Notes

Introduction 1. The term “declaracao de estado de sitio” (Gusmao 2008; Guterres 2008) means “state of place,” but translated as “state of siege or emergency, or martial law,” involving a night curfew, increased powers of arrest and detention, and the inclu- sion of the F-FDTL as part of the active security forces. 2. It was widely believed that the attack against Ramos-Horta and Gusmao was intended as a kidnapping but that it went wrong.

Chapter 1 1. East ’s postinvasion independence movement was multifaceted and included the principal proindependence party (), the armed resistance (Falintil), the urban underground (Internal Political Front), and the student underground (Renetil). The resistance came together under the banner of the Council of National Maubere Resistance (CNRM) and later the Council of Timorese National Resis- tance (CNRT). 2. Precolonial regional ruler or local “king,” lit. liu rai or “earth lord.” This term origi- nally referred to the suzerain king of in southern central Timor, acknowl- edged by small, local chiefs, but later devalued in status to apply to all local chiefs or “kings.” 3. The formal and actual percentages of registered voters who have voted in ’s ballots will be discussed later in detail. 4. This system of regulating the relationship between people and land and hence between people is generally known as tara bandu and also lobu and kerok, depend- ing on location, and in some cases having categories distinguishing fields from for- ests (e.g., in Oecussi). The lulik nain (guardian of the pole symbolizing tara bandu) is regarded by others as being close to the souls of his ancestors. Most villages (sucu) that have been able to retain them have a “tradition house” in which the souls of ancestors gather, all of whom are under the protection of the rai nain, or kind of overarching spirit, which both symbolizes and protects the land. 5. Natural law has strongly influenced English common law; its proponents have included, for example, Airstotle and Thomas Aquinas. It also deeply influenced thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. 6. This reflects the system of top-down orders and the limited options for debate or refusal. 220  Notes

Chapter 2 1. Tais is a traditional cloth woven in Timor and closely related to the ikat of the southeastern islands of , reflects colors and patterns, and in some cases, weaving techniques of each of the regions, and is primarily worn or presented at ceremonial occasions (e.g., birth, hunting initiation, marriage, funeral, and so on). 2. The Indonesian term “transmigrant” refers to government assisted internal migration. 3. Canto 14 of the Nagarakertagama refers to Timor, along with many others, as being a vassal territory of the Javanese empire, although as there is no evidence of Javanese rule this may more accurately refer to a territory that had trading relations with Majapahit. Given that “timor” translates as “east” in Malay, it could have had a more generic meaning, referring to islands east of those within the regular Majapahit orbit, such as Sumbawa, which is also named. 4. Also known as Mau Kiak (Poor Mau) or Ta t Felis (Poor Fellow). 5. When asked about her Catholic faith, a well-educated, -based woman described herself as believing in a blend of Roman Catholicism and the traditional belief sys- tem, termed fatu lulic (spiritual stone), she described herself as “Catholulic.” 6. There was an element of the church’s self-assumed political role that reflected its origins in Timor under its dispensation from the then , in dividing the world between the Spanish and the Portuguese, to extend the church’s writ globally. 7. “Traditional” figurines from the East Timorese island of Atauro, just north of Dili, continue to wear stylized hats, while hat wearing among inland East Timorese con- tinues as a symbol of status or, perhaps as devolved status, as fashion. An alternative explanation for the name Topasses derives from the Portuguese adoption of the Malayalam word for a bilingual person; topashe (Hindi: dobashi). 8. From which, as an historical reminder, derives the name Pantai Makssar ( Beach) at Oecussi. 9. Based on various discussions with Timorese from Viqueque in the east and Maliana in the west. 10. The Tetum word funu is generally translated as “war” or “warring,” but has a deeper and wider symbolic meaning to include a range of rituals around conflict. 11. Traditional social and power relations were commonly understood to be inwardly focused toward a center rather than focused as a complete territory defined by its external relationships. Examples of this were common in precolonial , pre– Westphalian , and throughout much of precolonial Asia (exceptions being the imperial Confucian states of , , Korea, and Vietnam). 12. This was according to that political figure, a head of one of the parties contesting the elections of 2007 (personal discussion, May 2007). 13. Not including the Topasses. 14. Mubyarto and Soetrisno describe “ficaro” as simply meaning “easterner,” while “keladi” means rustic. 15. The precise meanings of these terms is not fully agreed upon, reflecting their vague origins. Other terms, even less accurate descriptive terms applied to East Timor’s “easterners” and “westerners” have been lorosai and loromonu, which are Tetum words meaning “land where the sun rises” and “land where the sun sets,” but which Notes  221

were applied, up until 2006, to denote East Timor and . As James Fox noted in discussion, the idea of what constitutes the “lorosai” has been increasingly moving eastward, from the broad area east of the Wehale “center” to the border with West Timor to Dili and then to Manatutu, so that one might imagine soon only occupants of Tutuala at East Timor’s eastern tip would qualify under the term (Fox 2008). 16. plantations had been started in the early nineteenth century, but were largely unsuccessful until toward the end of that century. 17. Sandalwood continues to have a small market. Coffee is the world’s second most traded commodity, after oil, but along with other agricultural produce, its prices have remained at historic lows into the twenty-first century, even further reduced as a consequence of the methods of harvesting, sorting, and drying the beans. 18. In the late 1950s, Indonesia’s President was attempting to reassert his own authority over that of a fractious parliament and involvement in overseas adven- tures came to characterize a tactic of his for diverting attention away from domestic problems. By 1963, Sukarno was openly engaged in Konfrontasi (Confrontation) with . Both issues complied with his 1945 plan for an Indonesia Raya (Greater Indonesia), incorporating all of Timor, Malaysia, and even the . However, the distraction of what amounted to an illegal activity in would only have complicated his plans at that time for the incorporation of West Papua.

Chapter 3 1. In June 2008, Sagrada familia’s political manifestation as the party Undertim formed an alliance with Xanana Gusmao’s AMP government. 2. Its head of international relations was former translator for Indonesian military commander-in-chief General Wiranto, Christiano da Costa. Private UN Political Section files held in Dili and seen by the author said that CPD-RDTL had been established by former Indonesian military intelligence chief Major-General Zacky Anwar Makarim. Makarim was Wiranto’s representative to the UN in East Timor until August 30, 1999. 3. “Maubere” is a common Mambai name that was employed during the Poruguese period as a synonym for illiterate, uneducated and ‘uncivilised’ Timorese. It was employed by Gusmao and others as signifying the common East Timorese people. 4. A less-powerful position than C-in-C, and part of ’s plan to ease Murdani from power. 5. This view was widely shared by East Timor solidarity activists, and was noted in discussion by one leading activist, Charles Schiener, formerly of the East Timor Action Network, Dili, February 4, 2008. 6. Perhaps the most unfortunate aspect of this publication is that it was published by an Australian-based international organization focusing more honestly on Indo- nesia and East Timor to the rest of the world, including having a focus on issues and including a number of human rights activists and journalists. 7. The UN had been trying to achieve a discussion toward a resolution of the East Timor issue since 1997, when Jamsheed Marker was appointed by the UN Secretary-General 222  Notes

Kofi Annan, as his representative with a brief to pursue negotiations in February 1997 (Marker 2003, 7). 8. Noted in various districts by the author as an accredited observer to the ballot. 9. As seen by the author in Maliana, , Maubara and Liquica in August 1999, and as noted by Bartu 2000, and McDonald et al. 2002. 10. Former president of UDT, former East Timor governor, ambassador-at-large for East Timorese Affairs, senior adviser to President Suharto, head of the ballot-period pro-Indonesia Barisan Rakyat Timor Timur (East Timor Peoples’ Front—BRTT), a political front for the militias. 11. Based on off the record discussion with CNRT representatives, Dili, August 1999. 12. The author was an observer and participant in these events. 13. The author retained this sign after it was left when “Fort Maliana” was abandoned and just before it was burned. 14. See the personal account of being a UN police officer in Maliana at this time, in David Savage’s emminently readable Dancing With the Devil (Monash Asia Insti- tute, Melbourne 2002), the cover of which is a photograph of the official UN police vehicle set against a backdrop of the UN police house in flames. 15. Reliable sources told the author that the number was much higher, but that around 1,400 was the number of bodies found, with many dumped at sea or allegedly buried in West Timor, or not subsequently destroyed by the Australian army intent on reducing the perceived extent of the killings. 16. This was also stated, in Tetum, on blue UN posters promoting the ballot: “Rezul- tadu sa de’it maka hetan iha Agostu 30, UNAMET sei LA sai bainhira konsulta ne’e remata” (“No matter what the outcome on August 30th, UNAMET will NOT leave after the consultation,” author trans.). 17. As noted by the author, as an accredited UN election observer, in Bobonaro district during the 1999 ballot.

Chapter 4 1. This term has been generically used to refer to the Australian and mil- itary forces in joint operations, originating from the allocation of such forces in the Great War under the title “ and New Zealand Army Corps” (ANZAC). 2. The U.S. Navy provided sea lift logistical support and, in October 2001, about 1,000 Marines and sailors landed for “training,” in which they took supplies along the border region as a show of allied force to the TNI. 3. East Timor’s official languages are Portuguese and Tetum Praca, with Bahasa Indo- nesia and English being “working languages.” By mid-2005, teaching Portuguese in primary schools remained largely superficial, and sometimes only existed when Portuguese officials visited. 4. There has been some debate as to whether East Timor constitutes a ‘semi-presi- dential’ political system, given that the president has a public role and retains some higher functions. In short, it does not. A semi-presidential system is one where the president and the prime minister share executive authority in day to day matters; in the East Timorese system, the president does not enjoy executive authority on day to day matters, Notes  223

5. Some of this text was published by the author under the heading “The new Timor: A Xanana republic?” in The Post December 16, 2000. 6. A legal adviser to UNTAET later said that the helicopter flights were necessary because Gusmao had a bad back and had difficulty in travelling long distances by car. However, senior UNTAET figures did appear to regard Gusmao as a viable political leader and seemed less concerned with the longer-term or antidemocratic consequences of their preferential support. 7. Not to be confused with the later CNRT.

Chapter 5 1. Da Silva was Australia-based, but had close relations with China and was perceived to be a Marxist-Leninist and hence close to Fretilin’s other ideological hard-liners. 2. There is a wide variety of interpretations of Marxism, of which Leninism was that popularized by the Russian Revolution and which took root in China and else- where. Its appeal lay not just in its critique of colonialism, but its organizational structure, which following its Chinese (Maoist) interpretation, was particularly favored for both its institutional efficiency and the power it handed directly to political leaders. 3. At this time, the Hotel Turismo further along the shoreline was as popular, if not as central and hence not as obvious a target. The Turismo similarly had its own Gra- ham Greene-esque charm, especially its lush, central, mosquito-ridden courtyard, while the then concrete structures of the Hotel Dili were almost impervious to assault. 4. So named after the seemingly incessant call of East Timorese children to malae both male and female, “Hello mister!” 5. Other qualities of statehood conventionally include functioning state institutions and a means by which they can be maintained (e.g., taxation), a capacity to compel compliance with state laws, a monopoly on the use of violence and, not least, inter- national recognition. 6. It is worth noting that the Indonesian ambassador to East Timor was formerly the second most senior official in the overtly “nationalist” Indonesian State Intelligence Agency (Badan Intelijen Negara, or BIN). 7. See, for example, the UNDP’s . 8. Australia official expresses concern over such matters, notably through its official aid program. However, Australia’s historic neglect of East Timor and its ungenerous position over determining the future of the Timor gap gas and oil reserves would tend to indicate that this is not a major concern. 9. UNMOs were sent to the border area by the UN following a clash between Austra- lian troops and Indonesian troops and police at the northern coastal border village of Motaain, in which one Indonesian police officer was killed, and one policeman and one TNI soldier wounded. The UNMOs role was to liaise between the two sides to ensure there were no further such clashes, or to investigate them if they did occur. 10. Interview by the author, Dili, June 26, 2005. 224  Notes

11. A clarification of land borders for Oecussi in October 2005 led to rioting and attacks by local West Timorese who claimed to have lost access to farming land. 12. Based on personal conversations June 28–29, 2005. 13. Kostrad is the Indonesian army’s “Strategic Reserve Command,” which are its front- line troops (as opposed to the less well-trained Territorial troops of each Kodam (Military Command Area). Linud 721 is Kostrad’s airborne battalion, based at Makassar, South . 14. A small number had been murdered upon their return. 15. The TNI’s Territorial commands (Kodam) are largely comprised of local (“organic”) troops and others, but usually only to a very basic level of military competence. They are supplemented by the more highly trained Kostrad troops and Kopassus troops for special operations in matters of pressing military concern. 16. It was along this road that members of the forerunner of Kopassus, the army Para- chute Regiment Command (RPKAD) launched their attack on Balibo on October 16, 1975, in which they murdered five Australian resident journalists. 17. These houses have a twin-peaked thatched roof and are raised on high stilts that have flat circular stone rings around the stilts about midway up from the ground. 18. The source of this information is confidential. 19. The Bobonaro district MTAG commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Ahmed, suggested the obvious solution of establishing a safe perimeter around the grenades until a bomb disposal team could be sent from Dili the following day. The bomb disposal team subsequently found that the grenades were not primed and were safe to be removed.

Chapter 6 1. Discussions with East Timorese in East Timor in January 1995, July to September 1999, and January 2000. 2. Discussions with East Timorese in Dili and Bobonaro district between 2002 and 2005. 3. According to Fernando “Lasama” de Araujo, Dili, June 2005, and further personal communication, April 2006. 4. Discussion with senior East Timorese bureaucrats, Dili, June 2005. 5. These observations are based on numerous discussions with East Timorese both in Australia and in East Timor between 1999 and 2006. 6. Discussions with Fernando “Lasama” de Araujo, Dili, June 2005, and others in 2003 to 2005. 7. According to his wife, Jacqueline Siapno, personal communication, June 12, 2006. 8. Discussion with senior East Timorese bureaucrats, Dili, June 2005. Notes  225

Chapter 7 1. Much of the text of this chapter is redrafted from a series of articles written by the author and originally published in the online news bulletin Crikey.com. 2. This system is based on party lists and slightly favors larger parties than some other PR systems. It is also known as the High Average Method, or Method of Quotients.

Chapter 8 1. In personal communication with the author, Dili, June 12, 2008. 2. The name of the funding agent remains confidential until or unless charges are laid. It was not, however, either the president or the prime minister. 3. To “blood” someone is to initiate them into a group or fold. 4. Gusmao told this story at a CNE media conference ahead of the first round of the presidential elections, at the Hotel Timor on April 4, 2007. 5. Following this estimate, oil rose to over US$160 per barrel, but soon declined thereafter to a little more than US$100 per barrel, eventually falling to around US$40 per barrel at the beginning of 2009. 6. This assumption was challenged by declining interest rates towards the end of 2008. References

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Aceh, 20, 67, 75, 125 Atsabe, 44 ADB (Asian Development Bank), 87 Australia, 105, 212 Aditla, 46 acquiescence of, 48 accountability, 110 Alkatiri, criticism of, 147 Africa, 30 battallion, 79, 82, 91, 92, 120, 122, 123 Sub-Saharan, 8 carpetbaggers, 94 agriculture, 27, 28 concern, 122 Aileu, 143, 172 deal with, 132 Ainaro, 45, 47, 143 exploitation by, 90, 132 aid agencies. See NGOs Howard, John, letter to Habibie, 68 Alkatiri, Mari, 43, 45, 49, 55, 57, 94, 100, Interfet, 74 106, 107–8, 120, 138, 141, 147, intervention planning, 74 148–49, 153, 158, 163, 164, 167, opposition to/criticism of, 39, 91, 94, 170, 180, 183, 185, 217 107 claims of coup, 134, 154 Portuguese rivalry, 94 corruption, 139 pressure from, 108 Amaral, Francisco Xavier do, 45, 54, 59, recognition of Indonesia incorporation, 103, 107, 167, 185 51 arrested for treason, 53 troops, 152, 153, 165–66, 179 AMP government (Parliamentary Majority Whitlam Labor government, 47 Alliance), 186, 194 Austronesian, 28 alleged corruption, 205–7 authoritarianism, 7, 8, 23 disputed legitimacy, 195–98 policies, 199–207 Balibo , 43, 105 declaration, 49 ANP (Popular National Association), 43 murder of Australian journalists, 49 Apodeti, 44, 47 Batu Gade, 40, 49 alliance with UDT, 49 Baucau, 55, 89, 143, 172, 181, 185 Araujo Belo, Carlos, 16 Abilio, 43, 55 Belu, 29, 33 Arnaldo dos Reia, 44 Boaventura, Dom, 33 Fernando “Lasama,” 140, 143, 145, 168, Bobonaro, 75, 124, 125, 144, 173 171, 172, 175, 177, 182 cabinet, 96 Ariea Branca, 1, 5 transitional, 95, 97 ASDT (Timorese Social Democratic Cambodia, 47, 78, 80, 82, 86 Association), 45, 46 capacity, 8, 78, 130, 131 reconstituted as Fretilin, 46, 52 building, 134–35 Asia, 8, 30 Carascalao Assimilados, 38 Joao, 42, 43, 45 , 64 Mario, 43, 45 242  Index

Carascalao (continued) transition, 133, 137 Manual, 43, 45 democracy, 9, 108–9, 133–34, 135, 141, Manual Viegas, 43 183, 187, 218 Catholic church deportados, 42 birth control, 29 devastation, 79–80 Catholicism (Roman), 16, 30, 106 development/developing country, 4, 81, church, 16, 29, 30, 34–35, 38, 56 87–88, 108, 121–22, 124, 132, government dispute with, 114, 154 138–39, 141, 157, 159, 161–62, 190, education, 40, 42, 114 194, 200–202, 213–15 identity, 16, 29 Dili, 1, 72, 73, 74, 92, 108, 143, 143, 146, CAVR, 192 149, 152, 153, 162, 173, 191 China, 47 airport, 152, 170 Chinese, 84 centric, 5, 38 Christo Rei, 1 destroyed, 39 CMATS (Certain Maritime Arrangements founded, 33 in the Timor Sea), 91 riots, 112, 142, 166 CNRM (Council of Maubere National Dili wharf, 1 Resistance), 58–59, 67, 110 districts CNRT (Council of Timorese National administrators, 115, 204 Resistance), 22, 67–68, 71, 84, 90, Dutch, 30, 32 93, 102, 110 colonial empire, 15 CNRT (Congress of Timorese National East India Company, 32, 34 Reconstruction), 163, 164, 169, 171, 184 eastern districts, 33, 34 Colimau 2000, 89–90, 114–15, 136, 140, economy/economic activity/viability, 47, 142, 153, 156 50, 78, 85–89, 113, 117, 201–2, colonialism, 25 213–15 manipulation, 25 Indonesian, 65–66 European, 26 education, 38, 40, 41 Commission for Truth and Friendship elections, 161–87 (CTF), 119–20 discrepancies, 176, 178–79, 181 Constituent Assembly, 100, 101, 102 district, 203 corruption, 11, 107, 110, 114, 133, 139–40 enclave, 44 coup Ermera, 44, 143, 173, 181 alleged, 2, 8 ethnicity, 8, 9, 12, 13, 21, 22, 26 culture, 13 ETTA (East Timor Transitional Authority), Cova Lima, 49, 75, 79, 124, 125, 129, 144 95 CPD-RDTL (Committee for the Popular expatriates, 1 Defence of the Democratic Republic failed state, 3 of East Timor), 89, 111, 114–15, 116, Falintil, 49, 51, 52, 55, 56 117–18, 136, 140, 153, 156 split, 57–58 CRRN, 55 crisis, 138–53, 141 veterans, 89 CSIS (Center for Strategic and International F-FDTL (Falintil-East Timor Defence Studies), 48 Force), 1, 98–99, 111,118, 120, 124, 131, 135, 143, 145–46, 147, 150, Dare Seminary, 43 155, 158, 165, 207, 208, 215–16 Darwin, 2, 94 split, 135, 142 death toll/population, 50, 55, 73 Firaku, 33, 55, 143 democratisation, 3 Flores, 30 consolidation, 190 FPI (Internal Political Front), 60–61 Index  243

Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Acheh hungry season, 161 Merdeka—GAM), 20 Fretilin, 22, 42, 47, 64, 94, 107, 115, 117, ideology, 3, 13, 41 141, 149, 161, 163, 164, 169, 171, bureaucratic centralism, 107 172, 179, 180, 182, 195 debate, 57, 141 alliance with UDT, 48 fascist, 42, 47 anti-groups, 114, 181 front organization, 46 armed wing, 49 impurity, 54 conflict with UDT, 49 leftist, 42, 43, 45–46 competing internal values, 53 Marxist, 52, 105 established, 46 Marxist-Leninist, 53, 55, 107, 132 external committee, 106 “organic”/organicism, 10, 37, 47, 110 government, 133, 134, 136, 138, 147, revolutionary idealism, 22 154 social democracy, 46 Maputo/Mazambique Group/clique, IDPs (Internally Displaced Persons), 146, 105–7, 141, 164, 165 191, 199 purge, 53–54 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 87 split, 57–58, 107 independence, 2, 7, 8, 49, 105, 105 vote, 100–101 struggle, 51–76 gangs, 114, 144–45, 151, 152–53, 164 Indonesia fighting, 8, 32, 161 Bakin, 48 martial arts clubs, 114 Majapahit Empire, 13 geology, 26 Fomenting revolt, 40 Gleno, 174 incursions, 123 globalization, 4 independence, 39 GNR (Republican National Guard), 2, 148, invasion, 7, 17, 49, 50 150, 179 incorporation, 7, 20, 26, 110 Goa, 30 , 28 Goncalves, Guilherme, 44 Kopassus, 55, 91, 122, 125 governance, 28 Kopkamtib, 48 Gusmao, Kirsty Sword, 2 Kostrad, 125 Gusmao, Xanana, 2, 10, 42, 48, 49, 56–57, militia, 29, 68–70, 71, 75, 82, 89, 123, 100, 102, 114, 115, 139, 141, 150, 145, 156, 190 154, 167, 177, 182, 199 New Order, 13, 14, 21, 44, 47, 65, 66, captured, 63–64, 172 110, 116 ideological shift, 54 negative propaganda, 47 elected president CNRT, 68 Operation Komodo, 48 elected president, 103 police, 70, 72 new party, 163, 169, 177 rule, 7, 158 presidency, 101, 120, 151, 162 settlement, 161 prime minister, 140, 183, 186 Special Operations, 48 Guterres, Eurico, 119 talks, 67 Guterres, Francisco (“Lu-Olo”), 58, 100, , 90 171, 177, 180 TNI, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71–72, 74–76, 79, Guterres, Jose-Louis, 106, 148, 186, 191 82, 124–30, 208, 211, 212 Habibie, B. J., 66, 67, 121 influences announcement of “popular Portuguese, 13 consultation,” 68 Malay, 13 human rights, 117 institutions, 110, 112, 121–22, 134–35, civil and political, 20 137, 158 244  Index

Interfet (International Force in East Timor), Lene Hara caves, 27 74–75, 79 legitimacy, 8–12, 18, 19–23, 115, 116, international community, 4, 5, 51 121, 194 Liquica, 45, 143 Jakarta, 2 massacre, 69 Japan, 38–39 , 10, 36, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 217 John-Paul, Pope, 59–60 Lobato JPDA (Joint Petroleum Development Area), Nicolau dos Reis, 42, 43, 45, 49, 107 90 killed, 55 judiciary, 11 as president, 54 Kaladi, 33, 143 Rogerio, 55, 57–58, 106, 128, 139, 148, Kosovo, 78, 81 149, 169–71 Kota, 46 Lopez da Cruz, Francsico Xavier, 45 Kraras massacre, 56 Los Palos, 55, 185 , 32 Lulik, 37 labor, forced, 36, 39 majoritarianism, 9 Laclubar, 45 Makassar, 30 land Malacca, 28 Patria, 15 Malae, 31 spiritual connection, 17 Malay, 31 language, 13, 14, 16, 26, 133, 137, 156, Malaysia, 20, 47 157 Maliana, 49, 72, 73, 75, 123 Atoni, 28, 29 Manatuto, 42, 45, 143 Austronesian/Malay, 28, 29 Maputo. See Mozambique Bahasa Indonesia/Indonesian, 13, 83, Martins, Hermenegildo, 44 157 Matabean, Mount, 55 Maubara, 35, 45, 69 Bunak, 28, 29, 33, 45, 89, 153 Maubere, 35, 217 English, 91, 92 Maubisse, 45 Fataluco, 29 Mestico, 30, 38, 43 Kemak, 28, 29, 44 Meti-Hau, 1 Malay, 157 Metro TV, 2, 190 Mambai, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34 migration, 26–28 Makassae, 28, 144, 153 Chinese, 36–37 Portuguese, 59, 91, 93–94, 100, 116, minority, 9 133, 157 Mozambique, 42, 53, 105, 141 skills, 92–93 Frelimo, 105–6 Tetum/Tetum Praca/Dili, 13, 30, 33, 34, Mudanca, 141, 148, 169, 171, 186 45, 59, 133, 157 MUNJ/P (Movement for National Unity Tetum Los, 29 and Justice/and Peace), 90, 169, 179 Tetum Terik, 29 Murdani, Benny, 56, 60, 62, 63 Trans New Guinea phylum, 28 Mutis, Mount, 30 Laos, 47, 86 Larantuka Bay, 30 nation, 13, 14, 18 Latin America, 8, 30 building/formation, 13, 14, 15–17, 133 law civic, 21 claims, 20 state, 20 colonial, 167 national/ist rule of, 9, 10, 11, 14, 21, 94, 99–100, approach, 107 111, 115, 116, 133, 167–68 identity, 7, 8, 11–16 Lautem, 143 incoherence, 26 Index  245

will, 20 battalion, 92 representation, 21 Caetano dictatorship, 43 National Consultative Council, 84, 95 , 41, 43 National Petroleum Fund, 199, 202. See colonialism/decolonization, 30, 31, 32, also oil 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 46–47, 96–97, neoliberalism, 10 156,158 New Zealand, 79, 82 decline, 36, 37, 41 battalion, 122, 123, 129 departs, 49, 64 NGOs (nongovernment organizations), 81, division of Timor, 33, 34 83, 84, 97 education, 93 Norway, 107 Estado Novo, 37 language, 91 Oecussi/Ambeno/, 15, 30, 32, 34, 79, neutrality, 38 124, 125, 144 rebellion/anti-colonialism against, 36, oil, 132, 139, 157, 201, 218 39–40, 42–43 Oliveira, Domingos de, 45, 45 rule, 33, 35, 36, 43 opposition, 107 Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira, 37, 41 Orsnaco, 153 talks, 67 parliament, 95 taxation, 36 Partido Trabalhista, 46 trade, 8, 35–36 patron-client relations, 10, 32 sovereignty, 30 Philippines, 20 post-colonial, 2, 3, 8, 12, 23 PKF (Peace Keeping Force), 75, 79, 82, prehistory, 27 113–14, 118, 153 Ramos-Horta, Jose, 45, 47, 49, 55, 57, 68, PNTL (East Timor National Police), 107, 114, 138, 148, 150, 152, 153, 111, 116, 118, 120, 135, 144, 147, 154–55, 162, 167, 192–93 150–51, 153, 155, 158, 174, 191, ideology, 53–54, 149 206, 216 Nobel Peace Prize, 16 collapse, 135, 151 president, 168, 171, 177, 179, 180–81, corruption and brutality, 134–35 182, 186, 189, 196, 211–12 distribute weapons, 149 Reinado, 166, 172, 191, 208 tension/conflict with F-FDTL, 116, 131, shot, 1, 189, 216 135, 142, 143, 150, 158, 208 regime change, 3 UIR (Rapid Intervention Unit), 116, Reinado, Alfredo, 1, 143, 151–52, 166–67, 144 172, 181, 190–92, 208 politics/political relativism, 10 alliances, 23, 26, 32, 34, 44, 182, Remedios, Paulo Dos, 1 184–85, 198 resistance, 22, 51, 112 closure, 108, 115 , price, 4 correctness, 4, 5 Rodrigues, Roque, 49, 55, 106, 149 fragility, 2 gender, 184–85 Sagrada Familia, 89, 114–15, 136, 140, orientation, 137 153, 156 parties, 102, 163, 184 Salsinha, Gastao, 2 rivalry, 94, 162 Same/Manufahi, 33, 37, 143 popular consultation/vote for independence, Santa Cruz Cemetary/Massacre, 60–63, 70 7, 14, 22, 71–75 self-determination, 8, 18–21 Portugal, 74, 91, 105, 212 separatism, 22 administrative division, 36 Sjafrie Samsuddin, 63 association with, 45 Soares, Jose Orsario, 44 Australian rivalry, 94 Soares, Abilio, 119 246  Index

SDP (Social Democratic Party), 101 civilian police, 76, 79–92, 113, 138, smuggling, 123–24 174, 191 Soibada, 42 DPA (Department of Political Affairs), Solor, 30 82 Sonba’i/Serviao, 30, 31, 33 DPKO (Department of Peace-Keeping Stahl, Max, 61 Operations), 82–83 state, the, 18–21 failure, 83 disintegration, 19, 121 general assembly, 51 failure/collapse, 3, 21, 22, 117, 121, military observers, 123, 124 134–35, 154, 156, 167, 189–90, secretary-general, 70, 193 193 Special Representative of the Secretary- (il)legitimacy, 20 General, 70, 79, 95 nation-state, 20 Security Council, 49, 71, 74, 78, 118, “state of seige,” 2 124 Suharto, 62, 63, 65–66, 67, 101 UNAMET, 68, 70, 71 Sutrisno, Tri, 62, 63 UNHCR, 91 UNMISET, 103, 105, 118 Tais, 25 UNMIT, 207 territory, 15 UNOTIL, 124 Topasses, 30, 31, 32–33, 34, 46 UNTAET, 75, 78–92, 93–97, 105 trade, 32 Uni Republique Dili Timor, 40 coffee, 35–36, 88 UPF (Border Patrol Unit), 124, 127–30, copra, 35 imports, 87, 88 191 sandalwood, 28, 30, 31, 32 USA (United States of America), 74, 79, traders 212 Chinese, 26, 28 dollar/currency, 85–89, 200 Indian, 26 Vietnam, 47 Portuguese, 30 Vinilale, 27 Topasses, 30 Viqueque, 33, 39–40, 42, 43, 129, 143, tradition, 10, 11, 25, 28 172, 181, 185 ritualized violence, 25, 31, 32 VLGA (Victorian Local Governance Transitional Council, 95 Association), 173, 181 trauma, 5, 51 Voz de Timor, A, 42 Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 103 TFC (Truth and Friendship Commission), Wehale, 29, 30, 31, 33, 45 131–32, 208–11 western districts, 11, 34 West Papua, 20, 39, 71, 75 Uato Lari, 39 West Timor, 30, 33, 38, 39, 82, 91, 92, 190 UDT (Timorese Democratic Union), 42, border, 29, 35, 37, 79,120–24, 126–28, 45, 46, 47, 101, 114 131 alliance with Fretilin, 48 Wetar Straight, 1 conflict with Fretilin, 49 Wiranto, 68, 70, 74 UN, 2, 19, 40, 57, 67, 75, 79–92, 97, 98, World Bank, 87 119, 130, 133, 150, 153, 155, 167, World War II, 26, 38–39 212, 216 bureaucracy, 83 Zones, I, II, III, 56