bei ki- Raseinių rajono laidotuvių tradicijos ir tais liaudies muzikos instrumentais (Motuzas 2000: 116; repertuaras. Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis Buračas 1993: 215–216). Kai Kalnai giedami apvaikštant Kryžiaus kelią, prie koplyčių / stočių maldininkai rečituoja Raseinių rajonas, esantis dabartinės etnografinės Že- maldas ir kalba poterius, o eidami nuo vienos stoties prie maitijos pietryčiuose, garsus pučiamaisiais instrumentais kitos, jie gieda (arba pakaitomis gieda ir groja) giesmes. grojančiais liaudies muzikantais (vietinių vadinamais dū- Šermenyse giesmininkai ir muzikantai Kalnus atlieka su- doriais, trūbininkais ir pan.) ir beveik visą XX a. gyvavusia sėdę aplink stalą gretimame kambaryje (XX a. šarvojant liaudiška pučiamųjų instrumentų orkestrų tradicija. Projek- namuose, muzikantai dažnai stovėdavo lauke, už lango). tą, skirtą šio arealo pučiamųjų orkestrų tyrimui, parėmus XX a. pabaigoje keičiantis tradicijoms abi funkcijas – gie- Lietuvos kultūros tarybai, straipsnio autorė vykdė kartu su dojimo ir grojimo – perėmė variniais pučiamaisiais grojantys Vaiva Poškaite-Tomaševič. Jos giminės kilusios iš labiausiai į samdyti muzikantai. Vėliau Kalnų giesmėms imta pritarti pietryčius nutolusio Raseinių rajono pakraščio – Betygalos, elektriniais vargonėliais, sintezatoriumi, kanklėmis, smuiku o senelis – buvęs žymus šio krašto muzikantas Kazimieras ir kitais instrumentais8. Poška. Taigi Betygalos apylinkės ir tapo ekspedicijos tyrimų Su pučiamųjų instrumentų ansambliu / orkestru Žemai- centru. Čia, aplinkiniuose kaimuose, XX a. pirmoje–an- čių Kalvarijos Kalnų giesmės tiek einant Kryžiaus kelią, tiek troje pusėje tuo pačiu metu gyvavo net keletas pučiamųjų šermenyse būdavo atliekamos antifoniniu būdu, t. y. pakai- orkestrų. Juos iš savo šeimos narių ir kaimynų suburdavo tomis giedant ir grojant. Dažniausiai buvo giedama ir gro- žymesnieji kaimų muzikantai, kilę iš muzikalių šeimų, tar- jama pramaišiui: pirmą posmą (ar pusę posmo) – vien vyrai navę Lietuvos, vėliau – tarybinėje kariuomenėje. Tarpukariu arba visi giesmininkai kartu, antrą – dūdos, trečią – moterys orkestrai dažniausiai grieždavo vestuvėse, sovietmečiu – arba visi giesmininkai drauge, ketvirtą – dūdos. Šitaip Kal- laidotuvėse. Pirmasis prisimintas orkestrų iniciatorius buvo nai giedoti ir tuomet, kai juos atliko vien muzikantai (4–7 Liudvikas Digrys (1894–1982, gyv. Zaroslės k.). Kiek pūtikai). Nors apie tai rašyta ankstesniuose šio straipsnio vėliau iš kaimynų ir kitų kaimų dūdorių pučiamųjų orkes- autorės darbuose, vis dėlto dar kartą norisi atkreipti dėmesį į trą subūrė klarnetininkas, buvęs Nepriklausomos Lietuvos muzikologiniu požiūriu labai savitą atlikimo būdą. Kaip jau kariuomenės muzikantas Vincas Bakšys (1898–1961, gyv.

180 Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis

Saugailių (Leckavos) k.). Digrio ir Bakšio orkestruose grojo, o vėliau, jiems mirus, būrė muzikantus Poška (1913–2002, gyv. Puknaičių, vėliau Srauto (Berteškių) k.). Nuoširdžiai pamėgęs pučiamuosius instrumentus, jis groti išmokė ir savo sūnus: Visvaldą Juozą (g. 1943) – kornetu, Julių (g. 1947) – altu, Anatolijų (g. 1951) – baritonu. Jis buvo pirmasis ir giminaičio Vaclovo Stulginsko (g. 1942) mokytojas. Šis, tarnaudamas sovietų kariuomenėje ir grodamas pulko orkestre, išmoko gerai pūsti kornetą. Grįžęs iš kariuomenės, įsikūrė Pakiršinyje (Radviliškio r.) ir čia, greta pagrindinio melioratoriaus darbo, Pakiršinio kultūros namuose subūrė ir vadovavo vaikų ir suaugusiųjų dūdų orkestrams, kaimo kapelai ir kitiems saviveikliniams kolektyvams. Ekspedicijos metu buvo mėginta suburti buvusius dūdorius ir įrašyti jų atliekamus kūrinius, tačiau bandymas buvo nesėkmingas, 2 pav. Raseinių „Laidotuvių orkestras“. Rūtos Žarskienės nes kai kurie muzikantai jau seniai nebegrojo ir jiems ne- nuotrauka, 2015. LTRFt 19200 pavyko gerai atlikti norimo kūrinio. Didžiausiu projekto atradimu tapo tradicinės sudėties „Laidotuvių orkestras“, dalyje šis rožinis giedamas du vakarus iš eilės, rytų Aukš- gyvuojantis Raseiniuose. Pasak muzikantų, šis orkestras, taitijoje – tik paskutinį vakarą prieš laidotuves (Motuzas gyvavęs iki 1997 m. ir vėl atkurtas 2012 m., teikia tradicinio 2005: 161). Etnologė Eglė Alenskaitė Švč. Jėzaus Vardo giedojimo ir muzikavimo laidotuvėse paslaugas Raseinių, jų rožinį vadina ryškiausiu Suvalkijos liaudiškojo pamaldumo apylinkių ir kitų rajonų žmonėms. Žinodamas, kad žmo- reiškiniu (Alenskaitė 2012: 77). Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis – nėms dar vis reikalingos laidotuvėse dūdos, orkestrą subūrė viena iš katalikų liaudies pamaldumo praktikų, savo forma iš Betygalos krašto kilęs vyresnės kartos trimitininkas ir artimų Švč. Mergelės Marijos rožiniui10. Visoje Katalikų multiinstrumentalistas Kasparas Babonas (g. 1945 m. Ge- bažnyčioje populiarų, prieš mišias arba po jų kalbamą Švč. dvidų k., gyv. Raseiniuose). Čia kartu su Babonu (trimitas) Mergelės Marijos rožinį išplatino broliai dominikonai. Švč. grojo ir trys jaunesnės kartos (gimę 1960, 1966 ir 1967 m.) Jėzaus Vardo rožinis, manoma, yra kilęs iš Šv. Pranciškaus muzikantai, pučiantys trimitą, tromboną ir tūbą. mažesniųjų brolių ordino (bernardinų) pamaldumo Jėzaus Sovietmečiu muzikantams, kurie dalyvavo dar ir įmo- Vardui. Lietuvą jis greičiausiai pasiekė per Lenkiją kartu su nės ar kolūkio orkestre, tekdavo groti ir privalomų švenčių kontrreformacija XVI a. (Motuzas 2013: 66–67). Pagrin- metu bei komunistų partijos narių laidotuvėse. Dėl dažno dinis šių dviejų rožinių skirtumas yra tai, kad garbinant grojimo tarybinėse laidotuvėse iš tokių orkestrų buvo net ir Mariją giedama arba kalbama 150 kartų malda „Sveika, pasišaipoma. Pavyzdžiui, Radviliškio pučiamųjų orkestras Marija“, o Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinyje 150 kartų šaukiamasi buvo pramintas „Kapų aidais“9 (aliuzija į sovietmečiu popu- Švč. Jėzaus Vardo (Alenskaitė 2012: 59–60). Pirmą kartą liarius vokalinius instrumentinius ansamblius „Kopų balsai“ lietuviškai Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis buvo paskelbtas jau ir „Vilniaus aidai“). Įmonių ir kolūkių orkestrai grieždavo minėtoje Kasakauskio 1681 m. parengtoje maldaknygėje tik gedulingus maršus iškilmingai lydint velionį į amžinojo „Rožančius švenčiausios Marijos Panos ir saldžiausio poilsio vietą. Katalikiškose laidotuvėse šermeninės giesmės vardo Jėzuso“ (Kossakowski 1849 [1681]: 66–103). Taigi buvo giedamos ir grojamos pakaitomis su pučiamaisiais. Tai- akivaizdu, kad šioje maldaknygėje pirmą kartą lietuviškai gi iš pirmo žvilgsnio atrodytų, kad Raseinių krašto tradicija paskelbta tiek Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinio, tiek ir Žemaičių niekuo nesiskyrė nuo kitų Žemaitijos vietovių. Skirtumų Kalvarijos Kalnų tekstai. Šis faktas liudytų, kad abi liaudiško išryškėjo klausinėjant apie repertuarą ir jo atlikimo būdus. pamaldumo praktikos tuo metu jau buvo labai paplitusios, Kadangi dauguma pateikėjų buvo augę sovietmečiu, kalba todėl galima manyti, kad Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis, kaip ir vis pakrypdavo apie populiariausią to meto muzikantų Kalnai, galėjo būti giedamas jau ilgą laiką prieš pasirodant užsiėmimą – grojimą laidotuvėse, ir paaiškėjo, kad Kalnai, šiam spausdintam maldynui. be kurių net ir šiandien neįsivaizduojamos žemaitiškos Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis gali būti atliekamas ir už laidotuvės, čia nebuvo atliekami. mirusius, ir už gyvus. Tačiau dažniausiai jis giedamas už Raseinių krašte „pagrindinis“ laidotuvių kūrinys – ne mirusius. Norint jį giedoti gyvųjų intencijomis, reikia maldą Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai, o Švenčiausiojo Jėzaus Vardo „Amžinąjį atilsį“ pakeisti „Garbė Dievui“, o atliepą „pasi- rožinis, kuris giedamas taip pat ir vidurio bei pietų Lietu- gailėk mirusių“ – „pasigailėk mūsų“ (Liturginis maldynas voje. Pasak Motuzo, Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis giedamas 2013: 363). Pastebėtina, kad tokie patys pakeitimai daromi dažniausiai per šermenis ir mirusiųjų minėjimus Aukštai- ir giedant Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnus. Švč. Jėzaus Vardo tijoje, ypač pietvakarių. Suvalkijoje ir pietinėje Dzūkijos rožinis, kaip ir Kalnai, giedamas šermenyse, laidotuvių

181 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ

a cappella, o šiais laikais – dažniausiai pritariant sintezato- riui13. Tačiau, kaip minėta, Raseinių rajone pučiamaisiais grojama atliekant šermenines giesmes: prieš giesmę ir tarp jos posmų pagriežiami instrumentiniai intarpai. Čia vėl matome skirtumą, nes atliekant Kalnų giesmes pučiamieji groja vietoj teksto, t. y. pučiamųjų garsais tarsi išreiškiamas tam tikros atkarpos (dažniausiai posmo ar pusės posmo) turinys. O Raseiniuose pučiamieji atlieka labiau estetinę ir utilitarinę funkcijas – pagražina ir pailgina tam tikrą giesmę. Kodėl Raseinių krašte, kuris dar ir šiandien pagal daugelį etnografinių požymių yra priskiriamas Žemaitijos regionui, susipina žemaitiškos ir aukštaitiškos muzikavimo tradicijos, galbūt gali paaiškinti šio krašto istorija ir gyventojų tapaty- bės – savęs kaip žemaičio / nežemaičio – suvokimas. 3 pav. Girkalnio (Raseinių r.) giedotojai; iš kairės – Benediktas Jocius ir Mykolas Pečiulis (prie elektrinių vargonėlių). Giedrės Ignatavičiūtės nuotrauka, 2019, LTRFt 22598 Pietryčių Žemaitijos gyventojų tapatybės ir savivokos klausimu išvakarėse, mirties datų paminėjimuose, per gavėnią. Tačiau kartais jis giedamas ir paprastu liturginiu laiku. Pavyzdžiui, Prieš pradėdami diskusijas apie šio regiono gyventojų Suvalkijoje, Gižų ir Šunskų parapijų kai kuriuose kaimuose, tapatybę trumpai apžvelkime jo istoriją. Pasak istoriko dar ir XXI a. pradžioje jis buvo giedamas po šv. mišių susi- Eugenijaus Saviščevo, Žemaitijos istorija yra komplikuota rinkus vieno iš kaimo gyventojų namuose maldai už kaimo ir neracionalu ieškoti etnografinės ar etninės Žemaitijos mirusiuosius (Alenskaitė 2012: 60)11. Tradiciškai Rožinio sienų XIII–XVIII a. Dar ir XIV a. pabaigoje buvo neaišku, maldos rečituojamos, giesmės antifoniškai giedamos kaip ir kur prasideda, o kur baigiasi Žemaitija. Pirmąsias aiškesnes Kalnuose12. Svarbu pažymėti, kad Rožiniui atlikti net ir Že- nuorodas apie Žemaitijos ribas galima sieti su tarptauti- maitijoje pučiamieji instrumentai nenaudojami, jis giedamas niais Lietuvos ir Kryžiuočių ordino susitarimais: 1382 m.

1 žemėlapis. Žemaitija ir Raseinių regionas skirtingais istoriniais laikotarpiais; sudarė Alma Ragauskaitė

182 Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis

Skirsnemunėje Jogaila pažadėjo Ordinui atiduoti Žemaitiją Tyrimui svarbi ir Katalikų bažnyčios administracinio iki Dubysos, o 1398 m. Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės skirstymo retrospektyva. Praėjus keleriems metams po didysis kunigaikštis Vytautas žadėjo Ordinui atiduoti Že- Žemaitijos krikšto, 1417 m. įkurta Žemaičių vyskupija iki maitiją iki Nevėžio. Nuo tada Nevėžis (išskirta – R. Ž.) pat Lietuvos ir Lenkijos Respublikos padalijimo 1795 m. tapo tradicine Žemaitijos ir Lietuvos siena. Kitos Žemaitijos apėmė visą tuometinę Žemaičių seniūnijos teritoriją sienos formavosi jau Ordino ir Lietuvos derybų metu. Jų (Valančius 1972: 25–27; Čerskis 2012: 19–21). XIX a. rezultatas – Žemaičių seniūnija: gentine prasme dirbtinis viduryje Žemaičių vyskupija buvo praplėsta į rytus, iš darinys, apimantis kuršių, žiemgalių, skalvių ir lietuvių Vilniaus vyskupijos atėmus aštuonis dekanatus (Kauno, (bent jau Užnemunėje) iš dalies gyventas teritorijas14. Taigi Panevėžio, Ukmergės, Utenos, Obelių, Zarasų, Kuršo ir XV a. pradžioje pamažu susiformavusi Žemaičių seniūnija Žiemgalos) su 93 parapijomis. Taigi tuo metu vyskupijos nebuvo žemaičių genties darinys. Jos sienų vingius diktavo ribos gerokai peržengė istorinės Žemaičių seniūnijos ribas. ne gentiniai, o politiniai kriterijai (Saviščevas 2010: 36). 1860 m. Žemaičių vyskupijoje buvo 306 parapijos ir filijų XV–XVIII a. istorinė Žemaičių seniūnija apėmė Lietuvos bažnyčios, 1900 m. ją sudarė 19 dekanatų, kurie turėjo 200 Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės šiaurės vakarų dalį, kurią nuo parapijų (Krasauskas 1991 [1968]: 146). 1925 m. Žemaičių kitų teritorijų skyrė Nevėžio upė. Tuo laikotarpiu rytinio vyskupiją sudarė 32 dekanatai, juose buvo 216 parapijų. Žemaitijos arealo svarbiausiu administraciniu centru buvo Nors Lietuva 1918 m. atkūrė savo valstybę, tik 1926 m. kaip tik Raseiniai, kur iki 1764 m. vykdavo visi teismai ir buvo įsteigta atskira Lietuvos bažnytinė provincija. Taigi po Žemaitijai bendri seimeliai (Valančius 1972 [1848]: 30–32; 500 metų gyvavimo Žemaičių vyskupija buvo panaikinta, o Kiaupa 1991: 43). Carinės Rusijos okupacijos metais, jos vietoj įsteigtos Telšių ir Panevėžio vyskupijos ir Kauno 1840 m., Lietuvos vardas ištrintas iš žemėlapių15 ir 1843 m. arkivyskupija. Raseinių dekanatas, kuris visą šį laikotarpį iš vienos Lietuvos Vilniaus gubernijos buvo suformuotos buvo Žemaičių vyskupijos dalis, nebuvo įtrauktas į Telšių dvi – Kauno ir Vilniaus (Gumuliauskas 2010: 22). Didžioji vyskupiją, kuri dengia didžiąją etnografinės Žemaitijos Žemaitijos teritorijos dalis atiteko Kauno gubernijai. Per- teritorijos dalį, jis buvo priskirtas Kauno arkivyskupijai tvarkant apskričių ribas, dalį Raseinių apskrities teritorijos (Vaišnora 1991 [1968]: 147; Mukienė 2014). perėmė Kauno apskritis, perkeldama rytinę Raseinių apskri- Be abejonės, istoriniai įvykiai turėjo didelės įtakos regio- ties ribą, ėjusią Nevėžio upe, į vakarus link Dubysos upės no, kaip etnokultūrinio vieneto, formavimuisi. Tačiau greta (išskirta – R. Ž.) (Medišauskienė 2004: 351, 354). objektyvių veiksnių, regioninės tapatybės raiškoje esama ir

2 žemėlapis. Katalikų bažnyčios vyskupijos Lietuvoje nuo 1417 m.; sudarė Alma Ragauskaitė

183 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ daug subjektyvumo. Pasak kultūros geografų, regioninės aukštaičių šiauliškių patarmei16. Kalbininkai, vertindami savimonės kultūrinis regionas (vernacular cultural region), šios tarmės ypatybes, mano, kad tai lyg pereinamoji grandis „yra suvokiamas pačių gyventojų pagal plačiai naudojamą tarp žemaičių ir šiaurinių rytų aukštaičių. Kaip tik todėl ir priimtiną specifinį regioninį vardą. Kai kurie regioninės priešinguose šiauliškių ploto pakraščiuose gerokai sumišu- savimonės kultūriniai regionai yra paremti fizinėmis aplin- sios šiauliškių ir kaimyninių patarmių ypatybės: vakaruose kos ypatybėmis, o kiti – ekonominiu, politiniu, istoriniu ar labai stipri sąveika su šiaurės žemaičiais telšiškiais ir pietų reklaminiu aspektais. Regioninės savimonės, kaip ir daugelis žemaičiais, o rytuose stipri panevėžiškių įtaka (Mikulėnienė, kultūros regionų, neturi tikslių sienų, todėl bet kurios Meiliūnaitė 2014: 156). teritorijos gyventojai gali pareikšti gyvenantys daugiau XX–XXI a. pradžios žemaičių tapatybę tyrinėjęs nei viename tokių regionų. [...] Tokių regionų atsiradimo etnologas Petras Kalnius mano, kad „etnografinė Žemai- pagrindas – žmonių jausmai ir jų regioninė savimonė“ tija negali būti tapatinama nei su lingvistine, nei istorine (Jordan, Domosh, Rowntree, 1997: 13–14). Lietuvių Žemaitija (buvusia Žemaičių seniūnija)“ (Kalnius 2012: etnogeografė Alma Ragauskaitė, remdamasi aukščiau ci- 148). Jis mano, kad XIX a. kalbininko Kazimiero Jauniaus tuotų užsienio autorių teiginiais ir susiedama juos su savo vakarų aukštaičių šiauliškių tarmės „atidavimas“ aukštai- tyrimais, apibendrina, kad „regioninės tapatybės raiška čių dialektui yra grynai sąlyginis dalykas, nes ši tarmė ir paremta subjektyviu gyventojų savo subetnoso apgyventos prie jos prigludusios žemaitiškos tarmės yra gana panašios teritorijos išskyrimu ir identifikacija su juo. Kitaip sakant, (Kalnius 2012: 152). Remdamasis savo 2002–2004 m. tai mentalinis arealas, įsitvirtinęs gyventojų savimonėje“ ekspedicijose surinktais duomenimis, autorius teigia, kad (Ragauskaitė 2016: 140). Regioninę savimonę ji išnagri- Žemaitijos-Aukštaitijos paribyje tarmės ir savimonės ribos nėjo trimis aspektais: atsižvelgdama į sociolingvistinius, kai kur sutampa, o kai kur ir nesutampa. Pasak Kalniaus, etnologų atliktų regioninės savimonės tyrimų duomenis bei šis paribys – tai „Gordijaus mazgas“ ir įvairiapusiškų empiriškai surinktus etnokultūrinės savimonės teritorinės mokslinių tyrimų laboratorija“ (Kalnius 2012: 152, 148). raiškos duomenis. Atlikdama etnokultūrinės savimonės Remdamasis taip pat ir anksčiau surinktais materialinės raiškos analizę Lietuvoje mokslininkė surinko ir įvertino kultūros (etnografinių pastatų) duomenimis, tyrėjas mano, etnografinę savimonę parodančius žodžius (Žemaitija / že- kad Žemaičių seniūnijos egzistavimo laikotarpiu, nepaisant maitis, Suvalkija / suvalkietis, Dzūkija / dzūkas, Aukštaitija žmonių bendruomenių skirtumų, visi gyventojai save laikė / aukštaitis) bei etnokultūrinę savimonę parodančių žodžių žemaičiais. Šiais laikais aiškėja tendencija, kad žemaitiškoji (Kuršas / kuršis, Žiemgala / žiemgalis, Sėla / sėlis, Dainava savimonė yra linkusi neišeiti už kalbininkų nubrėžtos tarmių / dainavis, Sūduva / sūduvis, Jotva / jotvingis) vedinių skiriamosios ribos (Kalnius 2012: 158–159, 171). Paribio pasikartojimą įmonių ir regioninę kultūrą vystančių bei gyventojų sąmonėje svyruoja ir Žemaitijos geografinių ribų globojančių institucijų pavadinimuose. Jos surinkti duome- suvokimas: nuo nežymaus arba žymesnio jos ribų nukėlimo nys ir atlikti tyrimai atskleidė, kad Žemaitija išsiskiria iš kitų į rytus iki stulbinamo Žemaitijos susiaurinimo į vakarų etnografinių Lietuvos regionų „savo regioninės savimonės pusę. Matomi ir geografiniai barjerai: į rytus – Dubysa, į tvirtumu“ (Ragauskaitė 2015: 69–72). pietus – Nemunas (Kalnius 2012: 176). Vienas svarbiausių regioninės savimonės veiksnių yra Kalniaus teiginius patvirtina ir šio straipsnio autorės eks- tarmė. Lietuvos kultūrinių regionų tarmių tyrėjų nuomone, pedicijų metu atlikti tyrimai. Pavyzdžiui, vietiniai gyventojai, „žemaičių etnografinis regionas, didžiąja dalimi sutapdamas ypač gyvenantys dešiniajame Dubysos krante, savęs nelaikė su žemaičių tarmės ribomis, pasižymi stipriai išreikštu tikrais žemaičiais. Pasak jų, Žemaitija prasideda už Duby- etnografinio tapatumo ir vienybės pojūčiu, kurį labiausiai sos. Tai išryškėja ir vieno iš kalbintų muzikantų (70 metų) formuoja vadinamoji krašto istorinė atmintis“ (Mikulėnie- pasakojime. Norėdamas vietiniam dūdų orkestrui priešinti nė, Meiliūnaitė 2014: 130). Taigi akivaizdu, kad Žemaitijos kaimyninio rajono muzikantus, jis pavadino juos žemaičiais17. gyventojai labiausiai tapatinasi su savo kraštu ir tuo išsiskiria Dviguba šio krašto gyventojų tapatybė, kaip minėta, akivaizdi iš kitų Lietuvos etnografinių regionų. ir muzikavimo papročiuose. Todėl nenuostabu, kad Raseinių Tačiau visai kita situacija susiklostė šio etnografinio tradicinės sudėties pučiamųjų ansamblio (du trimitai, trom- regiono pietrytiniame pakraštyje. Raseinių rajono rytinės bonas ir tūba) „Laidotuvių orkestras“ muzikantai pareiškė, dalies – Betygalos krašto gyventojai nemano, kad jie yra kad jie atlieka viską – giesmes, Rožinį, tik Kalnų negroja. Jie tikri žemaičiai. Vietinių gyventojų savivoką, kad jie nėra paaiškino, kad ties Nemakščiais eina aukštaitiškos Kauno ir tikri žemaičiai, galbūt lėmė šio Žemaitijos pakraščio tarmė, žemaitiškos Telšių vyskupijos riba, todėl iki Viduklės, kaip kurią kalbininkai priskiria vakarų aukštaičių, o ne pietų ir visoje Kauno arkivyskupijoje, giedamas Švč. Jėzaus Vardo žemaičių tarmei, ir galbūt per menkos Lietuvos Didžio- rožinis, o jau Nemakščiuose – Kalnai18. sios Kunigaikštystės istorijos žinios. Pavyzdžiui, vakarinė Tačiau ar tikrai šiame krašte niekada nebuvo giedami Raseinių rajono dalis priklauso pietų žemaičių raseiniškių Kalnai? Ar jie nustoti giedoti po 1926 m., panaikinus patarmei, tačiau Betygalos patarmė jau priskiriama vakarų Žemaičių vyskupiją ir Raseinių dekanatą priskyrus Kauno

184 Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis arkivyskupijai? Kad giesmių repertuaro ir atlikimo tradicijos Nuorodos galėjo pakisti, rodytų Betygalos krašto kraštotyrininkės ir 1 muziejininkės Marijonos Birutės Navakauskienės ekspe- Lot. Via Crucis, Via Dolorosa. Šią pamaldumo formą prakti- kuoja ne tik Romos katalikai, bet ir kitos Vakarų krikščionijos dicijose užrašyti duomenys, jog maždaug XX a. viduryje denominacijos – anglikonai, liuteronai, metodistai. Wikipe- Armonų kaime (Betygalos parapija) pas Joną Grabauską dia, the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ giedodavo Kalnus19. Na, o šiandien Girkalnyje vieną Stations_of_the_Cross [žiūrėta 2019 03 08]. iš šermenų vakarų iš „tikrų žemaičių“ išmoktus Kalnus 2 Bolonijoje, Šv. Stepono vienuolyne, V a. šio miesto vyskupo kartais gieda parapijos giesmininkai, Didįjį penktadienį šv. Petronijaus iniciatyva buvo pastatytos kelios tarpusavy- prieš Velykas – šio miestelio folkloro ansamblio dalyviai20. je sujungtos koplyčios, kuriomis buvo siekiama atkartoti žymesnes Jeruzalės šventyklas. Kaip tik dėl šio komplekso Kas tai – naujos tradicijos kūrimas ar senosios sugrįžimas, ilgainiui vienuolynas imtas vadinti Hierusalem . The Catholic parodys ateities tyrimai. Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15569a. htm [žiūrėta 2019 04 26]. 3 Pirmoji koplyčia, kuri vėliau tapo viena iš Kalvarijos stočių, Išvados pastatyta Gardų piliakalnyje 1619 m. ir pavadinta Šv. Jono Krikštytojo vardu. 1633 m. Žemaičių vyskupu paskirtas įta- kingos Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės giminės atstovas Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai, skirti melstis ir giedoti Jurgis Tiškevičius, labai rūpinęsis katalikybės puoselėjimu ir apvaikštant XVII a. pirmoje pusėje Lietuvos Didžiojoje stiprinimu, vienuolijų plėtimu, kalvarijų kūrimu, po kelerių Kunigaikštystėje įsteigtą pirmąjį Kryžiaus kelią, yra tapę metų pasikviečia Kryžiaus kelių steigimo patirtį turinčius neatsiejama žemaitiškų katalikiškų laidotuvių apeiga. Ji dominikonų ordino vienuolius ir, ėmęsis Kalvarijos įrengimo,

šiame regione gyvuoja dar ir šiandien. Žemaitijoje nuo pats paskiria koplyčioms vietas(Valančius 1972: 121). Mano- ma, kad 1640 m. dalis koplyčių jau stovėjo, nes vyskupas Tiš- XIX a., o galbūt ir gerokai anksčiau šermenyse buvo gro- kevičius savo kelionės į Romą metu gavo iš popiežiaus Urbono jama pučiamaisiais instrumentais, jais griežiamas giesmių VIII atlaidų privilegijas šešioms koplyčioms, o 1649 m. jų jau melodijas galima išgirsti ir XXI a. pradžioje. Kalnai, ypač buvo ne mažiau kaip trylika (Vasiliūnienė 2010: 92–93). kai atliekami antifoniškai – giedami ir griežiami pučiamųjų 4 Rozancius swęnciausios Maryos Pannos yr saldziausy warda ansamblio / orkestro, yra tapę žemaitiškumo simboliu. Ta- Jezus. Teypogi Spaſabas apwaykściojima Kałnu Kałworyjos čiau Raseinių rajone, nuo seno priklausiusiame Žemaitijai, Ziamayciu Su Madlitwomis yr Giesmiemis ant to ſłuźijęnćiomis [...], Wilniuy Drukarniey K. J. M. Akademi: Metu 1779 susiklostė kitokia situacija. 2015 m. šiame rajone vykdytos (Vaicekauskas 2005: 93). ekspedicijos metu sužinota, kad katalikiškose laidotuvėse 5 Pirmasis giesmynas lietuvių kalba „Giesmės tikėjimui katolic- giedami ne Kalnai, o Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis, būdingas ki- kam priderančios“, parengtas jėzuito Saliamono Slavočinskio, tiems Lietuvos etnokultūriniams regionams. Atlikus tyrimus pasirodė 1646 m. 6 paaiškėjo, kad šio rytinio Žemaitijos pakraščio gyventojai Alfonsas Motuzas naujoje savo knygoje „Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnų maldyno istorija, muzika ir apeigos“, pasirodžiusioje savęs žemaičiais nelaiko. Tai sietina su šio krašto istorija, jo 2017 m., išsamiai aptaria visus Senųjų ir Naujųjų Kalnų administracinėmis ribomis. Rytinė ir pietrytinė Žemaitijos leidimus, išnagrinėja ir palygina jų skirtumus. Jis nurodo, ribos nuolat keitėsi, kelis šimtmečius ją žymėjo Nevėžio upė, kad Naujųjų Kalnų maldų ir giesmių tekstus sukūrė kunigas o XIX a. viduryje ji buvo paslinkta į vakarus link Dubysos. Petras Palšis, redagavo – kunigai marijonai Jonas Paliūkas ir Svarbu ir tai, kad Raseinių regionas, keletą šimtmečių buvęs Vaclovas Aliulis, o maldas ir giesmes senosioms melodijoms pritaikė monsinjoras doc. dr. Pranciškus Tamulevičius (Mo- vienas iš istorinės Žemaičių seniūnijos centrų ir priklausęs tuzas 2017: 11). Žemaičių vyskupijai, XX a. pradžioje tapo aukštaitiškos 7 Naujuosius Kalnus sudaro 21 malda-apmąstymas apie Viešpa- Kauno arkivyskupijos dalimi. Galbūt todėl ypač dešiniojo ties Jėzaus kančią, treji poteriai („Tėve mūsų“, „Sveika, Marija“, Dubysos kranto – Betygalos apylinkių gyventojams sunku „Garbė Dievui Tėvui“ arba „Amžinąjį atilsį“), Visų Šventųjų save suvokti kaip arba . litanija ir 22 giesmės. tikrus žemaičius tikrus aukštaičius 8 Tam įtakos turėjo ir šio Žemaitijos pakraščio patarmė, kurią Apie muzikavimo tradicijų kaitą laidotuvių papročiuose žr. Žarskienė 2012. kalbininkai priskiria vakarų aukštaičiams šiauliškiams, o 9 Duomenys autorės užrašyti Raseiniuose 2015 m., LTRV 998. ne pietų žemaičiams raseiniškiams. Taigi šiame krašte susi- 10 Motuzas mano, kad Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinis panašus į Valandų formavo savitas regioninės savimonės kultūrinis regionas, liturgiją – vienuolių giedamą brevijorių, nes 150 kartų kalbama kuriam būdinga pereinamoji (tarpinė) arba mišri vietinių arba giedama malda „Jėzau mūsų valdove“ primena 150 psal- gyventojų tapatybė. Šią prielaidą patvirtina ir laidotuvių mių, kurios ir sudaro valandų liturgiją (Motuzas 2013: 67). 11 Minėtuose kaimuose Rožinis giedotas ir per Kryžiaunas dienas repertuaro bei muzikavimo pučiamaisiais instrumentais (Alenskaitė 2012: 111). tradicijos. Čia, greta žemaitiškų, galima įžvelgti ir šiame 12 Maždaug iki XX a. devinto–dešimto dešimtmečio, kai kur ir regione retesnių, kitiems regionams būdingesnių bruožų. ilgiau, tiek Kalnus, tiek Rožinį giedodavo į šermenis susirinkę Ar tikrai šiame areale anksčiau niekada negiedoti Kalnai? kaimynai ir giminės. Dažniausiai pirmą posmą giedodavo Ar jų atlikimas šiais laikais – naujas, madingas dalykas? Į vyrai, o antrą – moterys. Šiandien Raseinių krašte antifoninio šiuos klausimus gali atsakyti tik būsimi tyrimai. giedojimo tradicija po truputį nyksta. Pavyzdžiui, Girkalnyje

185 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rūta ŽARSKIENĖ

laidotuvėse gieda samdomas giesmininkų duetas. Atlikdami Jordan T. G., Domosh M., Rowntree L., The Human Mosaic: giesmes jie kartu gieda visus posmus, pritardami elektriniais A thematic introduction to Cultural Geography, New York: vargonėliais (LTRF cd 1384/08/). Longman, 1997. 13 Alenskaitė, tyrinėjusi Švč. Jėzaus Vardo rožinio giedojimo Kalnius Petras, Žemaičiai XX a.–XXI a. pradžia, Vilnius: Mintis, tradicijas Suvalkijos regiono Gižų ir Šunskų parapijose, rašo, 2012. kad retais atvejais iš miesto atvykę samdomi giesmininkai gieda Kiaupa Zigmantas, Reformų metas Šiauliuose 1765–1795 m., in: pritardami kanklėmis arba smuiku (Alenskaitė 2012: 61). Šiaulių miesto istorija (iki 1940 m.), Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos 14 Saviščevas šį darinį siūlo vadinti Didžiąja Žemaitija ir priešinti institutas, 1991, p. 41–61. XIII–XIV a. šaltiniuose minimai Žemaitijai, kuriai derėtų Kossakowski Georgius [Kasakauskis Jurgis] (sud.), Rożanczius Mažosios epitetas (Saviščevas 2010: 36). swęcziausios Marios Panos yr saldziausi warda Jezusa su rejka- 15 Nuo 1840 m. iš gubernijų pavadinimų išbrauktas Lietuvos lingesniomis małdomis diewabajmingam katalikuj, Vilnius: vardas. 1843 m. Lietuva buvo pavadinta Rusijos šiaurės vakarų Spaustuwi A. Dworcziaus, (1849 [1681]). kraštu (Gumuliauskas 2010: 22). Krasauskas Rapolas, Katalikų bažnyčia Lietuvoje. II. Carinės 16 Lietuvių kalbos instituto Tarmių tekstyno duomenų bazė, Rusijos okupacijos laikais, in: Lietuvių enciklopedija, t. XV: http://tarmiuarchyvas.lki.lt/pradinis.php?sutrump=bnd Lietuva [Antrasis leidimas], Vilnius: Lietuvos enciklopedijų [žiūrėta 2019 05 06]. redakcija, 1991 [1968], p. 141–146. 17 Duomenys autorės užrašyti Raseiniuose 2015 m., LTRV 997. Liturginis maldynas [Šeštasis pataisytas leidimas]. Imprimatur 18 Duomenys autorės užrašyti Raseiniuose 2015 m., LTRV 997. G. Grušas. Vilnius: Katalikų pasaulio leidiniai, 2013. 19 Iš Navakauskienės rankraščio, atsiųsto straipsnio autorei el. Mardosa Jonas, Šiuolaikiniai atlaidai Lietuvoje: religinis ir socia- paštu 2015 08 24. linis aspektas, in: LKMA suvažiavimo darbai, t. XVIII, kn. 1, 20 Iš mokytojo, giesmininko ir muzikanto Mykolo Pečiulio el. Vilnius: Katalikų akademija, 2003, p. 259–278. laiško straipsnio autorei 2015 09 17. Medišauskienė Zita, Vilniaus gubernijos administracinio suskirs- tymo pertvarkymas, in: Istorijos akiračiai, Vilnius: Lietuvių istorijos instituto leidykla, 2004, p. 341–362. Santrumpos Mikulėnienė Danguolė, Meiliūnaitė Violeta (red.), XXI a. pradžios lietuvių tarmės: geolingvistinis ir sociolingvistinis tyrimas. Že- LMTA – Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija mėlapiai ir jų komentarai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, LTRFt – Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių leidykla „Briedis“, 2014. tautosakos rankraštynas, fonoteka Motuzas Alfonsas (sud.), Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnai. Šermeninės LTRV – Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių giesmės, Vilnius: „Katalikų pasaulio“ leidykla, 1993. tautosakos rankraštynas, videoteka Motuzas Alfonsas, Muzikos instrumentai Lietuvos kalvarijų Kry- žiaus kelio kulte, in: Tiltai, Nr. 4 (13), Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universitetas, 2000, p. 111–119. Literatūra Motuzas Alfonsas, Lietuvos kalvarijų Kryžiaus kelių istorija, apeiginiai papročiai ir muzika, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo Alenskaitė Eglė, Rožančiaus pamaldumas Šunskų ir Gižų para- universiteto leidykla, 2003. pijose XX a.–XXI a. pradžioje, in: , 2012, Nr. 1 Suvalkija Motuzas Alfonsas, Katalikų liaudies pamaldumo praktikos Lietu- (44), p. 59–62. voje, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, 2005. Alenskaitė Eglė, Suvalkijos kaimo krikščioniškosios dorovės ir Motuzas Alfonsas, Jėzui Kristui skirtų katalikų liaudies pamal- blaivybės problemų sprendimas: Šunskų ir Gižų parapijų dumo praktikų raiška Lietuvoje, in: Soter: religijos mokslo giesmininkų veikla XX amžiuje–XXI amžiaus pradžioje, in: žurnalas, Nr. 48 (76), Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Kaimo raidos kryptys žinių visuomenėje, 2012, Nr. 3, Šiauliai: 2013, p. 65–79. Šiaulių universiteto leidykla, p. 108–114. Motuzas Alfonsas, Žemaičių Kalvarijos Kalnų maldyno istorija, Alenskaitė Eglė, Suvalkijos giesmininkai ir giedojimo erdvės muzika ir apeigos, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, kaita XX a.–XXI a. pradžioje, in: Tradicija ir dabartis, Nr. 7, 2017. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, 2012, p. 73–82. Mukienė Danutė, Žemaičių (Medininkų) vyskupija, http:// Batavičius Albinas, Tauragės apskrities dūdų orkestrai, Tauragė, www.samogit.lt/VYSKUPIJA/zem_vyskup.htm [žiūrėta 1995. 2019 05 02]. Buračas Balys, Lietuvos kaimo papročiai, Vilnius: Mintis, 1993. Ragauskaitė Alma, Lietuvos etnokultūriniai regionai: formavi- Čerskis Stanislovas (sud.), Žemaičių vyskupijos aprašymas (su masis ir rezultatas, in: Etninė kultūra, Nr. 9, Vilnius: Etninės trimis nedideliais žemėlapiais sudarytas katedros kanauninko kultūros globos taryba, 2015, p. 61–77. Stanislovo Čerskio, teologijos mokslų daktaro, daugelio moks- Ragauskaitė Alma, Lietuvos etnokultūrinis regionavimas, daktaro lo draugijų nario), Vilnius: Lietuvos nacionalinis muziejus, disertacija, humanitariniai mokslai, etnologija (07 H), Vil- 2013 [1830]. nius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Vilniaus univer- Garnevičiūtė Rimutė, Trijų katalikiškų laidotuvių papročių re- sitetas ir Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2016. liginė prasmė (XXI a. pradžia), in: Lietuvių katalikų mokslo Saviščevas Eugenijus, Žemaitijos savivalda ir valdžios elitas: 1409– akademijos metraštis, t. 36, Vilnius: Katalikų akademija, 2012, 1566 metais, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla, 2010. p. 133–155. Stumbra Saulius, Šermenų apeigos Žemaitijoje: tradicijos ir mo- Griciūtė-Šverebienė Liepa, XVII–XVIII a. bažnytinės procesijos dernumo problematika, in: Res Humanitariae, t. IX, Klaipėda: Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje, Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, 2011, p. 65–85. akademijos leidykla, 2011. Stundžienė Bronė, Žemaičių folklorinė atmintis, in: Tautosakos Gumuliauskas Arūnas, Lietuvos istorija (1795–2009 m.), Šiauliai: darbai, t. XXXIV, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos Lucilijus, 2010. institutas, 2007, p. 32–53.

186 Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapatybė: Raseinių rajono atvejis

Vaicekauskas Mikas, Lietuviškos katalikiškos XVI–XVIII amžiaus walk around the Hills of Žemaičių Kalvarija (Samogitian giesmės, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2005. Calvary) in northwestern Žemaitija—the first Way of the Vaišnora Juozas, Katalikų bažnyčia Lietuvoje. III. Nepriklausomai- Cross established in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the siais ir okupaciniais laikais, in: Lietuvių enciklopedija, t. XV: early seventeenth century. The are chanted for the Lietuva [Antrasis leidimas], Vilnius: Lietuvos enciklopedijų Kalnai redakcija, 1991 [1968], p. 146–151. living and the dead during Advent, Lent, or other periods, Valančius Motiejus, Raštai, t. II: Žemaičių vyskupystė, Vilnius: particularly for the deceased person and their relatives Vaga, 1972 [1848]. during the wake and the first or other anniversary of their Vasiliūnienė Dalia, Žemaičių Kalvarija. Piligriminio centro istorija passing. Nevertheless, fieldwork conducted in the Raseiniai , Vilnius: Aidai, 2010. ir dailė XVII–XIX a. District in the southeast of Samogitia region in 2015 re- Vitėnas Augustinas, Kančios kelias: istorija, tradicijos ir archi- tektūrinis ryšys su evangeline Jeruzale, in: Plateliai, Beržoras, vealed that the Kalnai were not performed in the area. Like Gintališkė, Šateikiai, Žemaičių Kalvarija, Gegrėnai. Plungės in many other places around Samogitia, this region boasted dekanato sakralinė architektūra ir dailė. Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės a strong brass band tradition; however, the main funeral akademijos leidykla, 2005, p. 229–251. chant was not the Kalnai, but the Rosary of the Blessed Žarskienė Rūta, Pučiamųjų instrumentų orkestrai tradicinėje Lie- Name of Jesus. This finding encouraged the author to take tuvos kultūroje: nuo didikų rūmų iki sodžiaus, in: Tautosakos a closer look into this history of the area on the outskirts darbai, t. XXXVIII, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2009, p. 149–168. of the ethnographic region and analyze the identity issue Žarskienė Rūta, Instrumentinė muzika kaip kultūrinės regioninės of its population. It was revealed that several centuries ago, atminties raiška, in: Bronė Stundžienė (moksl. red.), Homo Raseiniai was an important administrative center of the narrans: folklorinė atmintis iš arti, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros Duchy of Samogitia with the Nevėžis River marking the ir tautosakos institutas, 2012, p. 371–392. border of Raseiniai County. Administrative reforms carried Žarskienė Rūta, Pučiamųjų instrumentų orkestrai Žemaitijos etninėje kultūroje, in: Virginijus Jocys (sud.), Žemaičių kul- out under the rule of the Russian Empire in the nineteenth tūros savastys, t. II: Epochų jungtys, Vilnius: Šilalės kraštiečių century moved the border of the county westwards closer draugija, 2013, p. 79–90. to the Dubysa River. It is also noteworthy that having been Žarskienė Rūta, Muzikavimas atlaiduose, arba Barokas XX–XXI part of the Samogitian Diocese (Lith. Žemaičių vyskupystė) amžiuje, in: Tautosakos darbai, t. XLIX, Vilnius: Lietuvių from the fifteenth century, at the beginning of the twentieth literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2015, p. 145–170. Žarskienė Rūta, Žemaitijos atlaidų ir kitų bažnytinių švenčių century, the province of Raseiniai found itself within the muzikavimo tradicijos, in: Acta humanitarica universitata Archdiocese of Kaunas. Maybe this can explain the reason Saulensis, t. 21, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto Humanitarinis residents in the vicinity of Betygala on the right bank of fakultetas, 2015, p. 198–218. the Dubysa River in particular have difficulties identifying Žarskienė Rūta, Balsas truba swieta judins ir numirusius pabudins. themselves as true Samogitians (Lith. Žemaičiai) or true Malda su pučiamaisiais instrumentais liaudiško pamaldumo Highlanders (Lith. Aukštaičiai). This may also be due tradicijoje, in: Tautosakos darbai, t. 55, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2018, p. 177–197. to the subdialect of this peripheral area of Samogitia; it is attributed by linguists not to the southern Samogitian dialect spoken by Raseiniai residents, but to the western Summary Highlander dialect prevalent around Šiauliai. Thus, this area may be said to have all the features of a vernacular cultural The article studies the musical culture of Žemaitija region whose population is characterized by an intermedi- (Engl. Samogitia), the northwestern region of Lithuania. ate, or mixed, identity. The assumption is corroborated by The main focus is placed on funeral repertoire and musical the funeral repertoire and brass band tradition. Samogitian customs characterized by the involvement of brass bands. customs here co-exist with those that are more common to Variations of the funeral repertoire in the greater part other ethnographic regions of Lithuania but rather rare in of ethnographic Samogitia and on the periphery of the Samogitia. Members of a Raseiniai-based traditional brass region, the Raseiniai District, as well as factors which had band, Funeral Orchestra, admit that although they have determined the differences are also analyzed. The author of never played the Kalnai, this rite has gained popularity here this article has been researching the brass band tradition, over the recent years. For instance, in Girkalnis, Raseiniai kept alive in Samogitia to this day, and has been conduct- District, the Kalnai picked up from “true” Samogitians are ing fieldwork in the northwestern and central part of the sung by parish chanters on one of the nights during a wake region since 2004. Like most Lithuanian ethnologists, she and by members of the town’s folk group on Good Friday. Is used to think that the Kálnai of Žemaičių Kalvarija—the the chanting of the Kalnai a new, trendy practice of today? main hymns (or rather, rite) of a Catholic funeral—was Have these hymns been chanted in this area before? To be spread throughout the Samogitia region and could even able to answer these questions, further research is required. be considered its symbol. The Kalnai are a coherent sequence of prayers and hymns meant to accompany the Straipsnis įteiktas / Delivered 2019 05 17

187 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

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Rasa MURAUSKAITĖ The International Image of Lithuanian Composers after the Restoration of Independence Tarptautinis lietuvių kompozitorių įvaizdis atkūrus Nepriklausomybę

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110, Vilnius, Lietuva Email [email protected]

Abstract Culture is one of the most important tools of self-presentation for countries. Lithuania’s independence was restored after the Soviet occupation and had to re-establish its cultural identity. During the last three decades, composers that started their work before the restoration of independence continued to compose, and new generations of composers emerged. The latter keep in step with the latest tendencies of contemporary music and create these tendencies themselves. Despite this fact, in the public discourse it is often believed that Lithuanian composers still have not established an international reputation equal to those of the other Baltic countries of Estonia and Latvia. So, this paper seeks to analyze the international image of Lithuanian composers through discussion of specific case studies, scientific literature, and the results of a survey of foreign musicians. Keywords: international image, Lithuanian composers, popularity, criticism.

Anotacija Kultūra yra vienas svarbiausių šalių savęs reprezentavimo įrankių. Lietuva, atkūrusi Nepriklausomybę, turėjo susigrąžinti ir savo kultūrinę tapatybę. Per pastaruosius tris dešimtmečius ir toliau aktyvūs buvo kompozitoriai, pradėję savo veiklą iki Nepriklausomybės, taip pat išaugo ir nauja kūrėjų karta. Šie menininkai ne tik žengia koja kojon su naujausiomis šiuolaikinės muzikos tendencijomis, bet ir patys jas kuria. Nors vis dar atrodo, kad Lietuvių kompozitoriams nepavyko pelnyti tokios tarptautinės reputacijos kaip jų kolegoms iš kitų Baltijos šalių, Estijos ir Latvijos. Šiame straipsnyje stengiamasi aptarti šiandienos lietuvių kompozitorių įvaizdį tarptautinėje scenoje, naudojantis atvejų studijomis, moksline literatūra ir užsienio muzikų apklausos rezultatais. Reikšminiai žodžiai: tarptautinis įvaizdis, lietuvių kompozitoriai, populiarumas, kritika.

Introduction Even though the article was written 15 years ago, it is still relevant today. Lithuania can indeed rejoice in having The official Estonian website for tourist information talented artists, but at the same time, we have to agree— greets readers with an ambitious slogan—“Arvo Pärt—most Lithuanian composers have not received the worldwide performing living composer.” Winner of two Grammy critical acclaim similar to that of their Baltic contempora- awards, honorary doctor at the universities of Oxford, ries. Performances of Lithuanian music are often met with Sidney, and Freiburg, Pärt left his country in 1980 and a pleasant surprise, positive reviews, and regret by audience returned in 2010. During that time he became one of the members who had not had the opportunity to listen to such most well-known figures of Estonian culture throughout the great music before, yet we have yet to gain prominence on world. For seven years and counting, the music by Pärt has the international stage. been played in concert halls more often than any other living This article is an effort to discuss the image of current composer. Latvian composer Peteris Vasks, meanwhile, is Lithuanian composers on the international stage and to considered one of the most impactful and popular contem- ponder which best represents Lithuanian music worldwide, porary composers in Europe. And what can Lithuania offer what the image of Lithuanian music is that they form, and to add to these honorable ranks? how we compare to the other Baltic countries. Additionally, A 2004 article from The Irish Times states: based on specific case studies, scientific literature, and the But when it comes to music and music-making Lithuania has results of a survey, I intend to offer my thoughts on what little to be shy about, even if it hasn’t yet produced a figure determines international success for a composer of academic to match the prominence of Estonia’s Arvo Pärt or Latvia’s music in the twenty-first century. Peteris Vasks. (Dervan 2004)

188 The International Image of Lithuanian Composers after the Restoration of Independence

The Phenomenon of Popularity state that he was repressed for his beliefs. Thus, the collision of human ideals and the historical context at the time The phenomenon being famous has its roots in Antiqui- describes the work of this composer as well. ty. Back then, popularity was mostly reserved for politicians, war heroes and artists; this status was seen as leading to power and authority. The eighteenth century saw the rise of the con- Survey: Do They Know Lithuanian composers? cepts of high culture and low culture, and the term “popular” continued to be associated with the latter. Nonetheless, albeit At this point, I would like to discuss the survey of foreign different in nature, popularity in academic culture is equally musicians I conducted. The research included 47 professional inevitable, regardless of its difference in scope compared to musicians or students of music-related courses from 23 coun- popular culture. Journalist and literary critic Rolfe Arnold tries. The respondents were given ten questions on their know- Scott-James defined popularity by the size of the audience ledge of Lithuanian, Latvian, or Estonian composers they were and the produced benefit (Iglesia 2011: 34). Culturologist asked to name them and indicate how they first heard about James Steel Smith has offered a qualitative systematization them. The participants were also asked to give their opinion of the elements of popular culture, defined by abstractness, on what determines the international image of a composer. standards, simplicity, typical form and content, traditio- Twenty-four people answered positively when asked nalism, and optimism (Iglesia 2011: 37). And yet, these whether they knew any Lithuanian composers and 23 said categories do not seem fitting when we discuss the factors they did not. Meanwhile, 35 said they knew composers from that define the popularity of a composer of academic music. Latvia and Estonia, with only 12 answers to that question Artistic activity, by definition, is in opposition to such things being negative. However, six respondents admitted they as standardization, simplification, avoidance of polysemy, have only heard of Pärt. or superficiality. In that case, what are the key factors that 40 determine the success of a composer of academic music? 35 In order to outline what may lead to the success of a com- 30 poser, I would like to give a short analysis of the biography of 25 Pärt. In the article by Christine Kanownik “How a 78-Year- 20 15 Old Estonian Composer Became the Hottest Thing in Music” 10 (Kanownik 2014), the author cites Björk speaking of Pärt 5 as a composer who “has got the whole battle of this century 0 inside him” (Kanownik 2014). Kanownik mentions that, Lithuanian Composers Latvian / Estonian Composers due to his beliefs and the spirituality of his music, Pärt was Yes No forced to leave his country as he did not fit the needs of the Soviet regime. Kanownik considers that to be one of the key Figure 1. Do you know Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian aspects to his success, as Pärt’s international career took off composers? precisely after he left Estonia. At the time, ECM Records was looking for a new star and when Pärt came along, the company When people were asked to name the Lithuanian launched a massive publicity campaign in 1984, after one of composers they knew, the results revealed an interesting the most famous musical pieces of the twentieth century, tendency. Twenty-four names were given in total, with Tabula Rasa, was presented to the public. It was advertised not classic composers being mentioned most often. Mikalojus only in publications dedicated to academic music, but also in Konstantinas Čiurlionis was mentioned 11 times, while journals of popular music. Thus, we see the collision of several 10 mentions went to Stasys Vainiūnas and nine to Balys key elements—the creation of a new style (Tintinnabuli), Dvarionas. Juozas Gruodis and current composers Onutė significance being given to eternal values through music, and Narbutaitė, Bronius Kutavičius, and Rytis Mažulis were all at the same time, the image of a creator as a hero that refuses mentioned twice. The classic composers Jurgis Karnavičius, to yield to the system, and finally, a good marketing strategy. Vytautas Bacevičius, Juozas Tallat-Kelpša, and Eduardas Bal- Because Pärt maintained his high bar for quality as time went sys as well as the currently active Faustas Latėnas, Mindaugas by, he became a superstar of academic music. Urbaitis, Gintaras Sodeika, Nomeda Valančiūtė, Raminta Meanwhile, the international success of Vasks is said to Šerkšnytė, Vytautas Barkauskas, Anatolijus Šenderovas, be connected with the work of the famous violinist Gidon Marius Baranauskas, Vytautas Miškinis and Gediminas Kremer. Sometime around the 1970s, the Latvian composer Gelgotas were each mentioned once. developed a unique style based on spiritual signs and the When asked to name Latvian and Estonian composers, tragedy of ideals and historical reality. Similar to Pärt, Vasks the respondents produced 25 different names. The general was disliked by the Soviet regime; many of his biographies tendency showed that as opposed to Lithuanian composers,

189 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rasa MURAUSKAITĖ the respondents were more familiar not with the classic l0 composers of Latvia and Estonia, but rather those who are 8 currently active. Pärt received 28 mentions, Peteris Vasks 6 and Erkki-Sven-Tuur four mentions, and Eriks Esenvalds and Helena Tulve were each mentioned twice. 4

The part of the questionnaire where the respondents had 2 to explain how they came to know Lithuanian composers 0 was especially relevant to the topic. Most respondents l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (nine), said that they first heard Lithuanian music during 1 – Originality of Music international competitions that took place in Lithuania, five 2 – Performances by Famous Performers mentioned personal contacts, three credited the knowledge 3 – Richness of Music to school classes or exchange programs, two people simply 4 – Marketing Strategies heard the music online, one person mentioned participation 5 – Accessibility to Records and Scores in choral music contests, and one more mentioned their 6 – Performances in Prestigious Concert Halls work with an international orchestra. 7 – Composers’ Personality 8 – Spread of Information Online l0 9 – Quality of Music 9 10 – Political Circumstances 8 7 Figure 3. Main elements of composer’s international success 6 5 unique technological method/versatility of music); famous 4 performers; performances at prestigious concert halls; the 3 personality/the personality versus the system; attention 2 from high-end media outlets; and marketing and PR. 1 Using these aspects as a foundation, I will now discuss 0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 composers, who, in my opinion, are the most prominent Lithuanian music composers on the international stage. 1 – International Competitions 2 – Personal Contacts 3 – School 4 – Exchange Programs Onutė Narbutaitė 5 – Internet 6 – Choral Music Courses Several years ago, when musicologist Richard Taruskin 7 – Activity in International Orchestras was attending a conference in Lithuania, I had the pleasure Figure 2. How did you get acquainted with the music by of interviewing him. My first question was whether he was Lithuanian composers? familiar with any Lithuanian composers. He mentioned one name, Onutė Narbutaitė, whose music he first heard at the The participants were also asked to consider the main Baltic Music festival that took place in Seattle in 2004. Ta- factors for the international success of composers. Ten ruskin was impressed the most with Narbutaitė out of all the answers cited originality; seven mentioned pieces of the participants, and he expressed his admiration in an article composers being performed in prestigious concert halls; in The New York Times. There, Narbutaitė was described as five gave performances by famous performers as a main a “joyful discovery” and “the great composer,” and the vivid factor; four thought the personality of the composer was and professional musical thinking of the composer as well important; three mentions each went to the richness of the as the characteristic consonance were highlighted (Taruskin music, the spread of information online, and the marketing 2004). Such praise from an influential musicologist in an strategy; and finally, music quality, accessibility to records influential publication could have been the breakthrough and scores, and political circumstances were each mentioned in the international career for the composer, and maybe twice. As we can see, participants mentioned non-musical that did happen, just not quite to the most desirable scale. factors even slightly more often than musical ones. In the 2005 publication Lithuanian Music Link, mu- Based on the research and the biographies of the com- sicologist Rūta Stanevičiūtė mentioned Narbutaitė and posers that have been discussed, several main aspects can Vykintas Baltakas as the most prominent purveyors of the be highlighted that seem to have the largest impact on the New Lithuanian Sound on the international stage, contras- international image of a composer. These aspects include the ting their style to how Baltic Sound, that is, the styles of Pärt originality and accessibility of the music being created (a and Vasks, is currently seen by the world. She connected

190 The International Image of Lithuanian Composers after the Restoration of Independence

Narbutaitė’s music more to the tradition of Eastern Eu- Symphony Orchestra. Before the concert, she was called rope and the influences of Witold Lutoslawski and Sofia “one of the best currently active Lithuanian composers,” Gubaidulina. Stanevičiūtė highlighted the transformation and her composition “a stunning discovery” (Morley 2016). in Narbutaitė’s music that took place after independence Narbutaitė is undoubtedly one of the brightest Lithu- was restored—it was a transition from chamber music to anian composers on the international stage today. Her com- large-scale symphonic and vocal pieces. Even back then, the positions appear increasingly in the programs of concerts author noticed, music by Narbutaitė was more often desired by world-famous performers and as part of season line-ups by foreign festivals and institutions (Goštautienė 2005). for prestigious halls, which may eventually contribute to a Today, Narbutaitė has an even stronger footing on the more prominent Lithuanian identity on the world stage of international stage, owing largely to her success last year. contemporary music. A collection of her music was published by Naxos, which presented the composer as “one of the outstanding Baltic artists of recent decades” (American Record Guide 2017). Raminta Šerkšnytė Talking about said recording, the reviewer Raymond Bisha pointed out signs of political and cultural resistance in Raminta Šerkšnytė finds herself in a similar situation to Narbutaitė’s music. In a review of the recording, published Narbutaitė. Her music has ties to post-romantic aesthetics, in the online journal The Art Music Lounge, her orchestral supplemented by inclusions of post-minimalism, jazz, and music is dubbed “unusual,” “tense” and “edgy,” and having avant-garde. In the aforementioned article from 2005 by Sta- “dark qualities,” and the orchestral score and the harmonic nevičiūtė [Goštautienė], Šerkšnytė is mentioned alongside language are called “astringent.” Lynn René Bayley, the au- her peers Marius Baranauskas and Vytautas V. Jurgutis as a thor of the piece, even considers Narbutaitė a predecessor breath of fresh air in Lithuanian music (Goštautienė 2005). of such composers as John Pickart or Thomas Ades. How- Three bright flashes by Šerkšnytė on the international ever, she criticizes her for the repetition of patterns, sonic stage can be highlighted today. The composer first drew atten- environment, tempos, and ideas (Bayley 2017). Narbutaitė’s tion to herself in 2010, when the Bavarian Radio Symphony growing international recognition is also exemplified by the Orchestra commissioned from her a piece called Fires, which fact that she was the only composer chosen from the Baltics later appeared in a series of recordings of Beethoven sympho- to participate in the Kronos Fifty for the Future project initi- nies and reflections published by the radio.The Gramophone ated by Kronos, one of the most famous string quartets in offered a brief opinion on the piece: “Fires explores sounds the world. Narbutaitė participates in the project alongside which she associates with hearing failure” (Osborne 2013). stars such as Philippe Glass, Terry Riley, and Laurie Ander- The second key international appearance by Šerkšnytė was for son. On May 8, her piece premiered at the Elbphilharmonie a recording prepared by Gidon Kremer and Kremerata Bal- in Hamburg. As part of the project, her composition was tica called De Profundis, where her music was played next to included in the 2017–2018 season of Carnegie Hall. compositions created by Franz Schubert, Jean Sibelius, Dmitri Narbutaitė is also included in the “propaganda” pro- Shostakovich, Michael Nyman, and Pärt. Kremer chose to gram for Lithuanian music, managed by one of today’s top name the entire collection De Profundis not only for the cul- young conductors, the Lithuanian Mirga Gražinytė-Tyla. tural significance of the title, but also because of his personal In 2017, Gražinytė-Tyla became the artistic director for the affection towards that particular piece by Šerkšnytė. He has City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and has been a called De Profundis “the finest calling card of Baltic music,” prominent current figure of the music world for the last and the composition has indeed become a sort of manifesto several years, regularly appearing in prestigious concert halls. by Šerkšnytė, having been performed hundreds of times. Gražinytė-Tyla was called “The New Queen of the Baton” De Profundis, naturally, attracted the attention of the by The Times (see Fisher 2016). high-end media outlets. San Francisco Classical Voice wrote: Gražinytė-Tyla’s success is extremely important to Li- It’s hard to describe the combination of excitement and gra- thuanian composers, as she regularly includes their music vitas from the program-opening work Lithuanian composer in her programs. The conductor has explained on more Raminta Šerkšnytė’s De Profundis, this is an intense colorful than one occasion about how sorry she is about Lithuanians journey through tempestuous landscape. (Gereben 2010) not being recognized internationally to the same extent as their contemporaries from other Baltic countries and A reviewer from The New Yorker, however, was not how she wants to show the world what they are missing. particularly fascinated by the piece and called it “distinctly Onutė Narbutaitė is one of the composers whose music gets disappointing,” emphasizing his negative opinion with promoted by Gražinytė-Tyla—she has called Narbutaitė’s positive reviews of other pieces in the collection. After the pieces “tastefully emotional” (Nalivaikaitė 2016). This program was performed in Toronto, De Profundis was called spring Narbutaitė’s La Barca premiered in the United King- a reminiscence of Pärt, and Šerkšnytė a neoromantic compo- dom, where it was performed by the City of Birmingham ser by Michael Johnson from The Classical Music Network.

191 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Rasa MURAUSKAITĖ

The third and likely the most important channel caught the eye of famous critic Alex Ross. The New Yorker through which Šerkšnytė presents her music is through critic wrote of the opera: the work of the aforementioned Gražinytė-Tyla. The con- The music, by Lina Lapelyte, combines the unsentimental ductor has confirmed multiple times to having a personal minimalism of early Philip Glass with hints of folkish melody. relationship with Šerkšnytė’s music. In 2016 Gražinytė-Tyla [...] All told, it is a tightly constructed, multi-layered creation, performed Fires when debuting on stage in New York. Back its humor pierced by melancholy. (Ross 2014) then, The New York Times critic James Oestreich called the piece fitting to the program, subtly hiding the motifs of The composition was also noticed by Steve Smith, a Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, and added that the orchestral reviewer for The New York Times, who dedicated an entire texture was “dense and colorful” (Oestreich 2016). David article to the Lithuanian opera (Smith 2014). Have a Good Pinego, a writer for Opera Today called Fires “intriguing and Day! was also labelled “strong” by The Wall Street Journal enticing a desire to listen to more pieces by this composer” critic Heidi Waleson (Waleson 2014). (Pinego 2016). Ryan Evans from The Guardian wrote: In May 2018, Have a Good Day! represented Lithuania at the Lithuanian art festival, Flux, in Rome. There, works Her explosive and fiery nature is worthy of attention in and of itself, but it is even more prominent due to their coupling with of Lithuanian artists from different fields were presented, Mahler’s instrumentals and the intentions of her expression. but judging from the resounding responses by critics, we (Evans 2016) can confidently guess that Have a Good Day! interested the Italian cultural community the most. ArtTribune critic When debuting as the artistic director for the City of Mariagrazia Pontorno wrote: Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, Gražinytė-Tyla also chose to conduct Šerkšnyte’s Fires. The Birmingham Post Have a Good Day! is so refined, its contents merge with reality then wrote: and then take revenge on it through its form. (Pontorno 2018) This is a surely-constructed purposeful score, deservedly Italian cinema critic Roberto Canziani has resoundingly in succession to the tone-poems of Šerksnytė’s great Baltic dubbed the opera “an epic for consumption,” while compa- predecessor Sibelius. (Morley 2016) ring Lapelytė’s music to the style of Philippe Glass in the 80s (Canziani 2018). In 2018, Fires was included in the program for the sum- The case of Have a Good Day! illustrates a situation whe- mer tour of the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra re the creator (in this case, a team of creators: Lina Lapelytė, and is further climbing up the ranks to its rightful place in Vaiva Grainytė and Rugilė Barzdžiukaitė) is represented the pantheon of contemporary music. through their creation, which has become its own brand.

The OperaHave a Good Day! Conclusion

The last example I would like to mention has become a To conclude, it can be stated that after Lithuanian key example of contemporary Lithuanian music worldwide, independence was restored, neither composers of the and it is one of the most prominent examples of modern older nor of the younger generation have formed a more musical theater in the world today: the opera Have a Good coherent international image and up to this day remain but Day! The success of the opera includes many of the aspects “unfamiliar pleasant discoveries” to the international com- that I mentioned in the beginning of this article, such as munity. Based on the results of the research, contemporary originality of style (the post-modernistic musical language Lithuanian composers are still not well-known, while classic of Lina Lapelytė), the versatility and accessibility of the piece (the main theme—excessive consumption, the heroines Lithuanian composers are better recognized abroad; that are mall cashiers), prestigious concert halls (the award at could also be considered a reflection of the cultural policies the contest “Music Theatre NOW” led to the performance of Lithuania—it should be noted how the promotion for being a part of the world’s most prestigious opera festivals composers of modern music receive little attention (even in Shanghai, Rotterdam, and New York, as well as being in schools familiarization with contemporary composers is broadcasted on BBC Radio 3, and having been performed minimal). Following the analysis of feedback from critics, 56 times in total, 41 of which were abroad); marketing and it can be concluded that we are highly regarded when it PR; attention from high-end media outlets (Have a Good comes to originality and quality of music, yet there is a Day! has been noticed and positively reviewed by The New lack of effective promotion, marketing, and formation of York Times, The New Yorker, The Wallstreet Journal, Italy’s a coherent image to help talented Lithuanian artists gain ArtTribune, OperaClick, and other publications). strong footing in the international scene of contemporary When Have a Good Day! was shown at the Prototype music. Nonetheless, the continuously growing attention Festival in New York, the Lithuanian opera in particular top foreign performers give to our composers, which helps

192 The International Image of Lithuanian Composers after the Restoration of Independence their music to be played in prestigious concert halls, as well arts/music/lithuanian-cashiers-in-have-a-good-day.html [last as ideologically strong and musically effective works like checked 5.2.2019]. Steel Smith James, Some poetry is popular – bur why?, in: Have a Good Day! coupled with great management may The English Journal, 1957, p. 129–139. be a sign that in the near future the names of Lithuanian Taruskin Richard, Music; North (Europe) by Northwest (Ame- composers will increasingly be heard mentioned by foreign rica), in: The New York Times, 2004, https://www.nytimes. artists and seen in the programs of world-class concert halls com/2004/04/18/arts/music-north-europe-by-northwest- and the pages of top-notch magazines. america.html [last checked 5.2.2019]. Waleson Heidi, An ambitious sophomore effort, in: The Wall Street Journal, 2014, https://www.wsj.com/articles/an-ambitious-sophomore-effort-1390344853 [last checked 5.2.2019]. Bibliography

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193 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Dvidešimt metų: „Lietuvos muzikologija“, 1–20 t., 2000–2019 m. Twenty Years: Lithuanian Musicology, Vols. 1–20, 2000–2019

Žurnalo dvidešimtyje tomų paskelbtų straipsnių suvestinę ir pavardžių nuojauta | Vytautas Bacevičius’ Poème Contemplation, Poème rodyklę parengė Rima Povilionienė. | The index of all research articles Mystique, Poème Astral: An Anticipation of “Cosmic Music” published in the twenty volumes of the journal and the index of names Gražina Daunoravičienė. Muzikos formos principų antinomizacija: collected by Rima Povilionienė. XX a. teorinių interpretacijų dialogas | The Antinomic Structure of Musical Form: A Dialogue between its Interpretations in the T. 1, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos 20th-Century Research muzikos akademija, Kultūros ir meno institutas, 2000, 160 p. Rytis Mažulis. Menzūrinių kanonų technika ir jos perspektyvos šiuolaikinėje muzikoje | The Technique of Mensural Canon and Algirdas Ambrazas. M. K Čiurlionio simfoninės poemos „Miške“ its Application Possibilities in Contemporary Music analitinės interpretacijos | Analytical Interpretations of M. K Natalija Bolšakova. Lietuvos sentikių ženklinio giedojimo pradžia- Čiurlionis’ Symphonic Poem „In the Forest“ („Miške“) moksliai | Primers of Lithuanian Old Believers Chanting Audronė Jurkėnaitė. Seto analizės teorijos metmenys | Dimensions Vida Bakutytė. of Set-Theory Analysis Muzikos kritika XIX a. Lietuvoje (iki 7-ojo dešim- Vita Gruodytė. Teoriniai muzikinės erdvės suvokimo apmatai | The- tmečio) | The 19th-Century Musical Criticism in Lithuania oretical Outline of a Musical Spaciousness Perception (before the 1860s) Jūratė Trilupaitienė. Iš M. Mažvydo knygų: giesmė, jos vieta litur- Danutė Petrauskaitė. Lietuvių muzikinė veikla JAV 1920–1940 me- gijoje ir mokykloje | On Books of Martynas Mažvydas: Canto, tais | Music Activities of Lithuanians in the USA in 1920–1940 its Place in Liturgy and School Žibutė Lebednykaitė. Šūksnis ir nuorauda vestuvių raudų struktūroje Karina Firkavičiūtė. Panazijizmo koncepcija ir Lietuvos karaimų | The Cry-Lament in Wedding Rites Context liturginis giedojimas | A Pan-Asiatic Conception of Music and Aušra Žičkienė. Intonacinė lietuvių raudų sandara ir jų tarpetniniai Liturgical Chant of Lithuanian Karaims ryšiai | Intonative Structure of Lithuanian Laments and their Jonas Vilimas. Grigališkasis choralas: tradicija ar tradicijos | Grego- Ethnic Interrelation rian Chant: Tradition or Traditions Austė Nakienė. Senasis lietuvių liaudies melodijų sluoksnis. Refreni- Jūratė Gustaitė. Poemiškumo fenomenas Aleksandro Skriabino nės dainos ir sutartinės | The Ancient Layer of Lithuanian Folk kūryboje | The Phenomenon of Poem in Skriabin’s Works Melodies. Refrain Songs and Sutartinės Inga Jankauskienė. Simfoninės ir kamerinės instrumentinės muzikos Evaldas Vyčinas. Būgnas Lietuvoje | Drum in Lithuania koncertų apžvalga (1918–1940) | A Survey of Symphonic and Rytis Ambrazevičius. Aukštaičių ir dzūkų vyrų solo vokalinė techni- Chamber Music Concerts (1918–1940) ka | Vocal Technique in Aukštaičiai and Dzūkai Male Solo Singing Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Dviejų pradų – vokalinio ir instrumen- Priedai tinio – susipynimas sutartinėje „Buvo dūda Vilniuj“ | Weaving of Julius Juzeliūnas – Gražina Daunoravičienė. Kompozitoriaus ir Two Rudiments – Vocal and Instrumental One – in the Sutartinė muzikologo dialogai „Buvo Dūda Vilniuj“ („There Was a Pipe in Vilnius“) Dalia Urbanavičienė. Tradicinio šokio fiksavimo metodika | The T. 3, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos Ways of Fixing a Traditional Dance muzikos akademija, Kultūros ir meno institutas, 2002, 210 p. Gvidas Vilys. Šiaurės rytų Europos tautų signalinių lentų signalai ir jų Vida Umbrasienė. Broniaus Kutavičiaus „Mažasis spektaklis“: akusti- sandara | Signals of Northeast European Nations’ Signal Boards nio ir grafinio teksto interpretacija | Mažasis spektaklis (The Little and Their Structure Performance) of Bronius Kutavičius: The Interpretation of the Rūta Šimonytė-Žarskienė. Šiaurės rytų Europos tautų skudučių tipo Acoustic and Graphic Text instrumentų repertuaras | The Repertoire of Multi-Pipe Whistles Rima Povilionienė. Prasminis ir konstruktyvinis skaitmens principas of Northeast European Nations baroko garsų mene | On Semantic and Constructive Meaning of Rimantas Astrauskas. Lietuvių ir baltarusių (gudų) etniniai ryšiai, Number in Baroque Music remiantis etnomuzikologijos duomenimis | Ethnic Relations Eglė Gudžinskaitė. Tonacinio principo metamorfozės Vytauto Ba- Between Lithuanians and Belorussians Based on Ethnomusi- cevičiaus kūriniuose fortepijonui | Metamorphoses of the Tonal cological Data Principle in Piano Works by Vytautas Bacevičius Audronė Žiūraitytė. Muzikinės ir nemuzikinės Onutės Narbutaitės T. 2, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos kūrinių prasmės | Musical and Non-musical Meanings of the muzikos akademija, Kultūros ir meno institutas, 2001, 196 p. Compositions by Onutė Narbutaitė Rimantas Janeliauskas. Binarika kaip komponavimo bendrybė | Rimantas Janeliauskas. Monarika kaip komponavimo bendrybė | Binarics as a Common Trait of Composing Monarics as a Common Trait of Composing Audra Versekėnaitė. Kosmostruktūrinių idėjų sklaidos aspektai Darius Kučinskas. Muzikos tekstas muzikologijos kontekstuose | šiuolaikinėje muzikoje | Aspects of Cosmic-Structural Ideas Conception of the Text in the Musicological Boundaries Dispersion in Modern Music Kamilė Rupeikaitė-Mariniuk. Muzikos instrumentų funkcijos ir Małgorzata Janicka-Słysz. Vytauto Bacevičiaus „Poème Contem- reikšmės Šventajame Rašte | Functions and Meanings of Musical plation“, „Poème Mystique“, „Poème Astral“: „kosminės muzikos“ Instruments in the Bible

194 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Daiva Kšanienė. Protestantiška tradicija ir evangeliška giesmė Ma- Priedai žojoje Lietuvoje | Protestant Tradition and Evangelical Song in Ona Narbutienė. Ryškus kompozitoriaus ir epochos paveikslas Lithuania Minor Jonas Bruveris. Ir pirmoji, ir trečioji knyga Loreta Mukaitė. Kvintos intonacijos sklaida žemaičių liaudies dainose | Dispersion of the Quint Intonation in Folk Songs of T. 5, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos +emaitija Region muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2004, 224 p. Loreta Juciutė. Vienos ritmo formulės pėdsakais | Trying to Track Jonas Bruveris. M. K. Čiurlionis: tautiškumo problema | M. K. Čiur- One Rhythm Formula lionis: the Problem of National Character Dalia Vaicenavičienė. Lietuvių liaudies pasakų dainuojamųjų intarpų Rimantas Janeliauskas. Neatpažintas Mikalojaus Konstantino tekstai bei melodikos ypatumai | Texts and Melodic Features of Čiurlionio muzikos ciklas | Unrecognized Čiurlionis’ Musical Sung Insertions of Lithuanian Folk Tales Cycle (October 1908, Petersburg) Audronė Vakarinienė. Suvalkiečių dainuojamoji tradicija: savitas Eglė Gudžinskaitė. Aktualios XX a. muzikos formos sampratų muzikinis Lietuvos dialektas ar kaimyninių regionų paribys | tendencijos. Formos genezės tyrimų Vytauto Bacevičiaus kūri- The Singing Tradition in Suvalkija: Peculiar Lithuanian Dialect niuose fortepijonui teorinis kontekstas | On the Tendencies of or the Periphery of Neighbouring Regions the 20th Century Conceptions of the Music Form. The Theo- Priedai retical Context of the Research into Form Genesis in Vytautas Jūratė Gustaitė. Muzikologo portretas Bacevičius’ Works for Piano Inga Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė. Knyga apie Osvaldą Balakauską Rima Povilionienė. Konstruktyvinės ir simbolinės skaitmens funk- Gražina Daunoravičienė. Semiotiniai Broniaus Kutavičiaus muzikos cijos XX a. muzikoje | Constructive and Symbolical Functions pranešimai of the Number in the 20th Century Music Rūta Goštautienė. Felikso Bajoro muzikos interpretacijų rinktinė Justė Janulytė. Muzikinių ir žodinių tekstų koegzistencijos aspektai XX a. II pusės lietuvių muzikoje: nuo dichotomijos iki amalgamos T. 4, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos | Coexistence Aspects of Musical and Verbal Texts in Lithuanian muzikos akademija, Kultūros ir meno institutas, 2003, 182 p. Music of the Second Half of the 20th Century: From Dichotomy Dana Palionytė. Du vieno komponavimo principo aspektai | Two to Amalgam Aspects of One Principle of Composing Judita Žukienė. Muzikos specifikos samprata lietuvių muzikos Brian Boldt. Dvasingumas ir Didingumas: Beethoveno Heiliger kontekste | The Concept of Music Specificity in the Context of Dankgesan | Spirituality and the Sublime: Beethoven’s Heiliger Lithuanian Music Dankgesan Lina Navickaitė. Ludwigo van Beethoveno kūrybos recepcija: mito Matthieu Guillot. Analitikas tarp šiuolaikinio kūrinio ir kompozi- formavimasis ir istorija | Reception of Ludwig van Beethoven’s toriaus. Analitinės pozicijos refleksijos | L’analyste entre l’œuvre Works: Creation and History of the Myth contemporaine et son compositeur. Réflexions pour une position János Bereczky. Vengrų liaudies muzikos naujasis stilius: raidos analytique apžvalga | The New Style of Hungarian Folk Music: a Diach- Audra Versekėnaitė. Dies irae kaip intekstas: semantinės funkcijos ronic Review XX a. muzikoje | Dies Irae as Intext: Semantic Functions in 20th Loreta Juciutė. Antifoninis lietuvių liaudies dainų atlikimo būdas | Century Music The Antiphonal Performance of Lithuanian Folk Songs Hamaлuя Вакатова. Lietuvos sentikių ženklinis giedojimas: ra- Evaldas Vyčinas. „Skambančių kaulų“ motyvo apraiškos lietuvių šytinės ir žodinės tradicijos sąveika (pagal irmoso „Cвятися, tautosakoje | Manifestations of the “Sounding Bones” Motif in святися, новый Иepосалиме“ pavyzdį) | Znamenny Chants Lithuanian Folklore of Lithuanian Old Believers: Interaction of Written and Verbal Eirimas Velička. Kvantitatyvioji lietuvių liaudies dainų ritmika kitų tautų tradicinės muzikos kontekste | Quantitative Rhythmics of Tradition (Analysis of Irmos Svyatisya svyatisya Novy Ierosalime) Jūratė Gustaitė. Aleksandro Skriabino poetinė kūryba. Nuo sonatos Lithuanian Folk Songs in the Context of Traditional Music of iki soneto (I) | Poetic Works by Aleksandr Skriabin. From Sonata other Nations to Sonnet (I) Priedai Danutė Petrauskaitė. Lietuvių liaudies daina JAV: nuo pasilinksmi- Laima Budzinauskienė. Senosios Lietuvos muzikinio gyvenimo nimų iki tyrinėjimų | Lithuanian Folk Song in the USA: from liudijimas Entertainment to the Investigation Šarūnas Nakas. Senosios muzikos teorija „X kartos“ švietimui Solveiga Michelevičiūtė-Vaitkienė. Lietuviai dainininkai Romos Šv. T. 6, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos Cecilijos konservatorijoje ir ltalijos teatruose 1920–1940 metais muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2005, 200 p. | Lithuanian Singers at St. Cecilia Conservatoire in Rome and at Italian Theatres in 1920–1940 Aleksandra Pister. Muzikos retorikos tradicija Johanno Kuhnau „Bi- Galina Alexeeva. Senosios Rusios muzikos tyrinėjimo perspektyvos: blinėse istorijose“. Teorinis konceptas (I dalis) | Musical Rhetorics echo-glas sistema | Prospects for the Development of a Science in Johann Kuhnau’s Biblical Sonatas. Theretical Concept (Part 1) about Old Russian Music through Study of Echos-Glas System Agnė Raguckaitė. Vokalinė kompozicija kaip integralaus medialumo Rytis Ambrazevičius. Sutartinių daina: psichoakustinis aspektas | reiškinys. Intermedialumo teorijos taikymas vokalinių partitūrų Tuning of Sutartinės: Psychoacoustical Viewpoint analizėse | Vocal Composition as Integral Phenomenon of Inter- Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Sutartinių darna: kognityvinis aspektas mediality. Application of Intermediality Theory in the Analysis | Tuning of Sutartinės: Cognitive Viewpoint of Vocal Score Gustaw Juzala. Aukštaitijos lenkų liaudies dainų melodijos | The Vita Česnulevičiūtė. Muzika Alfonso Nykos-Niliūno „Dienoraščio Songs’ Melodies of Lithuanian Poles from Aukshtota fragmentuose“ ir „Praradimo simfonijoje“: intermedialus dialogas Lijana Šarkaitė. Lietuvių liaudies formulinių dainų ypatumai | The | Music in Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas’ Diary and Loss Symphony: Peculiarities of Lithuanian Formular Folk Songs Intermedial Dialogue

195 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Vita Gruodytė. Kompozitorius ir dé-composant. Helmuto Lachen- Darius Klišys. Artikuliaciniai notes inegales principai ir jų pritaiky- manno muzikos sintaksės klausimai | Composer and dé-compo- mas birbynei | Articulative Principles of notes inegales and their sant. Syntax Questions in Helmut Lachenmann’ Music Application to Birbynė Vida Umbrasienė, Paulina Kiškytė. Emocijos ir muzika: ar liūdnas Priedai B. Dvariono „Liūdesys“? | Emotions and Music: Is the Sorrow Jonas Bruveris. Non multa, sed multum by Dvarionas Sad? Danutė Petrauskaitė. Po Vokietijos dangumi Jonas Bruveris. Henrykas Weniawskis Lietuvoje | Henryk Weniawski Jūratė Vyliūtė. Teatro enciklopedija in Lithuania Vera Markova. Muzikos švietėjo Konstantino Galkausko veikla XX T. 8, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos a. I pusės Vilniaus kultūriniame gyvenime | The Activity of Music muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2007, 196 p. Educator Konstantinas Galkauskas in Vilnius Culture Life in the 1st Half of the 20th Century Leon Stefanija. Muzikos funkcijos: tyrimų terminologijos apžvalga | Gaila Kirdienė. Instrumentinės lietuvių ir kitų Europos tautų liau- Functions of Music: A Survey of Research Vocabularies dies šokių muzikos sąsajos | Lithuanian Instrumental Music and Lina Navickaitė. Apie muzikos atlikimo meno reikšmes bei terpes. its Connection to the Folk Dance by Other European Nations Keletas semiotinių pastebėjimų | On the Meanings and Media Dalia Urbanavičienė, Raimonda Zalagaitytė. Liaudies šokio struk- of the Art of Music Performance. A Few Semiotic Observations tūrinė analizė | Folk Dance Structural Analysis Tuukka Ilomäki. A. Schönbergo Variacijų orkestrui, op. 31, garsų Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Vienbalsumas šiaurės rytų Aukštaiti- aukščių sąrangos aspektai | Aspects of Pitch Organization in joje: vėlesnės monofoninės dainos | Polyphony in North Eastern Schönberg’s Variations for Orchestra Op. 31 Aukštaitija: Monophony of Later Origin Kalliopi Stiga. Mikio Theodorakio daina tėkmė „Mūsų sesuo Atėnė“: Mindaugas Karčemarskas. Lietuvių bosiniai strykiniai chordofonai. „profesionaliosios“ muzikos ir „populiariosios“ muzikos jungtis? Basetlė | Lithuanian Bass String Chordophones Basetle | La chanson-fleuve “Notre Sœur Athina” de Mikis Theodorakis: Priedai un point de jonction de la “musique savante” et de la “musique Eglė Gudžinskaitė. Dar vienos monografijos utopija: Vytautas populaire”? Bacevičius Niall O’Loughlin. Andrzejaus Panufniko simfonijos: planai ir turinys | The Symphonies of Andrzej Panufnik: Plans and Content T. 7, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos Asta Pakarklytė. Triukšmo menas: XX a. muzikos transformacija | The muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2006, 208 p. Art of Noise: The Transformation of Music in the 20th Century Rytis Ambrazevičius. Konsonansas ir disonansas muzikos psicholo- Kamilė Rupeikaitė. Muzikos instrumentų identifikavimo ypatumai gijoje | Consonance and Dissonance in the Psychology of Music lietuviškuose Šventojo Rašto vertimuose | The Peculiarities of Aleksandra Pister. Muzikos retorikos tradicija Johanno Kuhnau Identification of Musical Instruments in Lithuanian Translations „Biblinėse istorijose“. Kompozicinė praktika (II dalis) | Musi- of the Bible cal Rhetorics in Johann Kuhnau’s Biblical Sonatas. Theretical Eglė Šeduikytė-Korienė. Lietuvos vargonininkų profesinio rengimo Concept (Part 2) pedagoginiai principai ir mokymo metodika XX a. pirmojoje Audronė Žiūraitytė. Biblijos motyvai ir muzikiniai mitai Onutės pusėje | The Pedagogical Principles and the Methods of Training Narbutaitės kūryboje | Biblical References and Musical Myths in the Professional Preparation of Lithuanian Organists in the in the Work of Onutė Narbutaitė First Half of the 20th Century Gražina Daunoravičienė. W. A. Mozarto muzika „tekstų tinklo“ Gaila Kirdienė. Polka su minorium: Telšių r. liaudies smuiko muzi- sankirtose | Mozart’s Music and the Intersection of the Network kos stilius | Polka in Minor Mode: Fiddle Music Style of Telðiai of Texts District (West Lithuania) Stephen Downes. Prisimenant ir „suplėšant“ Richardo Wagnerio Mindaugas Karčemarskas. Cimbolai ir muzikavimo jais tradicija muziką: aliuzija ir destrukcija F. Poulenco, D. Šostakovičiaus Lietuvoje | Lithuanian Traditions of Dulcimer Playing ir H. W. Henze’s kūryboje | Remembering and Dismembering Rasa Norinkevičiūtė. Laidotuvių raudų atlikimo specifika: psicho- the music of Wagner: Allusion and Destruction in Poulenc, loginis aspektas | The Specificity of Performing Funeral Laments. Shostakovich and Henze The Psychological Aspect Leonidas Melnikas. Lietuvos žydų muzikinis paveldas (XIX a. Priedai pabaiga – XX a. I pusė) | Lithuanian Jewish Musical Heritage Leonidas Melnikas. Muzika ir jos muzikologinė recepcija (End of the 19th – 1st Half of the 20th Century) Dana Palionytė. Įspūdingo derliaus rinktinė Danutė Petrauskaitė. Muzika Kauno žydų gete | Music in the Kaunas Irena Mikulevičiūtė. Polifonišku žvilgsniu Jewish Ghetto Vida Bakutytė. Italų dainininkai Vilniuje (XIX a.) | Italian Singers T. 9, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos in Vilnius in the 19th Century muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2008, 220 p. Vytautė Markeliūnienė. Kauno operetės trupės veikla karo metais | The Activity of Kaunas Operetta During the War Aleksandra Pister. „Braunsbergo vargonų tabulatūra“: intavolia- Rūta Gaidamavičiūtė. Vidmanto Bartulio „Pamoka“ – tarp aleato- cijos fenomenas XVII a. rankraštyje | The Braunsberg Organ rikos ir autorinės interpretacijos | Lesson by Vidmantas Bartulis: Tablature: The Intabulation Phenomenon in the 17th-Century Between Aleatory and the Author’s Interpretation Manuscript Rūta Goštautienė. „Keletas variacijų kanono tema“: aštuntojo Gražina Daunoravičienė. „Cum essem parvulus“: nuo Orlando di dešimtmečio lietuvių muzikos pagrindinė srovė ir jos recepcija Lasso iki Ryčio Mažulio. Pamatinių kompozicinių idėjų kaita | | “A Few Canonic Variations”: Lithuanian Musical Mainstream “Cum essem parvulus”: From Orlando di Lasso to Rytis Mažulis. of the 70s and its Reception The Interchange of the Underlying Compositional Ideas Giedrė Saunoriūtė. Lietuviško krakoviako struktūrinės ypatybės | Rima Povilionienė. Numerologinių technikų inovacijos XX a. Structural Peculiarities of the Lithuanian Krakowiak antrosios pusės muzikos kompozicijoje | Innovative Digital

196 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Technologies in the Music Composition of the Second Half of Laura Lukenskienė. Žvejų dainos: žanro ir paplitimo problemos | the 20th Century Anglers’ Songs: Problems of Genre and Distribution Audra Versekėnaitė. Intertekstinės sekvencijos Dies irae ir XX a. Irena Višnevska. Vilniaus krašto tuteišių vokalinė technika | The kompozicijų sankirtos | Intertextual Intersections of Sequence Vocal Technique of the Tuteiši of the Vilnius Region Dies irae and 20th Century Music Priedai Danutė Petrauskaitė. Lietuviški pasažai užsienio kompozitorių Judita Žukienė. Archyvų dulkes nubraukianti, tuščius istorijos gyvenime ir kūryboje | Lithuanian Passages in Music and Life puslapius užpildanti of Foreign Composers Gražina Daunoravičienė. Šimtas Gaidelių Dario Martinelli. Muzika, tapatumas ir ypatingas autentiškumo Danutė Petrauskaitė. Klaipėdos universitetui – unikali muzikinė atvejis | Music, Identity and the Strange Case of Authenticity kolekcija Danutė Kalavinskaitė. Bažnytinės muzikos problematika Katalikų Bažnyčios XX a.–XXI a. pr. dokumentuose | Issues of Church T. 11, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietu- Music in the Documents of the Catholic Church in the 20th and vos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2010, 200 p. the Early 21st Century Vita Česnulevičiūtė. Polifoninio mąstymo raiškos galimybės moder- Mieczysław Tomaszewski. Fryderykas Chopinas ir tikėjimo klausi- niojoje lietuvių poezijoje: nuo ostinato iki fugos | Possibilities of mai | Fryderyk Chopin and Issues of Faith the Expression of Polyphonic Cogitation in Modern Lithuanian Gražina Daunoravičienė. „A la Chopin“ versus „I like F. Chopin Poetry: From Ostinato to Fugue (Sonata B Min)“ Aušra Žičkienė. Stilistinis lūžis XIX–XX a. pradžios lietuvių liaudies Gabrielius Alekna. Vidiniai Vytauto Bacevičiaus muzikos kalbos dainų melodikoje | The Stylistic Turning Point of Lithuanian ryšiai: dviejų kūrinių analizė | On the Interrelatedness in Vytautas Folk Tunes in the 19th and the Beginning of the 20th Century Bacevičius’s Musical Language: Two Analyses Loreta Juciutė. Keletas pakaitinio atlikimo būdo funkcinių aspektų Laura Kaščiukaitė. Praeities muzikos adaptacijos lietuvių neoro- | Several Functional Aspects of Alternate Singing mantikų kūryboje | Adaptations of Past Music in the Creation Rytis Ambrazevičius. Darnos ir ritmo „chromatizmai“ lietuvių of Lithuanian Neo-Romantic Composers liaudies dainose | “Chromaticisms” of Musical Scale and Rhythm Marta Rzepczyńska. Medžiai, muzika ir išraiškos priemonės in Lithuanian Folk Songs žvelgiant iš dualistinės perspektyvos ir remiantis integraliąja Regina Vaišnoraitė-Marozienė. Solinis koncertinių kanklių reper- arbor-idea teorija | Trees, Music and Intermedia from a Dualistic tuaras (XX a. II p.–XXI a. pr.): faktūra ir jos atlikimo aspektai | Perspective based Around the Integral Theory ofarbor-idea Solo Repertoire for Lithuanian Concert Kanklės (the second half Mārtiņš Viļums. Kompoziciniai garsumo ir tembro erdvėlaikio kine- of the 20th century–the beginning of the 21st century): Facture zės atpažinimo aspektai | Compositional Aspects of Timbre and and Aspects of Performing Loudness as the Recognition of Time-Space Kinesis Priedai Rytis Ambrazevičius. Laikas muzikos psichologijoje: nuo „sensorinio Jonas Bruveris. Lyg vainikas momento“ iki formos | Time in the Psychology of Music: From “Sensory Moment” to Form T. 10, vyr. red. A. Ambrazas, sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietu- Vida Bakutytė. Yosefas Weinsteinas (Josifas Vinogradovas, 1866– vos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2009, 180 p. 1936): Haskalos siekių raiška vilniečio dainininko kūrybinėje biografijoje | Yosef Weinstein (Josif Vinogradov) (1866–1936): Stefan Keym. Peizažų tapyba versus sonatos forma. M. K. Čiurlionio The Expression of Haskalah Aspirations in the Vilnius Singer’s simfoninės poemos „Miške“ ir „Jūra“ | Landscape Painting versus Creative Biography Sonata Form. The Symphonic Poems “Miške” and “Jūra” by M. Leonidas Melnikas. Maksimilianas Šteinbergas: likimo ironija | K. Čiurlionis Maximilian Steinberg: Irony of Fate Indra Karklytė. Mašinizmas XX amžiaus pirmosios pusės muzikoje Darius Kučinskas. Lietuviška muzika pianolai. Šaltiniai ir katalogas | Machinism in the Music of the First Half of the 20th Century | Lithuanian Music Recordings for Pianola: Sources and the Vitalija Mockutė. „Nedvylikos sistemų“ sklaida XX a.: mikrointer- Catalogue valinės ir spektrinės kompozicijos ypatumai | “Atwelve Systems” Helmut Loos. Nuo idealybės prie realybės. Paradigmų kaita | From in the 20th Century: Peculiarities of Microinterval and Spectral Ideality to Reality. Paradigm Alternation Compositions Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Sutartinių giedojimas tarsi paukščių Zita Abramavičiūtė. Alto tembro semantikos atodangos: nuo H. Ber- giesmė: gamtos ir kultūros santykis | Specific Features of Per- liozo iki A. Schnittke’s | Semantic Exposures of Viola Timbre: forming Lithuanian Polyphonic Songs – Sutartinės: Singing From Berlioz to Schnittke as Birdsong Gaël Tissot. François Bayle elektroakustinių kompozicijų ciklas: Vaida Naruševičiūtė. Marcinkonių apylinkių polkos stilius | The muzikos kamėja? | The Cycle in François Bayles’s Electroacoustic Polka Style in the Surroundings of Marcinkonys Works: A Musical Camaieu? Priedai Margarita Katunyan. Vladimiro Martynovo „Naktis Galicijoje“: Judita Žukienė. Aktualus sugrįžimas, arba dar kartą apie Juozą naujosios kultūrinės paradigmos link | Vladimir Martynov’s Gruodį “Night in Galicia”: Towards a New Cultural Paradigm Danutė Kalavinskaitė. šiuolaikinių tyrinėjimų konteks- Musica sacra T. 12, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir te | in the Context of Modern Research Musica sacra teatro akademija, 2011, 208 p. Eglė Šeduikytė-Korienė. Lietuviškoji vargonų mokykla 1894–1949 metais: savitieji ir universalieji bruožai | The Lithuanian Organ Jonas Bruveris. Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis: didingumas | School in 1894–1949: The Specific and Universal Features Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis: The Sublime Ewa Dahlig-Turek. Ritmo morfologijos tyrimai | Studying Rhythm Rūta Stanevičiūtė. Pastoralizmo parafrazės lietuvių muzikoje: keletas Morphology semantinių interpretacijų topoi teorijos aplinkoje | Paraphrasing

197 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

Pastoral in Lithuanian Music: Some Semantic Interpretations in Eva Mantzourani. „Muzikos aromatas ir tabako kvapas“: muzika ir the Context of Topoi theory rūkymas Viktorijos laikų Anglijoje | “The Aroma of the Music Rima Povilionienė. Muzikinio ir verbalinio menų sąveikos fenome- and the Fragrance of the Weed”: Music and Smoking in Victo- nas: kriptografinės muzikos komponavimo praktikos aspektai | rian England Phenomenon of Interaction of Musical and Verbal Arts: Aspects Michał Łukasz Niżyński. Giacomo Puccini muzikos kalbos teatriš- of Cryptographic Practice in Music Composition kumas – problemos apžvalga | Theatricality of Giacomo Puccini’s Vita Česnulevičiūtė. Sonatos formos analogijos Vytauto Bložės ir Musical Language: A Review of the Problem Juditos Vaičiūnaitės eilėraščiuose | Analogies of Sonata Form in Danutė Petrauskaitė. Operetė lietuviškoje egzodo scenoje JAV: the Poems by Vytautas Bložė and Judita Vaičiūnaitė pastangos išlikti ir prisitaikyti (XX a. pirma pusė) | Operetta on Danutė Kalavinskaitė. Bažnytiniai žanrai šiuolaikinėje lietuvių kū- the Lithuanian Emigration Stage in the USA: Efforts to Survive ryboje: tarp bažnytinės muzikos paveldo ir atnaujintos liturgijos and Conform (the First Half of the 20th Century) poreikių | Genres of Church Music in Contemporary Lithuanian Tamara Vainauskienė. Virgilijaus Noreikos dainavimo mokykla: Composers’ Works: Between the Heritage of Church Music and veiksniai, genezė, metodikų koreliacija | Virgilijus Noreika’s the Needs of the Renewed Liturgy School of Singing: Factors, Genesis, Correlation of Methods Rimantas Astrauskas. JAV lietuvių muzikinio gyvenimo refleksija Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Lietuvių sutartinių ir ainų polifoninių pianolų muzikoje (1920–1930) | The Musical Life of the Lithu- dainų lygiagretės | Parallels between Lithuanian Multipart Songs anian Community in the USA as Relected in the Player Piano and Ainu Polyphonic Songs Music (1920–1930) Priedai Kerri Kotta. Klasikinės formos archetipai kai kuriuose Erkki-Sveno Bronius Kutavičius – Gražina Daunoravičienė. Esu minimalis- Tüüro muzikos kūriniuose | Classical Formal Archetypes in tas–maksimalistas Selected Works by Erkki-Sven Tüür Jonas Bruveris. Pagaliau – puiki knyga Kseniya Zamornikova, Margarita Katunyan. Arvo Pärto „Fratres“ Jonas Bruveris. Istorijos pilna knyga – muzikinė malda | Arvo Pärt’s Fratres: The Prayer in Music Girėnas Povilionis. Vilniaus vėlyvojo baroko vargondirbystės T. 14, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir mokykla: meistro Nicolauso Jantzono fenomenas | The Vilnius teatro akademija, 2013, 224 p. School of Late Baroque Organ Building: The Phenomenon of Vida Bakutytė. Kamerinės instrumentinės muzikos koncertai Vilniu- Master Nicolaus Jantzon je XIX a.: epochinė kaita ir dinamika | Concerts of Instrumental Žilvinas Smalys. Fagoto konstrukcijos raidos ypatumai | The Evolu- Chamber Music in Vilnius in the 19th Century: Epochal Change tion of the Bassoon: Tendencies and Characteristics and Dynamics Gaila Kirdienė. Dzūkų smuikininkų repertuaras | The Repertoire Rūta Stanevičiūtė. Karo įvaizdinimas Vytauto Bacevičiaus ir Edu- of the Folk Fiddlers of the Dzūkai (Southeastern Lithuanians) ardo Balsio muzikoje | War Imagination in Music by Vytautas Evaldas Vyčinas. Idiofonai Lietuvoje. Naujas žvilgsnis | Idiophones Bacevičius and Eduardas Balsys in Lithuania. The New Aspect Gregor Pompe. Postmodernieji Baltijos ir Balkanų ryšiai: Broniaus Priedai Kutavičiaus ir Veljo Tormio muzikos ryšys su slovėnų kompo- Ramunė Kazlauskaitė. Recenzija: „Lietuvių muzika. Nacionalinio zitoriaus Lojze’s Lebičo muzika | Baltic-Balkan Postmodern muzikos judėjimo kilmė ir istorija Europos kontekste“ Connections: The Music of Bronius Kutavičius and Veljo Tormis Rytis Mažulis – Jurgis Paliauka. Kompozitorius yra kažkas tarp in Comparison with the Music of Slovene Composer Lojze Lebič poeto ir inžinieriaus, neišvengiamai kažkur per vidurį Inga Jankauskienė. Konvencinės ir egzistencinės semiotikos taikymas operos analizėje | Conventional and Existential Semiotics in the T. 13, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir Analysis of Opera teatro akademija, 2012, 216 p. Lina Navickaitė-Martinelli. Semiotinės muzikos atlikimo meno Rytis Ambrazevičius. Tembras muzikos psichologijoje | Timbre in teorijos link: reikšmingosios sąvokos, modeliai ir perspektyvos the Psychology of Music | Towards a Semiotic Theory of Musical Performance Art: Key Vilma Paliaukienė, Antanas Kairys. Muzikos atlikimo patirties ir Concepts, Models, and Prospects lyties sąsajos su atlikimo nerimu | Music Performance Experience Gražina Daunoravičienė. Postmodernistinė meno kategorijų būtis: and Gender Links with Performance Anxiety muzikos žanro procesai, aplinkos ir trajektorijos | Postmodernist Albertas Navickas. Rekombinantinė teleologija kaip repetityvinio Existence of the Art Categories: The Processes, Environments komponavimo paradigma | Recombinant Teleology as the Para- and Trajectories of Musical Genre digm of Repetitive Composition Ilona Būdeniece. Librožanras latvių kompozitoriaus Pēterio Vasko Laura Kaščiukaitė, Gražina Daunoravičienė. Minimalizmas: kom- kūryboje | Librogenre in the Oeuvre of the Latvian Composer ponavimo doktrina ir praktika Lietuvoje | Minimalism: Doctrine Pēteris Vasks and Practice of Composing in Lithuania Marina Pereverzeva. Muzikos mobilumas kaip naujosios muzikos Jurgis Paliauka, Gražina Daunoravičienė. Bazinių struktūrų sklai- žanro genotipas | Musical Mobile as a Genre Genotype of New dos strategijos lietuvių kompozitorių kūriniuose (1975–2001) | Music The Development Strategies of Basic Shapes in Works by Lithu- Aistė Valentaitė, Audra Versekėnaitė. Kvodlibeto kompozicinių anian Composers (1975–2001) principų apraiškos XX a. koliažuose | Manifestations of the Ivan Kuzminsky. Vilniaus XVII a. antros pusės traktatų bendrumai Compositional Principles of the Quodlibet in Collages of the ir skirtumai. Nikolajaus Dileckio „Muzikos gramatika“ ir Žygi- 20th Century manto Liauksmino „Ars et praxis musica“ | Joint and Divergent Tatiana Tsaregradskaya. Sound Attack in the Works of Olivier Mes- Elements in the Vilnius Treatises of the Second Half of the 17th siaen: Total Serialism Revisited | Garso ataka Olivier Messiaeno Century: Musical Grammar by Mykola Dyletsky and Ars et Praxis muzikoje. Totaliojo serializmo patikslinimas Musica by Sigismundus Lauxmin Saulė Šerytė, Laima Budzinauskienė. Giulio Caccini „Le nuove

198 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

musiche“ pratarmė: šaltinis ir jo komentarai | Preface to the T. 16, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir Selection of Giulio Caccini’s Le nuove musiche: The Source and teatro akademija, 2015, 196 p. its Commentaries Lijana Šarkaitė-Vilums. Lietuvių formulinės dainos ir formulinės Julian Johnson. Muzikinės erdvės permąstymas | Rethinking Mu- pasakos: atlikimo aspektas | Lithuanian Formula Folk Songs and sical Space Formula Tales: The Aspect of Performance Mart Humal. Modernizmas Estijos muzikoje 1900–1940 m. | On Dalia Urbanavičienė. Sutartinių sinkretizmas: giedojimo ir šokimo Modernism in Estonian Music (1900–1940) (žaidimo) būdų sąveikos tyrimai | Syncretism of Sutartinės: Rese- Aare Tool. Oktatoniškumo vaidmuo Eduardo Ojos muzikoje | As- arch into the Interaction between Singing and Dancing (Playing) pects of Octatonicism in the Music of Eduard Oja Priedai Kerri Kotta. Eduardo Tubino Simfonija Nr. 2 „Legendinė“ kaip Viktorija Daujotytė-Pakerienė, Naglis Kardelis, Vytautas Lands- dvimatis ciklas | Eduard Tubin: Symphony No. 2 The Legendary bergis, Rūta Stanevičiūtė, Šarūnas Nakas, Gražina Daunora- as Two-Dimensional Cycle vičienė. „Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1875–1911): jo Jānis Kudiņš. Modernizmas kaip marginalus reiškinys nacionali- laikas ir mūsų laikas“: knygos pristatymo vakaras 2013 m. lap- nės muzikinės kultūros kontekste: kai kurie Latvijos istorinės kričio 8 d. Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos J. Karoso salėje patirties ypatumai tarp dviejų pasaulinių karų | Modernism as a Marginal Phenomenon in the Context of National Musical T. 15, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir Culture: Some Local Historical Experiences in Latvia between teatro akademija, 2014, 200 p. the Two World Wars Jūlija Jonāne. Laima Budzinauskienė, Rasa Murauskaitė. Valentinas Bakfarkas Žvilgsnis į Janio Zalyčio vokalines kompozicijas kaip į (1506?–1576): istoriografija ir biografijos faktų interpretacijos naujų modernizmo iššūkių apraiškas Latvijos muzikinėje kultūro- | Valentin Bakfark (1506?–1576): The Historiography and je | View on Vocal Compositions by Jānis Zālītis as a Phenomenon Interpretation of Biographical Facts of New Modernistic Demands within Latvian Musical Culture Sviatlena Niemahaj. Didžiosios savaitės lamentacijos Vilniaus kate- Diana Zandberga. Kai kurie inovatyvių XX a. kompozicinių tech- droje | Holy Week Lamentations in Vilnius Cathedral nikų aspektai latvių fortepijoninės muzikos faktūroje | Some Jonas Bruveris. Iš lituanikos istorijos. Sylvio Lazzari opera „Le Aspects of Innovative 20th Century Compositional Techniques Sauteriot“ | From the History of Lituanica: Opera Le Sauteriot in the Texture of Latvian Piano Music by Sylvio Lazzari Lyubov Kyyanovska. Secesijos stilius XX a. antro–ketvirto dešimt Tamara Vainauskienė. Virgilijaus Noreikos dainavimo mokymo mečio Galicijos muzikinėje kultūroje | Style of Secession in sistema: metodų atskleidimas ir verifikacija | Virgilijus Noreika’s Ukrainian Music of Galicia from the 1910s to the 1930s Educational System of Singing: Presentation of Methods and Olga Kushniruk. Impresionizmas Ukrainos muzikoje | Impressio- their Verification nism in Ukrainian Music Balys Vaitkus, Gražina Daunoravičienė. Dinamika ir jos prielaidos Lidia Ader. Paralelinė Rusijos muzikos avangardo istorija | Parallel skambinant klavesinu. Baroko muzikos kontekstas | Dynamics History of Russian Musical Avant-garde and its Suppositions in Harpsichord Playing. Baroque Musical Edvardas Šumila. Filosofiniai naujosios muzikos sampratos aspek- Context tai Thomo Manno romane „Daktaras Faustas“ ir Theodoro W. Robertas Budrys. Tonų hierarchijos muzikos psichologijos tyri- Adorno „Naujosios muzikos filosofijoje“ | Philosophical Aspects nėjimuose | Studies of Tonal Hierarchies in Music Psychology of the Notion of New Music in Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus Anna Shvets. Arvo Pärto kūrinių struktūros matematinis pagrin- and Theodor W. Adorno’s Philosophy of New Music dimas | Mathematical Bases of the Form Construction in Arvo Danutė Kalavinskaitė. Šiuolaikinės religinės lietuvių muzikos są- Pärt’s Music sajos su tradicija – sacrum reikšmių lobynu | Relations Between Helmut Loos. Sociokultūrinė evoliucija. Muzikos pažanga kaip Lithuanian Contemporary Christian Music and Tradition as a darvinistinis viršenybės principas | Socio-Cultural Evolution: Treasury of Sacrum Values Musical Progress as a Darwinian Instrument of Domination Nina Gerasymova-Persydska. Sustingusio laiko fenomenas XX a. Indrė Eugenija Želvytė. Trys tarptautiniai konkursai: F. Chopino antros pusės–XXI a. pradžios muzikoje | Duration of Stay as Varšuvoje, M. Long-J. Thibaud Paryžiuje ir P. Čaikovskio Mask Phenomenon of Music from the Second Half of the 20th to the voje | Along the Way of Three International Competitions: The Beginning of the 21st Centuries Competitions of F. Chopin in Warsaw, M. Long-J. Thibaud in Tania Berkovič. Žiemos dainų ir žaidimų forma „Jaščer“ baltarusių Paris and P. Tchaikovsky in Moscow kalendorinės-agrikultūrinės tautosakos tradicijoje | Yashcher Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Edukacijos įtaka sutartinių gyvavimo as a Song-Playing Form of the Winter Period in the Calendar- XX a. 1–8 dešimtmečiais tradicijai | The Influence of Education Agricultural Tradition of Belarusians on the Tradition of Sutartinės from the Beginning of the 1900s Iryna Klymenko. 5+5+7 eilėdaros vestuvinės dainos kaip ankstyvo- to the 1970s sios slaviškosios ir baltiškosios tradicijos makroarealo žymenys | Aušra Žičkienė. Daina ir ritualas: folklorinė dimensija šiuolaiki- Wedding Songs with the 5+5+7 Verse as a Marker of a Slavonic- nėse laidotuvėse | Song and Ritual: Folkloric Dimension in Balt Early Traditional Macro-area Contemporary Funerals Priedai Priedai Darius Kučinskas. Natų leidyba ir prekyba Kaune po 1990 m. Rima Povilionienė. „Vilties“ dienraštis Pirmojo pasaulinio karo Laima Budzinauskienė. Gyvenimo tikslas – tarnystė lietuvių egzodo pirmaisiais metais, 1914–1915 m.: muzikinio gyvenimo apžvalga muzikinei kultūrai kaip tautinės savimonės atspindys Mykolas Bazaras. Semiomuzikologija – su meile Lietuvai. XXI a. Vita Gruodytė. – erdvė, laikas, gamtos elementai – Justės Janulytės muzikos atlikimo meno diskursas „Smėlio laikrodžiai“ Jonas Vilimas. Laudatio Professori Joanni

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T. 17, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir T. 18, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2016, 200 p. teatro akademija, 2017, 230 p. Jonas Bruveris. Modernybė nepriklausomos Lietuvos muzikos kul- Gražina Daunoravičienė. Muzikos teorijos diskurso atsinaujinimas tūroje. Recepcija ir siekis | Modernity in Music Culture of the vėlyvojo socializmo Lietuvoje: modernėjimo procesas ir profesi- Independent Lithuania: Reception and Yearning nės partnerystės tinklas | The Battle for New Music in Lithuania Gregor Pompe. Slovėnijos „ankstyvasis modernizmas“ – metodo- of Late Socialism: The Process of Modernization and Network loginės, terminologinės, istoriografinės ir aksiologinės dilemos | of Intercultural Partnership Slovenian “Early Modernism” – Methodological, Terminological, Sigitas Mickis. Kūrybingumo fenomeno muzikos kompozicijoje Historiographical and Axiological Dilemmas tyrimo teorinis modelis | Research of Creative Phenomena in Lidia Melnyk. Perskilęs objektyvumas: modernybės kalbos raida Music Composition: Theoretical Model muzikos kritikoje po 1900 m. Vertinimų sutapimo analizė remian- Katarzyna Bartos. Modernizmas lenkų muzikoje. Karolio Szyma- tis pastebėjimais apie „Jaunąją Lenkiją“ lenkiškoje ir vokiškoje nowskio „Mity“ ir Ludomiro Michało Rogowskio „Kaprisai“ spaudoje | Divided Objectivity: Development of Modern Times | Modernity in Polish Music: Mity by Karol Szymanowski and Language in Music Criticism after 1900. Using the Example of Caprices by Ludomir Michał Rogowski the Young Poland Movement within Polish and German Press – Paulina Nalivaikaitė. Transtekstualumo funkcijos Onutės Narbutai- Consonant Analysis tės operoje „Kornetas“ (2012) | The Functions of Transtextuality Małgorzata Janicka-Słysz. Karolis Szymanowskis ir jo „modernus in Onutė Narbutaitė’s opera Cornet (2012) romantizmas“ | Karol Szymanowski and his “Modernist Ro- Rita Mačiliūnaitė-Dočkuvienė. Muzikos diskursas postdraminiame manticism” teatre | The Musical Discourse in the Postdramatic Theatre Rūta Stanevičiūtė. Jurgio Karnavičiaus simfoninė poema „Ulalume“ Andrius Maslekovas. Skambesio kokybės artikuliacija sonorinių (1916–1917): stilistiniai kodai ir kultūrinis kontekstas | Sympho- struktūrų daryboje | Articulation of Sound Quality in the Cons- nic poem Ulalume (1916–1917) by Jurgis Karnavičius: Stylistic truction of Sonoric Structures Codes and Cultural Contexts Antanas Kučinskas. Akustinė ekologija ir aplinkos garso menas: Anna Fortunova. Siurrealizmas Dmitrijaus Šostakovičiaus kūryboje. kontekstas, idėjos, raida | Acoustic Ecology and the Soundscape Baletas „Varžtas“ (1931) kaip šio žanro modernėjimo pavyzdys | Art: Context, Ideas, Development Surrealism in Dmitri Shostakovich’s Work. Ballet The Bolt (1931) Laima Budzinauskienė, Alicja Dacevič. Vilniaus pranciškonų as the Example of Genre Modernization ordino muzikinio gyvenimo atspindžių šaltiniai ir jų komenta- Jacques Amblard. 1936-ieji kaip įvairių „totalitarinių sėkmių“ pa- rai. Pajamų ir išlaidų registracijos knygos | Musical Life of the rataksė | 1936 as a Parataxis of Various “Totalitarian Successes” Franciscan Order in Vilnius: Sources of Reflections. Income and Levon Hakobian. Modernizmo tendencija Sovietų Rusijos tarpu- Expenses Registration Books kario muzikoje: pavienis epizodas ar didesnės srovės dalis? | The Girėnas Povilionis, Rima Povilionienė. Dveji Vilniaus pranciško- Modernist Trend in Soviet Russian Music Between the Wars: An nų bažnyčios barokiniai vargonai: autentiškumo ir autorystės Isolated Episode or a Part of Big Current? aspektai | Two Pipe Organs from Vilnius Franciscan Church in Igor Vorobyov. Utopijos ir antiutopijos apraiškos Aleksandro the Context of Authenticity and Authorship Mosolovo 1920–1930 m. muzikoje | Features of Utopia and Ivan Kuzminskyi. Giesmės „Bogurodzica“ kilmė – 1407 m. muziki- Anti-Utopia in the Music of Alexander Mosolov of the 1920s nis paminklas | History of the Origin of the Bogurodzica Song. and Early 1930s A Musical Monument of 1407 Charris Efthimiou. Apie bosinės ir melodinės linijos instrumentuotę Rasa Murauskaitė. Naujoji muzikologija ir senoji muzika: dekons- vėlyvojoje kamerinėje Leošo Janáčeko kūryboje (1923–1926). trukcijos taikymas Valentino Bakfarko (1506?–1576) Fantazijų Jos panašumai ir skirtumai kitų Rytų ir Vakarų Europoje sukur- Nr. 1 ir Nr. 2 meninio teksto perskaitymui | New Musicology and tų kamerinių kūrinių kontekste | On the Instrumentation of Early Music: Application of Deconstruction on the Reading of Bass and Melody Line in Leoš Janáček’s Late Chamber Music Musical Text of Fantasies No. 1 and No. 2 by Valentin Bakfark (1923–1926). Similarities and Differences with Other Chamber (1506?–1576) Works of Eastern and Western Europe Toma Čepaitė. Gyvųjų ir mirusiųjų komunikacija lietuvių dainuoja- Nadezhda Petruseva. Apie dvi ritmo modernizavimo tendencijas: mojoje tradicijoje: raudų tyrimas | The Communication Between Rytų Europa (Stravinskis, Šostakovičius) ir kiti (Cage’as, Bou- the Living and the Dead in Lithuanian Singing Tradition: Lament lezas) | About Two Tendencies of Modernization of Rhythm: Research Eastern Europe (Stravinsky, Shostakovich) and Others (Cage, Gaila Kirdienė. Sugrįžimas prie tradicinės lietuvių šokių muzikos Boulez) JAV lietuvių bendruomenėse: trečios kartos smuikininko Dovydo Daiva Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė. Lietuvių liaudies daugiabalsio homo- Pivoriūno atvejis | Returning to Traditional Lithuanian Dance foninio dainavimo įvairovė: naujos klasifikacijos metmenys | The Music in Lithuanian Communities of the USA: Case Study of a Variety of Lithuanian Folk Homophonic Multipart Singing. The Third Generation Fiddler Dovydas Pivoriūnas Outlines of New Classification Priedai Daugailė Glinskienė. Giedojimo samprata giedotojų pasakojimuose Vida Umbrasienė. Skambančios struktūros: muzikos vaidmuo | The Concept of Chanting in Narrations of the Chanters žmogaus proto evoliucijoje | Sounding Structures: The Role of Margarita Moisejeva. Krikščionių ortodoksų (stačiatikių) giedojimo Music in the Evolution of the Human Mind „lietuviškumo“ apraiškos | Manifestation of Lithuanian Peculia- Dalia Urbanavičienė. Tradicinė polifonija ir polifoninė tradicija – rities in Orthodox Church Chanting šimtmečio kaita Priedai Gabrielė Kondrotaitė. Pagaliau – mažoji Lietuvos fortepijono pedagogikos enciklopedija Jonas Bruveris. Apie žvalgymą ir įžvalgas

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T. 19, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir T. 20, vyr. red., sud. G. Daunoravičienė. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2018, 200 p. teatro akademija, 2019, 210 p. Melita Milin. Drauge stipresni: kompozicinė mokykla kaip priemonė Richard Taruskin. Plus ça change? Apie Liszto, Bartóko ir mano įtvirtinti estetinius tikslus | Stronger Together: Composition problemas | Plus ça change?, or: Liszt’s Problems, Bartók’s Pro- Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals blems, My Problems Viktorija Kolarovska-Gmirja. Makedonijos nacionalinė kompozici- Lidia Melnyk. Kas nužudė muzikos kritiką. Socialinės muzikos jos mokykla, jos įsteigimo ir plėtotės aspektai | The Macedonian žurnalistikos strategijos | Who Killed Classical Music Criticism: National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation Social Strategies of Music Journalism Today and Development Claire McGinn. Hauntologija ir heterogeniškumas: institucinių Patrick Becker. Darmštatas kaip sambūris: tarptautinių naujosios pokyčių iškraipymai vakarų kritikoje | Hauntology and Heteroge- muzikos vasaros kursų istorinė ir dabarties perspektyva | Darms- neity: “Western” Criticism’s Distortions of Institutional Change tadt als Bauhütte: Historische und aktuelle Perspektiven auf die You-Kyung Cho. Mahlerio kūrybos interpretacija: György’o Ligeti Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik aštunto dešimtmečio muzikos kritika | Reading Mahler: György Joanna Schiller-Rydzewska. Kompozitorių aplinkos ištakos pokario Ligeti’s Music Criticism in the 1970s Gdanske | The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk Magdalena Nowicka-Ciecierska. Vertybių paieškos šiuolaikinėje Levon Hakobian. Kosmopolitiškas nacionalizmas saikingo to- muzikoje: apie Andrzejaus Chłopeckio muzikos kritiką | In talitarizmo sąlygomis: XX a. 8–9-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios Search of Values in Contemporary Music – Andrzej Chłopecki’s armėnų muzika | Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Music Criticism Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the Isabel Pina. Portugalų diktatūros propaganda penkto dešimtmečio 1970s and Early 1980s periodinėje spaudoje: muzikos kritika, kompozitoriai ir ideologija Iryna Tukova. Vakarų Europos kryptis Kijevo kompozicinės mo- | Portuguese Dictatorial Propaganda in the Periodical Press of the kyklos raidoje (2010–2017) | The Development of Western 1940s: Music Criticism, Composers and Ideology European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017) Dāvis Eņģelis. Autoriteto diskursas ir užslėpti galios santykiai Latvi- Margarita Katunyan. Nikolajaus Sidelnikovo kompozicinė mokykla jos žiniasklaidoje skelbiamuose muzikos kritikos straipsniuose | | Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition Discourse of Authority and Implicit Power Relations in Music Jānis Kudiņš. Kompozicinė mokykla, tradicija ar ryški asmenybė? Criticism in the Latvian Mass Media Jāzepo Vītolio kūrybos ir pedagogikos aspektai XX a. Europos Nana Sharikadze. Gruzinų muzikos kritika sovietmečiu ir posovie- muzikos kontekste | Composition School, Tradition or a Remar- tiniu laikotarpiu | Georgian Musical Criticism of the Soviet and kable Personality? Some Remarks on Jāzeps Vītols’ Creative and Post-Soviet Eras Pedagogical Work in the frame of 20th Century European Music Jiří Kopecký. Fibichas Vilniuje: 1874-ieji ir kompozitoriaus asme- Jūlija Jonāne. Sakralinės muzikos įsitvirtinimas Jāzepo Vītolio muzi- nybės formavimasis | Fibich in Vilnius: Annus Horribilis 1874 kinės kūrybos kontekste | The Foundation of Sacred Music within and the Birth of a Composer the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity Vida Bakutytė. Keletas štrichų kompozitoriaus Józefo Deszczyńskio Baiba Jaunslaviete. Maijos Einfeldes kompozicinė mokykla: peda- (1781–1844) biografijai | Some New Highlights for the Biograp- goginiai ir stiliaus aspektai | The Composition School of Maija hy of Composer Józef Deszczyński (1781–1844) Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects Laura Svirskaitė. Trigarsio fenomenas ir kintanti jo raiška XX– Danutė Petrauskaitė. Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos XXI a. muzikos kompozicijose | Triadic Chord and its Expression išeivijoje (JAV) | Search for the Lithuanian Composition School in the Compositions of 20th and 21st Century Music in exile (the USA) Gabrielius Simas Sapiega. Mikrotonalumo konversija XX a. antroje Audronė Žiūraitytė. Baletas „Ant marių kranto“ kultūriniame ide- pusėje– XXI a. Mikrointervalikos apraiškos Mārtiņšo Viļumso ologiniame ir Juliaus Juzeliūno kūrybos kontekste | The Ballet ir Gabrieliaus Simo Sapiegos kūryboje | Conversion of Micro- Ant marių kranto in a Cultural- Ideological Context and in the tonality in the Second Half of the Twentieth and Twenty-first Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas Century Manifestation of Microintervals in the Creations of Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas. Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to Mārtiņš Viļums and Gabrielius Simas Sapiega paties kelio skirtingos atšakos | Julius Juzeliūnas and Eduardas Vita Česnulevičiūtė. Muzikinių analogijų interpretacijos kodai po- Balsys: Two Branches of the Same Path ezijoje | Codes of Interpretation of Musical Analogies in Poetry Gražina Daunoravičienė. Lietuvos kompozitorių klasės ir moky- Rūta Žarskienė. Laidotuvių repertuaras ir paribių gyventojų tapaty- klos: genealogijos diskursas | Classes and Schools of Lithuanian bė: Raseinių rajono atvejis | Funeral Repertoire and the Identity Composers: A Genealogical Discourse of the Periphery Population: the Case of the Raseiniai District Aušra Žičkienė. Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. Priedai atminimų albume: kontekstų studija | Once more about Fried Rasa Murauskaitė. Tarptautinis lietuvių kompozitorių įvaizdis at- rich Getkant’s Entry in the 17th c. Friendship Album: Study of kūrus Nepriklausomybę | The International Image of Lithuanian Contexts Composers after the Restoration of Independence Priedai „Lietuvos muzikologija“, 1–20 t., 2000–2019 m. Giedrius Alkauskas. Muzikos ir matematikos tarpusavio sąveika: mokslinis traktavimas (matematikų darbai) ir meninis traktavimas (Rimos Povilionienės „Musica mathematica“) | “Music– Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science (Works by Mathematicians), and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by Rima Povilionienė)

201 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Straipsnių autorių rodyklė | Index of names

Abramavičiūtė Zita, t. 10 Karklytė Indra, t. 10 Petruseva Nadezhda, t. 17 Ader Lidia, t. 16 Kaščiukaitė Laura, t. 11, 13 Pina Isabel, t. 20 Alekna Gabrielius, t. 11 Katunyan Margarita, t. 10, 12, 19 Pister Aleksandra, t. 6, 7, 9 Alexeeva Galina, t. 4 Kazlauskaitė Ramunė, t. 12 Pompe Gregor, t. 14, 17 Alkauskas Giedrius, t. 19 Keym Stefan, t. 10 Povilionienė Rima, t. 3, 5, 9, 12, 15, 18 Amblard Jacques, t. 17 Kyyanovska Lyubov, t. 16 Povilionis Girėnas, t. 12, 18 Ambrazas Algirdas Jonas, t. 1, 19 Kirdienė Gaila, t. 6, 8, 12, 18 Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė Daiva, t. 1, 4, 6, 11, Ambrazevičius Rytis, t. 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13 Kiškytė Paulina, t. 6 13, 15, 17 Astrauskas Rimantas, t. 1, 12 Klymenko Iryna, t. 16 Raguckaitė Agnė, t. 6 Bakutytė Vida, t. 2, 7, 11, 14, 20 Klišys Darius, t. 7 Rupeikaitė (Rupeikaitė-Mariniuk) Kamilė, Bartos Katarzyna, t. 18 Kolarovska-Gmirja Viktorija, t. 19 t. 3, 8 Bazaras Mykolas, t. 16 Kondrotaitė Gabrielė, t. 17 Rzepczyńska Marta, t. 11 Becker Patrick, t. 19 Kopecký Jiří, t. 20 Sapiega Gabrielius Simas, t. 20 Bereczky János, t. 5 Kotta Kerri, t. 12, 16 Saunoriūtė Giedrė, t. 7 Berkovič Tania, t. 16 Kšanienė Daiva, t. 3 Schiller-Rydzewska Joanna, t. 19 Boldt Brian, t. 4 Kučinskas Antanas, t. 18 Sharikadze Nana, t. 20 Bolšakova (Vakatova) Natalija, t. 2, 4 Kučinskas Darius, t. 3, 11, 16 Shvets Anna, t. 15 Bruveris Jonas, t. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 15, 17 Kudiņš Jānis, t. 16, 19 Smalys Žilvinas, t. 12 Būdeniece Ilona, t. 14 Kushniruk Olga, t. 16 Stanevičiūtė (Goštautienė) Rūta, t. 3, 7, Budrys Robertas, t. 15 Kutavičius Bronius, t. 13 12, 14, 17 Budzinauskienė Laima, t. 5, 14, 15, 16, 18 Kuzminsky Ivan, t. 13, 18 Stefanija Leon, t. 8 Cho You-Kyung, t. 20 Landsbergis Vytautas, t. 14 Stiga Kalliopi, t. 8 Čepaitė Toma, t. 18 Lebednykaitė Žibutė, t. 2 Svirskaitė Laura, t. 20 Česnulevičiūtė Vita, t. 6, 9, 12, 20 Loos Helmut, t. 11, 15 Šarkaitė (Šarkaitė- Viļums) Lijana, t. 4, 14 Dacevič Alicja, t. 18 Lukenskienė Laura, t. 10 Šeduikytė-Korienė Eglė, t. 8, 10 Dahlig-Turek Ewa, t. 10 Mačiliūnaitė-Dočkuvienė Rita, t. 18 Šerytė Saulė, t. 14 Daujotytė-Pakerienė Viktorija, t. 14 Mantzourani Eva, t. 13 Šimonytė-Žarskienė (Žarskienė) Rūta, Daunoravičienė Gražina, t. 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, Markeliūnienė Vytautė, t. 7 t. 1, 20 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19 Markova Vera, t. 6 Šumila Edvardas, t. 16 Downes Stephen, t. 7 Martinelli Dario, t. 9 Taruskin Richard, t. 20 Efthimiou Charris, t. 17 Maslekovas Andrius, t. 18 Tissot Gaël, t. 10 Eņģelis Dāvis, t. 20 Mažulis Rytis, t. 2, 12 Tomaszewski Mieczysław, t. 11 Firkavičiūtė Karina, t. 1 McGinn Claire, t. 20 Tool Aare, t. 16 Fortunova Anna, t. 17 Melnyk Lidia, t. 17, 20 Trilupaitienė Jūratė, t. 1 Gaidamavičiūtė Rūta, t. 7 Melnikas Leonidas, t. 7, 8, 11 Tsaregradskaya Tatiana, t. 14 Gerasymova-Persydska Nina, t. 16 Michelevičiūtė-Vaitkienė Solveiga, t. 4 Tukova Iryna, t. 19 Glinskienė Daugailė, t. 17 Mickis Sigitas, t. 18 Umbrasienė Vida, t. 3, 6, 18 Goštautienė (Stanevičiūtė) Rūta, t. 3, 7, Mikulevičiūtė Irena, t. 8 Urbanavičienė Dalia, t. 1, 6, 14, 18 12, 14, 17 Milaković Vanja, t. 20 Vaicenavičienė Dalia, t. 3 Gruodytė Vita, t. 1, 6, 15 Milin Melita, t. 19 Vainauskienė Tamara, t. 13, 15 Gudžinskaitė Eglė, t. 3, 5, 6 Mockutė Vitalija, t. 10 Vaišnoraitė-Marozienė Regina, t. 9 Guillot Matthieu, t. 4 Moisejeva Margarita, t. 17 Vaitkus Balys, t. 15 Gustaitė Jūratė, t. 1, 3, 4 Mukaitė Loreta, t. 3 Vakarinienė Audronė, t. 3 Hakobian Levon, t. 17, 19 Murauskaitė Rasa, t. 15, 18, 20 Vakatova (Bolšakova) Natalija, t. 2, 4 Humal Mart, t. 16 Nakas Šarūnas, t. 5, 14 Valentaitė Aistė, t. 14 Ilomäki Tuukka, t. 8 Nakienė Austė, t. 2 Velička Eirimas, t. 5 Janeliauskas Rimantas, t. 2, 3, 5 Nalivaikaitė Paulina, t. 18 Versekėnaitė Audra, t. 2, 4, 9, 14 Janicka-Słysz Małgorzata, t. 2, 17 Narbutienė Ona, t. 4 Vyčinas Evaldas, t. 2, 5, 12 Jankauskienė (Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė) Naruševičiūtė Vaida, t. 11 Vilimas Jonas, t. 1, 16 Inga, t. 1, 3, 14 Navickaitė (Navickaitė-Martinelli) Lina, Vilys Gvidas, t. 1 Janulytė Justė, t. 5 t. 5, 8, 14 Vyliūtė Jūratė, t. 7 Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė (Jankauskienė) Navickas Albertas, t. 13 Viļums Mārtiņš, t. 11 Inga, t. 1, 3, 14 Niemahaj Sviatlena, t. 15 Višnevska Irena, t. 10 Jaunslaviete Baiba, t. 19 Niżyński Michał Łukasz, t. 13 Vorobyov Igor, t. 17 Johnson Julian, t. 16 Norinkevičiūtė Rasa, t. 8 Zalagaitytė Raimonda, t. 6 Jonāne Jūlija, t. 16, 19 Nowicka-Ciecierska Magdalena, t. 20 Zamornikova Kseniya, t. 12 Juciutė Loreta, t. 3, 5, 9 O’Loughlin Niall, t. 8 Zandberga Diana, t. 16 Jurkėnaitė Audronė, t. 1 Pakarklytė Asta, t. 8 Žarskienė (Šimonytė-Žarskienė) Rūta, Juzala Gustaw, t. 4 Paliauka Jurgis, t. 12, 13 t. 1, 20 Juzeliūnas Julius, t. 2 Paliaukienė Vilma, t. 13 Želvytė Indrė Eugenija, t. 15 Kalavinskaitė Danutė, t. 9, 10, 12, 16 Palionytė Dana, t. 4, 8 Žičkienė Aušra, t. 2, 9, 15, 19 Karčemarskas Mindaugas, t. 6, 8 Pereverzeva Marina, t. 14 Žiūraitytė Audronė, t. 3, 7, 19 Kardelis Naglis, t. 14 Petrauskaitė Danutė, t. 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 13, 19 Žukienė Judita, t. 5, 10, 11

202 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Apie autorius

Vyr. redaktorė Autoriai Gražina Daunoravičienė (g. 1955) – humanitarinių Vida Bakutytė, humanitarinių mokslų daktarė (1990), mokslų daktarė (1990), nuo 2008 m. habilituota, Lietuvos Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų instituto vyriausioji mokslo darbuo- muzikos ir teatro akademijos profesorė, Lietuvos mokslo toja. 1975 m. baigė Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos (iki tarybos narė, Humanitarinių ir socialinių mokslų komiteto 1992 m. – Lietuvos valstybinė konservatorija) muzikologijos narė (2008–2013). Nuo 1979 m. dėsto Lietuvos muzikos ir studijas (Jadvygos Čiurlionytės kl.), 1987 m. – Lietuvos moks- teatro akademijoje, 1998–2003 m. – Muzikos teorijos katedros lų akademijos Istorijos instituto teatro istorijos aspirantūrą. vedėja. Stažavo Maskvos valstybinėje P. Čaikovskio konservato- Dėstė Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijoje (1977–2000). rijoje (Rusija), Zalcburgo Mozarteume (Austrija). Apdovanota Nuo 1983 m. dirba Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institute, 2008 m. Saksonijos žemių kultūros ir mokslo ministerijos stipendija šio instituto Muzikologijos skyriaus, 2009–2013 m. Muzikos moksliniam darbui Vokietijoje, gavo DAAD stipendiją, buvo ir teatro istorijos skyriaus vadovė. pakviesta į Oksfordo universitetą pagal programą „Oxford Paskelbė monografiją „Vilniaus miesto teatras: egzistenci- Colleges Hospitality“. Skaitė pranešimų ir publikavo darbų nių pokyčių keliu. 1785–1915“ (2011, 528 p.), mokslo studiją Lietuvoje, Latvijoje, Lenkijoje, Estijoje, Vokietijoje, Rusijoje, „Vilniaus muzikas, fotografas ir poetas Faustynas Łopatyńskis Didžiojoje Britanijoje, Belgijoje, Šveicarijoje, Slovėnijoje, Če- (1825–1886): lietuviški kūrybinės veiklos punktyrai“ (2019, kijoje, Serbijoje, Suomijoje, JAV, Kinijoje, Austrijoje, Italijoje ir 216 p.), yra straipsnių rinktinės „XVI–XIX a. Lietuvos muzi- kt. Išleido keturias sudarytas monografijas (2002, 2007, 2013, kinio gyvenimo atodangos“ (2014, 776 p.) sudarytoja, moks- 2019) ir mokslo monografiją „Lietuvių muzikos modernistinės linė redaktorė ir autorė. Skelbia straipsnius lietuvių ir užsienio tapatybės žvalgymas“ (2016), už pastarąją jai paskirta prof. mokslo spaudoje (per 100), skaito pranešimus konferencijose V. Landsbergio fondo premija. Muzikologė apdovanota ordino Lietuvoje ir užsienyje. Mokslinių interesų sritys: Lietuvos „Už nuopelnus Lietuvai“ Riterio kryžiumi, taip pat Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro istorija (XVIII–XX a.), Vilniaus kultūrinio vyriausybės Kultūros ir meno premija. Įsteigė ir rengia tęstinį gyvenimo istorija, muzikos ir teatro sąsajos (istorija ir nūdiena). mokslo žurnalą „Lietuvos muzikologija“, rengia ir leidžia 5 tomų studijų vadovą „Muzikos kalba“ (1–2 tomai išleisti 2003 Vita Česnulevičiūtė (g. 1979), humanitarinių mokslų ir 2006). Moksliniai interesai: muzikos žanro ir muzikos for- daktarė (2012), 2007 m. baigė Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro aka- mos problematika, istoriniai kompozicinių technikų modeliai, demijos muzikologijos magistro studijas. Nuo 2013 m. – Lie- tuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos Mokslo centro jaunesnioji XX a. lietuvių muzikos kompozicinės tendencijos. mokslo darbuotoja. Paskelbė mokslo straipsnių savo tyrinėjimų srities – poezijos ir muzikos sąveika – temomis. Vyr. redaktorės asistentė Rima Povilionienė (g. 1975) – humanitarinių mokslų You-Kyung Cho (g. 1973) baigė muzikos bakalauro stu- (menotyra / muzikologija) daktarė, Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro dijas Niujorko miesto universiteto Kvinso koledžo Aarono akademijos Muzikos teorijos katedros profesorė, Lietuvos Coplando muzikos mokykloje ir įgijo meno estetikos magis- nacionalinės filharmonijos redaktorė, parengė ir išleido daugiau tro laipsnį Tokijo universitete. Šiuo metu studijuoja Tokijo kaip 15 straipsnių rinktinių, išleido mokslinę monografiją universiteto Meno filosofijos ir estetikos doktorantūroje, jai „Musica mathematica. Traditions and Innovations in Contem- suteikta doktoranto stipendija (JSPS). Ji yra taip pat laimėjusi porary Music“ (Peter Lang, 2016, 288 p.), yra mokslo rinktinės Tokijo tarptautinės muzikologų asociacijos stipendiją (2017), „Of Essence and Context. Between Music and Philosophy“ Tokijo universiteto Humanitarinių ir socialinių mokslų dok- redaktorė (kartu su Nicku Zangwillu ir Rūta Stanevičiūte, torantūros tyrimų ir FUSE stipendijas. You-Kyung Cho dirba 2019 m. planuojama išleisti prestižinėje leidykloje „Springer“). šiuolaikinės korėjiečių-japonų operos tarpdalykinio tyrimo Povilionienė buvo Kauno technologijos universiteto Tarp tyrėjų asistente. Pagrindinės domėjimosi sritys: Gustavo Mah- tautinio semiotikos instituto bei LMTA Mokslo centro mokslo lerio kūryba, XIX a. pab.–XX a. Vakarų meno utopianizmo darbuotoja. Pelniusi stipendijas, stažavosi Leipcigo universiteto studijos, muzikos ir visuomenės santykis bei triukšmas Rytų Muzikologijos institute (2004), IRCAM Paryžiuje (2012, Azijos estetikoje. Dalyvavo rengiant daugelį straipsnių to- 2019). Paskelbė daugiau kaip 30 mokslo straipsnių ir 150 mu kiomis temomis kaip Gustavo Mahlerio citavimo technikos zikos kritikos tekstų. Kaip kviestinė dėstytoja skaitė paskaitas persvarstymas ir šiuolaikinės korėjiečių akademinės muzikos Leipcigo universitete, Tbilisio konservatorijoje, Belgrado kultūrinis hibridiškumas. Vienas naujausių jos straipsnių menų universitete, Latvijos J. Vītolio muzikos akademijoje, „Korėjietiškas sonoriškumas ir dvasingumas Tai-Bong Chungo Vilniaus universitete, Kauno technologijos universitete ir kt. simfoninėje poemoje „Youngsan-River“ paskelbtas 2017 m. Jos monografija „Musica Mathematica“ (lietuvių k. išleista leidinyje korėjiečių kalba „Korėjos dainiai“. 2013 m.) pelnė prof. V. Landsbergio fondo premiją geriausių muzikologų darbų konkurse. Yra dviejų mokslo rinktinių Dāvisas Eņģelis (g. 1990) – muzikologas, muzikos žur- (2017, 2019), kurias leidžia leidykla „Springer“, redaktorė ir nalistas ir Latvijos radijo klasikos stoties programų prodiu- sudarytoja. seris – šiuo metu studijuoja Latvijos Jāzepo Vītolio muzikos akademijos magistrantūroje. Pagrindinės domėjimosi sritys:

203 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 muzikos estetika, medijų moksliniai tyrimai, diskurso analizė, Rasa Murauskaitė (g. 1992), muzikologė, radijo raidų teksto ir muzikos santykis (muzikinio patyrimo verbalizavi- ir renginių vedėja. 2017 m. baigė Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro mas), latvių muzikos istorija, archyvai ir akustinė ekologija. akademijos muzikos teorijos ir kritikos magistro studijas. Kaip žurnalistas, dalyvauja pokalbiuose, keliančiuose klausimus 2013 m. rugsėjį–2014 m. vasarį studijavo Paryžiaus nacionali- apie neginčijamus teiginius muzikos tema. Jau kelerius metus nėje muzikos ir šokio konservatorijoje ir Paryžiaus grigališkojo rašo kritinius straipsnius. Muzikos kritikoje jį ypač domina choralo mokykloje. Muzikologė skaitė pranešimus tarptautinėse teksto ir muzikos santykis bei socialiniai ir estetiniai muzikos konferencijose Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose, Paryžiuje, Rygo- aspektai. Tai paskatino muzikologą gilintis į muzikos kritikos je, Stambule, Varšuvoje, Leipcige, Gdanske, Vilniuje. 2015 m. problematiką magistrantūros studijų baigiamajame darbe. buvo įvertinta Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerijos padėkos raštu už inovatyvius lietuvių muzikos tyrimus, puikius studijų Jiří Kopecký (g. 1978) muzikologiją studijavo Olomouco rezultatus ir aktyvią muzikologinę veiklą. 2017–2019 m. dirbo Palacký’o universitete. 2000 m. vasarą stažavosi Minesotos Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos Mokslo centro jaunes- valstybiniame Sent Klaudo universitete. 2002 m. pradėjo niąja mokslo darbuotoja. Jos mokslo darbai buvo publikuoti doktorantūros studijas Brno Masaryko universitete. 2003– šalies mokslo žurnaluose „Lietuvos muzikologija“, „Menotyra“. 2004 m. žiemą stažavosi Halės-Vitenbergo Martino Lutherio Kartu su doc. dr. Laima Budzinauskiene, bendradarbiaujant su universitete. 2003 m. kaip R. Wagnerio fondo stipendininkas Varšuvos universitetu, Murauskaitė parengė šaltinio publika- dalyvavo Bairoito festivalyje. 2005 m. įgijo mokslų daktaro ciją „Liber Organistarum Collegii Cronensis Societatis Jesu“. laipsnį (disertacija „Zdeněko Fibicho operos pagal Anežkos 2019 m. pradžioje išleista muzikologės sudaryta knyga „25-eri Schulzovos libretus“, vad. Jiří Vysloužil). Nuo 2005 m. Muzi- Šv. Kristoforo kamerinio orkestro metai“. Nuo 2017 m. Muraus- kologijos katedros asistentas Olomouco Palacký’o universitete. kaitė – Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjungos Muzikologų sekcijos Penkių knygų autorius, paskaitas ir pranešimus skaitė Lenki- narė, nuo 2018 m. sausio – sekcijos biuro narė. Nuo 2018 m. joje, Vokietijoje, Prancūzijoje, Airijoje. sausio – LRKM profesionalaus teatro meno kūrėjų darbų vertinimo komisijos narė; nuo 2018 m. rugpjūčio – ISCM Claire McGinn (g. 1991) – muzikologijos tyrėja iš Bir- Lietuvos sekcijos narė. Nuo 2018 m. dėsto Lietuvos muzikos mingamo (Didžioji Britanija). Artimiausiu metu planuoja ir teatro akademijoje (Muzikos istorijos katedros asistentė) ir baigti Jorko universitete vykdomą mokslinio tyrimo projektą Vilniaus universitete (Komunikacijos fakulteto lektorė). Muzi- (vadovas – prof. Timas Howellas; finansavimą suteikė White kologė spaudoje jau yra publikavusi per 250 kritinių straipsnių, Rose menų ir humanitarinių mokslų koledžas) apie šiuo- interviu, apžvalgų kultūros ir meno tematika, veda laidas radijo laikinės akademinės muzikos reprezentavimo, suvokimo ir stotyje, taip pat – akademinės ir populiariosios muzikos kon- kompozicijos diskursą. Baigė muzikos bakalauro studijas Jorko certus. Muzikologės mokslinių interesų sritys apima muzikos universitete, čia pat, gavusi Jorko universiteto stipendiją, įgijo kritiką, senąją muziką, muzikos estetiką ir filosofiją, sakralinę mokslinių tyrimų magistro laipsnį. 2018 m. McGinn suteikta muziką, populiariosios muzikos reiškinius. galimybė dalyvauti mokslo ir meno organizacijos „Invisible Dust“ komunikacijai apie klimato kaitą skirtoje programoje Magdalena Nowicka-Ciecierska (g. 1991) – lenkų mu- „Under Her Eye“. Tais pačiais metais buvo atrinkta atstovauti zikologė, filologė, Poznanės Adomo Mickevičiaus universiteto savo fakultetui Jorko universitete rengiamame inovatyviausių muzikologijos doktorantė (studijų vadovas – prof. habil. dr. ir sudėtingiausių doktorantūros tyrimų konkurse „PhD Spot Marcinas Gmysas). 2015 m. baigusi žurnalistikos magistran- light“. Dirba Birmingamo simfoninio orkestro suaugusiųjų tūros studijas Poznanės Adomo Mickevičiaus universitete, po choro vadybininke, taip pat dalyvauja smurto aukoms skirtos metų įstojo į doktorantūrą Muzikologijos institute. 2013 m. labdaros organizacijos „RSVP West Midlands“ veikloje. vieną semestrą studijavo muzikologiją Graco universitete Aus- trijoje. Svarbiausios jos tyrinėjimų sritys: šiuolaikinė muzika, Doc. habil. dr. Lidia Melnyk (g. 1976) – Lvovo nacionali- muzikos kritika, kalbiniai muzikos charakterizavimo būdai nės M. Lysenkos muzikos akademijos absolventė, jai suteiktas ir šiandienos muzikinė kultūra. Yra paskelbusi straipsnių muzikos teorijos ir istorijos garbės daktaro diplomas. Laimėta žurnaluose „Res Facta Nova“, „Interdisciplinary Studies in DAAD stipendija leido atlikti mokslo tiriamąjį darbą Chemnico Musicology“, „Ruch Muzyczny“, „Glissando“, „Muzyka w ir Leipcigo universitetuose, o Karalienės Jadvygos stipendija – Mieście“ ir „MEAKULTURA“, skaičiusi pranešimų tarptauti- Krokuvos Jogailos universitete. Ji taip pat yra Europos žurna- nėse konferencijose Lenkijoje, Lietuvoje ir Ispanijoje. Taip pat listikos fondo (EJF) stipendininkė, stažavusi Berlyno laisvojo dirbo lenkų muzikos leidyklos „PWM Edition“ Rinkodaros universiteto Tarptautiniame žurnalistikos studijų centre. ir edukacijos padalinyje. Nowickos-Ciecierskos disertacijos 2004 m. Melnyk baigė doktorantūros studijas Kijevo nacio- tema – Andrzejaus Chłopeckio raštai ir jų įtaka Lenkijos nalinėje P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademijoje (disertacijos tema – muzikinei kultūrai. „Neobarokinės tendencijos XX a. muzikoje“), o 2014 m. toje pačioje akademijoje jai suteiktas habilituoto daktaro laipsnis Isabel Pina (g. 1992) – Lisabonos universiteto Socialinių (disertacija parašyta muzikos žurnalizmo tema). Mokslininkė ir humanitarinių mokslų fakulteto istorinės muzikologijos išleido monografiją „Muzikos žurnalizmas: istorija, teorija, stra- doktorantė, kuriai suteikta doktorantūros stipendija (SFRH/ tegijos“ (Lvovas, 2013), paskelbė mokslinių straipsnių keliuose BD/131591/2017). Pagrindinės domėjimosi sritys: XIX ir tarptautiniuose žurnaluose. Daugelį metų ji dirba kultūros XX a. portugalų muzikos istorija, muzika ir ideologija, na- žurnaliste įvairiuose laikraščiuose, televizijoje ir radijuje. cionalizmas ir neoklasicizmas, muzikos analizė ir semiotika

204 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 bei muzikos kritika ir periodinė spauda. 2016 m. apgintas jaunųjų muzikologų konkurse už recenziją pelnė antrąją darbas „Neoklasicizmas, nacionalizmas ir lotynizmas 2–4 premiją. Svirskaitės mokslinių interesų sritys yra šiuolaikinė, dešimtmečio Luíso de Freitaso Branco kūryboje“ ir įgytas XX–XXI a. muzika, minimalizmas, redukcija, tonalumas. istorinės muzikologijos magistro laipsnis. Pina yra Sociologijos ir muzikos estetikos studijų centro Kritikos teorijos ir komuni- Richardas Taruskinas (g. 1945) yra Kalifornijos univer- kacijos grupės narė, Podiplominių muzikos sociologijos studijų siteto Berklyje profesorius emeritas. 1987–2014 m. jis dėstė bendradarbė. Ji taip pat yra viena iš muzikos spaudoje tyrimų šiame universitete, prieš tai dirbo Kolumbijos universitete. grupės NEMI steigėja ir koordinatorė. Muzikologas yra monumentalios rinktinės „Oksfordo Vakarų muzikos istorija“ („The Oxford History of Western Music“, Gabrielius Simas Sapiega (g. 1990) šiuo metu studi- 2005), knygų apie rusų muziką (tarp jų – monografijos apie juoja Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos doktorantūroje. Stravinskį ir Musorgskį) bei studijos „Tekstas ir veiksmas. Muzikologijos žinias tobulino Prancūzijoje (Liono kon- Straipsniai apie muzikos atlikimą“ („Text and Act: Essays on servatorijoje), filosofijos – Izraelyje, Jeruzalės universitete. Music and Performance“, 1995) autorius. Taruskinas dirbo Kompozicijos bakalauro studijas baigė Ramintos Šerkšnytės, muzikos žurnalistu, 1990–2016 m. laikraštyje „New York magistro – Mārtiņšo Viļumso kompozicijos klasėse. Kuria įvai- Times“ paskelbė daugiau kaip 60 straipsnių. Nuo 2006 m. jis rių sudėčių instrumentinę muziką, nuolat dalyvauja įvairiuose yra Amerikos menų ir mokslų akademijos narys, 2017 m. jam kompozicijos kursuose ir muzikos festivaliuose. Kompozito- įteiktas prestižinis Kijoto menų ir filosofijos apdovanojimas. riaus kūriniai skambėjo ne tik Lietuvoje, bet ir Prancūzijoje, Čekijoje, Austrijoje, Estijoje ir t. t., buvo transliuoti ir įrašyti Rūta Žarskienė (Šimonytė) yra etnomuzikologė, huma- „UK BBC 3 radio“. nitarinių mokslų daktarė. 1987 m. Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijoje baigė smuiko specialybę, 1992 m. – etnomuziko- Nana Sharikadze (g. 1972) – muzikos istorijos daktarė, logiją. Čia 1999 m. apgynė muzikologijos daktaro disertaciją. Tbilisio valstybinės konservatorijos rektorė ir docentė. Pagrin- Yra tarptautinių etnomuzikologų organizacijų „European dinės jos mokslinių tyrimų ir dėstomų paskaitų temos: XX a. Seminar for Ethnomusicology“ (nuo 2002 m.) ir „Interna- avangardinė muzika, šiuolaikinis muzikinis teatras, totalitari- tional Council for Traditional Music“ (nuo 2000 m.) narė. niai režimai ir muzika, amerikiečių muzika, tautinė tapatybė. Nuo 1991 m. dirba Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institute. Jos iniciatyva Tbilisio valstybinėje konservatorijoje pradėtas 2002–2017 m. vadovavo Tautosakos archyvo skyriui. Dabar dėstyti naujas magistrantūros kursas – XX a. muzikinis teat yra šio skyriaus vyresnioji mokslo darbuotoja. Pagrindinės ras – ir atsirado bakalaurų studijų nauja muzikos vadybos tyrimų sritys – skudučiavimo tradicija Lietuvoje ir kitose kryptis. Muzikologė dalyvauja nacionalinėse ir tarptautinėse tautose, instrumentinė liaudies muzika ir jos kaita, archyvi- konferencijose, jos straipsniai spausdinami tokiuose žurnaluose niai garso įrašai ir jų išsaugojimas, akademiniai pučiamieji ir kaip „GESJ: muzikologija ir kultūrologija“, taip pat Gruzijos kiti muzikos instrumentai tradicinėje kultūroje, liaudiškasis mokslų akademijos bei Tbilisio konservatorijos leidiniuose. pamaldumas. Skaitė pranešimus Lietuvoje (Vilniuje, Kaune, Sharikadzės tyrimus 2012 m. parėmė DAAD stipendijų fon- Šiauliuose, Klaipėdoje ir kt.) ir užsienyje (Berlyne, Budapešte, das, 2002–2004 m. jai suteikta Gruzijos prezidento stipendija, Paste (Vengrija), Faliune (Švedija), Gablice (Austrija), Vene- o 2019 m. Lenkijos kultūros institutas parėmė jos stažuotę cijoje, Jokmoke (Švedija), Stokholme, Vienoje, Liublianoje, Sztuki institute. Ji yra Gruzijos nacionalinės kompozitorių Aberdyne, Daugpilyje, Bamberge, Batumyje (Gruzija), Tartu, ir muzikologų sąjungos narė, Gruzijos mokslų elektroninio Rygoje, Prahoje, Sarajeve ir kt.). Parašė 50 mokslinių straipsnių žurnalo (GESJ) vykdomoji sekretorė, 2016–2018 m. buvo lietuvių, anglų, rusų, lenkų kalbomis ir per 50 kitų publikaci- Tbilisio valstybinės konservatorijos Mokslų tarybos narė, taip jų. Paskelbė studiją „Skudučiai ir jų giminaičiai. Lyginamieji pat vadovauja Tbilisio valstybinės konservatorijos Tarptautinių tyrimai“ (1993), monografiją „Skudučiavimas Šiaurės rytų santykių skyriui. Europoje“ (2003). Kartu su dr. Auste Nakiene ir kitais parengė aštuonis archyvinių garso įrašų leidinius (2003–2019), sudarė Laura Svirskaitė (g. 1995) 2014–2018 m. Lietuvos mu- kompaktinę plokštelę „Dūdų muzika ir giesmės“ (2013) ir kt. zikos ir teatro akademijoje studijavo muzikos teoriją ir kritiką. 2014–2019 m. Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institute su- Studijuodama konferencijose-konkursuose perskaitė praneši- rengė 15 liaudiškajam pamaldumui skirtų mokslinių seminarų. mus „Muzikos procesų redukavimo strategijos R. Mažulio ir Nuo 2011 m. yra Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto, R. Motiekaičio kūryboje“ bei „Trigarsis kaip metatekstualus Vilniaus universiteto ir Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos elementas posttonalioje kompozicijoje“, už pastarąjį gavo tre- etnologijos doktorantūros komiteto narė, nuo 2016 m. – moks- čiąją premiją. Autorė paskelbė recenzijų ir straipsnių, 2017 m. lo žurnalo SOTER redakcinės kolegijos narė.

205 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 About the authors

Editor-in-chief Authors Gražina Daunoravičienė (b. 1955), PhD, Dr. Habil. in Vida Bakutytė is a PhD in Humanities (1990) and the musicology (2008), full time Professor. She has been teaching chief researcher at the Lithuanian Culture Research Institute. at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre since 1979 In 1975 she graduated from the Lithuanian Academy of Music and shad been the Head of the Department of Music Theory and Theatre (the Lithuanian State Conservatoire until 1992), in 1998–2003s. She received scientific scholarships and grants where she studied musicology (with Jadvyga Čiurlionytė). In to study and do research at the Moscow State P. Tchaikovsky 1987, she completed theater history postgraduate studies at the Conservatory, Salzburg Mozarteum, Oxford University; was Institute of History of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. awarded a scholarship from the Ministry of Culture and Educa- She has also taught at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and tion of Saxon Lands and DAAD grant (Germany). She present- Theatre (1977–2000). Since 1983 she has been working at ed reports and published scientific articles in Lithuania, Latvia, the Lithuanian Culture Research Institute as the t head of Poland, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, Belgium, Switzerland, the Department of Musicology (2008) and the head of the Slovenia, Yugoslavia, Finland, United States, China, Austria, Department of Music and Theatre History (2009–2013). Italy etc. On her initiative a series of monographs dedicated Bakutytė is the author of the monograph Vilnius City Thea- to the most outstanding Lithuanian composers (Balakauskas, tre: Along the Path of Existential Changes.1785-1915 (2011). She Bajoras, Kutavičius) was started. Daunoravičienė was the edi- is the compiler, scientific editor and author of theExposures of tor of four collections (2002, 2007, 2013, and 2019). In 2016 Lithuanian Musical Life from 16th to the End of 19th Century she published a monograph Exploration of Modernistic Iden- collection (2014). She has published over 100 research articles tity in the Lithuanian Music and was awarded Prof. Vytautas and given presentations at conferences in Lithuania and abroad. Landsbergis Foundation Prize. She is Knight of the National The main areas of her research interests include music and theater Order of Merit. She has been awarded a State Prize for Culture history in Lithuania (the eighteenth to twentieth centuries), the and Art established by the Govermment of the Republic of history of Vilnius’s cultural life, and the links between music and Lithuanuia. She is the founder and compiler of the scientific theater (historical and contemporary aspects). journal Lithuanian Musicology, a compiler and author of the five books study guide The Language of Music (two volumes were published in 2003 and 2006); in 2008–2013, a member Vita Česnulevičiūtė (b. 1979) has a PhD in the Humani- of the Research Council of Lithuania, a representative of the ties (2012). She completed her MA studies in musicology at Committee of Humanities and Social Sciences. the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre (LAMT) in 2007. Since 2013, she has been a junior scientific worker at Assistant editor-in-chief the Science Centre of the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Rima Povilionienė (b. 1975), PhD in musicology, is a Theatre. She has published research articles on the basis of her full time professor at the Department of Music Theory of the scientific interest in poetry and music relations. Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Assistant Editor- in-chief of the scientific yearly Lithuanian Musicology and an You-Kyung Cho (b. 1973) earned her bachelor’s degree editor at the Lithuanian National Philharmonic. She is an in Music from the Aaron Copland School of Music, Queens author of the monograph Musica mathematica. Traditions College, CUNY and her master’s degree in aesthetics at the and Innovations in Contemporary Music (Peter Lang, 2016, University of Tokyo. She is currently completing a PhD pro- 288 p.). Rima is a co-editor (with Nick Zangwill and Rūta gram in aesthetics and philosophy of art at the University of Stanevičiūtė) of Of Essence and Context: Between Music and Tokyo and was granted a doctoral fellowship (JSPS). She was Philosophy collection for Springer (2019). She held a researcher also a recipient of the IMS 2017 TOKYO scholarship, the position at the International Semiotics Institute (ISI) at Kau- Doctoral Research Fellowship of the Graduate School of Hu- nas University of Technology and at the Centre for Science manities and Sociology and Faculty of Letters at the University at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre. Rima held of Tokyo, and the FUSE scholarly fellowship. She is a research internships at the Institute of Musicology at Leipzig University assistant for the Korea-Japan Contemporary Opera Interdisci- (2004) and IRCAM (2012) and attended Eastman School plinary Research Project. Her main interests are Gustav Mahler summer courses in Paris, IRCAM (2019). She has edited over studies, Utopian studies in Western Art in the late nineteenth 15 collections and published more than 30 scientific articles and twentieth century, the relationship between music and and 150 critical reviews. She has been a guest lecturer at such society, and noise studies in East Asia. She has contributed to institutions as Leipzig University, the Tbilisi Conservatoire, multiple articles that include such topics as re-examination of the Belgrade University of Arts, the J. Vitols Latvian Academy Gustav Mahler’s quotation technique and cultural hybridity of Music, Vilnius University, and Kaunas University of Tech- in Korean contemporary art music. Her recent publications nology. Her monograph Musica Mathematica (in Lithuanian, include “The Korean Sonority and Spirituality in Symphonic 2013) was awarded Prof. Vytautas Landsbergis Foundation Poem Youngsan-River by Tai-Bong Chung” in Composers Who Prize for the best musicological work of the year. She is an Sing Korea (in Korean, 2017). editor of two collections for Springer (2017 and 2019).

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Dāvis Eņģelis (b. 1990) is a musicologist, music journalist, about music journalism). She wrote the monograph Music and radio program producer at Latvian Radio Classics. Cur- Journalism: History, Theory, Strategies(Lviv, 2013) and has rently, he is studying for his master’s thesis at the Jāzeps Vītols published her scientific articles in several international jour- Latvian Academy of Music. He is mainly interested in music nals. For many years she also worked as a cultural journalist aesthetics, media research, discourse analysis, the relationship for various newspapers, TV, and radio. between text and music (verbalization of music experience), Latvian music history, archives, and acoustic ecology. As a Rasa Murauskaitė (b. 1992) is a musicologist and radio and journalist, he is eager to take part in interesting conversations event host. In 2017, she graduated from the Lithuanian Acad- and to question axiomatic conclusions about music. He has emy of Music and Theatre with a Master’s in Music Theory and several years’ experience as a music critic. The problem of the Criticism. From September 2013 to February 2014, she studied relationship between text and music and the social and aes- at the National Conservatoire of Music and Dance in Paris as thetical aspects of music come to light in the genre of music well as the Paris School of Gregorian Chant. Murauskaitė has criticism. This has encouraged his interest to investigate music presented papers at international conferences in the United criticism more thoroughly in his master’s thesis. States (Stanford University), Paris, Riga, Istanbul, Warsaw, Leipzig, Gdańsk, and Vilnius. She was awarded an LMTA Jiří Kopecký (b. 1978) studied musicology at the Palacký Senate Scholarship (2013–2014) for outstanding study results University in Olomouc. He spent the summer term of 2000 at as well as a diploma from the Lithuanian Ministry of Educa- the St. Cloud State University in Minnesota. He entered his tion and Science for innovative research of Lithuanian music doctoral studies at the Philosophical Faculty of Masaryk Univer- (2015). From 2017 to 2019 she has worked at the LMTA sity in Brno in 2002. He studied winter term 2003/2004 at the Science Center as a junior researcher. Her works have been Martin-Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg. As a scholarship published in the scientific journals Lietuvos muzikologija and holder of Richard-Wagner-Stiftung he took part in Bayreuther Menotyra. Murauskaitė prepared the critical source edition Festspiele 2003. In 2005 he was awarded a PhD for his thesis Liber Organistarum Collegii Cronensis Societatis Jesu with As- Zdeněk Fibich’s Operas on the libretti by Anežka Schulzová su- sociate Professor Dr. Laima Budzinauskienė in cooperation pervised by Jiří Vysloužil. Since 2005 he has been an assistant with Warsaw University, in which she analyzed an important lecturer at the Department of Musicology of Palacký University. Lithuanian musical source of the seventeenth century called He is the author of five books and has given seminars and con- the Kražiai Tabulature. In 2019 the book 25 Years of Saint ferences in such countries as Poland, Germany, France, Ireland. Christopher Chamber Orchestra, edited by Murauskaitė, was published. Since 2017 Murauskaitė has been a member of the Claire McGinn (b. 1991) is a researcher in musicol- Lithuanian Composer’s Union Musicologists’ Section and since ogy based in Bradford, UK. Her PhD was conducted at the 2018 a member of the section’s board. Since January 2018, University of York under the supervision of Professor Tim she has been a member of the Lithuanian Ministry of Culture Howell, focusing on issues of representation, reception, and Professional Theatre Art Works Jury and since August 2018 a compositional discourse in some contemporary art music and member of the ISCM Lithuanian Section. Since 2018 she gives funded by the White Rose College of Arts and Humanities. lectures at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre (as- She previously also completed a Masters by Research, funded sistant lecturer at the Music History Department) and Vilnius by the York Masters Opportunity Scholarship, and a BA in University (lecturer at the Department of Communication). Music, at the University of York. In 2018 she was a Fellow of Murauskaitė has already published more than 250 reviews and arts-science organization Invisible Dust’s “Under Her Eye” interviews about music and culture in the Lithuanian media. climate change communication scheme and was the faculty Her scientific interests include music criticism, early Lithuanian winner of York’s PhD Spotlight event. Her other recent work music, music aesthetics and philosophy, and popular music. has included teaching and tutoring, singing, arts management, and providing support for survivors of violence. Magdalena Nowicka-Ciecierska (b. 1991) is a musicologist and Polish philologist and a PhD student in musicology at Lidia Melnyk (b. 1976), PhD habil., is an associate pro- Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan under the supervision fessor at the National M. Lysenko Academy of Music in Lviv, of Marcin Gmys. She graduated from the Adam Mickiewicz Ukraine. She studied at the academy and obtained an honor- University in Poznan, Poland, where she was awarded a master’s ary diploma in theory and history of music and completed degree in journalism in 2015 before starting her doctoral studies postgraduate studies. She was a scholarship holder of DAAD at the institute of musicology in 2016. As a student in musicol- and performed research at Chemnitz and Leipzig universities; ogy, she spent a semester at the University of Graz in Austria in with the Queen Jadwiga Scholarship she completed research at 2013. Her research interests are mainly focused on contempo- the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, and with the European rary music, music criticism, linguistic ways of describing music, Journalism-Fellowships (EJF) at the International Center for and contemporary musical culture. She has published articles Journalism of the Free University of Berlin. in such journals as Res Facta Nova, Interdisciplinary Studies in In 2004, she earned her PhD at the National P. Tchaikovsky Musicology, Ruch Muzyczny, Glissando, Muzyka w Mieście and Academy of Music in Kiev (her thesis was on neo-Baroque MEAKULTURA. She has presented papers at international tendencies in twentieth-century music); in 2014, she earned conferences in Poland, Lithuania, and Spain. She has also worked a second doctorate (Habilitation) at the same academy (thesis as a specialist in the Promotion and Education Department of

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PWM Edition, The Polish Music Publishing House. Her PhD Compositions by Rytis Mažulis and Ramūnas Motiekaitis and thesis is primarily focused on the works of Andrzej Chłopecki’s The Triad As a Metatextual Element in Post-Tonal Composition, writings and his impact on Polish musical culture. for the latter of which she was awarded third prize. She has had a number of reviews and articles published to her credit; Isabel Pina (b. 1992) is a PhD student in historical musi- in the young musicologists’ competition in 2017, her review cology with a doctorial fellowship (SFRH/BD/131591/2017) won second prize. Ms. Svirskaitė’s research interests include at NOVA FCSH in Lisbon. She is mainly interested in the contemporary twentieth- and twenty-first-century music, study of the Portuguese history of music of the nineteenth minimalism, reduction, and tonality. and twentieth century, music and ideology, nationalism and neoclassicism, the analysis and semiotics of music, the peri- Richard Taruskin (b. 1945) is professor emeritus at the odical press, and music criticism. Pina finished her masters in University of California at Berkeley, where he taught from historical musicology in 2016 with the dissertation entitled 1987 to 2014, having previously served on the faculty of Co- Neoclassicism, nationalism and Latinism in Luís de Freitas lumbia University, where he earned his advanced degrees. He Branco, between the decades of 1910 and 1930. At CESEM (the is the author of The Oxford History of Western Music (2005), Centre for the Study of the Sociology and Aesthetics of Music), several books on Russian music (including monographs on Pina is a member of the Critical Theory and Communication Stravinsky and Mussorgsky), and Text and Act: Essays on Music Group and a collaborator of SociMus (Advanced Studies in the and Performance (1995). He has also worked as a music journal- Sociology of Music). She is also one of the founders and coor- ist, publishing more than sixty articles in the New York Times dinators of NEMI (the Research Group of Music in the Press). between 1990 and 2016. A member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2006. In 2017 he was awarded the Gabrielius Simas Sapiega (b. 1990) is currently studying Kyoto Prize in arts and philosophy. at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre for a doctorate. He deepened his knowledge of musicology in France Rūta Žarskienė (Šimonytė) is an ethnomusicologist, PhD (the Conservatoire de Lyon), and of philosophy in Israel (the She graduated in classical violin performance in 1987 and in University of Jerusalem). He studied with Raminta Šerkšnytė ethnomusicology in 1992 from the Lithuanian Academy of for his Bachelor of Music Composition and continued his Music and Theatre, where she also obtained a Ph. D. degree in master‘s studies with Mārtiņš Viļums. Sapiega composes in- musicology in 1999. A member of international ethnomusicol- strumental music of various kinds and regularly participates ogy organizations, including the European Seminar for Eth- in composition master classes and music festivals. The works nomusicology (since 2002) and the International Council for of the composer have been performed in countries such as Traditional Music (since 2000), she has worked at the Institute Lithuania, France, the Czech Republic, Austria, and Estonia, of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore since 1991 and was head as well as broadcasted and recorded for the UK’s BBC 3 radio. of its Folklore Archive Department between 2002 and 2017. Ms. Žarskienė’s main fields of research include music making Nana Sharikadze (b. 1972) is PhD and an associate profes- with multi-pipe whistles or pan pipes in Lithuania (Lithuanian sor of music history at the Tbilisi State Conservatoire, since skudučiai) and other nations, traditional instrumental folk 2019 autumn – Rector of the Conservatoire. Her research and music, archival audio records and their preservation, the use of teaching is focused on the twentieth-century musical avant- brass bands in traditional culture, and folk religious practices. garde, contemporary musical theater, totalitarian regimes and She has presented conference papers in Lithuania (Vilnius, music, American music, and national identity. A new MA course Kaunas, Šiauliai, Klaipėda) as well as in Berlin and Bamberg (“Twentieth-century Musical Theater”) and a BA concentration (Germany); Budapest and Paszto (Hungary); Falune, Jok- (musical management) have been introduced and implemented kmokke, and Stockholm (Sweden); Gablize and Vienna (Aus- at TSC under her initiative. She participates in national/inter- tria); Ljubljana; Milton Keens and Aberdeen (Great Britain); national conferences. Her work appears in publications such as Batumi (Georgia); Tartu; Daugvpils and Riga (Latvia); Prague; GESJ (Georgian Electronic Scientific Journals in Musicology Sarayev; and elsewhere abroad. She has written 50 research and Culturology), Bulletin of the Georgian Academy of Science, articles in Lithuanian, English, Russian, and Polish and over and Bulletin of Tbilisi State Conservatoire. Her research has 50 other publications. She is the author of the study Skudučiai been supported by the DAAD (2012), the Georgian President and Related Instruments: A Comparative Study (1993) and Scholarship (2002–2004), and the Polish Institute of Culture the monograph Music Making With Multi-Pipe Whistles in scholarship “Study Visit to the Institute Sztuki” (2019). She is a Northeastern Europe (2003). In collaboration with Dr. Austė member of the Georgian Composers and Musicologists National Nakienė, she prepared eight publications of archival sound Union, executive secretary of the GSEJ (Georgian Scientific recordings (2003–2019) and compiled a CD entitled Music Electronic Journal 2006–2018), a member of the Academic and Hymns for Brass (2013). She initiated 15 scientific seminars Council of TSC (2016–2018), and head of the International on folk religious practices under the auspices of the Institute of Relations Department at Tbilisi State Conservatoire. Lithuanian Literature and Folklore between 2014 and 2019. Ms. Žarskienė has been member of the Doctoral Committee Laura Svirskaitė (b. 1995) studied music theory and of Ethnology with the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and criticism at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre Folklore, Vilnius University, and the Lithuanian Academy of in 2014–2018. As a student, she presented conference pa- Music and Theatre since 2011 and a member of the editorial pers entitled Strategies for Reduction of Musical Processes in board of SOTER: Journal of Religious Science since 2016.

208 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019 Atmintinė autoriams

Teikiamų publikuoti straipsnių reikalavimai, jų recenzavimo tvarka

Į žurnalą priimami tokios arba analogiškos struktūros moksliniai straipsniai: įvadas, tyrimų tikslas, objektas, metodas ir metodikos, gauti rezultatai, išvados arba apibendrinimas, nuorodos, naudotos literatūros sąrašas. Prieš pagrindinį tekstą turi būti anotacija, kurioje nurodoma: tyrinėjimo objektas, metodas (metodikos), tikslas, išdės- tomi tyrimo rezultatai. Paskui išvardijami reikšminiai žodžiai. Anotacija turi būti pateikiama lietuvių ir anglų kalbomis. Straipsnio pabaigoje turi būti pateikiamos nuorodos ir literatūros sąrašas. Po literatūros sąrašo pateikiama santrauka. Jei straipsnis lietuvių kalba, santrauka rašoma anglų kalba; užsienio kalba teikiamo straipsnio santrauka turi būti lietuvių kalba. Santraukos apimtis – 0,5–1 puslapis. Straipsnio iliustracinė medžiaga (nuotraukos, grafikai, schemos, lentelės ir kt.) turi būti nespalvota, geros kokybės ir tinkama reprodukuoti. Natų pavyzdžiai turi būti parengti kompiuteriu. Straipsnius galima teikti lietuvių ir pagrindinėmis užsienio kalbomis. Apimtis neturėtų viršyti vieno autorinio lanko. Didesnės apimties straipsnio spausdinimo galimybė aptariama su vyriausiuoju redaktoriumi. Straipsnio autorius atskirame lape lietuvių ir anglų kalbomis turi pateikti trumpą savo mokslinę biografiją – nurodyti mokslinį laipsnį ir vardą, svarbiausius darbus, mokslinius interesus, darbovietę, pareigas ir adresą. Redakcijai pagal nurodytus reikalavimus parengtą straipsnį autorius turi pateikti kompiuterinėje laikmenoje arba elektroniniu paštu. Pateiktą straipsnį recenzuoja du redakcinės kolegijos paskirti mokslininkai. Laikomasi nuostatos, kad kiekvienas straipsnis turi turėti dvi recenzijas – vidinę ir išorinę. Jeigu pateikto straipsnio problematika tarpdisciplininė, privaloma gretutinės mokslo srities ar krypties mokslininko rekomendacija. Straipsnis spausdinamas gavus dviejų mokslininkų rekomendacijas.

Bibliografinių nuorodų sistemos reikalavimai

„Lietuvos muzikologijai“ teikiamuose straipsniuose turi būti laikomasi citavimo tvarkos ir bibliografinių nuorodų sąrašo sudarymo metodikos. Nuorodose ir literatūros sąraše bibliografiniai duomenys pateikiami originalo rašyba. Dokumentai kirilica nelotyni- nami (netransliteruojami). Kinų, japonų, arabų ir kitų kalbų šaltiniai nurodomi naudojantis atitinkamais transliteravimo standartais. Sulotyninti duomenys gali pakeisti vartotuosius originaliame dokumente arba papildyti – tuo atveju suskliausti laužtiniais skliaustais. Didžiųjų raidžių rašyba turi atitikti nurodomo dokumento kalboje susiklosčiusią praktiką. Tekstinės išnašos įterpiamos į straipsnio tekstą lenktiniuose skliaustuose arba teikiamos kaip pastaba nuorodose darbo gale. Į tekstą įterptose išnašose nurodomas cituojamo teksto autorius arba antraštė, išleidimo metai ir – jei reikia – puslapis, pavyzdžiui, (Čiurlionis 1973: 51). Kelių autorių leidinio nuoroda gali būti trumpinama nurodant pirmojo autoriaus pavardę ir prirašant „et al.“ Nuorodose teikiami bibliografiniai duomenys nurodomi laikantis citavimo tvarkos ir literatūros sąrašo sudarymo metodikos. Literatūros sąrašas turi būti išdėstytas autorių arba antraščių abėcėlės tvarka. To paties autoriaus darbai rašomi išlei- dimo chronologine tvarka. Bibliografinės nuorodos sudaromos laikantis šių reikalavimų: a) po autoriaus pavardės ir vardo dedamas kablelis; po kiekvieno asmenvardžio dedamas kabliataškis; b) jei autorius nežinomas, nurodoma antraštė (pavadinimas); c) jei antraštės nėra, ji keičiama pirmaisiais žodžiais, reiškiančiais baigtinę mintį; po jų dedamas daugtaškis; d) toliau eina antraštė – straipsnio arba knygos pavadinimas (kursyvu) originalo kalba; e) prieš šaltinį, kuriame išspausdintas straipsnis, rašoma „in:“; šaltinio antraštė išryškinama kursyvu. f) jei esama antraštės, t. y. antraštę paaiškinančių duomenų (informacija apie leidinio tipą, žanrą, paskirtį, rengėjus), jie teikiami po antraštės; prieš paantraštę dedamas dvitaškis; g) leidinio rengėjų (redaktorių, vertėjų ir pan.) nurodyti neprivalu, tačiau jie gali būti nurodomi po antraštės;

209 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 20, 2019

h) būtini bibliografijos elementai yra išleidimo duomenys – originalo kalba rašomi duomenys: vieta, leidėjas, metai; i) po leidinio išleidimo vietos nuorodos dedamas dvitaškis (kai leidėjas nenurodomas, dedamas kablelis); po dvitaškio toliau rašomas leidėjas, esant keliems leidėjams – išryškintasis arba pirmasis leidėjas; po leidėjo įvardijimo dedamas kablelis; j) toliau nurodomi leidinio metai; esant tęstinių ar periodinių leidinių numerių, tomų ir pan. nuorodoms, po leidinio metų dedamas kablelis; nesant šių duomenų, po leidinio metų dedamas taškas, pavyzdžiui: Landsbergis Vytautas, Geresnės muzikos troškimas, Vilnius: Vaga, 1990. ISBN 5-415-00635-4. Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė Daiva, Vienbalsumas šiaurės rytų Aukštaitijoje: vėlesnės monofoninės dainos, in: Lietuvos muzikologija, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2005, t. 6, p. 150–160. k) toliau nurodomi leidinio dalies (pvz., straipsnio) puslapiai, pavyzdžiui: Kramer Lawrence, Perspektyvos: postmodernizmas ir muzikologija, in: Goštautienė, Rūta (sud.), Muzika kaip kultūros tekstas, Vilnius: Apostrofa, 2007, p. 124–160. l) toliau įrašomas knygą, daugiatomius arba serialinius leidinius identifikuojantis standartinis numeris – ISBN, ISMN ar ISSN; po jų nuorodos dedamas taškas; standartinis numeris neprivalomas nurodant knygų, daugiatomių arba serialinių leidinių dalis (straipsnius ir pan.); m) cituojant arba nurodant elektroninius dokumentus, būtina nurodyti leidinio autorių, antraštę, elektroninį adresą ir elektroninio leidinio žiūrėjimo datą, pavyzdžiui: Paulauskis Linas, Bronius Kutavičius: jeigu nėra paslapties – nėra ir muzikos, in: Lietuvos muzikos link [interaktyvus], 2005–2006, Nr. 11, [žiūrėta 2007 11 05].

Lietuvos muzikologija, 20 Lithuanian Musicology, 20

SL 1695. 30 aut. l. Tiražas 200 egz. Maketavo Rokas Gelažius Vertėja Jurgita Tūrienė Išleido Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110 Vilnius Spausdino Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla ir spaustuvė, Dominikonų g. 15, LT-01013 Vilnius