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Bilingualism and Bilingual Deaf Education Perspectives on Deafness Bilingualism and Bilingual Deaf Education Perspectives on Deafness Series Editors Marc Marschark Patricia Elizabeth Spencer The Gestural Origin of Language David F. Armstrong and Sherman E. Wilcox Teaching Deaf Learners: Psychological and Developmental Foundations Harry Knoors and Marc Marschark The People of the Eye: Deaf Ethnicity and Ancestry Harlan Lane, Richard C. Pillard, and Ulf Hedberg A Lens on Deaf Identities Irene W. Leigh Deaf Cognition: Foundations and Outcomes Edited by Marc Marschark and Peter C. Hauser Sign Language Interpreting and Interpreter Education: Directions for Research and Practice Edited by Marc Marschark, Rico Peterson, and Elizabeth A. Winston The World of Deaf Infants: A Longitudinal Study Kathryn P. Meadow-Orlans, Patricia Elizabeth Spencer, and Lynn Sanford Koester Advances in the Sign Language Development of Deaf Children Edited by Brenda Schick, Marc Marschark, and Patricia Elizabeth Spencer Advances in the Spoken Language Development of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children Edited by Patricia Elizabeth Spencer and Marc Marschark Bilingualism and Bilingual Deaf Education Edited by Marc Marschark Gladys Tang Harry Knoors 1 1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 © Oxford University Press 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bilingualism and bilingual deaf education / edited by Marc Marschark, Harry Knoors, Gladys Tang. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–19–937181–5 1. Deafness—Psychological aspects. 2. Deaf children—Language. 3. Sign language acquisition. 4. Oral communication. I. Marschark, Marc. HV2380.B55 2014 371.91′2—dc23 2013050413 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Contents Preface ix Contributors xiii 1. Bilingualism and Bilingual Deaf Education: Time to Take Stock 1 Harry Knoors, Gladys Tang, and Marc Marschark Part One: Linguistic, Cognitive, and Social Foundations 2. Language Development and Language Interaction in Sign Bilingual Language Acquisition 23 Carolina Plaza-Pust 3. Language Acquisition by Bilingual Deaf Preschoolers: Theoretical and Methodological Issues and Empirical Data 54 Pasquale Rinaldi, Maria Cristina Caselli, Daniela Onofrio, and Virginia Volterra 4. Bimodal Bilingual Cross-Language Interaction: Pieces of the Puzzle 74 Ellen Ormel and Marcel Giezen 5. Sign Language and Reading Comprehension: No Automatic Transfer 102 Daniel Holzinger and Johannes Fellinger 6. The Influence of Communication Mode on Language Development in Children with Cochlear Implants 134 Elizabeth A. Walker and J. Bruce Tomblin 7. Psychosocial Development in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children in the Twenty-first Century: Opportunities and Challenges 152 Manfred Hintermair 8. Bilingualism and Bimodal Bilingualism in Deaf People: A Neurolinguistic Approach 187 Ana Mineiro, Maria Vânia Silva Nunes, Mara Moita, Sónia Silva, and Alexandre Castro-Caldas v vi Contents Part Two: Education 9. Navigating Two Languages in the Classroom: Goals, Evidence, and Outcomes 213 Marc Marschark and ChongMin Lee 10. Improving Reading Instruction to Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students 242 Loes Wauters and Annet de Klerk 11. Quality of Instruction in Bilingual Schools for Deaf Children: Through the Children’s Eyes and the Camera’s Lens 272 Daan Hermans, Loes Wauters, Annet de Klerk, and Harry Knoors 12. Shifting Contexts and Practices in Sign Bilingual Education in Northern Europe: Implications for Professional Development and Training 292 Ruth Swanwick, Ola Hendar, Jesper Dammeyer, Ann-Elise Kristoffersen, Jackie Salter, and Eva Simonsen Part Three: Bilingual Education in Co-enrollment Settings 13. Language Development of Deaf Children in a Sign Bilingual and Co-enrollment Environment 313 Gladys Tang, Scholastica Lam, and Kun-man Chris Yiu 14. Social Integration of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students in a Sign Bilingual and Co-enrollment Environment 342 Kun-man Chris Yiu and Gladys Tang 15. Sign Bilingual and Co-enrollment Education for Children with Cochlear Implants in Madrid, Spain 368 Mar Pérez Martin, Marian Valmaseda Balanzategui, and Gary Morgan 16. The Twinschool: A Co-enrollment Program in the Netherlands 396 Daan Hermans, Annet de Klerk, Loes Wauters, and Harry Knoors 17. Co-enrollment in the United States: A Critical Analysis of Benefits and Challenges 424 Shirin Antia and Kelly K. Metz Contents vii Epilogue 18. Perspectives on Bilingualism and Bilingual Education for Deaf Learners 445 Marc Marschark, Harry Knoors, and Gladys Tang Index 477 Preface At the 2010 International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED), an appeal was made for the return of sign language and Deaf teachers in educating deaf children. The resolution, “A New Era: Deaf Participation and Collaboration,” was offered by the ICED 2010 Organizing Committee and the British Columbia Deaf Community in response to accumulating evidence generated by research on signed languages since the 1960s. In fact, even before this global appeal and despite the predominance of oral education in 1970s and 1980s, many countries in Europe, as well as the United States and Australia, already had attempted to incorporate sign language into the education of deaf children in both special and regular school settings. The surge of interest in bilingual education may be perceived as a reaction against frustrations about the not so impressive outcomes of the oral-only approach in educating and raising many deaf children for decades. Treating sign language as a first language, this bilingual education approach assumes that a stronger first language will support deaf children’s acquisition of a written/spoken language, especially with regard to literacy, thus supporting academic attainment more broadly. Other parts of the world have not kept pace with this devel- opment. Research on sign language did not reach Asia, for example, until early 1990s, and hence oral education has remained the dominant mode of deaf education in both special and regular settings. Recently, however, there was the establishment of a sign bilingual school for the deaf in Japan (Meisei Gakuen School for the Deaf, 2008) and indepen- dent sign bilingual programs in special settings in China (e.g., SigAm Bilingual Education Project for Deaf Children, 2004–2013; UNICEF’s Sign Bilingual Program, Tianjin, 2001–2009) and Hong Kong (The Jockey Club Sign Bilingualism and Co-enrollment in Deaf Education Program, 2006). From the perspective of the historical development of bilingual education for the deaf, different countries in the world thus are riding on the concept at different stages of development. Since its inception, bilingual education in special settings has faced challenges. The language of instruction and communication in the special setting has been a major area of contention. Today, depend- ing on the program, the language of classroom instruction can range from a natural signed language to sign-supported speech to artifi- cial signed communication systems; and use of the vernacular may ix x Preface or may not involve speech. This phenomenon reflects the continuing concerns over the efficacy of language alternatives in educating deaf students. Understandably, parents and educators are looking for evi- dence indicating that deaf children who are educated bilingually (or via any other method) can eventually perform on par with hearing peers linguistically, cognitively, social-emotionally, and academically. However, with evidence for the bilingual approach being limited, with hearing technology having improved in recent decades, and with the shift in deaf education philosophy from segregation to inclusion, a gradual reduction of bilingual programs in special settings appears imminent. Trapped in this shifting context of deaf education, experience sug- gests that reverting to purely oral education for deaf children will not address the large individual differences resulting from the heteroge- neity in student characteristics and their diverse backgrounds. One alternative to a reversion to monolingual deaf education is the recent incorporation of sign language into regular school settings within the general rubric of co-enrollment. This new concept of deaf education emerged in response to the call for equal opportunities for accessing the
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