Pastoral Livestock Farming in Sahel and West Africa 5 Preconceptions Put to the Test Lexicon1

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa 5 preconceptions put to the test Lexicon1

Agropastoralist Farmer who raises livestock by traditional methods and whose practices with regards to animals are similar to those of herders, as in transhumance.

Agro-breeder Farmer who also is a livestock breeder.

Extensive / Intensive Extensive livestock breeding is essentially based on the use of natural resources livestock breeding (water, pasture, etc.) generally with no notable biotope improvement. Intensive livestock breeding on the other hand uses an overall enhanced environment. There is therefore a high concentration per hectare (more animals on the same surface). Intensive livestock breeding requires more inputs per produced unit than extensive livestock breeding.

Mobility Refers to something likely to move. Regarding livestock breeding, it refers to herds moving seasonally or occasionally over small or long distances.

Nomadism Continuous movement of men and their herds. It is a very mobile and non- predictable production system often without crop or a systematic return to a fixed location each year.

Pastoralism Agricultural practice founded on extensive livestock breeding including systems where animal and/or human movement is significant: nomadism, transhumance, semi-transhumance.

Ranching Ambiguous and incorrectly used term mostly referring to a modern extensive livestock breeding activity generally including livestock farming (strict meaning of the term) and longer fattening. This breeding method relies on extensive natural pasture exploitation while using minimum work force.

Pastoral resources Natural resources allowing pastoral feeding of animals: water, pasture and salt marshes.

Semi-transhumance Production system in which part of the family and/or livestock is seasonally mobile and the other part is sedentary and cultivates in one of the seasonal bases.

Transhumance Breeding method including seasonal livestock migration. This system is very mobile and there is a return to seasonal bases each year. Farmers have a permanent residence. The calendar and itineraries are regular and the movements are mostly predictable. They are based on seasons and towards known pastures.

1 Pastoralism is only << <

pastoralism can be seen throughout West Africa

Animal mobility, which covers long distances as mobility. Moreover enclosing animals in peri-ur- well as small ones, exists in practically all farming ban farms or in ranches remains marginal. In the systems in West Africa, even in sedentary systems. southern zones of Sahelian countries and coastal The existence of large semi-arid zones makes it states where livestock is increasing, transhumance very difficult to consider livestock farming without is also a feature of livestock farming.

Côte Côted’IvoireCôte d’Ivoire d’Ivoire BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 2 2 2 2 218 2 18 18 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 3 3 3 MAURITANIAMAURITANIAMAURITANIA

10 10 3310 33 33 MauritanieMauritanieMauritanie : : :

MALI MALI 26 26 MALI 11 11 11 26 BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 2 2 2 NIGER NIGER Ovins et caprinsOvins et caprins 2 2 3 3 3 NIGER 8 8 10 8 10 10 Ovins et caprins 2 11 11 11 SENEGALSENEGALSENEGAL 9 9 9 CHAD CHAD CHAD 23 23 23 Mali Mali BURKINABURKINABURKINA 2 2 Mali FASO FASO FASO 2 - Pour la Mauritanie,- Pour la Mauritanie, il y a en fait il y 18 a en millions fait 18 millions 6 6 5 6 5 Bovins etBovins bu es et bu es 10 - Pour 10 la Mauritanie, il y a en fait 18 millions 5 2 2 2 3 3 3 Bovins et bu es 10

TOGO TOGO d'ovins etd'ovins caprins et et caprins non 2 et non 2

TOGO d'ovins et caprins et non 2 GUINEA GUINEA GUINEA OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 33 33 33 - Pour- Pourle Tchad,- Pour le Tchad, leil y Tchad, a il25 y millionsa il 25 y amillions 25 de millions bovins de bovins de bovins 2 3 2 3 3 5 5 2 10 10 5 20 20 20114 114 CÔTE CÔTE 10 BENIN BENIN 114 CÔTE BENIN Niger Niger et bu eset bu eset (au bu es lieu (au de lieu (au 8) delieu et 8)57 de et millions 8) 57 et millions 57 millions D'IVOIRED'IVOIRED'IVOIRE Niger GHANA GHANA GHANA NIGERIA NIGERIANIGERIA BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 11d'ovins 11d'ovins 11etd'ovins caprins et caprins et caprins OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 26 26 26

NigeriaNigeria Nigeria BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 20 20 20 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 114 114 114

2 SOURCE FAO 1961 1961 1961 SénégalSénégalSénégal MALI MALI MALI Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 3 BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 3 3 3 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 11 11 11

TogoTogoTogo BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 0 0 0 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 5 5 5

BurkinaBurkina FasoBurkina Faso Faso BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 9 9 9 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 23 23 23

TchadTchad Tchad BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 8 8 8 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 10 10 10

BéninBénin Bénin BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 2 2 2 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 3 3 3

GhanaGhana Ghana BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et 2 bu es 2 2 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 10 10 10 BovinsOvinsBovinsOvinsBovinsBovinsOvinsMauritanieOvinsBovins etetMauritanieOvinsBovins et Mauritanieet Ovinsbu esBovinscaprins et Ovinset bu esetBovinscaprinset Ovins bu es Bovinset caprinset Bovinsbu escaprins OvinsMali etOvins et Bovinsbu es caprins Mali et: etOvins Bovinsbu escaprins BovinsNiger Mali et :Ovins et Ovinsbu escaprins BovinsNiger et : et et Ovinsbu esetcaprinsNigeriaBovinsNiger Ovinsbu eset Bovinscaprinset bu esNigeriacaprins Ovins et etBovinset Nigeriaetbu escaprinsOvinsSénégal Bovins bu eset et Bovinscaprinsbu escaprinsOvins SénégalOvinsetet Bovinsbu es caprins SénégaletetOvins Bovinsbu escaprinsBovins et TogoOvinset Burkinabu esOvinscaprins Bovins et Togoet et Burkinabu esetOvins caprinsBovinsBovins Togo Burkinabu eset Ovinscaprinset bu esOvinscaprins Bovins et et et bu esetOvinscaprins BovinsBovins Tchad bu eset FasoOvinscaprinset bu esOvins caprins BovinsTchad et Fasoet et bu es etOvinscaprins BovinsTchad Faso Bénin bu eset Ovinscaprinset bu esOvins Bovinscaprins Béninet et et bu es BovinsetOvinscaprins BéninGhanaBovins bu eset Ovinscaprinset bu esOvins caprins GhanaBovins et et bu es etOvins caprinsGhana BovinsGuinée et bu esOvinscaprinset caprinsGuinéeet bu eset et etGuinéecaprins bu es et caprinset bu es caprins et et bu escaprins2 bu es caprins2 2 GuinéeGuinée Guinée BovinsBovins etBovins bu es et bu es et bu es 6 6 6 OvinsOvins et caprinsOvins et caprins et caprins 5 5 5 Farming systems are increasingly turning to agropastoralism

In cotton-growing areas farmers are increasingly families to have access to healthcare, education, integrating animals into their production system. supplies and to the country’s political life. By set- These animals are on the move for months and tling most families develop agricultural activities. cover long distances. At the same time pastoralists’ Agropastoralism and agro-breeding highly prevail families tend to settle down without altering their in this region. livestock. This partial sedentarization enables these than sedentary livestock

In Niger

of livestock is owned by agro-breeders and agropastoralists living in the south 60% of the country. SOURCE Republic of Niger3

pastoralists are more than just livestock producers

So called “pastoral” livestock farming is now a exchange for labour), craftsmanship, transportation complex system which involves different activities of goods or people… Pastoralism often represents and additional income sources: agriculture, livestock only one part of the families’ resources. “Pure” trading, fattening, para-veterinary professions, pastoralism doesn’t exist anymore. agricultural services (work days, animal loan in

of family farms analysed in the research by APESS (Association for the promotion of livestock farming in Sahel and Savannah) resort to 80% extra-pastoral activities. SOURCE Apess4

The agropastoral farming system prevails across all West Africa TRUETRUE 4 2

<< Mobile livestock are less productive FALSEFALSE<< than sedentary livestock

Transhumant livestock herding is productive

Contrary to a widespread belief transhumant live- it is, the more productive! In mobile systems the stock farming is more productive than sedentary productivity per hectare is even higher than ranch- pastoral farming in West Africa. The more mobile ing productivity in the USA or Australia

Annual rate of reproduction in sedentary, transhumant and nomadic herds in Niger Annual rate of reproduction in sedentary, transhumant and nomadic herds in Niger 5 69% 61% 65% 69% 61% 6 %

Sedentary Transhumant Nomadic Sedentary Transhumant Nomadic

SOURCE De Verdière, C.P5

Productivity comparison between 2 zones with low rainfall ProductivityPrecipitations < comparison 500 mm/year between 2 zones with low rainfall Precipitations < 500 mm/year Between 0,6 and 3,2 kg of animal protein per hectare per year Between 0,6 and 3,2 kg of animal protein per hectare per year

Between 0,3 and 0,5 kg of animal protein per hectare per year Between 0,3 and 0,5 kg of animal protein per hectare per year

Animals raised Fulah’s transhumant herds on AustralianAnimals and American raised ranches Fulah’s transhumantin Mali herds

on Australian and American ranches in Mali SOURCE Krummel, J.et Dritschilo, S.6

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 5 It is mobility that allows livestock farmers to be so productive

Mobility represents an essential component to the Livestock is made up of a diversity of species which herds’ productivity. It allows it to benefit from fod- are adapted to harsh environmental conditions and der resources which vary in quantity and quality each has their own dietary needs. Mobility is also es- in different areas during the year. The Sahelian re- sential in the production and trade cycle : the on foot gion is usually characterised by an alternation of a travelling process allows the animals to gradually long dry season (8 to 9 months) followed by a short “finish”, providing the food they need during the jour- rainy season (3 to 4 months) which directly im- ney before being sold at markets at reception zones. pact the available vegetation and fodder resources. However the quantity of rainfall varies from one year to another with some years more or less wet. By moving, the animals select the food they need.

Sahelian countries alternate between dry and wet years

1950

W -1 et y s ea r r 1960 a p e e y r s t i e s t w e n d c

n y

2000

1970 g

1990 1980 cy en sist Dry year per

1 Standardised rainfall index Rainfall index in all of the Sahelian stations of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel

SOURCE Agrhymet

6 Mobility is key to pastoralists' resilience

Herd mobility is an effective response to many risks impact not only the farmers’ living standards but faced by pastoralists (drought, epizooties, civil in- also the local market supply and national economy. security…). This mobility is all the more important The increasing use of mobile phones by farmers when animals die, years are needed before the herd has improved access to information, in particular returns to its initial level. Losses therefore strongly about the state of resources and markets.

2014 drought 91% of the livestock leaves in transhumance

North of Senegal End of drought 87% of the livestock returns from transhumance

Only 4% of the livestock left in transhumance haven’t returned (animal sales, losses) Mobility has helped to save family and national livestock.

SOURCE Acting For Life-Nordic Consulting Group, Brigitte Thébaud7

Making livestock farming sedentary in West Africa: a high cost

Mobile systems enable a higher production per tal costs. Intensive sustainable sedentary systems hectare than sedentary ranching systems. Seden- can hardly be considered in West Africa. The re- tary systems are nevertheless more productive if gion offers limited space for possible settlement: in we take into account the animal production per arid zones animal feed and water aren’t available head of livestock. However this productivity per all year round; in agropastoral zones competition animal has high economic, social and environmen- over land is already high.

Production cost 720 FCFA 2 460 FCFA

1 Kg 1 Kg

Transhumant system Intensive system

SOURCE FAO8

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 7 Sedentary livestock farming "pollutes" more than mobile farming

Settling herds amplifies environmental risks due According to recent research a “Livestock Stand- do the continuous pressure the animals put on lo- ard Unit” (i.e. a 250 kg live weight animal) would cal forage resources. Degraded pasture lands often emit in total over a year, nearly fifty percent less go hand in hand with sedentary livestock farming methane than the regional norms proposed by the sites. On the contrary mobility allows this pressure Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). to be limited by avoiding overgrazing and under- Regarding gashouse emissions, the net result of the grazing. It even encourages the regeneration of silvopastoral ecosystem would generally balance several species as a result of seed dispersal. out over the year; gashouse emissions would be compensated by carbon storage after a whole year.

According to a study carried out in Senegal, a Tropical Livestock Unit emits 24 kg of methane per year this being nearly ﬁfty percent less emission than the factor proposed by IPCC

The net result of the silvopastoral ecosystem would generally balance out over the year; gashouse emissions would be compensated by carbon storage after a whole year.

SOURCE Mohamed Habibou Assouma9

Livestock mobility is the key to its productivity TRUETRUE

8 3

Transhumant livestock herding << contributes little<< to national economies FALSEFALSE

Livestock farming is an important economic activity in West Africa

Livestock farming strongly contributes to the are the most traded products between West African regional states’ GDP in particular in Sahelian coun- countries. Livestock farming is a driving force be- tries. It is also one of the main activities generating hind regional economic integration. revenue in these countries’ trade balance. Livestock

In Burkina, Mali and Niger

2 1 3 Pastoralism contributes Products originating from pastoral farming represent the up to15%of the GDP 3rd largest export product

SOURCE BAD/OCDE ; Apess10

pastoralism creates a parallel economy to the production

gropastoral systems provide many things such as duce skin, wool and leather. They therefore supply the supply of high protein foods (milk, meat), ma- an entire economy and provide a considerable nure (for soil fertilisation) and energy (transport, amount of employment in the production chain. water extraction, animal traction). They also pro-

Energy, animals can be used High protein food (milk, meat) to transport agricultural products, sold to consumers or third parties for working in ﬁelds who transform these products (dairy, wholesale meat)

PASTORAL SYSTEMS

Manure used to fertilise Skin, wool, leather agricultural lands used to produce and sell clothes, bags, objects

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 9 Transhumant pastoralists contribute to the economy of their transit territories

Mobile pastoralists pay many taxes while in tran- been developed in cross-border communication sit, whether is it to access resources or to sell their areas. They generate multiple economic activities animals at the market. They sell and buy good and obtain important fiscal resources for local au- during their journey. They therefore supply the thorities. economies they pass through. Big markets have

During a transhumance a farmer’s family spends on average 1 230 000 FCA split between 17 types of expenditure

44% livestock feed

22% food

7% veterinary products

4% telephone

4% water costs

3% access to pasture lands

...

SOURCE Acting For Life-Nordic Consulting Group, Brigitte Thébaud 7

Exporting frozen carcasses rather than live animals: not such a good idea

Most of the intra-regional meat trade is in the It also neglects the fact that many buyers rely on form of live animals. Yet some think that Sahe- the physical appearance of the live animal to esti- lian countries should rather slaughter animals on mate the quality of the product. Finally it ignores their territory and sell frozen carcasses to coastal the reality that the export of frozen carcasses countries. According to them this would enable would be mainly intended for a market (supermar- the Sahelian countries to increase the added val- kets, butchers) in which competition with products ue of their products and reduce the movement of from the rest of the world is severe. Building live animals in the region which is often source slaughterhouses in Sahelian countries is important of violent conflicts. However it doesn’t take into in particular to supply these countries’ markets. account that the actual system of moving live ani- The export of live animals to coastal countries mals by foot allows coastal countries’ markets to be remains a rational and efficient system. In fact supplied with quality meat at low prices while sup- in 2015 France exported more than a million live porting thousands of people along the value chain. heads of cattle over 80 kg (Eurostat).

Transhumant livestock farming is fully integrated into the regional economy TRUETRUE

10 << Pastoral farming divides << 4 opinion in the region FALSEFALSE Transhumant livestock herding is Sahel's main rural activity

Livestock mobility is associated to conflicts, some- enables the development of widespread territo- times extremely violent. Mainly due to a rising ries non-adapted to crops. In certain rural zones pressure on resources and increasing barriers to it is therefore an essential source of employment livestock mobility, these conflicts drive many deci- and revenue. Particularly in Sahel it represents the sion makers to prefer sedentary livestock farming main rural economic activity where few lawful al- systems. Yet only transhumant livestock mobility ternatives exist.

NIGER $ 69%$ 43% of population revenue of rural revenue in the pastoral zone in the Sahelian zone comes from livestock farming comes from livestock BURKINA farming FASO

Sahelian zone Niger’s pastoral zone

SOURCE Apess11

Herd mobility leads to strong ties between communities

Herd mobility is only possible thanks to social and donation of animals, storage of mobile herders’ networks which are constantly renewed and main- food by sedentary farmers, guarding of herders’ tained particularly with resident livestock farmers. plots by villagers during transhumance. With the These relationships are partly based on important development of systems integrating agriculture and trades between communities: donations and trade livestock farming these links are of course reduced of food (cereals, livestock), guarding of settled pasto- but remain important. ralists’ livestock by herders on transhumance, loan FARMS SEDENTARY HERDERS

Food donations Guarding of settled Storage of mobile Guarding Use of breeders’ and trade pastoralists’ herders’ food by of herders’ plots animals to fertilise livestock by herders sedentary farmers by villagers during farmers’ lands on transhumance transhumance

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 11 Transhumance farming is an important factor for regional integration

Breeding probably represents the most region- of thousands of animals cross the Sahelian coun- ally integrated activity in West Africa and Sahel. tries’ borders to supply coastal countries’ markets. Livestock products are the leading item in the Animals convoyed by foot add value to resources food industry trade and the second most impor- during the entire journey. Physical insecurity un- tant in the overall commercial trade. Hundreds fortunately increasingly hinders this mobility.

Estimated bovine and small ruminant trade flows

Bovine flows > 300 000 heads/year Bovine flows > 100 000 - 300 000 heads/year Bovine flows > 20 000 - 100 000 heads/year Bovine flows < 20 000 heads/year

Small ruminant flows > 2 000 000 heads/year Small ruminant flows > 300 000 - 2 000 000 heads/year Primary small ruminant flows 100 000 - 300 000 heads/year Secondary small ruminant flows 20 000 - 100 000 heads/year

MAURITANIA MALI NIGER

CHAD SENEGAL GAMBIA

GUINEA- BI AO BURKINA GUINEA FASO

SIER RA

NIN NIGERIA

LEONE CÔTE E B D'IVOIRE TOGO

GHANA CENTRAL LIBERIA AFRICAN REPUBLIC

CAMER N

SOURCE IRAM, Issala, LARES12

Transhumant livestock farming 1961 contributes to the integration MALI of regional territories TRUETRUE 12

Bovins | bufﬂes

5 << Herd transhumance << is only cross-border FALSEFALSE Herd mobility is also local

The mobility isn’t only cross-border. Daily move- transnational crossings. Creating reception zones ments of a few kilometres allow the exploitation and corridors is not enough to preserve mobility. of surrounding pasture lands. In Senegal transhu- This doesn’t solve the issue of local mobility and mance are mainly internal with animal movement doesn’t correspond to the actual situation of breed- towards the Groundnut Basin and oriental Senegal. ers whose rangelands change depending on risks This local mobility is fundamental for animal feed- and opportunities. ing. It is as important and complex to manage as

Intra-national and cross-border transhumance in 2013

MAROCO

ALGERIA LIBYA WESTERN SAHARA

MAURITANIA

MALI TCHAD

NIGER

SENEGAL SUDAN GAMBIA

BURKINA GUINEA- FASO BIAO GUINEA

SIER RA NIGERIA LEONE NIN

CÔTE E B D'IVOIRE TOGO LIBERIA GHANA CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC CAMER N

Cross-border transhumance Wet season Dry season direction Intra-national transhumance direction

SOURCE Touré et al13 1961 MALI

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 13

Bovins | bufﬂes Mobility isn't frozen

Routes taken by pastoralists and their herds are recent years transhumance have expanded to- dynamic. They evolve depending on opportunity wards more humid southern regions, often near (existence of water points, social bonds) and con- very cultivated regions. The aspects of mobility straints (civil insecurity, sanitary crises). Some also evolve with the use of technology such as tele- movements are regular, others occasional. During phones and lorries. 1960

Expansion of transhumance itinerary in Chad

NOUNA 2017

DÉDOUGOU 2014 1960 SOLENZA

Arab‘s rangeland

FAYA (LARGEAU) BOBO- DIOULAO

BANOFA

Mbororo‘s rangeland

Kredas‘ rangeland

AbÉchÉ

NDJAMENA

SAHR

MOUNDOU SOURCE Republic of Chad, Iram14

Livestock mobility is dynamic and complex

TRUETRUE

14 What will be tomorrow’s challenges? resources under increasing pressure

The development of agropastoralism has led to a tures into rice fields, monopolisation of pastoral complementarity reduction between pastoralists water points by groups of famers or settled ones, and livestock breeders. Simultaneously livestock non-compliance with agropastoral calendars. This and population increase while cultivated areas ex- situation creates conflicts, sometimes very violent. pand. New actors are emerging in some regions: It is however possible to prevent and manage these land developers, extractive industries (oil, mines conflicts by securing pastoral mobility by introduc- and water) and private ranches. Pressures on nat- ing clear and consensual regulations of access to ural resources are being reinforced which lead to resources and establishing a conflict management activities disturbing herds’ mobility: cultivation framework. of pastoral rangelands, transformation of pas-

Expansion of cultivated surfaces since 1975

Cultivated lands 1975 | 562 700 km ²

Expansion of cultivated lands 2013 | 686 400 km ²

SOURCE Cilss, 201615

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 15 A growing demand for farming products

Valuations estimate that within the next 20 years the quick changes in demand, in quantity and qual- there’ll be at least double the number of livestock ity. The sharp rise in imports particularly of milk products. An increasing amount of consumers are powder and poultry meat allows populations’ food demanding a better quality of products (hygiene, needs to be met. In the long run this strategy of re- continuous cold chain, modernisation of butch- sorting to high extra-regional imports has proven ering, packaging…). To answers these concerns, to be costly and risky. The sharp increase in prices important changes are needed throughout the pro- of some food products in 2007-2008 has shown the duction chain. Livestock and animal production are danger of such a dependence on imports. increasing but are having trouble keeping up with

Evolution of extra-African meat imports to West Africa

615 807

47646 222 125 78868 82083

1970-1979 2010-2013 Quantity (in tonnes) 1980-1989 1990-1999 Value (in thousands of dollars) 2000-2009 SOURCE Faostat

An increase in climate risks

It is difficult to accurately predict the impacts of cli- threshold of loss, this rebuilding becomes impossi- mate change in West Africa, but experts agree that ble. But we can prevent and above all manage these there is a greater risk of extreme weather events risks, by developing information systems on mete- (droughts, heavy rains, floods). The vulnerability orological and fodder conditions that are accessible of agropastoral populations is all the greater as the to agropastoral farmers as well as social nets adapt- mortality of livestock has an impact over several ed to mobile breeders (livestock insurance, livestock years. Herd-rebuilding takes time; from a certain feedstocks, herd rebuildingt...). 70% 80% 90% 50% Reconstitution time estimation for a bovine herd according to the level of losses

90% 85 years

60% 30 years

30% 10 years

20% 3 years

% of losses within the herd

Number of years to restock the herd

SOURCE Tacher G.16

16 Mobility, is the key to sustainable and effective livestock farming

Addressing these different challenges will require Several countries of West Africa have adopted the implementation of policies adapted to the is- since the 1990s pastoral laws. Their main goal is sues faced by livestock farmers in their territories to guarantee access to pastoral resources and pre- and coherent on a regional level. Such policies will serve farmers’ and herds’ mobility. At a regional need to include a diversity of factors responding level ECOWAS adopted in 1998 the “Decision A/ to farmers’ diverse needs: animal health servic- DEC.5/10/98” to manage cross-border transhu- es, processing and marketing structures, wells mance. and drilling networks, strengthening the skill of farmers’ organisations, conflict prevention and It will take some time for these policies to become management frameworks, climate crisis preven- fully operational. The transition from text to im- tion and management, etc. plementation in the field remains difficult. There is also a lack of harmonisation with other official However these measures won’t be enough if texts (on water, forests, protected areas) and ambi- pastoralists’ and herds’ mobility is increasingly guities particularly on the key aspect of “pastoral hindered. This mobility whether local, national or promotion” (which theoretically gives a legal rec- cross-border is essential for the productivity and ognition). Local mobility is too often “forgotten” durability of the region’s pastoral systems. It is a by policies and programs whereas most “regional” key aspect of these systems. programs don’t apply to Sahelian countries.

Pastoral legislation situation in West Africa

Year of the pastoral legislation adoption

2000 MAURITANIA 2001 MALI 2010 NIGER 1995 chad SENEGAL 2002 BuRKINA FASO GUINEA

NIGERIA NIN E B

Countries having adopted a pastoral legislation. Countries where a pastoral legislation is in process. In Nigeria pastoral laws exist in the north of the country. These laws aim to restrict livestock farmers to reserved farming areas (11 states) therefore limiting the animal movement between states. In Chad a pastoral code was adopted in 2014 by the National Assembly

but removed a few weeks later by the president as a result of SOURCE Réseau Bilital Maroobé17 strong opposition to this law.

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 17 Bibliography and acknowledgment

1 Meyer C., ed. sc., 2017, Dictionnaire des Sciences Animales. [On line]. Montpellier, France, Cirad. [15/02/2017]. http://dico-sciences-animales.cirad.fr

2 FAO statistics, 2017. Figures from the FAO are based on old census and growing livestock estimations. Studies have shown that they are often highly underestimated. However revisions take place regularly. Despite some limitations these figures form an interesting database.

3 Republic of Niger, 2004

4 Loïc Barbedette, 2013. Profils d’exploitations familiales d’éleveurs en Afrique de l’Ouest et en Afrique Centrale. Summary illustrated by 33 case studies and 130 studies completed in 2010 and 2013 by APESS.

5 De Verdière, C.P. (1995) Les conséquences de la sédentarisation de l’élevage au Sahel. Étude comparée de trois systèmes agropastoraux dans la région de Filangué, Niger. Thesis presented for the doctoral graduation at the Institut national agronomique Paris-Grignon, 220 p.)

6 Krummel, J. and Dritschilo, S. (1977) Resource cost of animal protein production. World Animal Review 21(6) and Breman, H. and De Wit, C.T. (1983) Rangeland productivity and exploitation in the Sahel. Science, New Series, 221 (4618): 1345. )

7 Acting For Life (AFL)-Nordic Consulting Group (NCG), Brigitte THEBAUD, 2017. Pastoral and agropastoral resilience in Sahel: transhumance portraits 2014-2015 and 2015-2016 (Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger). Study carried out for the “Projet de Renforcement de la Résilience de l’Economie Familiale grâce à la productivité de l’élevage dans le sud et l’est de la Mauritanie” (PRREF) financed by the European Union and for the “Projet de Renforcement de la Résilience par la Mobilité du Bétail” as part of the BRACED programme of the British cooperation UKAid. This study was conducted in collaboration with ISRA-BAM Dakar (Astou Diao Camara and Mouhamed Rassoul) for researches on the 2014-2015 transhumance and with Christian Corniaux, Jéremy Bourgoin, Tangara Pape Ousmane (CIRAD-Dakar) for the counting operations along the transhumance corridors.

8 FAO, April 2014, Capitalisation des appuis au développement du pastoralisme au Burkina Faso.

9 Mohamed Habibou Assouma, 2016. Approche écosystémique du bilan des gaz à effet de serre d’un territoire sylvo-pastoral sahélien : contribution de l’élevage. Thesis directed by Martial Bernoux and co-supervised by Jonathan Vayssières. Institute of Technology for Life, Food and Environmental Sciences (AgroParisTech).

10 BAD, OCDE. 2009. Perspectives économiques en Afrique ; APESS. 2014. Eléments de bilan du soutien public à l’élevage au Burkina-Faso, au Mali et au Niger depuis Maputo

11 APESS. 2014. Eléments de bilan du soutien public à l’élevage au Burkina-Faso, au Mali et au Niger depuis Maputo

12 Blein, R. et al. 2015. Analyse – diagnostic et propositions en faveur de la fluidification des échanges dans le Couloir Central (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire). Banque mondiale, CORAF, CEDEAO.

13 Touré, I., Ickowicz, A., Wane, A., Garba, I., Gerber, P. 2012. Atlas des évolutions des systèmes pastoraux au Sahel. Système d’information sur le pastoralisme au Sahel. Rome, FAO, CIRAD.

14 Projet du Système d’Information pour le Développement Rural et l’Aménagement du Territoire – SIDRAT, cited by Guibert, B., Bechir, A. B., Madjidé, D. 2014. Étude prospective : État des lieux et éléments stratégiques pour le développement pastoral au Tchad. Republic of Chad, Iram.

15 CILSS (2016). Les Paysages de l’Afrique de l’Ouest : Une Fenêtre sur un Monde en Pleine Évolution. U.S. Geological Survey EROS, 47914 252nd St, Garretson, SD 57030, UNITED STATES.

16 Tacher G., 1975, Notes sur la démographie bovine au Sahel. Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux. IEMVT, 28 (4)

17 RBM, 2014. L’implication de la société civile pastorale dans l’élaboration de la loi pastorale au Niger ; quels enseignements ?

18 This document was written with the support of Inter-réseaux. We would like to extend special thanks to: Serge Aubague, Christian Berger, Bernard Bonnet, Christian Corniaux, Arnaud François, Brigitte Thebaud and Hélène Vidon. Anna Savage | Translation www.marmelade.be et infographies Graphisme

Pastoral livestock farming in Sahel and West Africa: 5 preconceptions put to the test | 19