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Post-capitalism by design not disaster

This article examines how to proactively design the end of rather than simply Samuel waiting for its collapse. It argues that capitalism is unable to resolve the emerging crises, for capitalism cannot function without , yet for ecological Alexander economic growth cannot continue. However, there is a coherent alternative political About the author – – and the emergence of various grassroots alternatives that, Samuel is a lecturer with the suitably scaled up, could help to form a post-capitalist economy. But our is not Office for Environmental yet ready to embrace degrowth, with affluence and techno-optimism still at Programs, University of the heart of conceptions of the ‘good life’. Nonetheless, it is important to Melbourne, Melbourne, keep alive these ideas of what an ecocentric, post-capitalist economy could look like, VIC, Australia. He is also for in a crisis what today seems impossible or implausible can suddenly become possible a research fellow with the Melbourne Sustainable and even probable. Institute.

his article addresses the subject of of capitalism, although perhaps that says Citation post-capitalist . more about a sterility of contemporary Alexander S (2020) Post- That is an intimidating topic, political imagination than it does about our T capitalism by design not especially since transcending capitalism future. This exploratory article will disaster. The Ecological Citizen will be a monumental task. Capitalism some thoughts on what might come after 3(Suppl B): 13–21. certainly is not going to lie down like a capitalism and how we might manage and lamb at the polite request of left-leaning drive this transition by design rather than Keywords environmentalists. What this means is that disaster. Ecological ; and justice advocates with I say by design not disaster, hinting at a limits; societal change; radical visions of societal futures need to certain optimism, however it will become sustainability think very carefully about the question clear that there is, in fact, an underlying of strategy. More specifically, we must that shapes my perspective – confront the question of where and how a pessimism which some readers might to invest our time, energy and , share. Or, perhaps rather than ‘pessimism,’ if we genuinely seek a fundamentally a better term to describe my orientation different type of ‘beyond might be ‘apocaloptimism.’ This neologism capitalism.’1 can be defined as the view that ‘everything Attempting to save capitalism through is going to hell but that things might still so-called ‘green growth’ is increasingly turn out okay.’ While in truth I am neither recognized as little more than neoliberal apocalyptic nor optimistic, this term does , the function of which is to entrench evoke something of the grounded but the status quo while pretending to change cautious hope that will inform my analysis. (Smith, 2016; Hickel and Kallis, 2019). And It will be argued that deepening crisis in yet hopes for an imminent proletarian the current system is probably unavoidable uprising that abolishes capitalism and now; for a range of reasons, our time for erects an eco-socialist governed a smooth transition may have passed. by an enlightened centralized seems Nevertheless, I certainly will not use that equally misconceived. This paucity of hope to justify inaction or despair; quite the has led critical theorist Frederic Jameson opposite. Indeed, the instability created (2003) to note that it is now easier to by systemic crisis may be one of the imagine the end of the world than the end prerequisites for deep societal change –

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unsettling though that is to admit. Our cultural conditions for a and challenge will be to turn deepening crises, of degrowth to emerge. as they emerge, into opportunities to create something other than capitalism: a Prerequisites for a degrowth post-capitalist society that better accords transition with our shared ideals for justice, Recently the Danish political ecological viability and human flourishing. Hubert Buch-Hansen (2018) published If capitalism is coming to an end in a paper which outlined a conceptual coming years or decades as it collides with framework that is useful for thinking about various ecological and financial limits, we how shifts in political economy can ask ourselves: how can we proactively occur. He argues that there are four main design the end of capitalism rather than wait prerequisites. There must be: for its collapse? Or even, if necessary, how 1 a crisis or series of crises that cannot be can we design the collapse of capitalism resolved within the existing political in ways that makes the best of a bad economy; situation? These are the questions of an 2 a coherent alternative political project; apocaloptimist. 3 a comprehensive coalition of social forces Over the last ten years I have been part attempting to produce the alternative of a movement advocating for a ‘degrowth’ paradigm through political struggle and process of planned economic contraction social activism; (Alexander, 2009, 2015a, 2015b; Alexander 4 broad-based cultural – even and Gleeson, 2019). In what follows I am passive consent – for the new paradigm. going to use this alternative economic paradigm to frame and analyse the political I am going to adopt this framework, add economy of post-capitalism. I don’t expect my own analytical flesh to its theoretical anyone to like the terminology of degrowth bones, and use it to discuss the question of – I know very well it is an ugly term – and a degrowth transition to a post-capitalist it may never be the banner under which a society. I hope this provides a useful and social or political movement marches. But provocative broad-ranging analysis to get as a slogan for justice and sustainability, this special issue underway, although I I maintain that degrowth captures an am sure I will raise more questions than I “The first essential insight: it directly evokes, more answer. prerequisite for a clearly than any other term, the need for planned contraction of the energy Capitalism is not in crisis paradigm shift in and of overgrown or – capitalism is the crisis the existing political ‘developed’ . That is an agenda The first prerequisite, then, for a paradigm economy is crisis.” that mainstream environmental and shift in the existing political economy is social discourse refuses to acknowledge, crisis – but not just any crisis. It must be a because significant contraction of energy crisis or series of crises in the system that and resource demands is incompatible the system itself cannot resolve. There are with ongoing growth in GDP. This growth many reasons to think this prerequisite fetish must be overcome (Hickel and is met. Kallis, 2019). Growth economics is sometimes called The following sections offer some the ‘ideology of the cancer cell,’ and this thoughts on why the degrowth paradigm provocative metaphor neatly summarizes signifies the most coherent political the fatal anomaly in capitalism, namely, economy for a post-capitalist society and that on the one hand, it must keep growing how such a transition might unfold. I will for stability, and, on the other hand, for also highlight the role grassroots social various ecological and financial reasons, it movements and alternative economic simply cannot keep growing. Like a chorus experiments may need to play prefiguring of others, I do not believe capitalism can degrowth economies and creating the resolve this fundamental ,

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which is creating conditions for a new, post- Earth, increasing by about 200,000 people capitalist paradigm to replace it. Today, a everyday. Recent projections from the range of theorists (from radical reformers, United suggest we are heading to eco-anarchists and eco-socialists) argue for around 9.7 billion by mid-century and that degrowth is a necessary feature of any 11 billion by 2100. coherent macroeconomic alternative (Kallis All this calls radically into question et al., 2018). the legitimacy of continuous economic The clearest way to understand the expansion and rising material living multidimensional crisis of capitalism is standards in rich nations. And yet, despite to grasp the so-called ‘limits to growth’ the fact that humanity is already making predicament, which I will now review very grossly unsustainable demands on a finite briefly, and this will also help frame and biosphere, all nations on the planet – define the post-capitalist alternative of including or especially the richest nations By a wide range degrowth. – are seeking to grow their economies “ without apparent limit. It is assumed that of indicators, the Limits to growth: A restatement a larger economy is always better; that global economy is By a wide range of indicators, the global ongoing growth is necessary for ‘.’ now exceeding the economy is now exceeding the sustainable One does not have to be a sophisticated sustainable carrying carrying capacity of the planet. Climate thinker to see that this is a recipe for change is perhaps the most prominent ecological disaster, although alarmingly capacity of the ecological transgression, but there is this point seems to be lost on almost all planet.” also biodiversity loss, resource depletion, politicians and most . pollution, deforestation, and a long list of other deeply unsustainable impacts. In the Capitalism cannot resolve its haunting words of James Lovelock (2010), ecological the face of Gaia is vanishing. In theory, there are two broad ways It is important to understand the extent of to respond to the limits to growth ecological overshoot, because responding predicament within capitalism. The first appropriately to the global predicament is to try to create a form of capitalism that depends on a clear understanding of our deliberately stops growing and actually situation. The ecological footprint analysis voluntarily contracts in order to operate indicates that humanity would need within sustainable limits. The problem 1.7 planets if the existing global economy here is that there are various growth could be sustained over the long term (Global imperatives built into the structure of Footprint Network, 2019). If the capitalism, which makes the notion of or Australian way of life were globalized ‘degrowth capitalism’ a contradiction in to the world’s population, humanity would terms (to be distinguished of course from need four or five planets worth of biocapacity, capitalism in , which is unplanned implying a need to reduce our ‘’ economic contraction). impacts by 75% or more. Therefore, the only other means of Despite the global economy being in resolving the limits to growth predicament this state of ecological overshoot, it is also within capitalism is to radically decouple known that billions of people on the planet economic activity from environmental are, by any humane standard, under- impact through what is called ‘green consuming (Hickel, 2017). If these people growth.’ The hope here is that technological are to raise their living standards to some , mechanisms and dignified level of material sufficiency, as efficiency improvements will reduce they have every right to do, it is likely that energy and resource demands even as this will place further burdens on already economies continue to grow in terms of overburdened ecosystems. GDP. Nice in theory, perhaps, but what is To make matters more challenging happening is that the absolute reductions still, there are now 7.7 billion people on in energy and resource demands needed

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for sustainability are not occurring – would also need to achieve some ‘steady certainly not to sufficient degrees – and as state’ in time, but first their economic the global economy seeks ongoing growth, capacities must be developed in some absolute decoupling gets harder and harder appropriate form to ensure basic needs to achieve (Kallis, 2017; Hickel and Kallis, for all are met. However, the focus of this 2019). Efficiency without sufficiency is lost. discussion is the wealthy nations. This brings us to the most egregious flaw in growth economics, which is the apparent An alternative political project failure to understand the exponential The second prerequisite for a paradigm function and its ecological implications. shift in political economy – for a degrowth Post-growth economist Tim Jackson transition, in particular – is the existence (2009) has shown that if the OECD nations of an alternative political project. This is not grew their economies by a modest 2% the forum to comprehensively defend this over coming decades and by 2050 a global alternative political project, so I am just population of nine billion had achieved going to state it, or one version of it, in order similar per capita, the global to show that an alternative post-capitalist economy would be fifteen times larger than political project is beginning to take form. it is today. It is obvious that ecological limits The following political agenda is, in my will not permit that scenario to eventuate. view, both coherent and attractive, but it Even an economy twice as large as today’s is, all too obviously, disconnected from economy would surely wreak ecological political ‘realism’ in developed nations (or havoc. The critical point is that the degree anywhere) today. Of course, I would argue “Capitalism wants or of ‘decoupling’ required to make ongoing that this is an indictment of mainstream needs what it cannot growth ‘sustainable’ is simply too great. politics, rather than of degrowth. However, So capitalism wants or needs what it the political and social unpalatability of have: that is, limitless cannot have: that is, limitless growth on a degrowth is a point to which I will return, growth on a finite finite planet. This ecological predicament because it has implications for the question planet.” is the defining contradiction of capitalism of strategy. But as an exercise in political in the , insofar as growth is imagination, these policies could initiate a now causing the problems that growth was transition to a degrowth society. supposed to be solving. This suggests that n Alternatives to GDP: Any political the first prerequisite of a paradigm shift transition beyond capitalism requires in political economy is well and truly met: transcending the GDP fetish (Hamilton, capitalism is facing a multi-dimensional 2003) and establishing better and more crisis that it cannot resolve, and therefore, nuanced ways to measure societal sooner or later, capitalism will come to an progress, such as the Genuine Progress end. The question of our time, as stated in Indicator (see Kubiszewski et al. [2013]). my introductory comments, is how to make Post-growth measures of progress like the transition beyond capitalism by design this open up space for political parties rather than disaster. to implement policy and institutional The crisis of ecological overshoot also changes – including those which I am provides insight into what any alternative about to review – which would genuinely must look like. Broadly speaking, the improve social wellbeing and enhance implications here are clear but radical: if ecological conditions, even if these would the global economy is to operate within not increase, and probably even decrease, the sustainable carrying capacity of the GDP. planet, this requires (among other things) n Diminishing resource caps: If the rich, the richest nations to initiate a degrowth overgrown economies are serious about process of planned economic contraction, moving toward a just and sustainable on the path to a ‘steady state’ economy human inhabitation of Earth, then first, of stable and sustainable biophysical we must acknowledge that we are hugely throughput. Obviously, the poorest nations over-consuming our fair share of global

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resources, and second, we must institute less on healthcare per capita (Hamblin, diminishing resource caps which put 2016). This suggests that there is ample strict limits on national resource flows. room to provide for basic services in an Fortunately, this would incentivize affordable way while also making more the efficient use of resources and dis- public available to fund other social incentivize waste, and lead to degrowth in projects (like a Universal Basic Income or ecological impacts. Eco-socialists would renewable energy technologies). argue that reducing societal material n Renewable energy transition: In and energy flows will require significant anticipation of the foreseeable stagnation of key industries for and eventual decline of fossil fuel stability during the planned contraction supplies, and recognizing the grave (e.g. Smith, 2016) whereas eco-anarchists dangers presented by climate change, a would argue that a confederation of small degrowth economy would divest from self-governing communities would be fossil fuels and invest in a renewable the better path (e.g. Trainer, 2010). This energy transition with the urgency of debate is likely to continue (Alexander ‘ time’ mobilization. This will be and Burdon, 2017) and it may be this much more affordable and technically controversy can only be resolved through feasible if energy across society practical experimentation not theory. is greatly reduced, and that is a key n Reduced working hours (in the formal feature of a degrowth society (Alexander economy): One obvious implication and Floyd, 2018). The energy transition of diminishing resource caps is that a needed cannot just involve ‘greening’ lot less resource-intensive the of energy, it must also involve and would take place in a greatly reduced demand. This means degrowth economy. This would almost anticipating and managing what David certainly lead to reduced GDP. To avoid Holmgren calls ‘the energy descent the that typically flows future’ (Holmgren, 2018). from declining GDP, a degrowth economy n Banking and finance: Our systems of would reduce in the formal economy banking and finance currently have and share available work amongst the a built into their working population. Financial security structures. Any degrowth society would Any degrowth in a contracting economy could be have to create systems that did not “ maintained through policies such as a require growth for stability. Debt jubilees society would have to Universal Basic Income, Universal Basic would probably be required, especially create systems that Services or a Job Guarantee. with respect to the poorest nations. These did not require growth n Rethink spending: Cur- are particularly complex issues and the for stability. rently, shape many of their forces of opposition will be fierce. But the ” policies and spend much of their money in point is that any post-growth transition order to promote economic growth. Under is going to require deep changes to the a degrowth paradigm, it follows that the most fundamental financial ways government spend their funds would of capitalism. need to be fundamentally reconsidered. n Population policies: This is always For example, fewer airports, roads, and controversial territory, especially in an equipment; more bike lanes and age of Trump, but the environmental public transport. How we spend our money logic is compelling. As population grows, is one way to vote for what exists in the more resources are required to provide world. Rethinking government spending for the material conditions of human would also need to go hand in hand with wellbeing. As Paul Ehrlich once said, transformations in the systemic provision “whatever problem you’re interested in, of basic services. For example, Cubans you’re not going to solve it unless you also have better health on average than US solve the population problem.” I will not citizens and yet spend an estimated 90% suggest specific policies here; the point is

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that we need to discuss this topic openly economic project is emerging to replace and with all the wisdom and compassion the capitalist paradigm. So, the second we can muster (e.g. Kuhleman, 2018). prerequisite for a paradigm shift is also Population policy must be part of any arguably present, which is to say: there is a coherent politics of sustainability in coherent, alternative political economy. recognition that we live on a ‘full Earth.’ Nevertheless, as implied above, I am the n Distributive justice: Last but not least, first to admit that this policy platform, environmental concerns cannot be coherent though it may be (to my mind), isolated from concerns, is so unpalatable to the dominant cultural both nationally and globally. The consciousness that it would be political conventional path to poverty alleviation suicide for any political party to try to is via the strategy of GDP growth, on the implement it at present. In other words, assumption that a ‘rising tide will lift what is arguably politically necessary is all boats.’ A degrowth economy would both socially and politically unthinkable recognize that a rising tide will sink – which is one , no doubt, for all boats, and thus poverty alleviation our current state of despairing political must be achieved much more directly. paralysis. Rather than growing the economic pie, Because of this situation, whereby the a politics of degrowth would slice the politically necessary is unthinkable, I economic pie differently through a major would argue that the policy platform redistribution of and power. outlined is unlikely to initiate a degrowth Prominent policies in this space include transition, but will only ever be the outcome the notion of a Universal Basic Income, of social movements; the outcome, that is, while others argue for a Job Guarantee, of social forces that emerge out of crisis or or Universal Basic Services (see Mitchell a series of crises and which actively create and Wray [2005] and Frankel [2018]). the cultural consciousness that see policies These types of policies would go a long for degrowth as both necessary and way to directly eliminating poverty, with desirable (Alexander and Gleeson, 2019). It inequality further reduced by policies is through crisis that I see the citizenries such as maximum legislation, and in affluent being shaken awake Our best hope for “ progressive wealth, income and land from the depoliticizing effects of affluence. inducing a degrowth . Again, eco-socialists would argue Encountering crises can play, and might transition by design that a just and have to play, an essential consciousness- is to build a post- power would have to involve significant raising role, if it triggers a desire to learn of and curtailment about the structural underpinnings of the capitalist economics of ‘the market.’ How far socialization crisis situation itself. ‘from below’.” would need to go, and the nature of such While I do not deny the need for, and a transformation, is obviously open to desirability of, deep structural changes in debate. the nature of our economic and political systems, what I am proposing is that a These policy platforms – all in need, post-capitalist government may only be of course, of far more elaboration and the outcome, not the driving force, of a discussion – are coherent political, transition to a just and sustainable society. economic and social goals if a transition In other words, our best hope for inducing to a degrowth society were recognized as a degrowth transition by design is to build necessary. Each of these policies could take a post-capitalist economics ‘from below,’ various forms, and there is, and should be, within the shell of the current system that debate within the degrowth movement and is currently in the process of deteriorating beyond about various ways to structure (Alexander and Burdon, 2017). Waiting for a post-capitalist society. But my present government to act would be like waiting point is simply that a relatively coherent for Godot – a tragi-comedy in two acts, in and developed alternative politico- which nothing happens, twice.

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Support from a comprehensive in order to erode it, that is, building the coalition of social forces new economy within the shell of the old. This leads me to the third prerequisite for Secondly, if financial crises deepen in a degrowth transition, and that is that it coming years, the household economy must have support from a comprehensive may be an essential means of meeting coalition of social forces. Again, space basic needs, so the task is to prepare now does not permit an in-depth review of for what may well prove to be harder these issues, but a few comments will economic times ahead. We should aim for be made on examples of post-capitalist sustainability, but we may have to settle grassroots activities that are exploring for resilience. modes of economy that are transcending 3 A key feature of a degrowth economy the -motive for the common good, or involves significant localization of the simply building new forms of informal or economy, moving toward a ‘bioregional’ household economies ‘beyond the market.’ economy where local needs are These can easily be seen to be prefiguring predominantly met with local resources, aspects of a degrowth economy, even if this shortening the chain between production terminology is not used. Four key features and consumption (Trainer, 2010). of post-capitalism that I see emerging from 4 Finally, any post-capitalist economy the grassroots – features which I feel must is going to require new modes of scale up for a degrowth economy to emerge production, moving away from profit- – are as follows. maximizing (often owned 1 Non-monetary forms of the sharing by absentee ), towards an economy, whereby communities self- economy where worker , organize to share resources in order community enterprises and not-for- to save money, partially ‘escape the profit models are the dominant forms of Alternative modes market,’ and avoid significant amounts of economic organization, paying people “ production (Nelson, 2018). Indeed, this is living but reinvesting surpluses of economy are a key feature of why a degrowth economy back into the local community (Albert, bubbling everywhere could still thrive even when contracting 2004; Gibson-Graham et al., 2013). Again, under the surface, in GDP terms: produce much less but there are various ways to imagine such which is a hopeful share much more, for societies can create alternative economic arrangements. common wealth through sharing. This Experimentation may be required as sign.” is part of what ‘efficiency’ means in a societies pursue the goal of creating degrowth economy. economic and social systems in which 2 A degrowth economy is likely to require more wealth and power are held in a transformation of the household common, rather than concentrating it in economy: from being merely a place of private hands. consumption, to becoming a place of production and self-provision. On this It seems to me that alternative modes of topic there is no better place to look economy, such as these four, are bubbling than the work of permaculturist, David everywhere under the surface, which is Holmgren (2018), whose vision and a hopeful sign. The Transition Towns insights here are indispensable. There Movement, for example, is a coherent are two main reasons why a resurgence manifestation of this grassroots approach of household economies is central to a to building local, community economies. degrowth paradigm shift (Alexander and But one must also admit that these Gleeson, 2019): First, by producing more transgressive experiments remain small within the household, less time is needed and marginalized by the dominant modes to work in the formal economy, leaving of political economy. So, in terms of the more time outside the market for social third prerequisite for a post-capitalist activism and community engagement. transition, we have to conclude that the This strategy is about escaping capitalism social forces are mobilizing but have not

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yet been able to scale up to positively life under capitalism is based on consumer disrupt, or even significantly threaten, the affluence. It seems to me that there will dominant paradigm. never be a post-capitalist politics until there is a post-consumerist culture that is Cultural consent: The prepared to embrace material sufficiency sufficiency imperative as a desirable way of life (Alexander, The final prerequisite for a post-capitalist 2015b). Herein lies the importance of the degrowth transition is broad-based voluntary simplicity, simple living and cultural consent. Passive consent may movements. Although in suffice here, without the majority of people need of radicalization (and organization There will never “ actively seeking degrowth. This really is a for action), these movements be a post-capitalist critical element in any planned transition or subcultures are beginning to create the politics until there is in political economy and one that currently cultural conditions needed for a politics a post-consumerist does not exist in terms of degrowth. It and economics of degrowth to emerge. seems that the majority of people either do culture that is not think degrowth (or what it represents) It all depends on the ideas (and prepared to embrace is necessary or, if they do, they do not like practices) that are lying around material sufficiency as what it means in terms of reduced and When the crises of capitalism deepen – a desirable way transformed consumption and production perhaps in the form of a new financial practices. crisis or a second Great Depression – the of life. ” I think there are two main reasons why task will be to ensure that such destabilized culture is not ready to embrace degrowth. conditions are used to advance progressive The first reason is a deep-seated techno- humanitarian and ecological ends, optimism that shapes cultural thinking rather than exploited to further entrench about environmental problems. This view the austerity politics of . assumes that technology and market I recognize, of course, that the latter mechanisms will be able to resolve the crises remains a real possibility, as did the arch- of capitalism without system change and capitalist (2002: xiv), who without even much in terms of ‘’ expressed the point in these terms: change. In other words, the zeitgeist seems to be that consumer affluence is consistent Only a crisis – actual or perceived – produces with justice and sustainability, because it is real change. When that crisis occurs, the assumed that efficiency improvements in actions that are taken depend on the ideas modes of production will be able to produce that are lying around. That, I believe, is our ‘green growth’ without having to rethink basic function: to develop alternatives to consumption practices (Hickel and Kallis, existing policies, to keep them alive and 2019). available until the politically impossible Although this techno-optimistic blind becomes the politically inevitable. spot is a major obstacle to degrowth, I hold some uneasy confidence that as capitalism I do not often find myself in complete continues to collide with ecological limits agreement with Milton Friedman, but in coming years and decades, the case for on this point I am. It is essential for the degrowth will become clearer to more ecocentric community to keep hopes of and more people, which could act as a a radically different and more humane mobilizing force. However, even if the crises form of society alive, until what today of capitalism deepen and the majority of seems impossible or implausible becomes, people come to desire a post-capitalist if not inevitable, then at least possible political economy, it does not follow that and perhaps even probable. And on those a degrowth economy is what they would rare occasions when despair lifts and the demand. This points to a serious cultural human spirit shows itself in noble forms, obstacle to a degrowth transition: the fact ‘the ideas that are lying around’ and indeed that the dominant conception of the good ‘the practices that are lying around,’ look

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so strong and convincing that it tempts Gibson-Graham J, Cameron J and Healy S (2013) Take even this apocaloptimist into considering Back the Economy: An ethical guide for transforming becoming a plain, old-fashioned optimist. our communities. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, USA. Or, with a nod to Gramsci, at least one is permitted to proceed with a pessimistic Global Footprint Network (2019) Ecological footprint. Available at https://is.gd/7J5uL6 (accessed December intellect and a cautiously optimistic will. n 2019). Notes Hamblin J (2016) How Cubans live as long as Americans at 1/10th the cost. The Atlantic, 29 November. 1 Without attempting a comprehensive definition, for present purposes the term ‘capitalism’ Hamilton C (2003) . Allen and Unwin, refers here to a political and economic system, Crows Nest, NSW, Australia. based predominantly on private of Hickel J (2017) The Divide: A brief guide to global inequality the , in which most key and its solutions. William Heinemann, Portsmouth, decisions about the production, consumption NH, USA. and distribution of resources are made through Hickel J and Kallis G (2019) Is green growth possible? New It is essential for the market mechanisms. “ Political Economy, DOI: 10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964. ecocentric community Holmgren D (2018) Retrosuburbia: The downshifter’s guide to keep hopes of a References to a resilient future. Melliodora Publishing, Hepburn Albert M (2004) Parecon: Life after capitalism. Verso, Springs, Victoria, Australia. radically different and , UK. Jackson T (2009) without Growth: Economics more humane form of Alexander S, ed (2009) Voluntary Simplicity: The poetic for a finite planet. Earthscan, London, UK. alternative to consumer culture. Stead and Daughters, society alive. Jameson F (2003) Future city. Review 21: 6 5–79 . ” Whanganui, New Zealand. Kallis G (2017) Radical dematerialization and degrowth. Alexander S (2015a) Prosperous Descent: Crisis as Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 375: opportunity in an age of limits. Simplicity Institute, 1–13. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Kallis G, Kostakis V, Lange S et al. (2018) Research on Alexander S (2015b) Sufficiency Economy: Enough, for degrowth. Annual Review of Environment and Resources everyone. Simplicity Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, 43: 4.1–4.26. Australia. Kubiszewski I, Costanza R, Franco C et al. (2013) Beyond Alexander S and Burdon P (2017) Wild : A GDP: Measuring and achieving global genuine biodiversity of resistance and renewal. The Ecological progress. Ecological Economics 93: 57–68. Citizen 1: 45–54. Kuhleman K (2018) Any size population will do? The Alexander S and Floyd J (2018) Carbon Civilisation and the fallacy of aiming for stabilization of human numbers. Energy Descent Future: Life beyond this brief anomaly. The Ecological Citizen 1: 181–91. Simplicity Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Lovelock J (2010) The Vanishing Face of Gaia. Basic Books, Alexander S and Gleeson B (2019) Degrowth in New York, NY, USA. the Suburbs: A radical urban imaginary. Palgrave, Singapore. Mitchell W and Wray LR (2005) Full through a job guarantee: A response to the critics. Available Buch-Hansen H (2018) The prerequisites for a degrowth at https://is.gd/vMoQYA (accessed December 2019). paradigm shift: Insights from critical political economy. Ecological Economics 146: 157–63. Nelson A (2018) Small is Necessary: Shared living on a shared planet. Pluto Press, London, UK. Frankel B (2018) Fictions of Sustainability: The politics of growth and post-capitalist futures. Greenmeadows, Smith R (2016) Green Capitalism: The god that failed. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. College Publications, London, UK. Friedman M (2002) Capitalism and . University Trainer T (2010) Transition to a Sustainable and Just World. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA. Envirobook, , NSW, Australia.

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