WATERBLOMMETJIE (APONOGETONDISTA CHYOS, APONOGETONACEAE), A RECENTLY DOMESTICATED AQUATIC FOOD CROP IN CAPE SOUTH AFRICA WITH UNUSUAL ORIGINS1 ROBERT W. PEMBERTON Pemberton, Robert W. (Aquatic Plant Management Laboratory, Agricultural Research Ser- vice, United States Department of Agriculture, 3205 College Ave., Lauderdale, Florida 33314 USA). WATERBLOMMETJIE (APONOGETONDISTACHYOS, APONOGETONACEAE) A RECENTLY DOMESTI- CATED AQUATIC FOOD CROP IN CAPE SOUTH AFRICA WITH UNUSUAL ORIGINS. Economic Botany 54(2):144-149, 2000. The inflorescence of Aponogeton distachyos, an endemic Cape South African aquatic herb, known as waterblommetjie, has been a traditional wild-gathered vege- table. This plant has been brought into cultivation as a food crop during the past twenty years. The reasons for its domestication were the loss and decline in wild populations because of herbicide runoff from agriculture, urban expansion that reduced the plant's habitat, and over- collection. Domestication also began because a pop song, celebrating this vegetable as an Afrikaans cultural symbol, started a food fad that greatly increased demand. Waterblommetjie cultivation, widespread marketing, and the general popularity of this unique food continues in the Mandela Era of South Africa. WATERBLOMMETJIE (APONOGETONDISTACHYOS, APONOGETONACEAE)UNA COSECHA ACUATICARE- CIENTAMENTE DOMISTICADO EN SUDAFRICA CON ORIGENES NO COMUN. Za inflorecencia de Apon- ogeton distachyos, una hierba dcuatica endgmica al Cabo de Buena Esperanza, Africa, cono- cido como waterblommetjie, ha sido una vegetal silvestere tradicional. La planta se ha adop- tada para la cultivacirn dentro los ffltimos veinte a~os. Las razones por domesticarla fueron la perdida y el declino de las poblaciones silvestres por cause del escurrimiento de los her- bicidas de dreas agrfciolas, la expansirn urbana la qual redujo et drea de hdbitat deIla planta, y su cosecha excesiva. Ademrs, su domesticacirn empez6 porque una cancirn popular la cual celebr6 esta verdura como un sfmbolo cultural africaans empez6 una moda en la comida la cual aument6 mucho la demanda. La cultivacirn de waterblommetjie, el mercado extendido, y la popularidad general de esta ffnica comida continuan durante la era de Mandela en Suddf- rica. Key Words: Aponogeton distachyos; aquatic plant; Cape South Africa; crop origins; food symbol; popular culture; waterblommetjie; wild-gathered vegetable. Usually we are unable to witness the domes- logical processes that placed wild food plants in tication of food plants since most were brought human habitats, enabling them to grow in rub- into cultivation so long ago. The ancestors of bish heaps, latrines and around houses (Ander- many crop plants have been identified (Zohary son 1952; Schmida and Whittaker 1981), or as and Hopf 1994: 8), but the reasons why people weeds of crop fields according to Vavilov (Zo- started to cultivate them are unknown. We can hary and Hopf 1994: 11). But domestication of theorize about the processes and the plant attri- wild food plants does not necessarily relate to butes that may have promoted cultivation. Wild needed resources or occur because of other such plant characteristics such as self pollination pre- logical factors or processes. Unlike long domes- adapted some to domestication (Zohary and ticated food plants, the reasons for the domes- Hopf 1994: 16). Domestication also may have tication of Aponogeton distachyos L.f. are been promoted by collection techniques or eco- known. In this report I document the recent do- mestication, cultivation, and food use of A. dis- tachyos in the Cape region of South Africa. 1Received 24 March 1998; accepted 1 February During a 1996 visit to the Cape, I examined 1999. A. distachyos cultivation and learned about the Economic Botany 54(2) pp. 144-149. 2000 2000 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 2000] PEMBERTON: APONOGETON 145 Fig. 1. Aponogetondistachyos, waterblommetjie, plants in cultivation. Note floating lance shaped leaves and inflorescences projecting above water surface. plant's domestication. I interviewed people who kaans and Cape hawthorn, Cape pondweed, and participated in the domestication and/or who Cape asparagus in English. tracked and reported it. The most important Waterblommetjie is a herbaceous perennial sources of information were: Eddie Laubscher, rooted in the hydrosoil in waters usually 1 to 2 an agronomist formerly of Stellenbosch Univ., meters deep. It has starchy storage corms also who did research on the domestication and who in the hydrosoil. Its lance shaped leaves resem- organized two symposia related to the cultiva- ble those of pondweed (Potamogeton spp., Po- tion and marketing of the plant; Danie van Tub- tamogetonaceae) and float on the water's surface bergh, Riverside Farm, Worcester, one of the (Fig. 1). Projecting just above the water's sur- largest and most important growers; and Stephen face are forked inflorescences that bear small McVeigh, a journalist at Farmer's Weekly, a clusters of small flowers inside overlapping South African agricultural trade magazine pub- white fleshy bracts. After the fragrant flowers lished in Cape Town. No technical literature re- are pollinated by bees and other insects, they lated to the domestication or cultivation of A. develop into groups of small green fruits. Whole distachyos appears to have been published. inflorescences (hereafter called flowers) are col- Aponogeton distachyos is endemic to the rel- lected and used as a vegetable both in the flower atively dry Mediterranean climate area of the and fruit stages. Cape of South Africa (Bond and Goldblatt Three other Aponogeton species occur in the 1984). It is one of 44 Aponogeton species be- Cape including two, A. angustifolius Aiton and longing to the monogeneric Aponogetonaceae, a A. junceus Lehm. ex Schldl., that are also called family restricted to the Old World tropics (Mab- waterunintjie (Bond and Goldblatt 1984), which berley 1993). The common name of the plant is suggests similar food use. Aponogeton angusti- waterblommetjie, which means water flower in folius has smaller flowers that have had some Afrikaans. Waterblommetjie is also known as use as food in the Cape (S. McVeigh, pers. waterunintjie (water onion) or vleikos in Afri- comm.), but the scant information suggests mi- 146 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 54 nor use. The corms of A. junceus are used in recent rather than traditional. Louis Leipoldt, other parts of Africa (Peters, O'Brien and Drum- however, included a recipe for a waterblomme- mond 1992). tjie souffle in his writings on Cape cookery prior Waterblommetjie plants are attractive and the to World War II (Goosen 1981). The Cape Ma- flowers are pleasantly scented. The plant has lays (people of Indonesian origin who came to been cultivated as an ornamental in temperate the Cape in the 1700s) have also adopted wa- water gardens for many years and still is com- terblommetjies to their unique waterblommetjie monly listed in specialty nursery catalogues. bredies (Gerber 1957). Hortus Third (Bailey and Bailey 1976) mentions I was able to eat two waterblommetjie bredies three named ornamental selections. The plant during my visit. These were pleasant, hearty has escaped gardens and has naturalized in Ar- homemade stews with a long-cooked green bean gentina, New Zealand, France, Peru, and Eng- taste component. Since my visit ended at the be- land (Van Bruggen 1995). Waterblommetjie ginning of the flowering season (March to Oc- "completely established itself as if it were na- tober), the waterblommetjie used in the bredies five" in areas of southern England during the were largely canned and frozen. Fresh water- last century (Paxton and Lindley 1883) and has blommetjie are superior products (Robins 1994). been growing in the Lez River of southern I also ate freshly dug corms, which were very France for about 150 years (Van Bruggen 1995). irregularly shaped, from 1.5 to 6 cm in length and covered with dense black hair. Even after Fooo UsE boiling, the hair and tough skins were difficult The Bushman or San, now extinct in the to remove. The peeled, cooked corms were a Cape, consumed the plant (Fox and Norwood creamy white with an appealing nutty, slightly Young 1982). Early European settlers probably sweet taste and dense texture. At least seven oth- learned to use the plant from them. The Swedish er Aponogeton species have edible corms, in- Botanist Carl Thunberg visited the Cape in the cluding the esteemed A. monostachys of tropical 1770s and noted that the roasted corms were East Asia (Hedrick 1919; Tanaka 1976; Peters, considered a great delicacy (Thunberg 1795). O'Brien, and Drummond 1992). Aponogeton The settlers also used the flowers to make a junceus occurs in the Cape, but reports of human pickle of high repute (Hooker 1831) and as an use of its corms are from other parts of Africa asparagus-like vegetable (Fox and Norwood (Peters, O'Brien, and Drummond 1992). Young 1982). Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) reported CULTIVATION that the rootstock (the corm) is eaten by people The following description of cultivation is of African origin, but none of the informed based on interviews with Laubscher, McVeigh South Africans I spoke with knew of any present and van Tubbergh; and articles in Farmer's day use of the corm. The flower is the part that Weekly (McVeigh 1989, 1994; and Viljoen has been used as a food source for many years. 1994). Cultivation is in shallow (1 to 1.5 m) The most common way waterblommetjie flowers ponds (usually 50 by 50 m or less) created by are prepared is in a lamb or mutton stew called earthen dams. The corms are planted in regularly a waterblommetjie bredie. This is similar to spaced rows late in the South African summer Dutch green bean stew in which the waterblom- (January or February). Then the ponds are filled metjie flowers are used instead of green beans artificially or by autumn rains. First picking of (D. van Tubbergh, pers. comm.). A waterblom- the flowers begins in March or April (Fig.